Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1/2, 2012
Stefan T. Mol*
Amsterdam Business School,
University of Amsterdam,
Plantage Muidergracht 12, 1018 TV, Amsterdam,
E-mail: s.t.mol@uva.nl
*Corresponding author
Abstract: This paper describes the initial development of an HRM system that
aims to decrease the gap between higher vocational education and the labour
market for a specific job in the ICT sector. This paper focuses specifically on
the delineation of a process model and the selection of a suitable job role
(information system analyst) that is valid across organisational and cultural
boundaries. The process model implies various applied uses of this
ontology-based system, including mapping qualifications in vocational
education to current and valid job roles, testing and evaluating the student
applicant on the basis of labour market driven competencies, and providing
ad-hoc support to educational institutions by elucidating the weaknesses of
particular VET curricula.
Keywords: HRM; e-learning; knowledge management; adaptive testing;
competency; process model; job role selection; personnel selection; ontology;
job knowledge.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Kismihk, G., Vas, R. and
Mol, S.T. (2012) An innovative ontology-driven system supporting personnel
selection: the OntoHR case, Int. J. Knowledge and Learning, Vol. 8, Nos. 1/2,
pp.4161.
Biographical notes: Gbor Kismihk obtained his Masters degree in
International Business from Corvinus University of Budapest (CUB) in 2004.
Currently, he is a PhD student at CUB. He is involved with various EU
research projects in e-learning and m-learning, and engaged in mLMS
development, content development, and ontology engineering. Recently, he has
become interested in the relationship between advanced learning environments
and human resource management.
Rka Vas has graduated from the University of Szeged, Hungary as a Master of
Economics. She received her PhD in 2008 from the Corvinus University of
Budapest. Her research fields include knowledge representation, ontology
engineering and knowledge management. She is actively participating in EU
funded research projects relating to ontology and legal knowledge-based
system development, the use of semantic technologies and e-learning.
Copyright 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
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G. Kismihk et al.
Stefan T. Mol has been an Assistant Professor at the HRM-OB group of the
Amsterdam Business School of the University of Amsterdam (UvA) since
2006. He received his Masters degree in Psychology from same university in
2000, and his PhD on the topic of Expatriate Selection at the Institute of
Psychology of the Erasmus University Rotterdam in 2007. His current research
interests are personnel selection, career success, and psychological contracts.
Introduction
personnel selection
personal development
43
Theoretical foundations
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G. Kismihk et al.
discussed the dilemma in detail as it pertained to the development and validation of their
53 competency hyper dimensional taxonomy of managerial competence. In summarising
their discussion on the topic, Tett et al. (2000) contend that increased specificity will
result in a more refined person-situation fit, a more complete understanding of causes,
effects and measurement, and greater construct specificity than what the generalist
performance models have to offer. Tett et al. (2000) specifically argue that:
a
predictive accuracy may be improved with the use of more specific and articulate
performance measures
complexity with respect to content must be matched between the criterion and
predictor spaces
specific measures, even if they are relatively short, are not by definition less reliable;
and finally
It is readily apparent that the aforementioned advantages of specificity also apply to the
current research. Specifically, since it is our overriding objective to match vocational
educational qualifications to job related competencies, it is our contention that whether or
not someone has acquired a VET diploma as a main ingredient of the hiring decision
constitutes too broad an approach to yield the degree of insight that is necessary to fulfil
our aforementioned aims, namely,
1
45
someone who is only experienced in driving a car with automatic transmission can drive,
we would quickly become aware of our misjudgement the moment he or she got into a
car with manual transmission; whereas if we say that someone is able to steer, or to shift
gears or to operate the gas pedal, such generalisations are much less likely to occur. To
summarise, jobs may change in content, but specifically defined competencies are more
likely than general competencies to generalise from one job to another, and indeed to
remain valid prerequisites for performance over time. This brings us to the question of
what mastery of a particular competency entails. For now we will suffice to say that a
competency is a latent quality of an individual to successfully express a particular and
specific skill, and that competencies can be acquired. As such competence may be
equated with skilfulness.
2.2.2 Personality
According to Saucier, personality is typically defined broadly but operationalised
narrowly. That is, researchers will proffer a definition such as all of the relatively stable
attributes, qualities, or characteristics that distinguish the behaviour, thoughts, and
feelings of individuals [Saucier, (2008), p.30], before using exclusion rules or yet more
ambiguous subject matter expert evaluations to eliminate everything that is not
considered to be personality. Since personality seems to have become equated with
everything that might conceivably distinguish one person from another (i.e., even gender
could be considered to be a personality variable under the above definition), it is difficult
to differentiate competency from personality. Our take on this is that competencies are
more likely than personality variables to
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G. Kismihk et al.
be more specific
be more salient (i.e., more familiar and acceptable as a decision making instrument)
than personality within the educational and organisational context.
