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Social Science 1A Principles in the Social Sciences

Online
Study Guide Exam I
Exam 1 is scheduled for Sunday October 26 and will cover
chapters 1, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 49, lecture material, film clips and handouts.
From the lectures, please know the following:
What is the purpose of the Social Science 1A course?
- Introduce the disciplines comprising the social sciences. See how branches of social sciences
have helped understand human behavior.
What is the definition of social science?
- the scientific study of human society and social relationships.
What are the various social sciences?
- Anthropology,
Economics
Geography
Linguistics
political science
psychology
sociology
What are the different ways of obtaining knowledge and answering questions?
- Common sense
- Authority
- tradition/religion
- logic/reasoning
- science
Please review the article and the two film clips on the Columbia Accident Investigation.
We will have one or two questions regarding the actions of the NASA that hindered the accident
investigation.
Who is Francis Bacon?
Father of modern science
Scientist
idea of preserving meat in a cold environment.
What are Bacons doctrines of empiricism and induction?
Promoted scientific method
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from observation with our senses
Use induction to form our conclusions
How does induction work as a means to discover empirical laws?
observation --> theory
- get data and look for patterns

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Why did Bacon criticize the use of hypotheses in science?

- theories are only guesses, and have tendency of bias
What did Bacon mean by knowledge is power?
It is things we know
When we are better informed we can judge better
Must use science to improve technology - make the world a better place
What is the practical purpose of the social sciences for Bacon?
to form conclusions from observations
Know the meaning of the four Idols of the Mind that interfere with the search for correct knowledge
according to Bacon.
1) Idols of the Tribe
- inherent errors
- assume causes w/o evidence
- make errors b/c of limitations of our sense
2) Idols of the Cave
- errors --> individual characteristics
- knowledge is from experience, interests & observations
- see thins with our closed mind
3) Idols of the Marketplace
- errors --> misuse of words
- use words with ambiguous meanings
- take things out of context
4) Idols of the Theatre
- logic used on something beyond reasoning - can't be explained by logic
- ex. trying to explain life after death.....UHHH
Why did Rene Descartes support the use of theory in science?
-

theory: logical guess that predicts and explains

need theories to explain our observations
data + understanding

What analogy did Descartes use to indicate the importance of theory?

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
WATCH
- can observe a watch for time
- but need to look closer
Auguste Comte is the originator of positivism for the social sciences. What is this doctrine?
- objective, systematic, logical science based on observations

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- based on presumptions that we can apply methods used in Natural Sciences to study human behavior in
society

According to Comte, societies pass through three stages of development. What are these stages?
Supernatural stage supernatural events were caused by gods will
Metaphysical stage something happens because of karma, destiny, not god
Scientific (positive) stage events were predicted through data, observations, etc
Comte arranged the natural and social sciences into a hierarchy. What is this hierarchy?
Social physics (sociology) answer to second question
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Mathematics
What is the rationale for Comtes hierarchy?
Reductionist Model
o Each of the sciences can be reduced to the science below it.
o Quantify our observations
o Represents the historical development of social science
What analogy did Isaac Newton use to describe the world?
The universe is a machine composed of atoms operating according to fixed laws
How have the natural sciences aided the development of the social sciences?
Every outcome has a cause, science can figure out the causes
If we know everything that has happened up to an event, we can predict the outcome
Today, is it possible to put the natural sciences into a logical hierarchy?
If so, what is this hierarchy?
Yes
Comtes hierarchy of sciences
Is it possible to put the social sciences into a logical hierarchy?
If not, why not?
No
Dont see any of the social sciences as fundamental
Human behavior is complex and vary
More of a constellation than hierarchy
Compared to the natural sciences, is the subject matter of the social sciences static or dynamic?
What does this distinction mean?
Dynamic
Subject matters in social science are constantly changing
What is the difference between explanation and understanding in science?
Explanation: causes in the external world for the activity in the environment
Understanding: want to know why
Do the social sciences use both principles?

