CHAPTER 1

Biomass is of current interest for replacing coals in energy production. With much more
concern to the environmental impact, the use of fossil fuels has been greatly limited.
The new goal is the exploitation of renewable energy. Moreover, energy can be
recovered from residues and wastes. Biomass, as part of the renewable energy,wood,woody
and other forms of biomass represent some of the main renewable solid energy sources
available and provide the only source of liquid, gaseous and solid fuels
Thermo-chemical conversion was considered the most promising way for a high efficiency
conversion of the biomass, transforming the biomass into solid, liquid and gaseous energy
products under thermal conditions. According this, a few type of technology have been
developed: pyrolysis, combustion, gasification ,liquefaction etc....
few type of technology have been developed: pyrolysis, combustion, gasification,
liquefaction etc.
1.1 BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY
Wide variety of conversion technologies is available for the production of premium fuels
from biomass. Conversion process generally depends on the physical condition of biomass
and the economics of competing process. Biomass conversion technology can be basically
grouped into three categories. (1) Direct combustion (2)Thermo-chemical conversion
(3) Biochemical conversion. In direct combustion,oxygen supplied is generally higher
than that of Stoichiometric limit.

In the thermo-chemical conversion method the biomass is raised to high temperature and
depending on the quantity of oxygen supplied the process such as pyrolysis or gasification
takes place. The bio chemical conversion is a low energy process and relies upon the
action of bacteria which degrade complex molecules of biomass into simpler ones
. Production of biogas ( a mixture of CH4 and CO2) from animal dung by anaerobic digestion
is a good example of biochemical process.

1.1.1 Direct Combustion

Direct combustion or burning is one of the most common processes of biomass conversion
technology. In combustion process, oxygen supplied is generally higher than that of
Stoichiometric limit. Combustion process can be applied to cultivate and waste biomass.
Direct combustion requires biomass with moisture present around 15% or less therefore
drying of biomass is required prior to combustion.The heat obtained from the combustion of
biomass can be used for several useful process such as cooking,industrial heat,steam
generation, several useful processes such as cooking ,industrial heat, steam generation
, generation of electrical energy from steam etc. The energy route of combustion
process is: Dried & cut biomass + oxygen Heat of combustion.
1.1.2 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis process includes the heating of biomass at temperatures 500 900C in a closed
chamber or reactor in the absence of oxygen. It is an irreversible chemical change
which is due to heat supplied in the absence of oxygen. This process yield solid, liquid or
or gaseous fuel. In the absence of oxygen the energy splits the chemical bonds and leaves the
energy which is stored in the biomass.

As the temperature rises the cellulose and lignin break down to simpler substances
which are driven off leaving a char residue behind. This process has been used for centuries
to produce charcoal. Main components evolve from biomass are H2, N2, CO,CO2,C2H4
C2H6 and C7H8. Hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be converted into methanol,gasoline
diesel ammonia after proper treatment. The main advantage of this process includes
compactness, simple equipment, low pressure operation,negligible waste product and high
high conversion efficiency of the order of 83%. Pyrolysis process can also be carried out by
supplying small amount of oxygen (gasification), water (steam gasification), or hydrogen
(Hydrogenation) in the reactor.
1.1.3 Gasification
In the gasification process, solid biomass are broken down to produce a combustible gas by
by the use of heat in an oxygen-starved environment. Heat for gasification is generated
through partial combustion of the feed material. The resulting chemical breakdown of the
fuel and internal reactions result in a combustible gas usually called "producer gas". The
main combustible gases are H2and CO, but small amounts of methane, ethane and acetylene
are also produced. Overall gasification efficiency is generally dependent on the specific
gasifier used, fuel type, fuel moisture content and fuel geometry. This gas can either be used
onsite to produce heat, electrical or mechanical energy or can be converted into substitute
like methane and methanol.
1.1.4 Steam Gasification
Methane is produced directly from woody matter by treatment at high temperatures and
pressures with hydrogen gas. Steam is used as gasification agent, it can be produced by an
industrial steam generator unit and is overheated up to 500C. According to recent analysis

steam gasification is the most efficient route for the production of methanol. 4

1.1.5 Hydrogenation
It is a chemical reaction between hydrogen molecule (H2) and another compound or element,
ordinarily in the presence of a catalyst. Typical hydrogenation reactions include the reaction
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to form methanol or hydrocarbons, depending on the
choice of catalyst.
1.1.6 Anaerobic digestion
This method involves the microbial digestion of biomass. Anaerobic is a micro-organism that
can live and grow in the absence of air or oxygen. The process takes place at low
temperature 65C and requires moisture content at least 80%. This produces gas which
content mostly of CO2 and CH4 with minimum impurities such as hydrogen sulfide. CO2
and impurities can be removed by further treatment. The main advantage of this process is
that it utilizes biomass with moisture content as high as 99%. Small units are available which
can be operated at individual farms. The limitation of anaerobic digestion is the dispose of
large quantity of waste water after digestion.

