Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00261.x
Expatriate mangers:
A historical review
ijmr_261
275..296
Volume 11
Issue 3
pp. 275296
275
Expatriate mangers
the anticipated growth of MNCs globally. It
appears that organizations must develop a
cadre of expatriate managers who have a global
mindset as strategic focus when competing in
the global marketplace (Begley and Boyd 2003;
Kedia and Mukherji 1999; Paul 2000). These
expatriate managers must develop a pluralistic
management perspective that encourages and
maintains multiple perspectives in order to
solve complex global problems (Aguirre 1997;
Harvey et al. 1999; Reynolds 1997).
This paper examines the history of expatriate managers as central to the growth of MNCs
and an assessment of their future use in global
organizations. Each step in the HRM process
is discussed in the following sections of the
paper. Each of the stages will follow the same
steps to examine the expatriate manager: (1)
successes for each stage of the process; and (2)
problems/failures for each stage of the process.
The HRM Process
Knowledgeable IHRM
managers
Separate IHRM process/
procedures
Mentoring program
Cultural adaptability
Inadequate training
programs
Commitment to assignment
Inadequate compensation
programs
Representative
research
Failure
Representative
research
Repatriation program
Technical competence
Cross-cultural training
Success
Organizational
Individual
Expatriate
performance
Hostility (climate,
healthcare, etc.) Of
environment
Cultural taboos (women,
minorities)
Emerging markets
Restrictions on HR by
government
Similarity of social
institutions
Relocation to similar
economy/culture
Reduced government
restriction
Similarity of languages
Environmental
Consistency of systems
globally
Bonache et al. 2001; Duoto
2002; Minbaeva and
Michailova 2004; Novicevic
and Harvey 2001; Oddou et al.
1995
Centric IHRM orientation
Ad hoc case-by-case
negotiations with
candidates
Inadequate career
development process during
foreign assignment
Ineffective performance
appraisal system
Planning perspective
Systemic
September
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Expatriate mangers
to hiring managers outside the company when
first starting up a new venture (e.g. expanding
into the international marketplace). Therefore,
they will attempt to identify managers in the
foreign market to represent the organization
in the short run. This focus on external candidates creates problems in controlling the overseas operations as well as building the growth
of the overseas organization.
A second problem is associated with the first
problem (inside/outside) and that is attracting a
large enough pool of candidates to satisfy the
staffing needs of the MNC. If only one pool of
candidates is cultivated (e.g. external candidates), HRM frequently have difficulty in identifying a large enough pool of candidates or in
the timing of need for candidates and identification of candidates. If this problem is not
addressed early enough, the entire growth of
the MNC may hinge on this one issue. To
address this problem, some MNCs will contract employees (e.g. agents, brokers or the
like) to represent the company in the transition from domestic to multinational. There are
additional issues with using contract employees to open overseas markets that will have to
be addressed.
A third problem is attracting candidates once
they have been identified as having the characteristics to do the overseas job. Internally, this
manifests itself as a lack of willingness to
relocate overseas for a number of reasons. The
refusal rate for managers to expatriate has been
growing at a steady pace in many countries
(Dowling and Welch 2005; Konopaske et al.
2005; Tharenou and Harvey 2006). Reducing
the level of apprehension relative to relocating
to an expatriate assignment frequently necessitates increasing the benefits/compensation to
the expatriate. In addition, family-related
perks may also have to be increased. Another
problem when trying to attract high-profile
external candidates is that they may have a
reluctance to be identified as working for a
western MNC. This move may affect their
careers significantly if they want to return to a
home-country organization. It is frequently
described as the traitor stigma.
278
Successes in the selection of expatriate managers. The success of expatriate managers has
been researched in many studies, and success
has been attributed to a number of critical traits
in successful expatriates: (1) empathy; (2) respect;
(3) interest in local culture; (4) flexibility; (5)
tolerance; (6) technical skills; (7) initiative; (8)
open-mindedness; (9) sociability; and (10) a
positive self-image (Aycan et al. 2000; Chen
September
and Tzeng 2004; Harvey and Novicevic
2002a,b; Ryan et al. 1999). While researchers
have examined the traits that are found in
successful expatriate managers, the problem
comes when trying to determine which trait is
more important or critical in the selection of
expatriate managers and, in addition, how to
assess these attributes relative to the assignment characteristics and how to examine these
traits in the selection process. Additional
problems that arise when selecting candidates
for expatriate assignments include: (1) lack of
reliability and validity of assessment tools to
measure expatriate characteristics; (2) difficulty of assessing the impact of job, institution
and cultural change on expatriate success (i.e.
