Biol 1201

Exam III
Time: 1-1:50pm, Wednesday,
Nov. 12, 2014
Place: Sc 101
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Birds: More Feathers and Better Flight

The bones of birds are modified for flight; they are

hollow and have internal struts for strength.
The breastbone forms a large, vertical keel to which
pectoral muscles are attached. These muscles pull
the wings downward during the propulsive
movement in flight.
Forelimbs are modified as wings.
Hind legs stabilize and allow for animal to be upright.
Feathers function not only in flight, but also in
thermoregulatory, display, and other functions.
a unique feature of bird is that in addition to lungs,
they have air sacs at several locations of their
bodies which are interconnected.
4 chambered heart
The nervous system, esp. cerebellum, is more 2
complex to accommodate coordination in flight.

MAMMALS
Key mammalian features include mammary glands, sweat
glands, and hair. Mammals also have a four-chambered
heart, more differentiated teeth, more developed brain, and
better reproductive success.
Reproductively speaking, there are 2 main types of mammals
which are prototherians and therians. The therians include
marsupials and eutherians.

a. Prototherians - spiny ant-eaters or duck-billed platypus

b. Marsupials - pouch animals like opossums, kangaroos
c. Placental mammals (also referred to as Eutherian mammals)
Following internal fertilization, the embryo develops within a
uterus. Placenta is very important for the embryo's
development.
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Primates, a major group of eutherians, split into two

main branches early in its evolutionary history: the
prosimians and the anthropoids.
The prosimians include the lemurs, and lorises. Most
prosimian species are arboreal and nocturnal.
Anthropoids are monkey-like primates which are mostly
diurnal, and exhibit social behavior. They include newworld monkeys, old-world monkeys, and apes
(gibbons, orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees).
The Advancements in Human:
1. Bipedal locomotion
2. Smaller jaws
3. Human brains became larger.
3. Humans have complex language and culture, their
communication abilities are far richer than those of any
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other animals.

I. Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution

Evolution is the change in genetic composition of
populations over time. Evolutionary change is observed
in lab experiments, natural populations, and the fossil
record. These genetic changes drive the origin and
extinction of species and the diversification of life.
Evolutionary theory is the understanding of the
mechanisms of evolutionary change.
Darwin and Wallace came up with similar conclusions
through independent studies, and their ideas were
presented to the Linnaean Society of London in 1858.
A year later Darwin published On the Origin of Species:
First, species are not immutable, but change, or
adapt, over time.
Second, the process that produces the changes is
natural selection.
Third, divergent species share a common ancestor
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and have diverged from one another gradually
through time

II. The HardyWeinberg

Equilibrium
A population of sexually reproducing organisms in
which allele and genotype frequencies do not change
from generation to generation is said to be at Hardy
Weinberg equilibrium.
Five assumptions must be made in order to meet
HardyWeinberg equilibrium.
Mating is random.
Population size is very large.
There is no migration between populations.
There is no mutation.
Natural selection does not affect the survival of particular6
genotypes.

III. Evolutionary Agents and Their Effects

Evolutionary agents cause changes in the allele and
genotype frequencies in a population.
These are observed as deviations from the Hardy
Weinberg equilibrium.
The known evolutionary agents are mutation, gene flow,
genetic drift (e.g. bottleneck effect, founders effect),
nonrandom mating, and natural selection.

 Natural selection can act on characters with

quantitative variation in three ways:
Stabilizing selection preserves average
phenotype.
Directional selection favors individuals that vary
in one direction.
Disruptive selection favors individuals that vary
in opposite directions from the mean.
Sexual selection acts on characters that determine
reproductive success.
If an individual survives but does not reproduce, it
makes no contribution to the next generation. Sexual
selection favors traits that increase the chances of
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reproduction.

Introduction to Physiology
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant
conditions in the internal environment of an
organism.
Single-celled organisms and simple
multicellular animals meet all of their needs by
direct exchange of substances with the external
environment.
Complex, multicellular organisms developed
specialized cells.
Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems

 Physiology is the study of how organisms

workthe study of the functions of all the
parts and processes of living systems.
60% of human body is water (2/3 within
the cell, 1/3 outside the cell).
Extracellular fluid (ECF) consists of
plasma and interstitial fluid that bathes
every cell of the body. Individual cells get
their nutrients from this interstitial fluid and
dump their waste products into it.

