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Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439,
United States
Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and the Environment, Beijing
Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, 80203 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
1. INTRODUCTION
Currently, fossil fuels supply over 85% of the worlds evergrowing energy demand.1 There is an increasing concern about
the global climate change resulting from the worldwide use of
fossil fuels, which release large quantities of CO2 and other
greenhouse gas (GHG) to the atmosphere.1 The petroleum
that is used for automobile and light truck applications
represents 34% of the worlds total primary energy source. In
the United States, the transportation sector is the single greatest
consumer of imported oil. In 2010, 94% of U.S. transportation
energy was derived from petroleum, nearly half of which came
from foreign sources.2 In terms of economic impact, petroleum
imports represented nearly 41% of the $646 billion U.S. trade
decit in 2010.3 The CO2 emissions due to the U.S.
transportation sector account for 40% of the total CO2
emission, which is considered as a major cause of geopolitical
instability.4 The U.S. transportation sector also represents
about 27% of all U.S. GHG emissions.5 However, even with
todays mix of fossil, nuclear, and renewable energy sources for
U.S. electric power generation, it is estimated that, on a well-towheel basis, an all-electric vehicle will generate 25% less GHG
emissions than a conventional gasoline-powered vehicle.6 Even
lower emissions are predicted with increased use of renewable
energy sources. Therefore, it would greatly benet the United
States and the world to transition to an electried transportation system, which is already beginning with the advent of
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and will accelerate as plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and ultimately pure electric
vehicles (PEVs) gain a larger share of the market. In addition,
PEVs have the promise to greatly improve energy eciency.
For example, on a well-to-wheel basis, the all-electric Tesla
Roaster charged with electricity generated from natural gas has
an eciency of 1.14 km/MJ, nearly 2 times as ecient as a
Toyota Prius hybrid (0.56 km/MJ) and 4 times more ecient
than a typical gasoline-powered car, such as the Toyota Camry
(0.28 km/MJ).7 The use of alternative energy sources, such as
nuclear, solar, and wind power, would reduce our dependence
on fossil fuels and, thus, also reduce CO2 emissions, but devices
to store the electric energy generated by these power plants are
sorely needed. One of the most viable candidates for such
devices is the rechargeable Li battery.
Electrical energy storage is attracting signicantly more
interest nowadays, considering the expanding market for
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Overview
3. Aprotic LiO2 Battery
3.1. Electrochemical Reactions in the Aprotic Li
O2 System
3.2. Early-Stage Research on the Aprotic LiO2
Battery
3.3. Eect of the Electrolyte
3.3.1. Lessons Learned from Organic Carbonate-Based Electrolytes
3.3.2. Ether-Based Electrolyte
3.3.3. Other Organic Electrolytes
3.3.4. Eect of Lithium Salt
3.3.5. HardSoft AcidBase (HSAB) Theory
3.3.6. Brief Summary
3.4. Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Li2O2
and Relevance to the LiO2 Battery
3.5. Air Electrode Architecture
3.5.1. Porous Carbon
3.5.2. Catalysts on Porous Carbon
3.6. Lithium Electrode
4. Aqueous LiO2 Batteries
5. Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
Author Information
Corresponding Authors
Notes
Biographies
Acknowledgments
References
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2. OVERVIEW
Before presenting the main topic of this review, we need to
clarify some terminology. First, it is not precise to refer to an
aprotic solvent as nonaqueous in most of the relevant
literature because, strictly speaking, nonaqueous solvents
include aprotic and protic solvents. The term aprotic is
used throughout this review since almost all the electrolytes
investigated so far are based on the aprotic solvent. We do not
consider protic nonaqueous Liair battery systems because of a
lack of published work on this topic. Likewise, mixtures of
water and other protic solvents are beyond the scope of this
review. From an electrochemical perspective, the protic system
is expected to share general characteristics with the aqueous
Liair chemistry. Also, the term Liair battery with the
aprotic system has been widely accepted and used by many
other researchers but does not precisely represent what
happens in these cells at the current time, considering that
most laboratory work has been performed under a pure oxygen
environment. This is because other components in air such as
H2O and CO2 could interfere with the desired electrochemical
behavior and, therefore, degrade the overall performance of the
battery. In light of the above concern, we refer to LiO2
battery throughout this review when we discuss the aprotic
Liair system. This distinction has been recognized in some
recently published papers.4447 However, it should be
emphasized that a true Liair battery is still the ultimate
goal,48,49 as long as a selective membrane can be developed to
prevent the permeation of other gases from the air rather than
oxygen gas. In addition, the expression of the specic capacity
of the LiO2 battery is specically claried in this review. The
term mAh/g is commonly used in most of the relevant
literature, some based on the mass of active materials and
others based on the mass of the air electrode support. The
value based on the electrode support mass is reliable only when
the capacity is shown to be proportional to the support mass. In
this sense, the value based on the active materials is more
appropriate to describe the specic capacity of the LiO2 cell at
the current moment. Alternatively, the capacity per surface area
(mAh/cm2) of the support is also accepted to describe the
specic capacity of the cell. However, the value based on the
surface area of the electrode could possibly induce improper
conclusions if the loading of the active materials is signicantly
dierent from case to case. In this paper, we adopt the term
mAh/g based on the active materials to describe the specic
B
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Figure 2. Schematic cell congurations for the four types of Liair batteries.
