Air Compressors

Graph of Pressure against volume in a reciprocating

compressor
Volumetric efficiency Vh = Actual suction volume Vx/
Theoretical suction
volume Vs
For greater efficiency air compression should be isothermal as this
requires the minimum work input. In practice Isothermal compression is not
possible, an ideal Isothermal cycle requires sufficient time to allow all the
required heat to be transferred out of the cylinder, practicality dictates that the
piston must have a relatively high speed to give a reasonable output,
Cylinder cooling on a single stage compressor gives better efficiency
but there is a limitation in the surface area to cylinder volume that can be used
for cooling effect, but multistage compressors with an efficient extended surface
interstage cooler gives cycle improved compression efficiency better approaching
that of the isothermal. In theory the greater the number of stages the closer the
curve will approach the ideal isothermal compression curve, however there is an
increase in cost, complexity, and the law of diminishing returns limit the number.
Compression in stages has the following advantages;
1. The compression ratio at each stage is lower and so the final temperature is
lower. This reduces problems with lubrication
2. . The machine is smaller and better balanced
3. water can be drained off at each stage
4. Compression better approaches the ideal isothermal

It is important that the compressor clearance volume is kept small as

possible in order to improve overall volumetric efficiency as the air trapped in this
space must expand to below suction pressure before new air can enter, this is an
effective loss of stroke.
A clearance is required in order to prevent the piston striking the
cylinder cover when starting or stopping off load. The clearance volume is
sometimes referred to as the 'Bump Clearance'.

Crankcase lubrication
Lubrication of the crankcase in a compressor does not pose any specific problems
and normally consist of splash lubrication with pressurised oil being fed to shell
bearings. Where drip cylinder lubrication is used, this should be kept to a
minimum conducive with liner wear. A standard mineral oil similar to that used in
the main engine may be used, although due to carbon deposits, higher quality
oils are generally used with the most effective being specifically designed
synthetics which have allow a considerable reduction in maintenance but are
costly.
Mineral oils contain a blend of lighter elements such as paraffin's, and
heavier elements such as asphaltenes. During compression the lighter elements
are vaporised leaving the heavy ends, these coat the piston rings and discharge
valves in combination with oxidised oil deposits. These deposits also coat passage
ways and coolers resulting in higher interstage air temperatures. Deposits on
discharge valves cause them to become sticky and leak resulting in hot air being
drawn back into the cylinder for recompression. This increases the temperature
and hence causes greater oxidation and deposits, and so the condition
deteriorates with increasing rapidity.
Temperature can become very high, this may result in oily deposits at
the discharge valves carbonising. Eventually this carbon could glow red and cause
detonation. It is more likely, however, that oily deposits will be carried over to the
air receiver and air start manifold to be ignited by blowpast at the cylinder air
start valve.
Deposits at piston rings cause leakage allowing oil to enter the
cylinder from the crankcase thus increasing the danger it is essential that
crankcase lubrication be kept to a minimum compatible with an acceptable wear
rate. Regular maintenance will minimise oily deposits build up and hence the risk
of explosion

Materials and design of a reciprocating compressor

The compressor casing, cylinder covers and piston rings are generally of cast iron.
Pistons may be of cast iron, steel of aluminium. Aluminium being the preferred
material for use on the LP piston due to its larger diameter. Valves are usually
made so that parts can be interchanged between the suction and discharge
valves. Seats are of mild steel with small diameter air passages to prevent the
fragments of broken valve plate from entering the cylinder. Valve plates are of
vanadium steel heat treated and ground to provided the required hardness and
surface finish. Springs should be arranged such that they lift and seat squarely.
Uneven spring force or deposits on the seat cause valves to bend resulting in
fatigue cracking.

For compressors designed for starting air requirements a water jacket

relief valve is fitted.

Rotary Compressor

The rotary compressor may be of the impeller type similar to that

used in the turbocharger , scroll, twin rotating lobes or of the sliding vane type
similar to the one shown above. In practice there would be several more vanes
than shown.
Rotary compressors are capable of handling large quantities of low
pressure air much more efficiently than a reciprocating compressor. In order to
produce increased pressures it is possible to stage rotary compressors but
leakage problems increase at higher pressures as well as stress on the vanes.
The sliding vane compressor consists of a slotted rotor with its axis
offset from that of the cylindrical casing. Vanes fit in the slots and have contact
with the casing
On the suction side the space contained between the casing, the rotor
and an adjacent pair of vanes is gradually increasing allowing air to be drawn in.
On the compression side this same space is gradually reduced
causing the pressure increase. When the leading vane uncovers the discharge
port air will flow to outlet. Larger compressors of this type are water-cooled,
smaller compressors tend to be air cooled.
The main problems related with sliding vane compressors concern
wear at the vane tips and sealing of the ends

