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Coursecodeandtitle:REL17AsianReligions
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PaperonarecentdevelopmentsinanAsianReligion

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Assignment3:
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RecentreligiousdevelopmentsinAsiareflectthesocialandpoliticaldevelopmentsintheregion.
Discussthisstatementdrawingonspecificreligiousdevelopments.Inthisessayyoucanlookat
onedevelopmentoranumberofdifferentdevelopments.Makesureyouinterpretthenew
developmentintermsofmoretraditionalreligionsintheregionandsuggestreasonswhytherecent
developmentmayhaveoccurred.

CriticalBuddhisminJapan:RecentreligiousdevelopmentsintheSotoZensectofJapanatthe
intersectionofsocialreform,sectarianallegianceandacademia.

ByJosephZizys.

Forme,theminimumrequirementforareligionisthatitexpresses
onesbeliefinwordsandseekstoascertainthetruthorfalsityofthosewords.I
thereforewishtosetformyself,asaselfimposedminimumconditionofmy
universityemployment,anidealofScholarshipasCriticismthatstandsin
directcontradictiontoWebersideal.
(Hakamaya1997b,p.113)

CriticalBuddhismisanapproachtoBuddhismthathasrecentlybeenadvocatedbysomeofthe
leadingintellectualfiguresinJapaneseBuddhistStudies,inparticularbycertainscholarsaffiliated
withtheSotoZensect.InparticularCriticalBuddhistsinJapanhavequestionedthehongaku

shistradition;thatis,thedoctrineofOriginalEnlightenment,BuddhaNatureor
Tathagatagarbha.Thisdebateisnotnew,andhasbeenanissueofdiscussioninJapansincethe
9thcentury.(Swanson1997,p.3)Whatmakesthecurrentmanifestationofthisdebatesointeresting
isthatitismotivatedbytheideathatdoctrinalpositionslikehongakushishavehadundesirable
socialandpoliticalconsequences,andthatreformationorrevisionofthesedoctrinalissuesmay
leadtopositivesocialoutcomes,specificallyinthiscase,areinvigorationandrehabilitationofthe
SotosectinJapan.

TheSotosecthassoughttomodernise,reformandrenewthesect'sroleinJapanesesocietyina
waythatreflectsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinJapan,andinJapaneseattitudes,sincethe
secondworldwar.IthasdonethisthroughitsUniversity;Komazawa,wheretheprincipal
advocatesofCriticalBuddhism;HAKAMAYANoriakiandMATSUMOTOShirareemployedas
professorsofBuddhistStudies(Stone1999,p.159),andviaseveralresearchbodies,includingthe
ResearchCentreforSotoZenBuddhism,whichfocusesonempiricalresearchintosocialissues
pertainingtoSoto,suchasfuneralrituals(Rowe2004,p.359),andtheCentralDivisionforthe
ProtectionandPromotionofHumanRights(Bodiford1996,p.5),apolicygroupthatpromotes
reformstothetemplepriests.

TheissuesthatCriticalBuddhismandthewiderreformmovementintheSotosectareattemptingto
addressrevolvearoundthecomplicityofthesect,andofBuddhisminJapanmoregenerally,with
thenationalismthatledtothesecondworldwar(Bodiford1996,p.17)andwithmisogynistand
discriminatorypracticesbyBuddhisttempleprieststhatroutinelyaffectwomen(Bodiford1996,
p.15)andoutcastburakugroups.(Bodiford1996,p.3)Theseincludesuchpracticesasreferringto
outcastsasbeastsinmortuaryrecords,assistingindiscriminationagainstoutcastsinmarriage,
andinsistingonwomensecuringprotectiveamuletsfromtempleprieststoprotectthemfrom

menstruationhell.