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Figure 4. (a) Voltage prole of the rst cycle for a cathode containing
three-cycle atomic layer deposition (3c ALD) Pd in a carbon matrix
cycling in 1 M LiCF3SO3/TEGDME at 100 mA/g. (b) Cell capacity as
a function of the cycle number for the same air electrodes cycling in 1
M LiCF3SO3/TEGDME at 100 mA/g. The specic capacity and
current density were based on the active materials (carbon + Pd).
Reprinted from ref 44. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society.
is not formed in aqueous systems. Cobalt pthalocyaninecatalyzed porous carbon was used as the air electrode to lower
the charge overpotential. Although researchers in this eld now
largely use liquid organic electrolytes in place of the polymer,
this work still remains seminal. Abraham and co-workers also
elucidated the mechanism of O2 reduction in LiO2 batteries
through the application of rotating disk electrodes.64
Read and co-workers6567 have largely focused on characterizing organic electrolytes for LiO2 batteries. They have shown
that electrolyte formulation has a very large eect on discharge
capacity and rate capability and that these performance
variables can be correlated to the solubility, diusion
coecients, and partial pressure of O2 in the electrolyte.66
The discharge product (Li2O2/Li2O) and location of the
product in relation to the air electrode are dependent on the
electrolyte type and discharge rate. It was subsequently shown
that the discharge product from oxygen reduction is Li2O if the
discharge potential is allowed to fall below 2.0 V (vs Li/Li+).
For this reason, many researchers limit the discharge window to
above 2.0 V, with the expectation that Li 2 O is too
thermodynamically stable to be easily decomposed upon
charging, as mentioned earlier. Read et al.68 have also studied
the eects of the air electrode porosity, claiming that, at low
cycling rates, the porosity of the air electrode dominates the
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Figure 5. Composite electrodes (Super P/-MnO2/Kynar) that contain the discharge products individually were subjected to charging in 1 M LiPF6
in PC under O2. (a) FTIR spectra of the as-prepared electrodes and the charged electrodes for each of the compounds, together with the spectrum of
a pristine electrode. (b) Corresponding charging curves at 70 mA/g. Since the theoretical capacities of the dierent compounds vary, to aid
comparison, the capacities are all normalized to unity (theoretical capacities: lithium propyl dicarbonate, 1000 mAh/g, 2e/mol; Li2CO3, 1500 mA
h/g, 2e/mol; CH3CO2Li, 750 mAh/g, 1e/mol; HCO2Li, 750 mAh/g, 1e/mol). (ce) MS gas analysis at the end of charging under O2 of
CH3CO2Li (c), C3H6(OCO2Li)2 (d), and HCO2Li (e). Note that unmarked peaks arise from fragments of CO2, H2O, O2, and Ar. (f) Gas evolution
measured by DEMS on oxidation of a composite electrode containing Li2CO3 in response to a stepwise increased current under Ar. The specic
capacity and current density were based on the mass of the carbon. Reprinted from ref 79. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.
battery performance. They developed a model that demonstrates how interparticle micro-, meso-, and macroporosities
dier in their importance to air electrode capabilities. Model
calculations suggest that much improvement can be achieved
with proper tailoring of the air electrodes physical properties.