1.1.7 Fermentation
Fermentation is the breakdown of complex molecules in organic compound under the
influence of ferment such as yeast, bacteria, enzymes etc. Fermentation is a widely used
technology for the conversion of grains and sugar crops into ethanol (ethyl alcohol). It can be
mixed with gasoline to produce gasohol which is the mixture of 90% gasoline and 10%
alcohol. After about 30 hours of fermentation, brew (beer) produced from sugar solution
which contents 6-10% alcohol, this can be removed by distillation. After fermentation, the

residue from grains and other feed stuffs contains high protein, which can be used as a feed
supplement to cattle.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the present work is to design and develop a down draft gasifier that
uses wood chips and groundnut shell as a feed stock to generate producer gas which will
help power application. From the literature collection, it was understood that nobody has
carried out this work with such feed stock. The objectives of proposed work are:er with effective thermal conversion efficiency.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Bio energy is derived from biomass. Any organic substances that are directly or indirectly
derived from those plants that are able to conduct photosynthesis process are defined as
biomass (Boyle, 2004). Prade (2011) divided biomass into two primary types: "residues"
those residual materials that come from agriculture and industrial processes, and "energy
carrier production" those biomass that are merely cultivated for energy purpose. Many
studies have been done to demonstrate the advantages of gasifying woodchips and Bio
energy is derived from biomass. Any organic substances that are directly or indirectly

derived from those plants that are able to conduct photosynthesis process are defined as
biomass (Boyle, 2004). Prade (2011) divided biomass into two primary types: "residues"
those residual materials that come from agriculture and industrial processes, and "energy
carrier production" those biomass that are merely cultivated for energy purpose. Many
studies have been done to demonstrate the advantages of gasifying woodchips and maize,As
for
A downdraft gasifier at laboratory scale was developed and tested for the
composition of producer gas. The construction of the gasifier was based on the
design proposed by Bhattacharya et al. The various parts of the gasifier like
reaction chamber, fuel hopper, gas outlet and air inlet were designed. The gasifier
was ignited by a flame torch and the composition of the producer gas was found in
close agreement with the desired composition.
An experimental study was carried out on producer gas generation from
wood waste in a downdraft biomass gasifier. They used sesame wood or rose wood
as biomass. They observed that biomass consumption rate decreased with an
increase in the moisture content and it increased with an increase in the air flow
rate. The performance of the biomass gasifier system was evaluated in terms of
producer gas composition, the calorific value of producer gas, gas generation rate,
zone temperatures and cold gas efficiency. Thermocouples were placed inside the 7
gasifier at different locations to measure the temperature of various zones of
gasifier. They found the producer gas composition using gas chromatograph.
According to Prade (2011), biomass conversion processes for energy carrier
production could be categorized as a) anaerobic digestion; b) fermentation; c)

combustion; d) and other conversion techniques like gasification, pyrolysis,

torrefaction, and transesterification. There have been numerous studies related to
those techniques. Among them, biomass gasification, due to its clean and efficient
characteristics, attracts a large amount of researchers to explore its processing
principles, technique modification, conversion efficiency improvement, and high
output/input ratio fuels.
Biomass gasification is a thermal chemical process that converts
carbonaceous feedstock (biomass) into combustible gases with scientific control
(Reed, 1988). It is actually not a new technology since decades ago during WWII,
over millions of vehicles in Europe were powered via gasifiers (Egloff, 1943). But
with the decrease of fossil fuels price, the utilization of gasification dropped down
gradually. As a result of fossil fuels depletion and greenhouse gases pollution for
the past two decades, gasification as apromising solution for those two issues, is
becoming prevalent again.
The thermo-chemical reaction in gasification may vary with varying
parameters and the size of biomass. For a particle size below 1mm diameter,
thermo-chemical reaction shows a sharp increase in the fuel conversion which
could be used in conventional entrained flow gasifier. A reduction in the fuel
particle size led to an improvement in the gas quality and thus to a higher producer
gas heating value. Maximum fuel conversion was obtained for the smallest particle 8
size tested (0.5mm). The thermo-chemical characterization of the char-ash residue
showed that as the fuels particle size was reduced, the release of volatile matter
during pyrolysis stage along with particle carbonization, gradually increased,