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Yes
Can the LaMarckian view of evolution help explain any phenomenon in the social sciences?
Yes
Can explain how culture has been transmitted, Steven Jay Gould
Lamarck believed that simple life forms continually came into existence from dead matter and
continually became more complex -- and more "perfect" -- as they transformed into new species.
What is a meme and what is the function of a meme?
A unit of intellectual or cultural information passed from one person (brain) to another
Anything CULTURAL
What are the three characteristics of a scientific law?
Universal
Based on observation
Causal explanation
How do scientific laws differ in the social sciences from the natural sciences?
In social science, we can only state causes with a probability not certainty
In lecture, we reviewed the research wheel.
Please know the characteristics of this wheel.
Theory deduction & induction
Hypothesis deduction
Experiment
Data induction
What are the necessary stages in planning an experiment?
Choose a topic
Define important temrs
Research background topic
Generate hypotheses
Choose the research design
Analyze the data
Report the results and conclusions
Know the major research methods used in the social sciences reviewed in lecture and the readings.
descriptive, relational/correlational, experimental, survey, observational study, case study,
experiment, secondary data analysis
What are the ethical rules for social science research?
Voluntary participation
Informed consent
Anonymity
No Harm (MOST IMPORTANT)
Debriefing after the experiment
What experiments, cited in lecture, started the interest in the ethics of social science research?

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The Nazis
- Germans did cruel experiments with humans
- ex. throw them into water to see how long if would take
Why are the Milgram and Zimbardo studies considered unethical?
Milgram- might cause psychological problems
Zimbardo- students forgot who they are
- the research study became REALITY
- psychological, physical, emotional harm
There are links to films on the Milgram and Zimbardo studies. We hope you will view these films if
you find the studies interesting, but we will not have any questions from the films specifically, on the
lecture material.
What is the Institutional Review Board?
- get federal funds, has to look at every research with human subjects in terms of ethics
From the chapter readings, please know the following:
Chapter 1:
Please read and remember the quotes regarding science in general and social science in particular from:
Henry David Thoreau, Albert Einstein, Sherlock Holmes, E.R. Babbie, Rene Dubos, Thomas Dye,
Margaret Mead and Emile Durkheim. What message is each quote trying to convey regarding science?
Henry David Thoreau Always simplify
Albert Einstein Theories should be as simple as possible, but not more so
Sherlock Holmes It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data
E.R Babbie Science is amoral; scientist, however, are not amoral
Rene Dubos Unless scientists are willing to give hard thought-indeed, their hearts-to their social
responsibilities, they may find themselves someday in the position of the Sorcerers Apprentice, unable
to control the forces they have unleashed
Thomas Dye Social science is the study of human behavior. Anthropology, sociology, psychology,
economics, history, and political science have developed into separate disciplines, but each shares an
interest in human behavior.
Margaret Mead Social scientists have destroyed the delicacy and intricacy of their subject matter in
coarse-grained attempts to imitate the methods of natural scientists.

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Emile Durikheim Social Science is a tool of the establishment and, consciously or unconsciously, a
way of supporting the status quo.

Chapter 3:
Know all the methods of social science reviewed in the chapter (i.e. the experiment, the sample survey,
the observational study).
The experiment
Most precise and rigorous
3 Steps
1. 2 comparable groups are set up
2. one group exposed to stimulus, other group not exposed
3. both groups measured and compared to see what effect the stimulus had
The same survey
Method in which people are asked questions in order to systematically
gather info about certain characteristics
Useful for gaining info that cant be observed
Sample a portion of people chosen from a certain population; the way
the same is chosen is IMPORTANT
Sample must be random and everyone in the population must have an
equal opportunity to be chosen to be in the sample
Survey questions must be phrased in a neutral way
Can provide clues to relations b/w variables
Can draw conclusions about changing attitudes
The observational study
Intensive examination of one unit firsthand in natural setting; scientist
observes behavior while it is actually taking place
Goal: to learn all one can about the particular subject
detached and participant observational study
Using existing sources of data
Useful info can be found in newspapers, books, magazines, movies, TV
programs, advertisements, speeches, letters, diaries, song lyrics, paintings,
school textbooks, yellow pages, websites, chat room, even garage
More qualitative type of research rather than quantitative
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods?
Disadvantages to the experiment
Only few subjects can be tested
Designs must be frequently modified for different reasons
labs are often artificial
naturalistic situations cant always be controlled
The experimenter may unwittingly influence the results
The experiment is not a foolproof way to collect info
Disadvantages to the sample survey
People may not interpret the survey the same way
Unanticipated responses or info often cannot be included; people may give
false info or people may not return the questionnaires
Advantages to sample survey

