Leak Detection

Principles of Leak Detection
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Geiger
Introduction
Fundamentals of Leak Detection
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Introduction
Contents
Introduction
Regulatory Framework
2.1
TRFL (Germany)
2.2
API 1130 (USA)
2.3
API 1155 (USA)
Pressure/Flow Monitoring
10
3.1
Pressure Monitoring
10
3.2
Flow Monitoring
10
3.3
Summary
10
Negative Pressure Wave
12
4.1
Summary
12
Balancing Methods
14
5.1
Mass Balance
14
5.2
Use of volumetric flow meters
15
5.3
Summary
17
Statistical Leak Detection Systems
19
6.1
Probability Ratio Test
19
6.2
Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT)
20
6.3
Summary
20
Leak Location
22
7.1
Gradient Intersection Method
22
7.2
Wave Propagation Method
22
RTTM Real Time Transient Model
23
8.1
Compensation Approach
25
8.2
Head Stations Residual or Differential Approach
26
8.3
Substations Residual or Differential Approach
27
8.4
Flow Calculation
27
PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB)
28
9.1
Summary
28
10
PipePatrol Extended Real-Time Transient Model (E-RTTM)
31
10.1
Leak Signature Analysis
31
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
5.1.1
5.1.2
Installations according to TRFL a) and b)

Installations according to TRFL c)
Installations according to TRFL d)
Installations according to TRFL e)
Uncompensated mass balance

Compensated mass balance
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8
8
9
14
15
Introduction
10.2
Leak Location
31
10.3
PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC Leak Detection in Pumping Condition
32
10.4
PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC Leak Detection in Shut-in Conditions
11
Comparison of all methods
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.4.1
Head stations monitoring

Substation monitoring without flow measurement
Segment monitoring for substations with flow measurement
Leak detection with substations and virtual flow monitoring
Head Station Monitoring
32
33
34
35
37
37
41
Index of figures
Figure 1: Calculation of mass flow from volumetric flow ......................................................................................... 16
Figure 2: Conditional probability density functions ................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3: Leak location by gradient intersection method ........................................................................................ 22
Figure 4: RTTM to calculate local profiles; model using pressure readings ........................................................... 24
Figure 5: RTTM to calculate local profiles; model using flow readings ................................................................... 24
Figure 6: Compensated mass balance with RTTM based compensation .............................................................. 25
Figure 7: Residual or differential approach for head station monitoring ................................................................. 26
Figure 8: Residual or differential approach for pressure substation ...................................................................... 27
Figure 9: Functionality of PipePatrol SMB .............................................................................................................. 28
Figure 10: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, head station monitoring ................................................. 32
Figure 11: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, pressure at substations ................................................. 33
Figure 12: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, PTF substations............................................................. 34
Figure 13: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, PT substations ............................................................... 35
Figure 14: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, P substations ................................................................. 36
Figure 15: PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC: shut-in conditions, no substations .................................................................. 37
Figure 16: PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC: shut-in condition, P substations...................................................................... 38
Index of tables
Table 1: Symbols, labelling, units - part 1.............................................................................................................. 1-6
Table 2: Symbols, labelling, units - part 2.............................................................................................................. 1-6
Table 3: Functionality and instrumentation of Pressure and Flow Monitoring . ...................................................... 10
Table 4: Fields of application of Pressure- and Flow Monitoring. ........................................................................... 10
Table 5: Performance Parameters of Pressure and Flow Monitoring. .................................................................... 11
Table 6: Functionality and instrumentation for negative pressure wave. ................................................................ 12
Table 7: Fields of application for negative pressure wave. ..................................................................................... 12
Table 8: Performance Parameters of Negative Pressure Wave ............................................................................. 13
Table 9: Functionality and instrumentation for balancing methods......................................................................... 17
Table 10: Fields of application for balancing methods. .......................................................................................... 17
Table 11: Performance parameters for balancing methods.................................................................................... 18
Table 12: Functional summary of statistical LDSs.................................................................................................. 20
Table 13: Fields of application for statistical LDSs. ................................................................................................ 20
Table 14: Performance parameters for statistical LDSs. ........................................................................................ 21
Table 15: Functionality and instrumentation of PipePatrol SMB............................................................................. 28
Table 16: Possible fields of application of PipePatrol SMB. ................................................................................... 29
Table 17: Performance parameters of PipePatrol SMB. ........................................................................................ 30
Table 18: Functionality and instrumentation of PipePatrol E-RTTM. ...................................................................... 39
Table 19: Possible fields of application of PipePatrol E-RTTM. ............................................................................. 39
Table 20: Performance parameters of PipePatrol E-RTTM. ................................................................................... 40
Table 21: Comparison of all methods for leak detection. ....................................................................................... 41
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Introduction
Symbols, Labelling, Units