which suggest that pyrolysis reaction took place to a great extent. For fuel particle
size of 1mm, the reaction of char gasification became more relevant which
contribute in the improvement of conversion of fuel and the composition of
producer gas.
Reed (1988) wrote a handbook for downdraft gasifier and set forth the
principles of how it works, how to choose its feedstock, and how to fabricate it,
etc. Also, he claimed that any gasifier has its most appropriate biomass fuels, thus
selecting feedstock for one particular type of gasifier is determined on its original
design. While illustrating the principle of the gasification process, he demonstrated
a flaming match, which can manifest all gasification processes when a match is
burning.
The designs of gasifiers can be varied and is critical for energy conversion
efficiency. However, the determinants of how it is designed are the flow of air and
produced gas (Venselaar, 1982). In the report of downdraft gasifier design rules,
Venselaar (1982) displayed "no-throat", "single-throat", and "double-throat
(Imbert)" gasifier designs, and presented design rules with the consideration of
height of pyrolysis and reduction zone, and position of air-inlet area. Reed et al.
(1999) indicated "superficial velocity" of a gasifier as a key factor since it
influenced gasifier performance, gas energy content, fuel consumption rate, power
output etc.
9
Characteristics of hydrogen produced from biomass gasification was studied.
They used a self-heated gasifier as the reactor and char as the catalyst. The steady

temperatures of the pyrolysis zone, combustion zone and reduction zone were
recorded. Equivalence ratio(ER) was defined as the actual oxygen to fuel ratio
divided by the Stoichiometric oxygen to fuel ratio needed for complete
combustion. The temperature of the neck was found to increase with feeding rate
for similar ER values. For increasing the production capacity, accelerating the feed
rate is essential, but excessively high feeding rate would result in a higher gas yield
and a shorter gas residence, thus degrading gas quality. The temperature increased
with feeding rate but hydrogen yield decreased with feeding rate.
It is necessary to cool biomass-based producer gas to ambient temperature,
and clean it of tar and particulates before it could be used as a fuel. The unit gave a
clean gas with tar+dust content below the limit of 150 mg/nm3 as long as the inlet
gas tar+dust content was below about 600 mg/nm3. The system was being tested to
supply gas to a dual-fuel engine, and solve any operating problems in this
application. It was developed further to study its maintenance requirements, and
increase the number of hours of continuous use of the sand filter with no operator
attention. The system was mainly developed for small scale gasifierengine system
applications. It can be scaled up to larger sizes to provide a compact unit. The scale
up can be done by increasing the cross-sectional areas of the various beds and the
water flow rate in proportion to the producer gas flow rate.
Wang et al. (2009) developed a new approach using a two-step gasification
method with a single fluidized bed, and demonstrated this technology has wide
adaptability for raw materials while producing lower tar content. Identifying an
alternative cost effective regional renewable biomass fuel is significant to help 10

acquire extra economic and environmental benefits for the region in terms of
energy supply. In this study, Arundo donax is chosen as an alternative biomass
source to be compared with woodchips -- a prevalent biomass fuel for energy
purpose in the United States.
The gasification performance for different biomass fuels may vary because
of their different properties. Therefore, to compare the fuel energy value, an
evaluation of proximate and ultimate analysis, organic component analysis, as well
as calorific value is required (Isa, 2009). The calorific value of biomass is
determined by chemical composition and moisture content of fuel (Bossel, 2003).
The higher heating value (HHV) of fuel is the maximum amount of energy that
could be released from combustion. Thus, it is a valuable indication for
gasification efficiency calculation (Reed, 1988). In this study, the HHV of biomass
fuel with certain quantity is considered as energy input value. On the other hand,
the producer gas composition from biomass, which could be predicted from its
proximate and ultimate analysis, primarily consists of energy valuable gases like
H2, CO and CH4, as well as other concomitant gas like O2, N2, CO2, SOx, etc.
Therefore, the HHV of producer-gas gasified from a certain quantity of biomass
here is considered as energy output value. The ratio of energy output to input value
is the thermal conversion efficiency for biomass gasification. 11
CHAPTER 3
BIOMASS GASIFICATION
Biomass gasification was intensively used to operate farm and transportation
systems during the World War II. It can be described as a process that involves