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 Physiological systems include regulatory systems and

controlled systems. The controlled systems include effectors
which effect changes in the internal environment, and are
controlled by commands from regulatory systems.
Regulatory systems:
Obtain, integrate, and process information
Issue commands to controlled systems
Contain sensors to provide feedback information that is
compared to the set point
The regulatory systems may work via negative feedback, positive
feedback, or feedforward information: Negative feedback causes
effectors to counteract the influence that creates an error signal.
E.g. slow down when you are tired of running. Positive feedback
amplifies a response, increases deviation from a set point. E.g.
urination, defecation, contraction of uterus. Feedforward
information anticipates internal changes and changes the set
point. e.g. increase of heart rate before you begin the race. 11

 Epithelial tissues are sheets of densely

packed and tightly connected cells that cover
inner and outer body surfaces. Epithelial cells
may have protective, absorptive, or transport
functions.
Connective tissue consists of cells embedded
in an extracellular matrix that they secrete.
The nature of the matrix differs among types of
connective tissues, but an important component
is protein fiber secreted by the tissue cells. The
most common protein fiber is collagen.
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 Muscle tissues are made of elongated cells

capable of contracting due to the sliding of
protein filaments past each other.
Three types of muscles (smooth, cardiac, and
skeletal) exist and their contractions are
regulated by the nervous system in 2 ways
(voluntary and involuntary)
Nervous tissue serves as lines of
communication and controlling centers for
basically two main types of activities: muscular
AND secretory.
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 Nervous System - brain and spinal cord and the

peripheral nervous system. This is the master control
system.
Cardiovascular System - the heart and the blood
vessels.
Digestive System - from the mouth to the anus.
Respiratory System - the respiratory passageway and
the lungs.
Excretory System - kidneys, bladder, ureter and
urinary tract
Endocrine System - the "other" master controlling
system that regulates homeostasis of all other organs,
second to the nervous system
Reproductive System - organs and tissues for
producing the gametes.
Generally, the regulatory systems controlling the
activities of organs and organ systems consist of the
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nervous system and the endocrine system.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

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 Neurons are specialized

cells of the nervous system
that receive, encode, and
transmit information.
Neurons with their support
cells (glial cells) make up
nervous systems.
Most neurons have four
regions: a cell body,
dendrites, an axon, and
axon terminals.

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Sodium-potassium pumps in all animal cells create gradients of Na+ and K+ across
the cell membrane. The inside of the cell is usually negative relative to the outside,
because leak channels allow some ions (K+) to diffuse out. Ion channels in the
membrane are selective and allow some ions to pass more easily. The direction
and size of ion movement depends on the concentration gradient and the voltage
difference of the membrane. These two forces acting on an ion are its
electrochemical gradient.
Membrane potential is the electrical potential, the charge difference, across the
membrane.
Resting potential is the membrane potential of a resting neuron.
An action potential, or nerve impulse, is a rapid, large change in membrane
potential. Action potentials are generated by openings and closings of ion
channels.
Some ion channels are gated: Open and close under certain conditions: Voltagegated channels respond to change in voltage across membrane, Chemically-gated
channels depend on molecules that bind or alter channel protein, Mechanicallygated channels respond to force applied to membrane. Gated ion channels change
the resting potential when they open and close.
The membrane is depolarized when Na+ enters the cell and the inside of the
neuron becomes less negative. If gated K+ channels open and K+ leaves, the17cell
becomes more negative inside and the membrane is hyperpolarized.

Any stimuli (light, sound, touch) received by the dendrites are

relayed from the neuron as an electrical message. At the end
of the axon, this message reaches a junction called the
synapse.
1. The presynaptic region is in the axon terminal. The cell that
sends the message is called the presynaptic cell.
2. The synaptic cleft is actually a space between the presynaptic
region and the target.
3. On the post-synaptic or target side, there might be another
neuron, or muscle or gland. The cell membrane at the postsynaptic region has receptors specific for different types of
neurotransmitters. Once the neurotransmitter and receptors
are coupled, this will lead to further actions in the target cell.
Acetylcholine is the most well known neurotransmitter, and is
generally excitatory. The cell that receives the message is
called the postsynaptic cell.
Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory. Spatial summation adds
up messages at different synaptic sites.
Temporal summation adds up potentials generated at the same
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site in a rapid sequence.

