Lectures

IIntroduction
d i to E
Engineering
i
i
Calculations

Units and Dimensions

Dimensional Homogeneity

Dimensional Homogeneity

Range, Sample mean, sample variance, Sample

standard deviation
Let N measured values of a property or

variables are: x1, x2, x3, ..xN, then

RX X
Range:
1
1
Sample mean:
X ( X X ......... X ) X
max

min

Sample variance:

s X2

j 1

1
[( X 1 X ) 2 ( X 2 X ) 2 ...... ( X N X ) 2 )]
N 1

1 N

(X j X )
N 1 j 1

Sample standard deviation

sX

1 N
(X j X )
N 1 j 1

Data scatter about the mean

Process Data Presentation and Analysis

Calibration of Equipment
140

Concentr Electrical
ation C
conductivity
K
03
0.3

2.0

0.7

3.0

1.2

4.0

1.8

100
Co
oncentration

10
1.0

120

80

Slope

60
y = 0.5x - 0.25
R = 0.992
40

Best fit
20

0
0

10

20

30
40
50
Electrical Conductivity

60

70

80

Data Presentation and Analysis

Calibration of Rotameter
160

Flowrate Rotameter
V (Lit/m) Reading (R)
10
20
52 1
52.1

50

84.6

70

118

120
100
V, Lit/m

30

140

80
60

V = 1.641R + 3.15

40
20
0

Rotameter
To measure
li id flflowrate
liquid
t

20

40

60
R

80

100

Curve fitting by least square method

finding the best fitting straight line through a

set of points
Y f ( X , a , b ,......... ) aX b

Yi (aX i b) ei

ei

For minimum Error

n
(e 2 )
2 Yi (b aX i 0
a
i 1
n
(e )
2 Yi (b aX i 0
b
i 1

i 1

i 1

nb a xi yi

Solve and Find: a and b

b xi a x xi yi
i 1

i 1

2
i

i 1

n xi yi xi yi
n x xi

2
i

y x x x y

b
n x x
i

2
i

2
i

Goodness of fit
Sum squares

Correlation
Coefficient,

r2

SS xx ( xi x ) 2
i 1
n

SS yy ( y i y ) 2
i 1

SS xy ( xi x )( y i y )

SE (a )

SS xx SS yy
s
SS xx

1 x2
SE (b) s

n SS xx

i 1
i

1 n
x xi
n i 1

SS xy2

SS yy
S

SS xy2

SS xx
n2

Fit a least square

q
line to the following
g data
and show that sum of error is zero
x
y
Solution
x
1
2
3
4
5
x=15

1
2

2
5

3
3

4
8

5
7

y
2
5
3
8
7
y=25

xy
2
10
9
32
35
xy=88

x^2
^2
1
4
9
16
25
x^2=15

Y^=1.3x+1.1
Y^
13 11
2.4
3.7
5
6.3
7.6

y-y^=ei
^ i
-0.4
1.3
-2
1.7
-0.6
ei=0

i 1

i 1

nb a xi yi
n

i 1

i 1

i 1

b xi a xi2 xi yi

5 b + 15 a = 25
15 b + 55 a = 88
Solving
b =1.1, a =1.3
Then
Y = 1.1+1.3 X

Fitting non-linear
non linear data
M k Non
Make
N lilinear tto lilinear fform as:
Non linear
equation

Linear equation :
Y = a + bX

Make

y = ax2+b

Y = aX + b

y as Y, x2 as X

y2=a/x+b

Y = aX + b

yy2 asY,, 1/x as X

1/y=a(x+3)+b

Y = aX + b

1/y as Y, (x+3) as X

siny = a (x2-4)

Y = aX + b

siny as Y, (x2-4) as X, b as 0

y=1+x(mx2+n)1/2

Y = aX + b

(y-1)2/x2 as Y, x2 as X; m as a
and n as b

yy=ax
axb

Take logarithm on both

sides i.e.
Ln(y )= bln(x) +Ln(a)
implies
p
Y = aX + b

Ln(y) as Y, ln(x) as X, ln(a) as

b and b as a

Y = aX + b

 uD
P

2
u

y = ax + b

y = Ln (

P
uD
),x=ln(
),b=Ln(),a=
2
u

x2

xy

(xi
xbar)^2

(yi
ybar)^2

(xixbar)(yi
ybar)

Predicted
y

ei^2

4.636
4.656
4.689
4.816
4.893
4.948
=

8.418
8.519
8.662
9.170
9.441
9.655
=

70.871
72.577
75.033
84.080
89.141
93.220
=

39.025
39.669
40.613
44.159
46.196
47.770
=

0.313
0.210
0.100
0.037
0.215
0.459
=

0.019
0.014
0.007
0.002
0.014
0.031
=

1.810
1.547
1.132
0.600
1.706
2.522
=

4.631
4.656
4.693
4.822
4.891
4.945
=

2.478E05
4.056E08
1.653E05
3.299E05
4.269E06
6.575E06
=

28.637

53.866

b
b
a
alfa
Bita
Bita

484.921

22.490
490
0.254
0.083
0.254
0 254

257.432 1.333

SSxx

SSyy

SSxy
r^2

0.086

1 333
1.333
0.086
0.339
0 999
0.999

0.339

28.637

Std Error
Std.Error
sigma^2x
sigma^2y
sigma^2xy

8.519E05

0 005
0.005
0.222
0.014
0.057
0 057

Find a and b for the best fit of the model: F = kta

t
F

10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0.8222 0.2984 0.1453 0.0832 0.0527 0.0359 0.0257