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Interviews can ask for more intimate questions

The interviewer can explain questions and reduce misunderstandings
Problem of nonresponse is limited
Advantages to observational study
Use in studying something we dont know much about
Cannot be matched in their ability to reveal the meaning of a social
situation from the angle of the people involved
Behavior studies this way is uncontaminated
Adaptable and can easily be altered
Detail and depth of info makes them rich in clues and insights
Disadvantages to observational study
The results are often based on one case, difficult to generalized the
situation
Potential for bias on the part of the researcher
Lack of standardized procedures could make it difficult to duplicate or
replicate additional observational studies
Advantages to using existing sources
Time, money, and effort can be saved
Gives researcher opportunity to be creative
Researcher cannot influence answers to questions
Disadvantages to using existing sources
Quantitative data may not be sufficiently accurate or reliable
Qualitative data may require undue subjective interpretation
What is the difference between a detached observational study and a participant observational
study?
Detached observational study: scientist watches without getting involved in the activity itself
Participant observational study: scientist participates in the group or community being studied
- Allows researcher more insight into the way of life of what he is observing; provided better
opportunity to experience and understand the world from the point of view of the subject
Is there any value in reanalyzing previously collected data?
Save time and money, and will be objective when answering questions with the data
Chapter 12:
Why is it so difficult to be objective in the social sciences?
It is hard to be objective because we tend to because our assumptions affect our perception of the
environment and our behavior
According to the chapter, how do we maintain objectivity in the pursuit of scientific knowledge?
By not assuming anything until factual evidence had been gathered and evaluated
Chapter 13:
According to the chapter, what is the definition of modern science?
Philosophy about knowledge, about the way we know what we know.

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What is an axiom?
Assumptions that cannot be proved but which form the basis of all proofs.
What are the three axioms of modern science and what do they mean?
1. We know what we know through the senses alone
2. the mind has the power to receive recorded, and rearrange the sensations
3. nature is orderly and regular
How as science encouraged our desire to have material things?
We desire material things because the senses only detect material things, so in a science
community, the objects of the senses become most important
According to the chapter, how does science support equality?
In addresses that we will have the 5 senses and before birth, we start with absolutely nothing
Can social science really be value-free?
No, because values determine what science will study
Which two social sciences will incur greater difficulties by being value-free?
Political science & psychology

Chapter 14:
This chapter reviews the famous Zimbardo prison study. Know the basic design and results of this
study.
-

2 dozen men selected to partake in study

Half were prisoners, other half were guards
Guards made up own rules for maintaining laws and allowed to improvise new ones
Observed and recorded on videotape
Ended in 6 days b/c results=bad
Led to traumatic effects

Why did Zimbardo end the study early?

-

No longer apparent to subjects where reality ended and roles began; no longer see
differentiation b/w role playing and self
Human values suspended
Ugly side of human nature came up
Guards became tyrannical in using their power
Corrupted by their power
Several guards were good, but never got in the way of stopping the bad guard
Experiment became reality

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MAIN REASON: b/c of the horror of realizing the Zimbardo could have easily traded places
with the most brutal guard of become the weakest prisoner full of hatred

Based on his results, Zimbardo offered a characterization of human nature. What is this
characterization?
-

Individual behavior is under the control of social forces and environmental contingencies
We underestimate the power of situational controls over behavior because
o Theyre not obvious, but rather subtle
o WE can often avoid entering situations where we might be controlled
o We label as weak or deviant people in those situations who behave differently
from how we think we would
We carry a favorable self-image in which we are essentially just, fair, humane, and
understanding

Do you agree with Zimbardos assessment?