CriticalBuddhismthenistheacademicorintellectualfaceofabroadercontemporary
movementwithinSotoZenthatiscurrentlyunderway.It'scentralpremise,enunciatedby
HAKAMAYANoriakiisthatonlythatwhichiscriticalisBuddhism(Hakamaya1997a,p.56).
BythisHAKAMAYAseekstoidentifytrueBuddhismwithacriticaltraditionakintothat
initiatedbyDescartesinthewest,overagainstthekindorrhetorical,irrationalist,ortopical
philosophyadvocatedbypeoplelikeGiambattistaVicointhe18thcentury.Bydoingthis
HAKAMAYAdelegitimatisesmuchofwhatistakenforBuddhisminJapan,mostparticularly,
doctrinesoforiginalorinnateenlightenment.
MATSUMOTOShirobroadensthisideaandappliesitspecificallytoJapaneseissueslike
Zen(Matsumoto1997b,pp.242250)andTathagatagarbha(Matsumoto1997a,pp.165173),
polemicallyaccusingthemofdhatuvaduortopicalwrongview(Stone1999,p.161).
HAKAMAYAandMATSMOTOarguethatitistheseviewsthatprovidethegroundinwhich
discriminatoryandnationalisticviewscangrow.Thisoccurredinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury
whenabsolutistthinkingaboutoriginalenlightenmentledtotheconceptofwaorharmony
enunciatedintheKokutainohongiornationalpolity,that,afterappearinginthe30'swasusedas
arationaleforblindobediencetotheemperor,andcompliancewithdiscriminatorypoliciesasbeing
partofJapaneseness(Hakamaya1997b,p.114)(Sharf1995,pp.110111)

CriticalBuddhismisinterestingasarecentreligiousdevelopmentfortworeasonsinparticular,the
first,pointedoutinBodiford's(1996)excellentessay,isthatitis;

[T]hefirsttimethatJapaneseBuddhistScholarshaveappliedthesame
philologicalrigournormallyreservedforIndianandTibetanBuddhismtotheir

ownnativeJapaneseBuddhisttraditions.
(Bodiford1996,p.19)

Second,alsomentionedbyBodiford,butperhapsnotequallyrecognised,isthatthetraditional
hierarchyoftheSotosecthaveturnedtotheassertionsofCriticalBuddhism(Bodiford1996,
p.21)toprovidetheirreformistagendawithanintellectualunderpinning.Thatthesectisturningto
thefindingsofBuddhistStudiesisunusual,andraisesissuesaboutthedemarcationofacademia
andsectarianreligionthatarepertinenttoJapanandthewest.

UnlikeinthewestSectarianUniversitiesareanacceptededucationalcategoryinJapan(Fujii2004).
Theseinstitutionsprovidesecular,moderneducationtostudents,butalsotrainpriestsinpreparation
forlifeastemplepriestsforthesect.Whileinthewestmuchwouldbemadeofthedangers
inherentinallowingareligiousinstitutiontoinfluencetheeducationofsecularstudents,inthe
contextofCriticalBuddhism,somewhatthereverseistrue,thatis,itappearsthatthefindingsof
modernBuddhistStudies,embracedbythesecthierarchy,inbeingtaughttofuturetemplepriests,
iscausingalossofconfidenceintheirrole,andresistanceatthegrassrootslevel.(Rowe2004,
p.367)

ThisgoestotheheartoftheissuesfacingcontemporarySotoinJapan.Moretraditionalpriests,
happytocontinueintheiroldhabits,resistchange,butmaintainbigotryandarousethewrathof
contemporaryJapanesesociety.ThereformersontheotherhandespouseaviewofBuddhismthat
partakesofexplicitlywesternacademiclanguageandconcerns.Thisessayopenswithaquotefrom
oneoftheprincipleexponentsofCriticalBuddhism,attackingthestanceoftheGermansociologist
ofreligion,MaxWeber.Thatthisattackissubtlyironicmaybeseenbythefactthatitisthevery
contributionofWeber;theideathatdoctrinalpositionscanhavebroadsocialandpolitical

consequencesinsocieties,thatCriticalBuddhismreliesonandreframesinitsattackonthe
originalenlightenmentdoctrineasthesourceofJapanesenationalism.Thisacademicplayfulness
orambiguityisnotsomuchthepointasthatinsituatingCriticalBuddhismwithinatradition
inhabitedbyDescartesandWeber,andadoptingthephilologicalmethodsofMuller,Critical
BuddhismintermingleswiththeBuddhisttraditionanother,westerntraditionthatstemsfrom
anotherhistoryandculture,withadifferentsetofcircumstancesandconcerns.

Itisinterestingalsothatwhileusingtheseacademictoolsofwesternintellectualhistory,the
scholarsofCriticalBuddhismneverthelessidentifythecausesandconditionsofthecorruptionof
BuddhismanditscomplicityinnationalismwithinthesphereofAsianandJapaneseBuddhist
theory,thatis,theyarguethatJapan'sdiseaseisofitsownmaking.