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 Nervous systems can be divided into Central

Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS). The brain and spinal cord together
constitute the central nervous system (CNS).
The afferent portion of the peripheral nervous
system carries information to the CNS. The efferent
portion of the peripheral nervous system carries
information from the CNS to the muscles and glands
of the body.
Efferent pathways can be divided into a voluntary
division (conscious movements) and an
involuntary, or autonomic, division (physiological
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functions).

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Neuronal circuits

It is important to remember that nervous systems

depend on neurons working together.
When perception or sensing "something" leads to
motor action with only the sensory and motor neuron
involved in the most simple circuit, a monosynaptic
reflex arc is formed.
Most neuronal networks are more complex and
involve interneurons. Sensory input that activates the
motor neuron of one muscle also inhibits the opposing
muscle. This coordination is achieved by an
interneuron, which makes an inhibitory synapse with
the motor neuron of the antagonistic muscle.
Thus the reciprocal inhibition of antagonistic muscles
involves an interneuron between the sensory neuron
and the motor neuron and, therefore, at least two
synapses.
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Functional Subsystems of the Nervous System

The nervous system is engaged in many tasks at the same
time, a property known as parallel processing of information.
Specific tasks are carried out by subsystems, which include the
spinal cord, reticular system, limbic system, and cerebrum.
The spinal cord conducts information between the brain and
organs of the body, integrates information coming from the
peripheral nervous system, and issues motor commands.
In the spinal cord - grey matter is H-shaped, rich in neuronal
cell bodies, also has glia and blood vessels; white matter
include axon fibers which are myelinated and appear white;
also has glia and fewer blood vessels.
Spinal nerves leave the spinal cord at regular intervals; each
one has two roots, one connecting to the dorsal horn of the
gray matter and the other connecting to the ventral horn. The
placement of the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
neurons are orderly: Sensory axons get into the spinal cord24via
the dorsal horn, and the ventral horn contain motor neurons.

 The reticular activating system is distributed through

the core of the brainstem (medulla, pons, and
midbrain). Information routed through the reticular
system influences the level of arousal of the nervous
system. For example, it controls sleep and
wakefulness. Damage to the brain or spinal cord
below the reticular activating system can result in
paralysis but leave sleepwake cycle behavior normal.
Damage above the level of the reticular activating
system can result in coma.
The limbic system is important for the emotion, motivation,
emotional association with memory, feelings of pleasure and
punishment. The amygdala is involved in fear and fear
memory. The hippocampus is necessary, in humans, for the
formation of long-term memory.
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 The cerebral hemispheres are the dominant structures

in the mammalian brain.
A sheet of gray matter called the cerebral cortex
covers each cerebral hemisphere.
Under the cerebral cortex is white matter.
In general, the left hemisphere of the brain controls
the right side of the body; the right hemisphere
controls the left side, except in the head. However,
the two hemispheres are not symmetrical with respect
to all functions, e.g., language abilities reside in the
left hemisphere. Different regions of the cerebral
cortex also have specific functions.

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 Cerebral cortex can be further divided into regions or lobes

each with specific functions and all regions are connected via
the axons to connect various functional regions together.
a. The frontal lobes - best described as having to do with
reasoning, planning, coordinating, controlling, and executing
behavior. Deficits in this area of the brain create problems for
the individual such that they become impulsive and cannot plan
for future events.
b. The parietal lobe integrates sensory information from various
parts of the body.
c. The occipital lobe is located behind the parietal lobe in the
back of the head and its main function is to receive and process
visual information.
d. The temporal lobe sits beneath the frontal and parietal lobes
and serves to receive and process auditory information. The
association areas of the temporal lobe are important for face
recognition and understanding spoken language.
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Peripheral Nervous System

PNS includes 31 pairs of peripheral (spinal) nerves from
neck down and 12 pairs of cranial nerves from head
region.
Cranial nerves may be purely sensory, purely motor, or
mixed sensory and motor in function.
Peripheral (spinal) nerve - 31 pairs, are mixed sensory
and motor in function.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a subsystem of the
PNS. ANS maintains steady state within the internal
environment.
The autonomic nervous system is categorized into two
parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions.
These two divisions work in opposition to each other,
one causing an increase in activity, the other a 31
decrease.