47
guarantee of it actually occurring in the future? Furthermore, how likely are job
applicants to accept a rejection for the job they applied for on the basis of a behaviour
that they have not even exhibited? Knowledge, on the other hand is
1
readily assessable without the need to sample on the job performance or behaviour
It has been suggested that job knowledge cannot be used to evaluate and hire an
inexperienced worker, because he or she cannot be expected to have mastered the job
knowledge required to perform a particular job unless he or she has previously
performed that job or has received schooling, education, or training for that job
[Schmidt and Hunter, (1998), p.267]. Yet, in the current knowledge intensive economic
climate, we cannot think of a situation where an employer would want to hire an
employee with a blank slate over an employee with at least the vaguest knowledge of
the job. Furthermore, and in light of other predictors commonly used in personnel
selection, it is hard to think of a selection context predictor that has higher face validity
[i.e., the perceived job-relatedness of a selection context predictor (Smither et al., 1993)]
than job knowledge. On the basis of the above it is proposed that competencies should be
defined as follows for the purposes of this research.
A competency is an unlikely to be forgotten (i.e., temporally stable once acquired),
narrowly defined, and trainable latent ability to complete an organisationally valued
prospective job task successfully. Competencies are contingent upon both specific
cognitive ability facets and identifiable, specific, and distinct educational knowledge
domains. In sum, we propose that educational programs teach knowledge that interacts
with students cognitive ability to produce the specific competencies that they are
expected to demonstrate on the work floor.
Methodology
This research used a variety of approaches to the subject areas subsumed under the three
research domains (e-learning, knowledge management and HRM). In particular, desktop
research played an important role as a research instrument. This has been used for
identifying relevant academic and practical background research results, setting up
theoretical and practical frameworks (domain ontology model, OntoHR process model).
Data generated by questionnaires and experiments will both be brought to bear on the
later discussed job-role investigation. A particularly exciting innovation concerns the
conduct of field experiments in collaboration with industry stakeholders. In this respect
we conducted structured interviews within organisations employing personnel in our
particular target job [information system analyst (ISA)].
Current practises
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G. Kismihk et al.
ontology supported information systems for this purpose. One way of using ontologies in
recruitment and skill development is to integrate ontology-based competency
management solutions with eLearning systems with the specific aim of exploring
knowledge and/or skill gaps of employees or candidates.
Draganidis and Mentzas (2006) have worked out an ontology-based competency
management system, which integrates eLearning functionality to map employee and/or
organisational skills gaps and to address these with appropriate learning objects. Their
proposed ontology-based system provides a report in which the skills gaps of a particular
employee are identified. Upon having completed the assessment, an employee report is
produced based on a comparison of the competencies possessed by the employee with the
prerequisite organisational requirements. In case of a discrepancy, the competency
management system provides the employee with a personalised learning path, so that he
or she may improve his/her proficiency level. Another example is the research of Ng
et al. (2006). They developed an ontology-based competency formalisation approach as a
way of representing competency-related information together with other metadata in
ontology, in order to enhance machine automation in resources retrieval. In their
approach, learning objects are annotated with instances of competency specified in a
competency class. The competency class is represented in three major classes:
competency definition, proficiency level, and knowledge reference.
In other cases the ontology-based and competency driven solutions aim at supporting
comprehensive HRM functions. A remarkable example is the Professional Learning
project of the FZI in Karlsruhe, Germany, which aimed to elaborate an ontology-based
reference model for HRM (Schmidt and Kunzmann, 2007). In proposing this model,
these authors set out to connect the operational and strategic level of HR development,
and also to ensure the continuous updating of an organisations competency catalogue.