incomplete combustion of biomass to produce combustible gases, which include

carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and tar. This blend is called producer gas,
which can be utilized to run internal combustion engines, Historically, gasification
was conducted at low temperatures where biomass was partially combusted or
oxidized. Partial combustion or biomass oxidation yields a low energy content gas
compared to gasification. The quality of the gas derived from partial combustion
was usually poor, as it contained impurities and too much fuel was required to
power any system. Over the decades, gasification has been improved and is now a
highly efficient thermo chemical technology of converting biomass into energy. If
conducted in accordance to system specifications, the technology is capable of
performing at more than 70% efficiency. Gasification is a thermochemical
conversion process, in which the fuel is converted into a combustible producer gas.
The product of gasification is either a low- or medium - Btu gas depending on the
process employed. This producer gas retains about 70-80% of the original biomass
energy. Walker (2006) reported that the process of gasification occurs by heating
biomass to high temperature (1200 1400C) in an oxygen deprived environment,
therefore limiting combustion. The process takes place in four stages: drying,
devolatilization, gasification and finally combustion. The first phase of heating and
drying is unproductive in terms of energy output, as energy is used to evaporate
remaining moisture from the biomass. In the pyrolysis phase volatile components
of the biomass are removed. The temperature range in this stage is 450 600C.
Pyrolysis vapour is comprised of water, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane,
volatile tars and carbon dioxide. The remaining biomass is a carbonized solid fuel

 charcoal, with 10 - 25 % of the original fuel mass.

3.1 GASIFICATION REACTIONS
The combustible substance of a solid fuel is usually composed of elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The producer gas is formed by the partial
combustion of solid biomass in a vertical flow packed bed reactor. In the
conventional theory of producer gas, gasification reaction takes place in four
zones. They are oxidation, reduction, pyrolysis and distillation zones.

3.1.1 Oxidation
In the oxidation zone, the oxygen in the air-stream reacts with the carbon
and hydrogen in the fuel to reduce carbon and hydrogen to form carbon dioxide
and water. Carbon dioxide is obtained from carbon and water is obtained from the
hydrogen in the fuel.
C + O2 = CO2 (+393 MJ/kg mole) (1)
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O (-242 MJ/kg mole) (2)
Reaction (1) is known as combustion reaction. The oxidation reaction is
exothermic and this heat is supplied to the neighbouring zones i.e. reduction zone.
3.1.2 Reduction zone
The partial combustion products CO2, H2O obtained from oxidation zone are
now passed through reduction zone. Here CO2 and H2O are reduced to form carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) by absorbing heat from the oxidation zone.
Oxidation zone raise the temperature of reduction zone to promote the
carbon/steam gasification reaction which has higher activation energy. It is an

endothermic reaction. 13
C + CO2 = 2CO (- 164.9 MJ/kg mole) (3)
C + H2O = CO + H2 (- 122.6 MJ/kg mole) (4)
Reaction (3) is known as Boudouard reaction. Reaction (4) is the water gas
reaction and it is very important in gasification as it can enrich the gas
manufactured with hydrogen, thus enhancing its calorific value.
C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2 (-88 MJ/kg mole) (5)
A further steam reaction in gas producer with excess of steam is water gas shift
reaction. This should be avoided as it reduces the cold gas efficiency, though it
reduces the carbon monoxide which is highly toxic in fuel gas distribution for
public use.
CO + H2O = CO2 + H2 (+42 MJ/kg mole) (6)
C + 2H2 = CH4 (+75 MJ/kg mole) (7)
Reaction (7) is known as methane reaction and it is an exothermic reaction.

3.1.3 Pyrolysis zone

In pyrolysis zone, up to the temperature of 200C only water is driven off
and between the temperature 200 to 280C carbon dioxide, acetic acid and water
are given off. The real pyrolysis, starts between 280 to 500C, produces large
quantities of tar and gases containing carbon dioxide. Besides light tars, some
methyl alcohol is also formed. Between 500 to 700C the gas production is small
and contains hydrogen. From the reason mentioned above, updraft gasifier
produces much more tar than downdraft one because in downdraft gasifier the tars

have to go through combustion and reduction zone and are partially broken down.