the characteristics beyond the personal traits of
the expatriate); (3) lack of a standardized and
integrated process for preparing candidates for
expatriate assignments; (4) unreliable assessment of the impact of the expatriate spouse
and family on the expatriate success; (5)
uncertainty in predicting adjustment demands
(i.e. success in making the change) and predicting effectiveness (i.e. ability to accomplish
the goals of the assignment) of the expatriate
manager; and (6) the impact of the reality
shock on the potential expatriate candidate,
as no assignment can be designed in terms
deemed important for successful expatriation
(House et al. 2004; Mayerhofer et al. 2004;
Novicevic and Harvey 2004; Scullion and
Collings 2006). Therefore, past research on
expatriate success (and failure) has not found
consistent answers to the key questions that
remain unanswered for global assignments:
which are the key individual attributes? For
which foreign environment? To accomplish
what set of tasks? In what time period?
Also, expatriation has been widely viewed in
past research as a headquarters-to-subsidiary
management transfer Many of the factors influencing the success of expatriation (i.e. to mention a few: escalating cost, low productivity,
failures, difficulties in expatriating professional
dual-career couples) have been analyzed within
this paradigm (Harvey 1996; Wederspahn 1992).
At present, expatriates are being transferred
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Expatriate mangers
historically been deemed the primary reason
for expatriate failure, that being expatriate and
family adjustment issues (Dowling et al. 1999).
To date, the majority of expatriate assignments have been to developed countries,
suggesting that adjustment issues will be accentuated in the future, given the increased need to
manage operations in developing countries,
where it is anticipated seven-eighths of the
population will be located by 2025 (Webb and
Wright 1996). From an adjustment perspective,
the greater the economic and cultural distance,
the more likely the family (as well as the expatriate) will have difficulty in acclimating to
the new environment (Aycan et al. 2000;
Haslberger 2005; Haslberger and Brewster 2005;
Jassawalla et al. 2004b; Kraimer et al. 2001).
An evolving issue that will inevitably complicate the overseas adjustment of the family
and expatriate manager is the growing number
of dual-career couples (Black and Gregersen
1991a; Bonache 2005; Harvey 1997b). Even in
a domestic context, the labor force participation
of spouses has greatly reduced the likelihood of
family migration (Harvey 1997b). In international dual-career situations, there is both a
direct and an indirect influence on the couple/
family adjustment. The direct impact can be
illustrated by the potential loss of the trailing
spouses income and potential future earnings
during the duration of the expatriate assignment. Indirectly, the trailing spouse can experience heightened stress and tension, which
may translate into dysfunctional family conflict, which in turn can spill over into the work
environment of the expatriate manager (Harvey
1996, 1997a; Takeuchi et al. 2002, 2005).
In a recent survey of MNC human resource
managers, a vast majority of the respondents
felt that dual-career issues will become a more
acute problem in international assignments in
the near future (Harvey 1997a,b,c). In addition,
when dual-career couples are expatriated, the
support required from the MNC is substantially
increased, and the productivity of the expatriate
is typically lower than expected (Harvey
1997a). Frequently, dual-career couples are
entering a commuting relationship during the
280
September
failure rates due to internal/external conditions
(i.e. inability to adjust to cultural environment,
lack of emotional maturity, lack of technical
competence, lack of motivation, etc.), can
account for a variety of successes and disappointments in an expatriates career path within
an organization. One way to handle the compensation system effectively is to ensure a
minimal impact of failure. This is not easily
accomplished, owing to what appear to be
higher failure rates associated with expatriate
assignments than with their domestic counterparts and the consequent monetary loss to the
organization (i.e. over $250,000 per expatriate).
For example, Coca Colas philosophy for why it
performs well in the global marketplace rests
on the foundational beliefs of their human resources strategies and programs implemented.