Take logarithm
g
of the model

log F = a log(t)+log(k)
C
Consider
id llog (F) as Y,
Y log
l ((t)) as x, llog(k)
(k) as b

Then
Y = aX + b

i 1

i 1

nb a xi yi
n

b xi a x xi yi
i 1

i 1

2
i

i 1

Y=log(F)

X=log(t)
0.08503
0.52525
0.8376
1.07988
1.27783
1 27783
1.4452
1.59018
=6.84096

1
1.176091
1.30103
1.39794
1 477121
1.477121
1.544068
1.60206
=9.498311

XY
0.08503
0.61775
1.08974
1.5096
1.88751
1 88751
2.23148
2.54756
=9.96867

i 1

7b+9.4983a = -6.8409

i 1

b xi a x xi yi 9.4983b-9.8696a= -9.9686
i 1

0.08503
0.61775
1.08974
1.5096
1.88751
1 88751
2.23148
2.54756
=9.96867

nb a xi yi
n

X^2

i 1

2
i

Solve
a = -2.5
b = 2.415
So, k = antilog (b) = 260

i 1

So, The fitted equation will be F = 260t-2.5

Try exercise problems (Felder and Rousseau)

Problems: 2.26,
2 26 2
2.32,
32 2
2.36,
36 2
2.37,
37 2
2.40,
40 2
2.42,
42

2.45

Tutorial problem
Problem No. 2.36: Find the values of k and c

of equation PVk = c when fitted with exp data

as:
P(mmHg) 760 1140 1520 2280 3040

3800

V(cm3)

17.4

48.3 37.4

31.3 24.1

Also find goodness of fit

20

PVk = C

Ln(P) + kln(V) = ln(C)

y = ax+b

y = ln(P), x = - ln(V)

a = k, b = ln(c)

Sum

(x'ix'bar)^2 (y'iy'bar)^2

(x'x'bar)(y'
y'bar)
Predictedy'

x=ln(V)

y=ln(P)

x'^2

x'y'

760.000

48.300

3.877

6.633

15.034

25.720

0.300

0.749

0.474

6.637

1.306E05

1140.000

37.400

3.622

7.039

13.116

25.492

0.085

0.212

0.134

7.039

2.196E07

1520.000

31.300

3.444

7.326

11.859

25.230

0.013

0.030

0.020

7.319

5.085E05

2280.000

24.100

3.182

7.732

10.126

24.605

0.022

0.054

0.034

7.731

1.946E06

3040.000

20.000

2.996

8.020

8.974

24.025

0.111

0.271

0.174

8.024

1.816E05

3800.000

17.400

2.856

8.243

8.159

23.545

0.224

0.553

0.352

8.243

3.313E08

12540.000

178.500

19.977

44.993

67.270

148.616

0.755

1.869

1.188

44.993

8.426E05

x'bar

3.330

0.005

1.573

y'bar

7.499

SE(a)

0.005

12.736

SSxx

0.755

SE(b)

0.018

SSyy

1.869

r^2

0.9999549

SSxy

1.188

So, a = k = 1.573, c = exp(b) = 3.40 105

Ei^2

Problem 2.45:
Fit D = D0exp(-E/RT) where R = 1.987

Sum

347

1 34E 06
1.34E06

374.2

396.2

420.7

2 50E 06 4.55E06
2.50E06
4 55E 06 8.52E06
8 52E 06

y=ln(D)

x'^2

x'y'

447.7

471.2

1 41E 05
1.41E05

2 00E 05
2.00E05

(x'ix'bar)^2 (y'iy'bar)^2

(x'x'bar)(y'
y'bar)
Predictedy'

x=1/RT

Ei^2

347.000

1.340E06

1.450E03

13.523 2.104E06

0.020

4.327E08

2.127

3.034E04

13.580

3.246E03

374.200

2.500E06

1.345E03

12.899 1.809E06

0.017

1.053E08

0.697

8.563E05

12.812

7.628E03

396.200

4.550E06

1.270E03

12.300 1.614E06

0.016

7.793E10

0.056

6.583E06

12.268

1.056E03

420 700
420.700

8 520E06
8.520E
06

1
1.196E
196E03
03

11
11.673
673 1.431E
1 431E06
06

0 014
0.014

2 121E09
2.121E
09

0 153
0.153

1 803E05
1.803E
05

11
11.729
729

3 130E03
3.130E
03

447.700

1.407E05

1.124E03

11.171 1.264E06

0.013

1.397E08

0.798

1.056E04

11.204

1.027E03

471.200

1.999E05

1.068E03

10.820 1.141E06

0.012

3.037E08

1.548

2.168E04

10.795

6.321E04

2457.000 5.097E05

7.454E03

72.387 9.361E06

0.091

1.010E07

5.378

7.360E04

72.387

1.672E02

x'bar

0.001

0.065

7284.269

E=a

7284.269

y'bar

12.065

SE(a)

203.391

3.015

D0=exp(b)

0.05

SSxx

1.010E07

SE(b)

0.254

SSyy

5.378

r^2

0.9968912

SSxy

0.001