The aggregation of individual competencies into organisational competencies became
possible, and, with the help of ontology, their model was sharable and reusable across
various IT (service oriented architecture) platforms, offering the possibility of integrating
competency models into business processes. This model further allowed for the provision
of learning opportunities based on a competency gaps analysis in which the competency
profile of an employee was mapped against prerequisite competencies. The SAKE project
entailed the development of an ontology-based job-competency matching algorithm (K,
2010). The idea here was to match individual competencies with the needs of the labour
market. For this purpose ontological description of educational outputs and job profiles
were provided. The educational output contains the details of degree programs. In other
words, it contains all of those individual competencies that students may have at the end
of their studies. Job profiles descriptions include the educational demand of the labour
market. Additional demand was identified on the basis of job offers, which were
collected from several sources, such as recruitment databases and subsequently
conceptualised in the ontology. In this solution, the job profiles (offer and demand) are
compared with educational output in terms of competencies. In contrast with the SAKE
approach, in OntoHR job profiles are described with tasks and competencies required in
the given job role, and this description is more complete and exhaustive then the
educational demand/job offer-based description. Another difference is that in the SAKE
approach competencies are not measured. Instead, the competencies of the offer and
demand side are simply compared with one another. Mochol and her colleagues (2004)
also investigated a recruitment process that used ontologies to classify available human
resources. They created HR ontology with several sub ontologies based on the HR-XML
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G. Kismihk et al.
The domain of the OntoHR selection process is the modified educational ontology (Vas,
2007; Vas et al., 2009; Kismihk et al., 2009; Kismihk et al., 2011a). According to the
conceptual model of this ontology, the MENTAL ABILITY and KNOWLEDGE AREA
classes are connected to the COMPETENCE class with the ensures and requires
relationships. That implies that in the OntoHR system competencies are measured only
indirectly, through mental ability and knowledge (see Figure 1)1.
Figure 1
Simplified model of the extended educational ontology (see online version for colours)
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G. Kismihk et al.
This idea is also reflected in the OntoHR process model, which plots the
a
Three different types of stakeholders are engaged: the recruiting organisation, the
applicant and the educational institution. The recruiting organisation uses the modified
educational ontology for describing competencies required for a job. Applicants are those
people, who are actively applying for this particular job at the recruiting organisation.
Based on their educational background, the relevant educational institution(s) are clearly
identified.
The required sets of competencies are broken down into knowledge elements and
mental ability facets. Currently, 78 IT related competencies are deployed in the system,
which is broad enough and sufficient for modelling the competency requirement of an
ISA job role by any organisation. This competency set has been sampled and
constructed based on international job-description databases2. The selection of
competencies was conducted by domain experts.
The competency set was validated on the basis of interviews with real companies
employing ISA (see next section). The knowledge elements of these competencies are
represented by 200+ knowledge areas and basic concepts, which are measured with an
adaptive knowledge test (Vas et al., 2009; Kismihk et al., 2009). A knowledge area is
accepted if the answer is correct for the question that belongs to that particular knowledge
area within the ontology, and also for the questions of its sub knowledge areas. In case a
test taker answered a particular question correctly, the system will start investigating the
sub knowledge areas of that particular node, in order to examine if the test taker has
mastered the underlying knowledge elements or not.
Furthermore, six abilities are measured in a separate mental ability test: verbal ability,
arithmetic reasoning, computation, spatial ability, form perception and clerical
perception. The measurement of cognitive ability at a more specific level than the general
is somewhat at odds with the finding that all specific abilities load on a single general
factor and that this general factor is the best predictor of job performance (Ones et al.,
2005). However, similar to the arguments that were advanced in favour of measuring
specific competencies, it is our contention that the measurement of specific abilities will
facilitate an increased theoretical understanding in terms of construct related validity
evidence (cf., Binning and Barrett, 1989) of how specific knowledge and specific abilities
interact to produce performance on a specific competency. Therefore, competencies are
assessed based on these two assessments that all applicants have to go through. For this
measurement a well-established, widely used tool was adopted: the O*Net Ability
Profiler3.
The number of competencies to be tested is based on the actual needs of the recruiting
organisation. It is possible but not necessary to make a selection from the available 78
competencies and to perform a test based on this selection only. This option tailors down
the general ISA job-role into an organisation-or culture-specific ISA job-role. For
instance, it is not unthinkable that the ISA job-role in the Netherlands requires a different
subset of competencies than the ISA job-role in Italy. By getting a local stakeholder to
select those competencies that in their expert opinion best represents the ISA job-role in
53
their location, the general ONTO-HR framework can be tailored down not only to
specific organisations, but also to specific cultures.
The perspective of an educational institution differs from the recruiting organisation.
Here, the educational ontology describes the output competencies of the ISA (IT)
relevant vocational educational programmes. These output competencies are compared to
the input competencies of the particular (here: ISA) job role. This comparison is done by
a matching algorithm, which enables us to compare similar objects in different ontologies
based on keywords (Kismihk et al., 2011b; Szab and Vas, 2006). This matching results
in a report providing a detailed list of existing and missing job-role competencies on the
vocational education side.