Their extensive and targeted search for talent,
which allows them to be transferrable over
various geographic regions, has aided Coca
Cola in gaining a noteworthy global status, but
also in ensuring that they retain employees over
a long period, owing to their multi-faceted
nature and applicability in various geographic
areas. The success of Gillette, similarly to Coca
Cola, is based on their International Graduate
Training Program to groom local talent in
developing nations (Hodgetts and Luthans
1993). The bottom line is that each MNC/global
organization must ensure that compensation
packages are developed to meet their internal
capabilities and simultaneously adhere to their
external demands.
The frame-of-reference for the compensation context may again change when expatriates have completed their overseas
assignments and are called back to the homecountry organization. Accordingly, their compensation package will change to meet the
internal and external demands of the organization. It could be argued that the expectations of
an expatriate upon return from an assignment
may be jaded by the allowances given in the
beginning stages of expatriation. Therefore,
much repatriation adjustment deals with adjustments made more from a psychological than a
monetary perspective.
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Expatriate mangers
revealed when expatriates being repatriated are
debriefed from their foreign assignments. In a
classic survey, 77% of the expatriates surveyed
were dissatisfied with their expatriation salaries and benefits, and their international compensation packages in general (Black 1991).
The complexity of developing a systematic
compensation program for expatriates, nationals and third-country nationals working in a
variety of different socio-economic environments (i.e. differing levels of economic development and varying cultural distances from the
expatriates host country) requires more than
relying on structural, corporate-wide solutions
(Bartlett 1981). The amount of empirical evidence on the interaction between compensation strategy and national culture and level of
economic development of an economy is practically nil (Gomez-Mejia and Welbourne 1991;
Harvey 1993a; Milliman et al. 1991).
It would appear that here are six key issues
surrounding international compensation. Discrepancies between compensation programs for
expatriates, local nationals and third-country
nationals frequently appear as a key compensation issue when implementing a compensation
program globally (Harvey 1993a,b). This difference in compensation between employees in
foreign subsidiaries exacerbates the trust and
commitment of overseas employees. In addition,
expatriates typically go through an extended
adjustment period (Black and Gregersen
1991a,b; Black and Mendenhall 1991) in which
their performance in the job is diminished.
Their co-workers observe this and can become
resentful of the expatriate being paid up to five
times as much to perform the same/similar job
(Harvey et al. 2001; Wederspahn 1992).
A second problem that affects the fairness
of expatriates compensation is the impact of
the stage of the family life cycle on the overall
compensation demands. A vast majority of
expatriates do not feel that stage of the family
life cycle impacts compensation equity, which
needs to be adjusted according to the different
stages of the life cycle. There is frequently
concern that, as executive families move
through various stages of the family life cycle
282
during their foreign assignments, the compensation and fringe benefits necessary to meet the
executives and families needs do not keep up
with these changes in status. The mix of components and their resulting costs create problems on an absolute basis but become even
more problematic in comparisons between
executives of different nationalities in similar
positions within the corporation.
Problems that have become more apparent
as the number of expatriate executives has
increased are those associated with the
repatriation stage of the assignment. While
this set of unique problems has been known
for some time, many companies have not
devised adequate programs to deal with repatriation (Black 1992; Harvey 1989). Expatriates typically complain that compensation/
benefit problems were significant upon
re-entry to the domestic organization and
home-country environment. Many expatriates
feel that repatriation was more severe because
a repatriation program should have been
addressed before the foreign assignment.
When the executives and families returned
from their foreign assignment, very little could
be done to relieve the resulting financial pressures (Harvey 1982; Hyder and Lovblad 2007;
Johnston 2007; Kendall 1981; Lee and Liu
2006a,b; Linehan 2002; Paik et al. 2002).
An additional problem considered to have a
substantial impact on international executive
compensation programs is the problem of
dealing with an existing compensation program
that is no longer suitable for the executive or
assignment (i.e. the compensation legacy, We
did it this way in the past). The compensation
process legacy is a troublesome problem identified by expatriates if they have longer than
average overseas appointments. The longer the
expatriate is assigned overseas, the more likely
the level of discrepancy in compensation with
domestic counterpoints. The effectiveness of
the total compensation evaluation process
(e.g. the level of similarity and/or dissimilarity
of compensation programs domestically and
internationally) was deemed a problem by most
expatiate managers.