The research in this eld was tremendously boosted in 2006
by Bruce and co-workers,51 who successfully tested a cell for
more than 30 cycles using an air electrode loaded with
electrolytic manganese dioxide as the electrocatalyst. This
performance was achieved despite the cell having a conventional carbonate-based electrolyte, which is now known to be
unstable to the oxygen reduction species (discussed in more
detail later). Bruce and co-workers also presented direct
evidence of oxygen release on cell charging, indicating the
reversibility of Li2O2 formation on discharge. In follow-up
work,56 Bruce et al. evaluated an array of dierent electrocatalysts and showed that the catalyst does not inuence the
discharge potential, but greatly aects the charging potential
and capacity retention per cycle. Overall, they unequivocally
showed that, despite the reactions occurring during discharge
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Figure 6. (a) Reaction free energy prole for nucleophillic attack of O2 at the carbonyl and ethereal carbon atoms of PC and the reaction pathway
toward the formation of allyl alcohol (CH2CHCH2OH) and CO2 calculated within the continuum solvent model based on DFT. Reprinted from
ref 81. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society. (b) Reaction energy prole for O2 attack on the ethereal carbon atoms of EC based on the
DFT and CCSD(T) levels of calculations. Reprinted from ref 80. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society. (c) DFT results on the barriers for
activation of PC decomposition by other possible reduced O2 species, e.g., LiO2, LiO2, and Li2O2, besides O2. Reprinted from ref 55. Copyright
2011 American Chemical Society. (d) PC decomposition due to the reactivity of PC with a [100] Li2O2 surface through the nucleophilic addition to
the carboxylic carbon. Reprinted with permission from ref 82. Copyright 2011 Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 11. First charge and discharge cycles of a LiO2 cell with PC
and 1NM3 electrolyte. The current density applied in both cases is 100
mA/g, based on the mass of the carbon + catalyst. Reprinted from ref
55. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.
J
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Figure 12. (a) XRD patterns and (b) FTIR spectra of O2 electrodes
cycled in 1 M LiPF6/TEGDME electrolyte. Reprinted with permission
from ref 83. Copyright 2011 Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 14. Cycling stability of LiO2 air electrodes that employ a redox mediator. Load curves (constant-current discharge/charge) for the 1st, 20th,
and 100th cycles of a cell with 1 M LiClO4 in DMSO that contained 10 mM TTF at a nanoporous gold electrode under O2, with rates increased
from 0.078 mA/cm2 (a) to 0.196 mA/cm2 (b), to 0.313 mA/cm2 (c), and to 1 mA/cm2 (d). The similarity of the load curves with cycle number
demonstrates the stability of the Li2O2 formation/decomposition on cycling in the presence of TTF-mediated oxidation of Li2O2 on charging.
Reprinted with permission from ref 147. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group.
the solid Li2O2 while TTF+ turns back to TTF. Therefore, the
redox mediator acts as a molecular electronhole transfer agent
on charging, which permits ecient oxidation of solid Li2O2. As
a consequence, the cells that contain TTF were able to operate
for 100 cycles with complete reversibility of Li2O2 formation/
decomposition on each cycle, even under a very high current
density (1 mA/ggold), as shown in Figure 14. Redox mediators
(often known as redox shuttles) have also been widely
demonstrated for overcharge protection in lithium ion
batteries.155161 Note that DMSO is not stable with bare
lithium; therefore, a protected Li electrode is required for
operation of the LiO2 cell in DMSO electrolytes. In this case,
a perfectly protected Li electrode could be obtained by simply
dipping lithium into the LiClO4/PC electrolyte, according to
Bruce et al.59
The O 2 electrochemistry of aprotic LiO 2 cells in
acetonitrile has also been investigated by several groups. Laoire
et al.141 reported that, in acetonitrile-based electrolyte, Li2O2
formed as the oxygen reduction product on the air electrode in
a stepwise fashion (O2 O2 O22), which was conrmed
by Peng et al.84 In addition, Laoire et al.141 found that O2 is
much more dicult to reduce in acetonitrile than in DMSO,
and McCloskey et al.96 revealed that a LiO2 cell with carbon
as the air electrode exhibited a very high reversibility of Li2O2
formation/decomposition when acetonitrile was employed as
an electrolyte. All of these results demonstrated that acetonitrile
is relatively stable toward the oxygen reduction species.
However, the practical application of acetonitrile in aprotic
LiO2 systems is restricted because of its high volatility, similar
to that of DME.
Solid-state electrolytes have also been reported and have
shown some promise in aprotic LiO2 batteries.53,162164
Noteworthy, the rst rechargeable aprotic LiO2 cell was built
up on the basis of a solid-state electrolyte, namely,
polyacrylonitrile-based polymer electrolyte, as reported by
L
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solvents, given that they are stable (at the air electrode and
lithium electrode) during the operation of the cell.