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Structure of the Vertebrate Eye

Both vertebrates and cephalopods have highly
evolved eyes.
Vertebrate eyes are fluid-filled spheres bound by a
tough connective tissue called sclera.
A transparent cornea in the front allows light to pass.
Inside the cornea is the pigmented iris, which controls
the amount of light that can enter.
The pupil is the region where light enters.
The lens makes fine adjustments in the focus of
images on the photosensitive retina at the back of the
eye.
The retina includes layers of cells that process visual
information from the photoreceptors and produce an
output signal that is transmitted via the optic nerve.
The most sensitive area of the retina is the fovea. 33

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The passage way of images takes sort of a backward route. When

light passes through the cornea, it has to go through the aqueous
humor and vitreous humor in front and behind the lens to reach
the retina. When passing through the retina, it excites the
photoreceptors which are in the deepest layer of the retina. The
photoreceptors release neurotransmitters which in turn affect
several layers of neurons. It is the ganglion cells that finally
transmit the visual information towards the vision centers of the
brain. Axonal processes from this neuronal layer form the optic
nerve which exits from the eyeball to lead to the brain.

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There are two types of vertebrate photoreceptors: cones

and rods. Rod cells are more sensitive to light. Cone
cells respond to different wavelengths of light for color
vision. Cones also provide the sharpest vision. The
fovea has only cone cells.
There are no photoreceptors where blood vessels and
bundles of axons going to the brain pass through the
back of the eye. This creates a blind spot on the retina.
The lens bends light and focuses the light passing
through cornea and pupil to project to the back of the
eye onto the retina. The thicker the lens, the more
sharply the light is bent. The lens is almost spherical for
focusing near objects and much more flat or ovoid for
focusing distant objects.
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To create three-dimensional vision, the eyes see overlapping,

yet slightly different, visual fields. The brain integrates
information from two eyes in a crossed pattern.
The optic nerves from the two eyes appear to join together at
the optic chiasm. Axons from half of each retina cross in the
optic chiasm and go to the other side of the brain. Information
from the retina is transmitted through the optic nerve to a relay
station in the thalamus, and then to the brains visual
processing area, the occipital (or visual) cortex, which
integrates visual information.
Cells in the visual cortex are organized in columns; the columns
alternate left eye, right eye, and so on.
Cells in the border of a column are binocular cells which receive
input from both eyes measure disparity of the stimulus and
where it falls on each retina.
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Understanding Higher Brain Functions

1.
2.

Input from spoken language

Input from written language
Brocas area, in the frontal lobe in front of the primary
motor cortex, is essential for speech.
People with damage to Brocas area have speech
deficits, though they still can read and understand
language.
Wernickes area in the temporal lobe is more involved
with the sensory aspects of language.
Damage to Wernicke s area leads to an inability to
speak sensibly or understand spoken or written
language.
Angular gyrus in the parietal lobe is essential for
integrating written language
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Learning: Modification of behavior by experience.

Memory: What the nervous system retains.
Associative learning occurs when two unrelated stimuli become linked to
a response.
A conditioned reflex is a type of associative learning.
Types of memory:
Immediateevents happening now
Short-termlasts 10 to 15 minutes
Long-termlasts from days to a lifetime
Memories are transferred from short- to long-term.
Hippocampal or limbic system damage may prevent this transfer.
Declarative memory is of people, places, and things that can be recalled
and described.
Procedural memory is how to perform a motor task and cannot be
described, e.g., how to ride a bicycle.
Memories can have emotional content.
The amygdala is necessary for the emotion of fear and formation of fear
memories.
Memories can also have positive emotional contentrecalling them41
activates parts of the brain associated with pleasure.