September
Human resource managers appear to
struggle the most in discerning expatriate
allowances/hardship pay in less-developed and
developing economies. Concomitant problems
occurred when repatriating these same expatriates from less-developed and developing
economies. This predicament is intuitively
logical in that the economic disparity between
the US and less-developed economies is the
greatest. Therefore, the expatriate managers
are accustomed to a standard of services/
products that is difficult to attain, if at all, in
less-developed economies (Harvey et al. 1999;
Selmer 2000, 2001, 2006a,b; Selmer et al.
2007). The question then becomes how much
should the executive receive to forego the purchase of the service/product or to purchase the
product on the black market? The converse of
this situation occurs when the executive is
repatriating to the domestic environment from
this divergent economic situation. The perks
have become a way of life, or a lifestyle
has been developed to which the family has
become accustomed over an extended period.
When these fringe benefits are recalibrated for
the domestic environment, a reality shock for
the manager, and most particularly for the
family, results. At the same time, the cost of
re-establishing the domestic family lifestyle
(i.e. housing, schools and entertainment) had
all increased during the familys foreign
assignment. The compound problem of losing
foreign assignment perks and the increased
cost of the normal domestic environment has
a dramatic effect on the stability of family life
and the executive (Black 1991, 1992; Napier
and Peterson 1991).
Performance Appraisal of Expatriate
Managers
2009
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Expatriate mangers
with the international environment clearly
and formally established.
(4) Quarterly review sessions, or more frequent ones if performance is continuing to
deteriorate, with the focus of these sessions on the superiors communicating
to the employee how the superior feels
the employee is doing in relation to the
program established for corrective action.
(5) Extension of the review process to longer
time intervals of performance specifications and measurement if performance
improves. If improvement continues over
a sustained period, then focus attention
on other activities that need improvement.
(6) If performance does not improve or
even decreases, establishment of a
highly specified sequence of events in
terms of activities, measurements and
short-term perspectives, with the explicit
conclusion being termination if no
performance improvements are shown.
This step frequently results in voluntary
self-termination. A key element is the
expatriate managers understanding that
the individual has moved into this phase;
therefore, explicit communication to this
effect is crucial.
Problems in performance appraisal of expatriate managers. Why should there be a unique
performance appraisal process for managers
during an overseas assignment? A fundamental
rule of performance appraisal is to maintain
consistency between the mangers being
evaluated (Ilgen et al. 1993). Without significant modification to a domestic performance
appraisal system, an equally important rule of
evaluation, fairness for the ratee cannot be
achieved. A variety of circumstances necessitate a separate and unique internationally
articulated performance evaluation process for
expatriate managers during their overseas
assignments. The justification for developing a
separate international performance appraisal
process is:
(1) There may be significantly more diverse
employees to be managed. Expatriate
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September
variables (inflation, unemployment and
interest rates), the governments involvement in the economic process and legal
constraints can have a direct impact on
individual expatriate managers performance. The level of variation and the
resulting impact of these exogenous variables which differ from those found in the
domestic environment may have a formidable effect on appraising expatriate managers performance during their overseas
assignments.
There may be external environmental
differences from the domestic market
(initially and over time), but it needs to
be determined whether these environments are more or less equal across
regions or whether there are significant
differences. Without a performance
appraisal process that addresses these
issues, the likelihood of a consistent and
fair expatriate manager appraisal system
is unlikely (Javiden and Dastmalchian
1993).
(3) Limited understanding of the differences
in the international marketplace. If raters
are not familiar with or have no international experience in the unique aspects
of expatriate assignments, they may not
provide equitable performance evaluations. When domestic human resource
managers are directly involved in the
performance appraisal of managers in
international assignments, the evaluation
instruments and process must be modified, or new measures developed to
highlight differences in domestic and
international performance processes.
Frequently, the domestic orientation of
human resource managers accentuates
the performance evaluation difficulties for
international managers (Javiden and Dastmalchian 1993). Separation of domestic
and international performance appraisals highlights the differences and can
improve the chance of fair overall evaluation of managers assigned overseas
(Mendenhall and Oddou 1991).
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universality of expatriate performance
appraisals (Smither et al. 1989). A survey
of expatriate managers supports the
problems associated with equitable performance appraisals: of those surveyed, 77%
were dissatisfied with their salaries, benefits and performance appraisals (Black
1991).