3.3.4. Eect of Lithium Salt. Besides the stability of
solvents, another source of detrimental electrolyte decomposition in LiO2 batteries could be from side reactions due to
the decomposition of lithium salt, an indispensable component
of the electrolyte. In contrast to the extensive eorts on solving
the instability issue of solvents, the eect of lithium salts on the
stability of the electrolytes in the aprotic LiO2 system has not
been investigated in detail yet, even though the choice of
lithium salts is quite limited. The lithium salts that have been
employed in the aprotic LiO2 system include LiPF6, lithium
bis((triuoromethyl)sulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), LiClO 4 ,
LiCF 3SO3, LiBF4, LiCl, and lithium bis(oxalato)borate
(LiBOB), with the rst four being used the most. Analogous
to the Li ion battery, a good lithium salt for the LiO2 battery
has to meet certain requirements, namely, (1) the salt should
have high enough solubility in the solvent to support the ion
transport and (2) the anion of the salt should be inert to the
solvent and other cell components, such as current collectors
and separators. In addition to these basic requirements, the salt
used in the LiO2 system should be inert to the aggressive
oxygen reduction species, such as Li2O2 and O2 radical.
Recent evidence has shown that some lithium salts are not
stable toward Li2O2 formed in the LiO2 cells, with LiPF6
being the most obvious one. The XPS results of Oswald et
al.170 indicated an almost immediate formation of LiF if the
Li2O2 is exposed to a LiPF6-containing electrolyte. The
formation of LiF is partially due to the presence of HF,
which is generated by uorine from uorinated anion (PF6)
and protons from water impurities in the electrolyte. The XPS
depth proles also revealed another possible reason for the
formation of LiF, the direct reaction of Li2O2 and LiPF6. By
analyzing the discharge products of aprotic LiO2 cells in
TEGDME-based electrolytes with various salts (LiPF6, LiClO4,
LiTFSI, and LiCF3SO3) using Raman, XPS, and NMR
techniques, Veith et al.171 provided strong evidence that the
discharge product in ether-based electrolytes contains a certain
level of insoluble Li salt, although the major discharge product
is Li2O2. They believe that the discharge chemistries of LiO2
cells appear to undergo similar decomposition of the lithium
salt, resulting from the strong interaction of the salt and the
reactive O2 or reduced oxygen species, such as O2.
As discussed above, the stability of lithium salt, especially in
the presence of reduced oxygen species (O2) and a trace
amount of H2O, may signicantly aect the cyclability and
capacity of LiO2 cells. Applying a combined experimental and
computational approach, Du et al. provided evidence that the
stability of the electrolyte in the LiO2 cell strongly depends
on the compatibility of the lithium salt with the solvent.172 In
the case of the LiPF6/1NM3 electrolyte, they found that HF
formed from decomposition of LiPF6 triggers the decomposition of the 1NM3 solvent, as schematized in Figure 15.
These reactions lead to severe degradation of the electrolyte
and cause the poor cyclability of the cell. The same reactions
are not observed when LiTFSI or LiCF3SO3 is used as the
lithium salt in 1NM3 solvent, suggesting that the stability of the
electrolyte in Liair cells depends on the compatibility of the
lithium salt with the solvent.
Although not yet having received much attention, the
possible decomposition of the lithium salt and the subsequent
eect on the stability of the electrolytes and performance of the
aprotic LiO2 cells should not be neglected. The challenge in
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product in the LiO2 cells using TEGDME-based electrolytes.47,91,120,124,127,174,175 Theoretically, Li2O, the ultimate
reduction product of O2, should also be able to form as a
stable discharge product in a LiO2 cell, considering that the
monoxide (O2) anion is an even harder Lewis base. However,
the charge of Li2O cannot proceed under the test condition due
to the need for 4-electron transfer, which is kinetically
unfavorable in the electrochemical process; therefore, the
discharge product is normally limited to Li2O2 by controlling
the cuto discharge voltage of the LiO2 cell to above 2.0 V vs
Li/Li+.
As mentioned above, the formation of Li+(solvent)n
complexes would modulate (lower) the acidity of Li+,
determined by the DN of the solvent. Therefore, the
superoxide anions could be stabilized to a certain degree
before they transform to O22 via a chemical or electrochemical
pathway, because of the increased anity between O2 (soft
Lewis base) and the solvated Li+ with lower acidity (toward soft
Lewis acid). This could explain the distinct O2/O2 couple seen
in the DMSO/LiPF6 electrolyte.59,85,143147 Thus, the HSAB
theory could provide guidance to further modulate the Li+
acidity in the electrolytes to form dierent types of discharge
products during the oxygen reduction reaction. Successful
implementation of this theory will be benecial for future
investigation of dierent electrolytes for optimization of the
LiO2 cell.