ThisviewmaybecontrastedwiththatofSharf(Sharf1995,pp.107160)whopresentsapictureof
theemergenceofnationalisttenanciesintheZensectastheoutgrowthoftheinteractionofcertain
JapaneseZenBuddhistswith19thcenturyIdealistsandTheosophistsinAmericaandelsewhere.

ThelocatingofJapanesenationalismwithinapurelyJapaneseframe,andomittingany
considerationofoutsideinfluences,seemstoalmostsmackofakindofnationalismitself,and
indeed,itneedstoberememberedthatattheleast,CriticalBuddhismservessectarian
aims(Bodiford1996,p.20).

Thesesectarianaimsincludethemodernisationandreformofthesecttoweedoutdiscrimination,
therehabilitationoffuneraryritual,tomakeitrelevanttothemodernJapan,andtheclarificationof
trueBuddhistdoctrine.ThesereformscreateatensionbetweenthenewBuddhismsoughtbythe
SotoZenhierarchyandthetraditionalBuddhismadheredtobytemplepriests.Sasaki,professor

EmeritusatKomazawareflectsthistensionwhenhesaysthatBuddhismoughtnottocorrespondto
afolktraditionthatacceptstheactualexistenceofspirits(Rowe2004,p.362).Whatmakesthis
statementinterestingisthatitreflectsaviewofBuddhismwhereThequestionofwhathappensto
thedeceasedafterdeathisoneuponwhichthehistoricalBuddharemainedsteadfastlysilent
(Rowe2004,p.362).ThattheBuddharemainedsilentaboutpeoplebeingrebornafterdeathis
simplynottrue,andthefounderoftheSotosect,Dogen,himselfreferstotheendlesscycleoflife
anddeath(Rowe2004,p.363),thefamoussilencerefersrathertothestatusoftheTathagataafter
death,andmorebroadlytothestatusofabeingasontologicalground,livingordead.
Consequentlyitisinterestingtolearnthenthattheprimarydoctrinaltextinformingtheconstitution
oftheSotosectinitscurrentformwascompiledaslateas1888byalayBuddhist.(Rowe2004,
p.363)ThisshouldbeofinteresttousbecauseitisatpreciselythistimethatSharf(Sharf1995)
arguesthatWesternideas,likematerialistscepticismwithregardstospiritswerefirstinfluencing
Japanesethinking.Henceitispossiblethatthepositionoftemplepriestswithregardstothe
spiritsofthedeadisnotsounBuddhistassomeofthesecthierarchybelieve,andtheirdesireto
returntotrueBuddhism,inadditiontousingwesternmethodsofscholarship,maybeinfluenced
byearlierwesternideasaboutwhatBuddhismshouldbe,asarational,empirical(Sharf1995,
pp.117119)religion,incontrasttoChristianity.

FinallyIwouldliketodiscusssomethingofthereceptionCriticalBuddhismhashadbeyondits
home,becauseoftheinterestandcontroversyithascausedinBuddhistStudiescirclesinthewest.

Icanthelpthinkingthatuniversities,dominatedbyapseudoobjectivitythat
takessatisfactioninpeddlingbitsofknowledge,havebeentakeninbythekind
ofnonjudgementalethosMaxWeberwritesaboutinScholarshipasa
Profession.Asevidenceofthis,weonlyhavetolookatthewaythat

syncretismoriginallyusedasapejorativetermtodescribeakindofspiritual
opportunismhassuddenlyattainedthestatusinreligiousstudies,cultural
anthropology,andfolklorestudiesofacivilrightthatallowsforanyreligious
mishmashtobeviewed,valuefree,asvalidasanyother.
(Hakamaya1997b,p.113)

WerblowskystatesthattheprotagonistsofCriticalBuddhismbadlymisunderstand...the
meaningofWeber'scallforvaluefreeobjectivity(Werblowsky1999,p.337)however,itisbetter
tosaythattheJapanesesectarianscholarsunderstandthelimitationsandcomplexitiesofthiscall
quitewell,andatleasttosomeextent,rejecttheassumptionsonwhichitrests,Stone(1999)states;
thecriticismof'objectivescholarship'resonateswithrecentdevelopmentsintheWesternacademy
thathaveoriginatedfromadifferenthermeneuticalperspectivenamely,therecognitionthattrue
'objectivity'inthehumanitiesis,ultimately,anepistemologicalimpossibility.(Stone1999,p.169)