Symbol
Synonym
SI-Unit
Cross section of the pipeline
Speed of sound
m/s
Mass flow or volumetric flow
kg/s, m /s
Length of pipeline
Gas specific molar mass
kg/mol
Mass
kg
M Leak
Actual drained leak-mass
kg
M Pipe
Mass stored in pipeline
kg
M&
M&
Mass flow in general
kg/s
Mass flow inlet
kg/s
M& Leak
M&
Leak flow
kg/s
Mass flow outlet
kg/s
Number of substations
N ( , )
Gaussian distribution
Pressure
Probability in general
P0
Probability for correct decision under leak free conditions
P1
Probability for correct decision under leak conditions
PFA
Probability for false alarm
PM
Probability for false decision under leak conditions
Gas constant (8.314472)
J/(mol K)
RS
Specific gas constant
J/(kg K)
One-dimensional coordinate along the pipeline
time
T , TF
Temperature of fluid
TG
Temperature of ground
Velocity of fluid
m/s
vI
Velocity of fluid at inlet
m/s
vO
Velocity of fluid at outlet
m/s
Volume in general
V&
V&
Volume-flow in general
m /s
Volume-flow at inlet
m /s
V&ref
Volume-flow at reference conditions
sm /s
V&O
Volume-flow at outlet
m /s
VCF
Volume correction factor
Flow residual inlet
kg/s
Flow residual outlet
kg/s
Pressure residual in general
Pa
Pa
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3
3
Introduction
Table 1: Symbols, labelling, units - part 1.
Symbol
Synonym
Level of significance
Coefficient of SPRT
Smallest detectable leak rate
SI-Unit
kg/s
Coefficient of SPRT
Mean of the Gaussian distribution
Density of the fluid
Standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution
Compressibility factor
kg/m
Table 2: Symbols, labelling, units - part 2.
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Introduction
Introduction
Pipelines are the most economic and safest transport systems for mineral oil, gases and other products. As a means of
long-distance transport, pipelines have to fulfil high demands of safety, reliability and efficiency. Leak Detection Systems
(LDSs) are therefore an important aspect of pipeline technology.
Modern LDSs such as the PipePatrol family from KROHNE Oil and Gas monitor pipelines continuously, by testing
whether a leak has occurred or not (leak detection). In case of a leak they also calculate the leak flow and the leak
position (leak tracking).
Some countries formally regulate pipeline safety, for example the German rules are laid down in Technische Regel fr
Fernleitungen [TRFL]. Other countries provide standards, for example Leak Detection is specifically addressed by [API
1130] and [API 1155] in the USA. Details on this subject can be found in Chapter 2. API1155 defines the following
important requirements of an LDS:
Sensitivity: a LDS must ensure that the loss of fluid as a result of a leak is as small as possible. This places two
requirements on the system: it must detect small leaks, and it must detect them quickly. PipePatrols Extended RealTime Transient Model E-RTTM (Chapter 10) is able to detect leakage below 1% of nominal flow rate within less than a
minute.
Reliability: the user must be able to trust the LDS. This means that it must correctly report any real alarms, but it is
equally important that it does not generate false alarms.
Accuracy: the LDS must report the leak location accurately.
Robustness: the LDS must continue to operate in non-ideal circumstances. For example, in case of a transducer failure
the system must detect the failure and continue to operate (possibly with necessary compromises such as reduced
sensitivity).
Universal applicability: a modern LDS is expected to be universally applicable. For example, PipePatrol can be used with
equal success on liquid or gas pipelines. PipePatrol operates effectively on multiproduct pipelines with or without
separation pigs. Drag Reducing Agent (DRA) makes life a little more interesting, but creates no real problem.
Wide operating range: leak detection is important throughout the whole operating range. This includes start-up and
shutdown conditions as well as steady state. Some leak detection systems also provide a model that works under shut-in
conditions, such as PipePatrol E-RTTM - see Chapter 10.
This survey describes the principles of leak detection and leak location as follows:
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Chapter 5:
Balancing Methods
Chapter 6:
Chapter 7:
Leak Location
Chapter 8 describes in detail the use of powerful modern computer systems to implement Real-Time Transient Models(
RTTMs).
Chapter 9 describes PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB), which combines the mass balance with statistical
methods and RTTM technology. Chapter 10 describes PipePatrol Extended Real-Time Transient Model E-RTTM, the
Premium leak detection solution of KROHNE Oil & Gas.
Chapter 11 provides a comparison of available leak detection methods.
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2.1
TRFL (Germany)
TRFL stands for Technische Regel fr Rohrfernleitungen [TRFL], which was published in 2003 in Germany and applies
to all Pipelines that transport flammable and/or dangerous liquids or gases. Chapter 11.5 of the TRFL requires leak
detection systems all such pipelines. It demands:
Two autonomous, continuously operating systems that can detect leaks in steady state conditions.
One of these systems, or a third one, able to detect leaks in transient conditions.
One system to detect leaks in shut-in conditions.
One system to detect gradual leaks.
One system to detect the leak position.
2.1.1
Installations according to TRFL a) and b)
[TRFL] requires two autonomous, continuously operating systems that can detect leaks in the steady state. Either of
these systems, or both, or a third one, must be able to detect leaks in transient conditions.
Redundant instrumentation is required in principle, but in practice the requirement for redundant equipment is frequently
relaxed. This may happen either because the risk of damage to life and property is relatively low, or because instruments
at substations effectively provide back-ups for each other. Redundant signal paths and communication are always
required, however. The leak detection system itself must always be redundant, for example using multiple techniques
including:
Pressure and Flow monitoring
Chapter 3
Acoustic/negative pressure wave
Chapter 4
Line balance methods
Chapter 5
Statistical LDS
Chapter 6
KROHNE Oil & Gas offers with PipePatrol state-of-the-art leak detection systems as:
Chapter 9, and
Chapter 10.
2.1.2
Installations according to TRFL c)