Rotary/reciprocating Compressor
Rotary compressors in general do not require internal lubrication but they are not
suitable alone for providing air at a pressure for starting duties. They can,
however, be linked to reciprocating stages to produce a hybrid compressor.
The compressor is lighter, more compact and better balanced than an
equivalent all reciprocating unit. In basic terms the rotary first stage supplies air

to the reciprocating second and subsequent stages. All stages being driven by the
same shaft

Safety Valve

Materials
Cast iron-Casing, Liners, Pistons( the LP piston is sometimes made from an
aluminium alloy, Cylinder covers Steel- Crankshaft, Conrods, Pistons, Valve seats
Vanadium Steel- Valve plates

Starting air compressor circuit

Starting and stopping sequence is adjustable, the magnetic valves are open when
the compressor is stopped so any residual pressure is blown off. On starting the
magnetic valve are sometimes delayed to close so as to allow the compressor
motor to reach full speed before the compressor is loaded up.
The non-return valves prevent HP air leaking back from the receiver
on which the filling is also of the non return type.

Calculation of required cylinder compression for a

multistage reciprocating compressor
r
R
for
r = R1/2

r = R1/3

=
=

stage
compression

pressure
pressure

for

two

three

ratio
ratio
stage

stage

for example, a 3 stage compressor requiring a final pressure of 64bar

would have the following interstage pressures 1st stage 1bar compressed to 4bar
2nd
stage
4bar
compressed
to
16bar
3rd stage 16bar compressed to 64bar
It would appear that most of the work is being carried out in the final
stage, this is untrue as with the increase in pressure is a complimentary reduction
in volume, if the temperature conditions remain the same then work will be
equally divided between the stages.
By reducing the suction pressure, the cylinder is required to do more
work on the air before the discharge valve opens. This means that the air will be
delivered at a higher pressure. The higher temperature can lead to problems with
the cylinder lubrication as well as a drop in efficiency as well as carbonising of the
oil and increased deposits on the valves and piston rings and interstage passages.
In the extreme it can lead to seizure and possible diesel detonation of the oil
laden air.
The reduction in pressure at the suction can be due to a partially
blocked suction filter or partially choked suction valve. The lower pressure
conditions in the cylinder at the start of compression can cause oil laden air to be
drawn from the crankcase up the liner. This oil can lead to increased deposits in
the compressor as well as further downstream in the distribution system
(P1.V1)/ T1 = (P2. V2)/T2
and
(P1/P2).(T2/T1) = (V2/V1)

P1.V1g = P2.V2g
and
P1/P2
=

V2g/V1g
T1.
=
take

From
these
we
get;
(g
-1)/g
T2
(P2/P1)
g
1.4
and
if
we
for
and
example
P1
=
0.4
bar
P2
=
1
bar
Pf
=
5
bar
Tinitial = 300 K we end with final temperatures for the two compression's of
T1=
617
K
and
T2
=
475
K
from the graph it can be clearly seen that losses due to the bump clearance has
increased and the period of constant pressure delivery has been reduced.

Coolers

Plain Tube -easy to clean

-very effective due to large surface area of large number small
diameter tubes
-plugging of failed tube allos cooler to continue in service with little
loss in efficiency
-must allow for thermal expansion by having one tube plate floating
'U' tube -suitable for higher pressures than plain tube
-self compensating for thermal expansion
-efficent due to large nomber small diameter tubes
-failed tubes may be plugged
-more expensive than plain tube and diificult to clean
Coil tube
-self compensating for expansion
-suitable for high pressures
-difficult to clean
-inefficicent due to large tube diameter
- not easy to plug
-expensive

Air Start Systems

Regulations

1. There must be at least two starting air receivers, the total capacity of which will
give 12 starts for a reversing engine or 6 starts fo a non-reversing engine with
CPP.
2. There must be at least two compressors
3. In addition to these there must be a compressor which can be started by hand i.e.
with a dead ship. Note: this is not necessary if one of the compressors is run off
the emergency switchboard
4.
i. A relief valve must be fitted to the HP discharge and be sufficient size to
ensure that the pressure rise does not exceed 10% of the w.p. when the
compressor is running and the outlet valves on the bottle are shut.
ii. A relief valve or bursting disc on the hp cooler casing in order to protect the
casing from overpressure in the event of cooler tube failure Note: Bursting
discs are generally preferred because they fail and stay failed giving
complete protection. A relief valve will reseat when the compressor is
stopped allowing water to enter the air side.
iii. A drain must be fitted at each stage

Diesel start air system

The components of the air start system are taken to include compressors and
storage bottles in addition to the engine air start arrangement. The minimum of
tow compressors should be matched to the starting air requirements of the
engine. The compressor after coolers should be protected by a bursting disc. All
high pressure lines in the system to be of solid drawn pipe.