The abovementioned report is an influential feedback for the educational institution
about current competencies needed in the actual labour market. However at a later stage
of the OntoHR process this feedback can be further customised. As applicants enter the
assessment stage, they fill out the knowledge and mental ability tests. They are evaluated
based on these tests, and their existing ISA related competencies will become transparent.
At this stage the recruiting organisation will have a clear view of the applicants general
suitability to its ISA job. Also the recruiting organisation will have a personalised
training needs analysis of the applicants, clearly pointing out the missing knowledge
areas and potential deficiencies in mental ability. Based on the missing knowledge areas
learning content is provided, which is automatically customised to the actual personal
training needs.
This evaluation contains also useful information for the educational institution.
Considering the competencies of their graduates, the OntoHR assessment shows the
strengths and weaknesses vis--vis the graduates of other educational institutions. Their
actual competencies therefore do not merely serve as a basis for a selection decision on
the side of the recruiting organisation, but also allow for a critical evaluation of their
previously completed educational programme.
Discussion
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G. Kismihk et al.
Drivers
OntoHR focus
Pilot
Selection criteria
VET institutions
Diversity of
entry levels
Bridging institutions
between education and
industry
Diversity of
companies as
learning places
Critical dimensions
Levels
Low level
High level
Experience
Specific
competences.
HR systems integration
degree
Selection/recruitment
Companies
integration within
people development and
HR policies
Job role descriptions may come in many forms and formats, with different internal
structures and even with different conceptualisations. The application of certifications
and standards for job role description play a key role in handling such diversity. Applying
the elements EQF in job role description can ensure that the definition will be widely
accepted and reusable both by VET institutions and the industry. A further problem could
be that the entry level of job role may have different meanings for VET institutions,
companies or for the job market in general. This issue must be clarified, in which a
bridging institution (such as Adecco) can provide the required help. Finally, it also has to
be taken into consideration that every company may have a different practise of selection
and recruitment. Concerning the aims of OntoHR such companies should be selected for
piloting where the HR department actively participates in selection procedures in each of
the departments of the company. This can ensure that people development and HR
policies offered by OntoHR solution can be successfully integrated into the everyday
operation of the company.
55
Is the performance domain the same between the Netherlands and Italy?
Defensibility: Is it possible to define and defend the importance of this job in the
greater European context?
Entry level: Is this an entry level job in the Netherlands and Italy (i.e., is previous
work experience required for this job in the Netherlands or in Italy)?
Dropouts: What percentage of students drops out from the vocational education
program in the Netherlands and Italy?
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Tenure: How long does an employee typically stay in this job before moving on?
Sample size: Are there sizeable numbers of applicants applying for this job in the
Netherlands who would agree to participate in our pilot (n > 50) and Italy (n > 50)?
Selection ratio:
a What percentage of applicants gets hired?
b Is there sufficient variability in qualifications?
Structured selection:
a To what extent do applicants undergo a structured selection process and are data
from this process available?
b Is this data dichotomous (hired vs. not hired) or are more specific scores
available?
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CORE ICT The essential component of the Competence for this profile is
technical.
The negative aspects of this profile are related to the fact that the starting point (the level
of entry into the labour market) is not a degree. It is an essential certification path, but
also requires experience.
validating that competencies concerning the ISA job role (also activities linked to
each competency) are suitable and useable for practise
requesting comments about the general quality and the reliability of the competency
model
Interviewees agreed (11 out of 12 interviews) that the ISA competency model is a
comprehensive and complete model that covers all competencies and activities that are
necessary for the ISA job profile. They also pointed out, that organisations will hardly
ever use the complete profile in their daily practise, and will rely instead only a selection
of the competencies provided. This feature was treated positively, as all interviewed
59
organisations successfully identified their own ISA job-profile within the general
OntoHR ISA profile, providing flexibility in job configuration. This configuration
includes selecting their ISA job competencies, matching that with relevant knowledge
elements and forming a basis for mass-customised training programme for their ISA
employees.
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
The activities and results discussed in this paper have been carried out and collected as
part of the OntoHR project (http://www.ontohr.eu). This project is co-funded by the
European Commissions Lifelong Learning Programme.
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Notes
1
Please note that this figure is a simplified version of our complete ontology model. For a
detailed model please consult: Kismihk et al. (2011b) Six scenarios of exploiting an
ontology-based, mobilised learning environment, International Journal of Mobile and
Blended Learning, accepted, to be published in 2011.
Thirteen major international databases have been selected and investigated in order to sample
the competency profile of the Information System Analyst job. The complete list of databases
is available here: http://www.ontohr.eu.
More information about the ability profiler is available on its official website
http://www.onetcenter.org/AP.html.