1
[TRFL] requires that each pipeline has one system to detect leaks in shut-in conditions . Chapter 11 lists the methods
that fulfil these needs. PipePatrol E-RTTM Chapter 10 uses a model-based pressure-temperature method, which can be
applied to liquids and gases. In shut-in conditions, valves will lock a pressure into one or more sections of the pipeline. It
is possible for considerable pressure changes to occur in this case as a result of thermal effects, but any rapid or
unexpected fall in pressure indicates that a leak has occurred.
2.1.3
Installations according to TRFL d)
Typically these systems utilise a sensor cable installed along the pipeline. Leak detection is either by change in
temperature (fibre optics) or change in gas concentration (semi permeable sensor cable). The following should be taken
into account:
The operating pressure and temperature must be suitable
Not all fluids can be monitored.
This point is relevant to liquid pipelines, but flow in gas pipelines is normally continuous. Nevertheless, the TRFL requirement applies
to all pipelines in principle.
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If accurate flow, pressure and temperature readings are available, PipePatrol SMB Chapter 9 can be applied. If
adequate, leak tight valves are present, the PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC model based pressure-temperature method can also
be applied, Chapter 10.4.
2.1.4
Installations according to TRFL e)
The TRFL requires the LDS to locate the position of a leak as fast as possible. This function can be integrated into one of
the systems installed to comply with section a) for example, PipePatrol E-RTTM, Chapter 10. Details of leak
localisation are described in Chapter 7.
2.2
API 1130 (USA)
The second edition of API (American Petroleum Institute) standard 1130 Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) for
Liquid Pipelines was released in 2002 [API 1130]. API 1130 does not directly impose legal requirements on pipeline
operators in the same way as TRFL, but it provides the necessary technical information for conscientious operators to
operate their pipelines safely.
[API 1130] covers liquid pipelines only. It describes design, implementation, test and operation of Computational Pipeline
Monitoring (CPM) systems, based on an algorithmic approach to leak detection. It also gives recommendations for (self)
test and operator training.
LDSs are divided into two groups:
External systems use dedicated measurement equipment, such as a sensor cables
Internal systems use existing measurement sensors providing flow or pressure readings. All LDSs introduced in this
survey are part of this group.
2.3
API 1155 (USA)
The [API 1155] Evaluation Methodology for Software Based Leak Detection Systems was first published in 1995, and
defines methods of comparing LDSs from different manufacturers. These criteria are defined:
Sensitivity
Reliability
Accuracy
Robustness
The sensitivity is a composite measure of the size of a leak that a system is capable of detecting, and the
time required for the system to issue an alarm in the event that a leak of that size should occur. PipePatrol
E-RTTM typically detects leakage below 1% (relating to nominal flow rate) in less than one minute, resulting
in a leak volume that is typically less than 50 litres.
Reliability is a measure of the ability of a leak detection system to render accurate decisions about the
possible existence of a leak on the pipeline, while operating within an envelope established by the leak
detection system design. It follows that reliability is directly related to the probability of detecting a leak, given
that a leak does in fact exist, and the probability of incorrectly declaring a leak, given that no leak has
occurred.
Accuracy covers estimation of leak parameters such as leak flow rate, total volume lost, type of fluid lost,
and leak location within the pipeline network. The validity of these leak parameter estimates should be as
accurate as possible.
Robustness is a measure of the leak detection systems ability to continue to function and provide useful
information even under changing conditions of pipeline operation, or in conditions where data is lost or
suspect. A system is considered to be robust if it continues to function under such non-ideal conditions.
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A leak changes the hydraulics of the pipeline, and therefore changes flow or pressure readings after some time
[Krass/Kittel/Uhde]. Local monitoring of pressure or flow at only one point can therefore provide simple leak detection. It
requires no telemetry, for example to compare flow rate at inlet an outlet, as local monitoring of pressure or flow rate is
sufficient. It is only useful in steady state conditions, however, and its ability to deal with gas pipelines and multi-product
liquid pipelines is extremely limited. It does not provide good sensitivity, and leak localisation is not possible.
3.1
Pressure Monitoring
p
If a leak occurs, the pressure in the pipeline will fall by an amount