According to Zimbardo, what happens to people who are put into prisons?
-

Elicits pathological behavior

Their humanity is debase, felling of self-worth is lowered, and it is difficult for them to be
part of society outside their prison
He demands liberty and rebels, accepting death as an alternative
Riots

Why do prisons fail to rehabilitate prisoners?

-

B/c they fail to rehabilitate them in any positive way

They are breeding grounds for hatred
Management practices fail to improve the product

Chapter 15:
When did Milgram begin his research?
-

1960 Yale Universtiy

Why hypothesis about Germans motivated his study?

-

Motivated by scientific curiosity, wanted to prove scientifically that Germans are different,
wanted to show that Germans are more obedient than Americans which would help him find
out what is it that makes people more obedient than others
Hypothesis: Shirer thesis that Germans have a basic character flaw which explains the whole
thing, and this flaw is a readiness to obey authority without question, no matter what
outrageous acts the authority commands

What was the basic design and results of Milgrams obedience to authority experiment?

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Everyone but one person plays an actor in the role

The one person is the subject, told that they are doing a learning experiment
Subject takes role of teacher and reads aloud words that actor has to remember, if he gets it
wrong he get shocked
Each time actor gets it wrong the teacher intensified the shock by 15, if teacher is hesitant,
the observer will tell him to just keep going
Object is to find the shock level at which you disobey the experimenter and refuse to pull the
switch
Resulted with all subjects going to the very end of the shock board (450 pulse)
Changed the experiment so that both teacher and learner are in same room, 12 out of 40 still
went all the way to the end
Easier to obey than disobey

Did Milgrams results support his original hypothesis about Germans?

(Please note that the author of the chapter does not define negative reinforcement correctly).
-

No

To explain his results, Milgram proposed the state of agency hypothesis. What is this hypothesis?
-

After agent, none who acts for or in the place of another by authority from him; a
substitute; a deputy
Nothing more than a frame of mind
If a person has different properties when hes in that state, just as water can turn to ice under
certain conditions of temperature, a person who can move to the state of mind called
agency the critical thing is that one sees itself as the instrument of the execution of another
persons wishes. One does not see himself as acting on his own.

Chapter 17:
The author of Chapter 17 traces the evolutionary history of life on Earth.
Overall, what percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct?
99%
Know the principle of natural selection (see Box 17.1).
Organisms produce more offspring than can survive and all those offspring vary. The ones
survive, due to their variations, will be better fit to produce and pass those variations on to their
offspring.
Theoretically, how does natural selection guide evolution?
It favors the traits of those who are best fit to survive to their environment
How does modern biology explain the natural selection process in terms of genetics?
Natural selection preserves those genetic mutations that carry reproductive advantages and
winnows out the non-adaptive ones
Explain how chance operates in evolution.

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Chance operates through mutations of alleles, which are random. A random change in an allele
can make an organism better fit to survive.

Does evolution always guarantee that future organisms develop more perfectly than previous organisms?
No
What are the evolutionary flaws in the human design?
We have to weak and are hernia-prone, poorly protected from the elements, our offspring take a
long time to mature and we dont know when women are fertile.
What does the chapter mean by evolutionary trade-offs regarding human development?
We will trade one trait for one that benefits us more.
How long ago did hominid and ape forms split off from a common ancestor?
70 million years ago or 4 million years
What is the out of Africa hypothesis for human evolution?
All people today descend from modern humans who originated in Africa 130,000 to 200,000
years ago
Based upon human genetics, why is race a difficult concept to define?
Our variation under nature is more confined then that of any comparable creature.
According to the data from the Human Genome Project, how genetically similar are humans to one
another?
99.9%
What are the similarities in the behavior between humans and chimpanzees?
Ability to use symbolic communication or language, fashion and use tools, social hierarchies,
females are sexually receptive most of the time, they will deprive themselves to help others, abstract
thinking.
Do these similarities support the importance of biology for the social sciences?
Yes because it shows that we are alike more than we think
In terms of DNA, how similar are humans and chimps?
98.8%
According to the author of the chapter, evolutionary combat is taking place between which two
biological forces. Which force might win according to the author? (See Box 17.3)