CONCLUSION

ThemotivationsfortheemergenceofCriticalBuddhismareforthemostpartinternaltoJapanand
theSotosectinparticular.Itappliesaparticularkindofphilologicalscholarshipinthetraditionof
MaxMullertoquestionsofBuddhistdoctrineanditscomplicityinJapanesenationalism.Sharf,
usingadifferentkindofhistoricalscholarship,seeswestern,especiallyTheosophicalinfluencein
theemergenceofthekindofBuddhismthatfosteredJapanesenationalism(Sharf1995).Sharf's
workfocusesalmostelusivelyonpersonalitiesassociatedwiththeRinzaisect,whiletheCritical
BuddhismmovementhasfromthebeginningbeenaSotobackedenterprise.Thatneithersetof
scholarsmakemuch,ifanymentionoftheother,andthattheysituatethecausesofBuddhism's
complicityinnationalist,discriminatory,andinauthenticpracticesinentirelydifferentlocations;the

westernscholarinwesterninfluence,andtheJapanesescholarsinAsiandoctrinalcorruption,is
indicativeoftheblindspotsthatstilldapplethelandscapeoftheacademicstudyofreligions.

JamieHubbard,inhisintroductiontoPruningtheBodhiTree,stronglymakesthepointthatIasa
BuddhiststudyingReligionStudiesfindquietpertinent,itisworthquotingatlength:

FollowingMaxWeberscallforascientificstudyofreligion,religiousstudies
intheWesthaslabouredlongtobefreeofitstheologicaloriginsandestablish
itselfasarespectabledisciplinewithinsecularuniversities.Buddhiststudiesis
noexception,andtodatehaslargelyfolloweditsEuropeanoriginsinthe
philologicalstudyoftexts.YetjustasHakamayaandMatsumotorejectWebers
ideaofobjectiveandvaluefreescholarship,manyBuddhistscholarsintheWest
arearguingmoreandmoreopenlythatthereshouldindeedbeaplacewithin
academicdiscourseforthecommittedBuddhisttoarguehisorherideasabout
Buddhisttruthsomewouldsaythatmanyhavealreadybeendoingjustthat,
albeitwithoutacknowledgingthosecommitments.
(Hubbard1997,p.xiii)

Thisneatlysummarisesoneofthecrucialcontemporaryaspectsofreligion,bothin
Asiaandbeyond,thatistheevolvingrelationshipbetweenscholarshipaboutreligion,
thepracticeofreligion,andtheplaceofreligioninthesocialandpoliticalcontextof
theacademyandthebroadercommunity.InJapanatthepresenttime,weare
witnessingafascinatingexampleofjusttheseissuesplayingoutwithinthesectarian
universitiesastheyattempttoutilisegenuinescholarshiptoreformthebroader
institutionoftempleBuddhisminJapaninresponsetoaselfadmittedcomplicityin

boththenationalismthatledtothesecondworldwar,andindiscriminatorypractices
thatstillcontinuetothisdaywithinJapanitself.Thatthereareprofoundissuesthatvex
thepossibilityofutilisingwesternstyleacademicscholarshipforthisenterprisemay
beseeninthestrangeblindspotsthatseemtoinfectperspectives,betheysectarian
scholarsinJapan,orsecularscholarsinthewest.Nevertheless,withthecollapseofthe
mythofsecularisation(Hadden2005,p.2367)andthecleardesireofpractising
followerstopursueacademiclearningasavehiclefortheirunderstandingand
discussionoftheirownandotherreligiosities,itseemscertainthatthesetrendswill
continuetodevelop,andremainaliveissue,inJapanandelsewhere.
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Fujii,M.I.,2004.TheCurrentStateofSectarianUniversities.JapaneseJournalofReligious
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Hadden,J.K.,2005.ReligiousMovements.InEncyclopediaofReligion.Jones.

Hakamaya,N.,1997a.CriticalPhilosophyVersusTopicalPhilosophy.InPruningtheBodhiTree:
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Matsumoto,S.,1997a.TheDoctrineofTatagatagarbhaIsNotBuddhist.InPruningtheBodhi
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