. As pressure sensors are almost always installed, it
is natural to use them for leak detection. The pressure in the pipeline is simply compared against a lower limit after
reaching steady state conditions. When the pressure falls below this lower limit, a leak alarm is raised.
This method is also called Pressure Point Analysis.
3.2
Flow Monitoring
The sensitivity of the pressure monitoring method depends on the leak location. Near the inlet and the outlet of the
pipeline a leak leads to little or no change in pressure. This can be compensated by flow monitoring, where the flow is
measured for change. The two methods can be combined.
3.3
Summary
The following table gives an overview of functionality and requirements (for more details, see Chapter 11).
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
Pressure Monitoring
LD
1xP
Low
Flow Monitoring
LD
1xQ
Low
2
Table 3: Functionality and instrumentation of Pressure and Flow Monitoring .
Both methods provide leak detection, but no leak localisation. For pressure monitoring only pressure sensor is required,
and for flow monitoring only one flow meter is required. Demands on instrumentation are low.
The possible fields of application are:
Application
Method
Pressure Monitoring
Medium
TRFL
Steady
L/G
(a) (c)
Steady
L/G
(a)
Pumping
Dynamics
PC, SC
Flow Monitoring
PC
3
Table 4: Fields of application of Pressure- and Flow Monitoring .
Pressure Monitoring is able to detect leaks in shut-in conditions as well as in pumping conditions. This will be true if the
pipeline valves seal tightly enough. In contrast, flow monitoring is only able to detect leaks in pumping conditions. Both
LD = Leak detection, P = Pressure sensor, Q = Flow sensor
PC = Pumping conditions, SC = Shut-in conditions, L = Liquid, G = Gas
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methods are restricted to steady state, as small changes in pressure or flow will cause a false alarm. Either method is
capable of monitoring gas and liquid pipelines. Pressure monitoring meets the following requirements of TRFL:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working system that can detect leaks in steady state conditions and
TRFL c), one system to detect leaks in shut-in conditions.
In contrast, flow monitoring only achieves:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working system that can detect leaks in steady state conditions
The following table lists the associated performance parameters.