(6) Time, cost and distance issues. The
amount of time and the costs associated
with equitable performance appraisals for
expatriate managers are extended beyond
those in a domestic context and therefore
require a modification to the performance
evaluation. Owing to the geographic
separation of rater and ratee in many
cases, the need to make allowances for
performance evaluations must be accommodated to the international environment
(Schuler et al. 1991). The performance
review process must be able to accommodate the various external and internal
environments and provide for consistency
across those environments. Additionally,
the time to adjust to an international
assignment must be reflected in the
frequency of international performance
appraisals.
(7) Need to use appraisal information for
developmental purposes. It has been
widely documented that the failure rate
of expatriate managers from the US is
higher compared with that of managers
from other countries (Dowling and Welch
2005). Expatriate failures have been
attributed to a multitude of reasons,
including lack of training, family issues,
dual careers and compensation programs.
Regardless of the reasons for the high
failure of expatriates, the performance
appraisal must provide data on how to
develop expatriate managers, thereby
reducing the probability of failure. The
use of the appraisal process to improve
managers performance and to develop
additional skills while on overseas
assignments provides future opportunities
for these managers. The appraisal system
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September
Mendenhall 1991b; Black et al. 1991, 1999a,b;
Caligiuri and Phillips 2003). This difficultly is
then carried over when expatriates return to
their home country, given the level of adjustment the expatriate/family had to make to
adapt successfully to the foreign environment
(Carmeli 2005; Daniels and Insch 1998; Harvey
1989). A means to assess the performance of the
expatriates performance overseas effectively
has to be developed and agreed upon by HRM
and the expatriate prior to the overseas assignment. The nature and level of problems the
expatriate manager may experience relative to
performance appraisal and compensation have
to be discussed prior to the assignment, and a
method for reconciling potential problems also
has to be agreed upon. Both of these issues
(dissimilarity of environments and type of
assignment) should be previewed to give the
expatriate manager a realistic job preview
which establishes expectation for the overseas
assignment (Larson 2006; Lee and Liu 2006a,b;
Linehan and Scullion 2002; Johnston 2007;
Paik et al. 2002).
The expatriate manager and, in particular,
the family must be made aware of the types of
problems they may face upon returning to the
domestic market (see below, Problems with
repatriation). This heads-up will provide the
executive/family with an awareness of the
difficulty of transitioning back into the home
country/organization. This ex ante advance
warning will provide a foundation for a
goodwill effort on the part of the MNC to
make the executive and family aware of
problems and will show that the MNC is aware
of the potential problems upon repatriation
(Selmer 2006a; Stroh et al. 2000; Suutari and
Valimaa 2002). This awareness should provide
the foundation for enabling the expatriate
manager and family to undertake training prior
to leaving for the foreign assignment. Some of
the training modules should be on the problems/pressure/stress of repatriating when the
assignment is completed. Repatriation needs
to be elevated in the expatriates awareness so
that, during the assignment, they can start
preparations for returning to their home
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Expatriate mangers
position that would be appropriate (Bonache
2005; Caligiuri and Lazarova 2001; Harvey
and Novicevic 2006).
Phase III: Repatriation phase. The actual
return of the expatriate/family should be well
articulated, given the preparation during the
first two phases of the expatriate program.
Time is frequently the basic issue for returning
expatriate managers. They frequently need
additional time consideration to make the
transition to the home organization and culture
as seamless as possible. Time will be needed
for the physical transition as well as the psychological return to the complexities of the
home country and organization. The more
forced expatriates are, the greater the level of
stress they will experience. This stress will be
carried over to the managers personal life and
will compound the stress on the professional
side of the repatriation process (Takeuchi et al.
2002; Wang and Sangalang 2005). This stress
will necessitate additional resources (time)
being allocated to assist the family/spouse of
the repatriated manager (Wang and Sangalang
2005).
The career path of the repatriated manager
should be a central focus of the repatriation
process. All too often, expatriate managers are
put into a holding pattern upon return because
the preparation for the return into the organization has not been done or timing is an issue
relative to the new position (Harvey 1989).
But, if an appropriate amount of time and
preparation is given to the repatriate, the negative effects of the delay can be diminished
(Harvey 1982).