3.3.6. Brief Summary. In summary, the organic electrolytes
(both solvents and lithium salts) play the most critical role in
an aprotic LiO2 cell and determine whether a truly
rechargeable LiO2 battery can be realized. Numerous studies
showed that the stability of the electrolytes during the oxygen
reduction and oxygen evolution processes is the key challenge
for the aprotic LiO2 cell. With no doubt, searching for fully
stable electrolytes in the oxygen-rich electrochemical environment is the research priority at present. Carbonate-based
electrolytes have proved to be highly unstable toward the
oxygen reduction species. However, there is still a large amount
of research work using carbonate-based electrolytes to
investigate the catalytic activities of the air electrode
materials,126,133,176216 despite the fact that the severe
instability of these electrolytes has been reported. The catalytic
activity of these air electrode materials needs to be re-examined
in more stable electrolytes. Ether-based electrolytes appear to
be relatively stable in the presence of the reduced oxygen
species, as evident by the reversible formation/decomposition
of Li2O2; however, their electrochemical behavior, in particular
on charge and during long-term cycling, remains to be
thoroughly investigated for optimization of the LiO2 cell.
Both DMSO59,147,217 and TEGDME91,136 are probably the
most promising organic solvents under investigation. The best
electrochemical performance (including cycle performance) has
been achieved with LiO2 cells having these electrolyte
solvents. Lithium salt, an indispensable component of the
electrolyte, deserves much more attention since there is
evidence it has an eect on the stability of the electrolytes in
LiO2 cells. Design of a robust strategy for eectively screening
the stability of various electrolytes would be greatly benecial to
the development of a LiO2 battery for practical application. In
addition, we noticed that there are several dierent or even
conicting reports on the reactivity of superoxide anion (O2)
against ethers, which certainly requires deep fundamental
understanding using the state-of-the-art characterization
techniques. In our opinion, however, the reactivity of the
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peroxide with superoxide-like properties characterized by a lowtemperature magnetic phase transition (49.7 K) and a high O
O stretching frequency (Raman peak at 1125 cm1). A low
charge potential (3.3 V) was also observed in a LiO2 cell using
1NM3/LiTFSI as the electrolyte, where the Li2O2 discharge
product shows magnetic behavior.225 These experimental
ndings suggest that a superoxide surface species lowers the
charge potential, and therefore, control of the forms of Li2O2
produced on discharge is important for improving the eciency
of the LiO2 cell.
3.5. Air Electrode Architecture
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Figure 17. Magnetic susceptibility data from SQUID measurements for (a) a pristine carbon air electrode before cycling and a discharged air
electrode with 1NM3/LiCF3SO3 electrolyte and (b) the dierence between the pristine carbon air electrode and the initially discharged air electrode.
(c) Magnetic moment data from SQUID measurement for Li2O2 bulk powder. (d) EPR spectrum of Li2O2 bulk powder at 4 K. The red trace is the
experimental result. The blue trace is the calculated one-line Lorentzian spectrum to t the central peak at the g2 value, and the green trace is the
dierence between the red and blue traces to reveal peaks at g1 and g3. Reprinted with permission from ref 225. Copyright 2013 Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 18. Evolution of Li2O2 discharge product morphology. Insets show the corresponding discharge voltage prole. (a, b) Galvanostatic discharge
to a capacity of 350 mAh/g at 68 mA/g. Li2O2 particles appear to rst form on the CNT sidewalls as small spheres with <100 nm diameters. (c, d)
Intermediate galvanostatic discharge to 1880 mAh/g at 64 mA/g. Particles appear to develop a toroidal shape as the average particle size increases to
400 nm. (e, f) Full discharge to 7200 mAh/g at 63 mA/g. The discrete particles merge to form a monolithic Li2O2 mass with low porosity. The
capacity and current density are obtained on the basis of the mass of the CNT. Reprinted with permission from ref 61. Copyright 2011 Royal Society
of Chemistry.
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Figure 22. (a) First dischargecharge prole for LiO2 cells with
Ketjen Black (KB) or Co3O4/RGO/KB at 25 C at a current rate of
140 mA/g. (b) XRD patterns of the cells in (a) on rst discharge.