Sensitivity
Method
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Gas
Leak
Types
Pressure Monitoring
High
Short
Long
Both
Flow Monitoring
High
Short
Long
Both
Table 5: Performance Parameters of Pressure and Flow Monitoring.
Both methods will work without malfunction if pressure and flow stay constant in daily operation. This is true for some
liquid pipelines, but never for gas pipelines.
These simple methods normally do not use statistical methods to prevent false alarms (Chapter 6). The only way to avoid
false alarms is therefore to set wide alarm limits. This causes a short time to detect a leak within liquid pipelines. In gas
pipelines pressure changes are rather slow, so leak detection is slow. Both methods detect sudden leaks as well as
gradual leaks of adequate size.
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A sudden leak caused, for example, by careless use of an excavator, leads to a negative pressure wave propagating at
the speed of sound (c) up- and downstream through the pipeline. Such a wave can be recognised using installed
pressure transmitters, giving a leak alarm. It is also possible to calculate the leak location by timing the arrival of the
pressure wave at two or more points on the pipeline (Chapter 7).
4.1
Summary
The following table gives an overview of functionality and requirements (for more details, see Chapter11).
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
LD
1xP
Medium
LD+LL
2xP
Medium
Negative Pressure Wave (no leak location)

Negative Pressure Wave (with leak location)
Table 6: Functionality and instrumentation for negative pressure wave .
One pressure transmitter allows leak detection only. At least two transmitters are needed for leak localisation. In either
case, the selected transmitters must be capable of detecting rapid changes in pressure.
Application
Method
Medium
TRFL
Steady
(a) (c)
Steady
(a) (c) (e)
Pumping
Dynamics
Negative Pressure Wave (no leak location)
PC, SC
Negative Pressure Wave (with leak location)
PC, SC
5
Table 7: Fields of application for negative pressure wave .
The negative pressure wave method is able to detect leaks in steady state as well as in shut-in condition. It is only able
to detect leaks in steady state conditions, and small variations in pressure can easily lead to false alarms. Negative
pressure wave methods are most useful in liquid pipelines, as pressure waves are quickly attenuated in gas pipelines.
This technique meets the following TRFL requirements:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working system that can detect leaks in steady state conditions and
TRFL e), one system to detect the leak position.
LD = Leak detection, LL = Leak location, P = pressure sensor
PC = Pumping conditions, SC = Shut-in conditions
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Sensitivity
Method
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Leak
Types
Gas
Pressure Monitoring
High
Short
Long
Sudden
Flow Monitoring
High
Short
Long
Sudden
Table 8: Performance Parameters of Negative Pressure Wave
This technique will work without malfunction if pressure and flow stay constant in daily operation, which is true for some
liquid pipelines but never for gas pipelines. Statistical methods to prevent false alarms (Chapter 6) normally will not be
used. The only way to avoid false alarms is therefore to set wide alarm limits. This causes a short time to detect a leak
within liquid pipelines. In gas pipelines pressure changes are rather slow, so leak detection is also slow. This method
only detects sudden leaks of adequate size.
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Balancing Methods
Balancing Methods
5.1
Mass Balance
The mass balance method is based on the equation of conservation of mass. In the steady state, the mass entering a
leak-free pipeline (MI) will balance the mass leaving it (MO). In the more general case, the difference in mass at the two
ends must be balanced against the change of mass inventory of the pipeline (Mpipe). Over any given period of time, we
can therefore say
M I M O = M pipe
If there is no leak. In principle, the mass in the pipe depends on the density of the product multiplied by the volume of the
pipeline. Both are functions of temperature and pressure and the density is also a function of the composition of the
product. None of these values is necessarily constant along the pipeline.
Any addition mass imbalance indicates a leak. This can be quantified by rearranging the equation and adding a term for
leak mass (Mleak):
M leak = M I M O M pipe
These equations are valid in any consistent mass units.
5.1.1
Supposing that a leak were allowed to continue for a long period, the mass entering and leaving the pipeline would
increase indefinitely. The mass inventory of the pipeline, on the other hand, remains within a fixed range and in
reasonably steady conditions that range is quite narrow. Mpipe therefore becomes negligible over a sufficiently long
period, and the equation above reduces to:
M leak M I M O
Over a finite period (T), this equation is an approximation. We must therefore set a detection limit, below which an
apparent imbalance may the result of neglecting the inventory. This is the smallest detectable leak rate (). A leak is
declared if:
( M I M O ) > T
The time period T must be sufficiently long for the flow in and out of the pipeline to be large in comparison with the
change in pipeline inventory. In the following cases, a very large value will be required:
Start-up of a pipeline