Air Receivers
There must be a means of access to allow cleaning and inspection of internals.
The internal surface should be protected by a coating which is flexible enough to
move when the metal distorts. Copal varnish is generally used because it has
these properties and willnot easily oxidise. Usually precautions are taken the
same as for an enclosed space when entering. Ventilation is required to the
solvent fumes in the varnish
Drains must be fitted in the lowest part of the receiver
Receivers must be protected by means of a relief valve, if the relief
valve can be isolated from the reciever than a fusible plug or plugs must be fited.
These are usually fitted because in the event of a fire near to the bottle they will
fail and release the entire contents of the bottle rapidly. A relief valve however
will only release air down to its closing pressure which is set point less blowdown.
If the structure of the bottle becomes weakened by the heat then its ability to
withstand even the reduced pressure is weakened an possible rupture could
occur.
The inlet and outlet valves are to be arranged to prevent direct flow
through the bottle with insufficient residence time for moisture to rpecipitate.
Valves to be of the slow opening type to prevent excessive pressure rises. All

attachments

should

be

via

support

plate

Safety devices
The automatic valve (Main air start block valve) prevents connection between the
air receiver and air start manifold unless actually in the process of starting.
This minimises the risk of an explosion in the air manifold actually
propagating back to the air receiver where a much more severe explosion is
possible. Safety devices are encorporated in the air start manifold in order to
dissapate the energy of an explosion thus keeping its effects local.
Such devices include flame traps, relief valves and bursting discs

Loss of air can

be kept to a minimum by rotating moveable outer hood to blank off relief ports.
The failed cap should be replaced as soon as possible.

Starting air explosions

Causes-continuous leaking of start valve followed by it sticking open on start.
An oil film may build up on the start air pipe due to oil dscharge from
the compressor. This oil may come from general lubrication or sticky scraper ring
or from the engine room air,
With a continuous leaking valve hot gasses with unburnt fuel will
enter the pipe and turn the oil film into a hot incandescent carbon. When high
pressure air is put on the pipe line an explosion can occur with resultant high
speed high pressure shock wave.

Alternately, air discharged into cylinder during starting may have an

oil mist which can ignite in a hot cylinder. The hot gasses can return through the
start valve. To prevent this the non return valve should be properly maintained,
oil discharge from the compresors should be kept to a minmum and pipelines
inspected nad cleaned when necessary.
To minimise effects a flame gauze should be fitted to the start valve
and ample relief valves, bursting discs or caps fitted. An isolated valve on the
discharge side of the manouervring control valve.

Starting air valve.

Starting Air Regulations

First start requirements
Equipment for starting the main and auxiliary engines is to be provided so that
the necessary initial charge of starting air or initial electric power can be
developed on board ship without external aid. If for this purpose an emergency
air compressor or electric generator is required, these units are to be power
driven by hand starting oil engine or steam engine, except in the case of small
installations where a hand operated compressor of approved capacity may be
accepted. Alternatively, other devices of approved type may be accepted as a
means of providing the initial start

Air Compressor requirements

Air Compressor number and capacities

Two or more air compressors are to be fitted having a total capacity, together
with a topping-up compressor where fitted, capable of charging the air receivers
within 1 hour from atmospheric pressure, to the pressure sufficient for the
number of starts require At least one of the air compressors is to be independent
of the main propulsion unit and the capacity of the main air compressors is to be
approximately equally divided between them. The capacity of an emergency
compressor which may be installed to satisfy the requirements of first start is to
be ignored.

Maximum discharge air temperature

The compressors are to be so designed that the temperature of the air discharged
to the starting air receivers will not substantially exceed 93'C in service. A small
fusible plug or an alarm device operating at 121C is to be provided on each
compressor to give warning of excessive air temperature. The emergency air
compressor is excepted from these requirements.

Safety Valves
Each compressor is to be fitted with a safety valve so proportioned and adjusted
that the accumulation with the outlet valve closed will not exceed 10 per cent of
the maximum working pressure. The casings of the cooling water spaces are to
be fitted with a safety valve or bursting disc so that ample relief will be provided
in the event of the bursting of an air cooler tube. It is recommended that
compressors be cooled by fresh water.

Air Receiver requirements

Air Receiver capacity
Where the main engine is arranged for air starting the total air receiver capacity
is to be sufficient to provide without replenishment, not less than 12 consecutive
starts of the main engine, alternating between ahead and astern if of the
reversible type and not less than six consecutive starts if of the non-reversible
type. At least two air receivers of approximately equal capacity are to be
provided. For scantlings and fittings of air receivers
For multi-engine installations, the number of starts required for each
engine will be specially considered.