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Our immune system is fighting with viruses and according to him, the virus is winning
Chapter 19:
What is the definition in social science of the term society?
-

People who live in a given territory and who share a common culture

What major characteristic is used to classify societies?

-

Their means of subsistence, means of obtaining necessities

5 types: hunting & gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, industrial
6th type: postindustrial

What percentage of the worlds current population belongs to hunter-gatherer societies?

-

Less than 0.1%

Where are hunter-gatherer societies currently located?

-

Southern Africa, North America, New Guinea, South America, Australia

What is the most important social institution for the hunter-gatherer society? Why?
-

Provides for family

Provides for emotional, economical, political, educational, and religious needs

What is the major advantage of the pastoral (herding) society over the hunter-gatherer society?
-

Creates a surplus of food

Results in large society

Why does warfare develop between pastoral societies and other groups?
-

Because they come into contact with others and there is fighting over grazing rights

Horticultural societies appear to contain more violence than do hunter-gatherer societies. Why is this
so?
-

Because of the advancements of class systems

Because there is more productivity and better organized, there is more societal inequalities
and tension

What forms of violence appear in the horticultural society that do not appear in the hunter-gatherer and
pastoral societies?
-

Sexism, Cannibalism, Social Inequality, Intertribal fighting

What is the difference between a horticultural society and an agricultural society?

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There is no need to move around because they use animals to replenish the nutrients in the
soil by plowing
More advanced as a result in plowings

The agricultural society is able to support a relatively large population.

What is the consequence for society of this expanding population?
-

Larger government is needed

Hereditary monarchies, military elites, state religions, elaborate bureaucracies, and complex
stratification system develop

What institutions develop within the agricultural society to compete with the family?
-

Priest, soldier, temple builder, prostitute, artist, tax collector, merchant

Chapter 21:
What do the terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism mean?
-

Ethnocentrism: the rootedness in a particular groups assumptions and values

o Follows the path of the least intellectual and psychological resistance by taking his
socialized standards for granted
Cultural Relativism: point of view that sets aside the standards of his or her own culture
when examining other ways of life, it assumes that any cultural variation must be interpreted
within the context of the society where it is observed
o Questions with objective analysis
o Sets the goal of regarding all standards with the same cool eye

Why should social scientists practice cultural relativism?

-

The cultural relativist stance requires a willingness to put first the search for scientific
interpretation and understanding

When do social scientists have the duty to condemn certain practices in various cultures, thereby setting
aside the principle of cultural relativism?
When he sees something that are against his own values and morals.
Chapter 49:
What was the author, John Lamberts profession?
-

A professional statistician

What was he hired to study?

-

To find if there was a disproportionate amount of blacks being stopped by the popo and
whites being stopped by the popo
Whether the pattern of blocks being arrested reflected unfair treatment of blacks

What was his hypothesis?

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Arrests for drug offenses occurred after traffic stops on the highway, was it possible that so
many blacks were arrested b/c the popo were disproportionately stopping them

What did he find?

-

The rate at which blacks were stopped was disproportionate to their numbers on the road and
to their propensity to violate traffic laws

What is DWB?
-

Driving while black

What is the technical term for this practice?

- Racial profiling
What did Lambert find out about Blacks experiences with juries?
-

They were underrepresented on jury panels and juries

What is the most likely reason that Blacks have higher frequencies of being stopped on the New Jersey
Turnpike?
-

Drugs

How is this idea perpetuated?

-

They are more likely to be carrying drugs than whites

How much more likely are Blacks to be arrested than non-Blacks on the New Jersey Turnpike are?
-

16.5 times more likely