Change of pressure at inlet or outlet, even the change is small
Product change
Most gas pipelines, most of the time
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Balancing Methods
5.1.2
Unlike the uncompensated mass balance, the compensated mass balance takes account of changes in pipeline
inventory. The mass inventory of a short section of pipeline with length s and cross-sectional area A containing a
product of density is given by:
M pipe = A s
Both density and pipe area may vary along the pipeline. To calculate the exact inventory of a pipeline of length L, it is
necessary to integrate the density profile:
L
M pipe = ( s ) A( s ).ds
0
It is not possible to determine the density profile along the pipeline directly. All practical methods are based on initially
determining the temperature and pressure profile, and then applying and equation of state an equation of state allows
the density to be calculated as a function of temperature and pressure. For products with multiple components such as
crude oil and natural gas, additional variables such as molecular weight or density at reference conditions are required.
The density of crude oil and common refined products can be calculated according to Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards Chapters 10 and 11, also known as [API 2540]. The density of gas can be calculated from pressure (p),
temperature (T), molecular weight (M) and compressibility factor (Z) according to the gas law:
Mp
ZRT
The value R is the universal gas constant, equal to 8.314472 J
( mol K ) . The compressibility factor represents the
deviation of the gas from ideal. For temperature and pressure well below the critical point, it often can be assumed to be
close to unity.
Three main methods are used to determine the pressure and temperature profile:
1.
Direct measurement of pressure and temperature. A quantity (n) of pressure (pi) and temperature (Ti)
transmitters must be installed sufficiently closely. The pipeline is then split into segments of known volume Vi
at each transducer pair, and the total inventory calculated using:
n
M pipe = Vi ( pi ,Ti )
i =1
2.
Determination with the help of a simple, steady state model. In liquid pipelines a linear decrease in pressure can
6
be assumed along the pipeline ; temperature of the fluid can be assumed to equal ground temperature for long
pipelines.
3.
Determination with the help of a Real-Time Transient Model (RTTM). The most accurate method is to use a
pipeline model that covers transient as well as steady state conditions. This allows the temperature and
pressure to be determined at every point see Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 describes PipePatrol SMB from KROHNE Oil & Gas. PipePatrol SMB is a mass balance system, which offers
the possibility to use one of all introduced methods, a), b), and c), to take account on the change of mass in inventory
M Pipe in the monitored pipeline.
5.2
Use of volumetric flow meters
It is not always practical to measure the mass flow in and out of the pipeline directly for example, direct mass meters
are only available in a limited range of sizes. It is possible to substitute volumetric flow meters, but the indicated volume
flow must be multiplied by line density to derive the mass. Depending on the application, the options for obtaining density
include:
This assumes a horizontal pipeline of constant internal roughness and cross-sectional area. Other cases require a modified approach.
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Balancing Methods
The density of liquids of known composition can be stored in a lookup table
The density can be directly measured
The density for crude oil and its products can be determined with the help of pressure and temperature using [API
2540], provided that a reference density is available
The density of gas can be calculated according to the gas law introduced in the previous section. For pure gas at low
pressure, a very simple approach is possible. For natural gas it will be necessary to measure the molecular weight,
for example using a gas chromatograph. At high pressure it will be necessary to calculate the compressibility factor.
Where volumetric flow meters are used, it can be convenient to express the pipeline balance in the form of standard
volume instead of mass. The standard volume (Vs) is defined as the mass (M) divided by the density at standard
conditions (s):
Vs =
The standard density is simply the product density at some fixed and agreed temperature and pressure, such as 1.01325
bar and 15C. In principle, conversion to standard volume simply involves dividing the mass balance equation by a
constant. The conversion can be more complicated in the case of a multi-product pipeline, where the product entering
the pipeline can be different from the product leaving it.
For liquids, the standard form of the API equation according to [API 2540] allows standard volume to be derived from
actual volume (VA) using two coefficients:
Vs = V A Ctl C pl
In this case, the mass flow is apparently bypassed though it is, in fact, still hidden in the derivation of the coefficients.
(V& , v )
M&
M&
Figure 1: Calculation of mass flow from volumetric flow
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16
Balancing Methods
5.3
Summary
The following table gives an overview of functionality and requirements (for more details, see Chapter 11.
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
LD
2xQ
High

Direct p and T measurement
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
n x (P,T)
High