Problems in repatriation of expatriate managers. A number of problems have been observed
when repatriating expatriate managers to their
home country after the completion of their
overseas assignment. One issue has been the
number of expatriates who do not successfully
complete their terms on the foreign assignment.
There has been a debate in the academic
literature over the last decade (see Harzing
2001; Harzing and Christensen 2004) as to the
size of the failure rate. Almost regardless of
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September
spouses with their careers. Trailing spouses
will often need to restart their career cycle
upon returning to their home country.
Again, if the overseas sojourn has been for
more than five years, reinvigorating the
trailing spouses career can provide a significant challenge to the family as well as
to the MNC. Both psychological pressures
as well as potential financial exigencies
make the job/career search a critical issue
for trailing spouses upon repatriation.
(3) Individual expatriate manager issues. The
pressures on expatriates can come from
outside the job (as discussed above), but
there can be a number of issues on the job
that create problems for them. The most
common job-related issue is the re-entry
position of the expatriate. It is not atypical
for returning expatriates be put into a
holding pattern relative to the new position upon return to the domestic organization. Out of sight out of mind is a
common problem, so that expatriate managers find themselves without an appropriate position on return. Finding a
position that is a reasonable career step for
expatriates may take up to six months,
leaving them questioning the wisdom of
the expatriate assignment.
At the same time, cohorts of expatriates appear to be ahead of them, because
they have been around when positions
came open in the organization. This
inconsistency in the career paths of expatriate managers and their domestic counterparts can create problems that are hard
to overcome (i.e. psychologically as well
as professionally) and create undue stress
in the repatriated expatriate manager. One
of the most dangerous issues is that other
managers observe the lack of a smooth
repatriation, which may cause them to
re-think their own expatriation assignments. With the present difficulty in
getting managers to relocate overseas
(see Larson 2006; Lee and Liu 2006a,b;
Stroh 1995, 1999), having repatriates
wandering around looking for a position
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Expatriate mangers
personal level for expatriate/repatriate
managers. The issue for the organization
is: how much time and money need to be
spent on returning expatriate managers to
their home country? There is a sentiment/
argument among some HRM professionals
that does not see the need to develop wellarticulated/funded repatriation processes.
This argument hinges on the precept that
expatriate managers are coming home,
and therefore they should not need as much
attention as expatriates leaving their home
country. When budgets are tight, one of the
first concerns is spending capital on repatriating managers (Caligiuri and Lazarova
2001; Duoto 2002; Harvey 1989; Paik
et al. 2002). But the counter-argument is
that, without a fully articulated repatriation
program, it will be difficult to integrate
repatriated managers into the organization.
But perhaps more importantly, managers
will learn that there are major issues upon
returning to the domestic organization
after an overseas assignment and will not
apply for overseas positions that open up
in the future.
At the individual manager level, the
lack of a well-articulated career path may
reduce the propensity of managers to participate in overseas programs. The number
of managers delaying/refusing to relocate
overseas would appear to be a major
concern for MNCs (Harvey and Novicevic
2001; Konopaske and Werner 2005;
Konopaske et al. 2005). Not going may be
based upon the lack of a well-articulated
repatriation program, considering that the
problems are visible to a larger number of
managers, given the size of the homecountry organization. While on assignment, there is less chance of problems
being widely known.
The Future of the Expatriate Manager
in Global Organizations
September
or global standpoint is a critical factor (Bartlett
and Ghoshal 1990) for organizational survival
in the broadest sense. As alluded to above, the
distinction between the two types of managers
lies in their behavior, competencies and characteristics. Pucik and Saba (1998) defined an
expatriate (i.e. international) manager as an
executive in a leadership position that involves international assignments and a global
manager as an executive who has a hands-on
understanding of international business, has an
ability to work cross-cultural, organizational,
and functional boundaries, and is able to
balance the simultaneous demands of shortterm profitability and growth (1998, 41). How
much this definition and the actual responsibilities of the expatriate manager change in the
future will be due in part to the evolving impact
of the globalization of business.
Note
1
Address for correspondence: Michael Harvey, Distinguished Chair of Global Business, University of
Mississippi & Professor of Management, Bond
University, Australia. Tel: +61 662 9155830;
Fax: +61 662 9155821; e-mail: mharvey@
bus.olemiss.edu
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