Reections of Li2O2 are marked. (c) SEM micrographs of the
discharged electrodes at 6000 mAh/g: (i) Co3O4/RGO/KB and (ii)
KB. (d) Chronoamperometry showing normalized current evolution
with time at 2.25 V. (e) Linear sweep voltammetry following a hold at
2.25 V for 1 h. (f) Voltage prole on charge for cells containing
chemically deposited Li2O2 in the presence of either Co3O4/RGO/KB
or KB. The specic capacity and current density were based on the
mass of the active materials. Reprinted with permission from ref 175.
Copyright 2013 Wiley-VCH.
S
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Figure 23. (a) Voltage prole during dischargecharge of cells (to 1000 mAh/g) based on Super P carbon, Super P carbon coated with Al2O3, and
Al2O3-coated Super P carbon further coated with Pd nanoparticles. The electrolyte used is TEGDME/LiCF3SO3. (b) Voltage prole during
dischargecharge of cells (to 500 mAh/g) based on Al2O3-coated Super P carbon further coated with Pd nanoparticles. The electrolyte used is
TEGDME/LiCF3SO3. The specic capacity and current density were based on the mass of the active materials. Reprinted with permission from ref
248. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group.
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Figure 24. Proposed mechanism and energetics for the formation of LiOH from an ether-based solvent (TEGDME) at the electrode upon reduction
and oxygen crossover. Also shown in the box is a mechanism for the further formation of lithium alkyl carbonates and carbonates from the resulting
aldehydes. All energetics are changes in enthalpies (eV) in solution ( = 21) at 298 K computed at the B3LYP/6-31+G(d) level of theory Reprinted
with permission from ref 57. Copyright 2013 Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 25. (a) Dischargecharge voltage prole of the operando LiO2 cell as a function of the cycling time. The stages at which XRD data sets
were collected are marked as i, ii, iii, ... on the curve. (b) Four representative XRD sets taken at cycling stages i, iii, vi, and ix; each set consisted of
seven selected XRD patterns collected at various electrodeseparator interfacial depths (marked as 1, 2, ..., 7 of dierent colors on the right of each
set). (c) Expanded XRD data set at stage ix covering the whole electrode through the adjacent separator region. The inset is a representative XRD
pattern taken from the position marked by a blue line that includes references of Li and LiOH. Reprinted with permission from ref 108. Copyright
2013 Nature Publishing Group.
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(4.1)
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Authors
*E-mail: yksun@hanyang.ac.kr.
*E-mail: wufeng863@bit.edu.cn.
*E-mail: amine@anl.gov.
Notes
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Biographies
Yang-Kook Sun received his M.S. degree and Ph.D. degree from the
Seoul National University, Korea. In 1996 he was a principal
researcher at Samsung SDI and contributed to the commercialization
of the lithium polymer battery. He has worked at the Hanyang
University in Korea as a professor since 2000. His research interests
are the synthesis of new electrode materials for lithium ion batteries,
supercapacitors, and next-generation batteries of Na ion batteries, Li
S batteries, and Liair batteries. In 2007 and 2011, he was awarded the
Energy Technology Division Research Award and Research Award in
Battery Division of the Electrochemical Society. He has been Senior
Visiting Scientist at the Argonne National Laboratory since 2007.
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also thankful for useful discussions with Dr. David Howell and
Mr. Tien Duong of the EERE Vehicle Technologies Oce.
Feng Wu was born in Beijing in 1951 and has been working at the
Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) since graduating in 1982. Prof.
Wu is the director of the Professor Commission of the School of
Chemical Engineering and the Environment, the director of the Green
Energy Research Institute, and the vice president of the China Battery
Industry Association. His research interests are new electrode materials
and electrolytes for green secondary batteries. As the chief scientist, he
has hosted the National Key Program for Basic Research of China
(973 projects), Basic Research on New Rechargeable Batteries and
Related Materials, since 2002. He has published over 500 papers and
has been awarded 45 patents. In 2012, he was awarded the IBA
Research Award for outstanding research of battery material and
systems for electric vehicles.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) under Contract DE-AC0206CH11357, with the main
support provided by the Vehicle Technologies Oce, DOE
Oce of Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy (EERE). J.L.
was supported by a DOE EERE Postdoctoral Research Award
under the EERE Vehicles Technology Program administered by
the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) for
the DOE. This work was also partially supported by the
International S&T Cooperation Program of China (Grant
2010DFB63370) and the Chinese National 973 Program
(Grant 2009CB220100). This work was supported by the
Human Resources Development program (No.
20124010203310) of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology
Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant funded by the Korea
government Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy and by a
National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea grant funded
by the Korean government (MEST) (2009-0092780). We are
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