3.1.4 Distillation zone

In the distillation zone, raw fuel like tar is preheated and carbonized giving
of condensable and non-condensable gases. 14
3.2 TYPES OF GASIFICATION REACTORS
Gasifiers are available in different types and sizes, and run on various types
of feedstock including wood, straw, charcoal, coal, rice husks and agricultural
wastes. Updraft (fixed bed) gasification systems are an old technology and were
first installed in 1839 and used for coke and coal combustion. Before the Second
World War, fluidized-bed wood gas generators were utilized to power combustion
engines and automotive applications.
Renewed interest in biomass gasification became evident after the energy
crisis of the 1970s. It is further reported that the biomass gasification technology
was known as a relatively affordable alternative for small industrial power
generations Gasifiers are classified by the way in which air, oxygen and/or steam is
introduced into the system. The choice of one gasifier over another depends on
factors such as the type of feedstock, its moisture content, ash content and finally
the form of the fuel. The three most common types of gasifiers are updraft,
downdraft, crossdraft and the fluid-bed gasifier.

3.2.1 Updraft or counter current gasifier

The updraft gasifier is the simplest and oldest type of gasification reactor. It

derived its name from the fashion in which the oxidant is fed through the reactor.
The biomass fuel is loaded through the top into the reactor and moves downwards
through the different stages of gasification through gravitational forces, The
oxidant (usually air, oxygen or a mixture of air and steam) is fed from the bottom
of the reactor, from where it moves upwards and gets in contact with the biomass.
Combustion reactions occur at the bottom near the grate. Pyrolysis of the fuel
occurs in the higher parts of the gasifier at temperatures between 350 800oC,
because the heat is transferred upwards from the lower combustion zones. In the 15
pyrolysis zone light gases, tars and solid char are formed, which are further
gasified in the reduction zone and result in light gases, which are collected from
the top of the reactor. The remaining char is transferred to the combustion zone and
completely combusted. Ash is then removed from the bottom of the system.

This type of a gasifier has numerous advantages such as simplicity, easy

internal heat exchange and high charcoal burnout. These qualities lead to high
reactor efficiency, as well as compatibility to operate with many types of fuels. The
reactor can operate with biomass having moisture content as high as 60% on a wet
basis. The reactor typically yields producer gas with a calorific value of 1.80 to
3.33 MJ/kg, when oxidized with air. Oxygen as the oxidant in updraft gasification
reactors produces higher calorific value gases of between 5-11 MJ/kg (Bridgwater,
1995). Milne et al., (1998) found that the tar composition of the system is
approximately 0.0050 to 0.0150 kg/m3
. A major disadvantage of the updraft 16
gasifier is diffusion inside the system that leads to high amount of tar production.
This could result in explosions caused by oxygen break-through. Tar disposal and
cleaning of the reactor are also problematic and the producer gas requires intensive
cleaning for applications in turbines and/or engines.
3.2.2 Downdraft or Co-Current gasifiers
In the downdraft gasifier, fuel is also fed from the top and gravitates in the
packed bed where it is gasified. Air, oxygen or a mixture of air and steam is fed
either from the top or the middle of the reactor and the gasification zones are
similar to the updraft reactor. The producer gas is, however, removed from the
bottom part of the reactor. Devolatilization of the biomass occurs in the pyrolysis
zone, which is heated by convection and radiation from the lower hearth zone,
where temperatures reach 1200C. The hearth zone is embedded on top of the

zone, to which char is transferred and gasified (Brown, 2006) The producer gas
obtained from a downdraft reactor contains less tar because the gasses are passed
through the hot oxidation zone. The breakdown of tars depends on the temperature
of the oxidation zone and the residence time therein.
The reactor requires fuel with a uniform size to prevent slagging and blocking. The
type of oxidant used has strong effects on the calorific value of the fuel gas
produced. Typically, the calorific value of the gas is about 1.80 to 3.33 MJ/kg
aerated with air and roughly 6-7.1 MJ/kg when oxygen is used. The system
produces tar with an amount of 0.0001-0.00025 kg/m3 (Bridgwater, 1995).
3.2.3 Crossdraft Gasifier
The crossdraft gasifier is shown in Fig. 5. Air enters at high velocity through
a water cooled nozzle mounted on one side of the firebox, induces substantial
circulation and flows across the bed of fuel and char.