Steady state model
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
High

RTTM
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
High
Table 9: Functionality and instrumentation for balancing methods .
All balancing methods require at least two flow meters, one at the inlet, the other at the outlet. They provide leak
detection, but no leak location. When the change in pipeline inventory is compensated, additional pressure and
temperature sensors are also needed. Demands on the accuracy of the flow meters are high, because their error limits
are also the detection limits.
Application
Method
Medium
TRFL
Steady
L/G
(a)
PC
Steady
Low Transient
L/G
(a)

Steady state model
PC
Steady
Low Transient
L/G
(a)

RTTM
PC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b)
Pumping
Dynamics
PC

Table 10: Fields of application for balancing methods .
Balancing methods can be used only in pumping conditions: use in shut-in conditions is not possible. Uncompensated
mass balance is only able to monitor steady state conditions. Compensated mass balance is able to monitor for leaks in
the presence of moderate transients, but the detection time will be increased. Uncompensated mass balance is limited to
liquid pipelines; compensated mass balance can monitor gas pipelines more or less. This technique meets the following
TRFL requirements:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working system that can detect leaks in steady state conditions.
Only the RTTM-compensated mass balance meets this TRFL requirement:
TRFL b) one of these systems, or a third one, has to be able to detect leaks in transient conditions.
LD = Leak detection, Q = Flow sensor, T= Temperature sensor, P = Pressure sensor, TG = Ground temperature sensor
PC = Pumping conditions, L = Liquid, G = gas
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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Balancing Methods

Sensitivity
Method
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Leak
Types
Gas

Medium
Long
Very Long
Both

Medium
Medium
Long
Both

Steady state model
Medium
Medium
Medium
Both

RTTM
Medium
Short
Short
Both
Table 11: Performance parameters for balancing methods.
All balancing methods achieve (using accurate flow meters) a medium detection limit. Uncompensated mass balance
has a long time to detect, while compensation for change of inventory helps to shorten the detection time. RTTMcompensated mass balance shows the best results. Leak detection time is longer for gases because of the dynamic
inertia of pressure and flow. All balancing methods detect sudden leaks as well as gradual leaks of adequate size.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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Statistical Leak Detection Systems use statistical methods to detect a leak. This leads to the opportunity to optimise the
decision if a leak exists in the sense of chosen statistical parameters. However it makes great demands on
measurements. They need to be steady state (in a statistical sense) for example. Statistical LDSs have poor sensitivity in
transient conditions unless they are adapted, for example using a Real-Time Transient Model
Statistical methods can improve the performance of all leak detection methods introduced in this survey. This chapter
describes statistical LDSs based on Uncompensated mass balance, Chapter 5.1.1, because these systems are common.
TM
ATMOS Pipe from ATMOS International [Zhang] is an example.
Statistical Leak Detection Systems use methods and processes from decision theory [Kay]. The hypothesis-test for leak
detection based on the Uncompensated mass balance, Chapter 5.1.1, uses either a single measurement, or multiple
measurements made at different times.
& = M& M& can be used to decide between two hypotheses, H and H :
One or more measurements of M
0
1
I
O
H 0 : No leak
H 1 : Leak
Every individual measurement is described by conditional probability density function p M& | H 0
(no leak) and p M& | H1
) for hypothesis H
) for hypothesis H
(leak). In general a Gaussian distribution is assumed:
Figure 2: Conditional probability density functions
& to one of the both hypothesis H and H , an alarm limit is defined. The test
To assign a single measurement M
0
1
than is defined as follows:
H 0 : No leak
M&
> H1 : Leak
6.1
Probability Ratio Test
The art of the Probability Ratio Test is to choose a value of so that:
No false alarm is given under leak free conditions ( PFA = P ( M > | H 0 true ) min ), and
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An alarm is always given under leak conditions ( PM = P ( M | H1 true ) min )
This problem is solved throughout the family of Probability-Ratio-Tests. Details can be found in [Kroschel] for example.
6.2
Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT)
& . Statistical methods are more

The Probability Ratio Test bases its classification result on one single measurement M
powerful when testing a whole collection of data:
& = [M& K M& ]

M
1
N
& is described by the conditional probability density function p M

& |H
The characteristic of the collection of data M
0
& |H
for hypotheses H 0 (no leak) and p M
1
for hypotheses H 1 (leak). [Wald] published the Sequential Probability
Ratio Test (SPRT) in the early 40s, which leads to a recursive algorithm that can be used for online-testing.
6.3
Summary
The following table gives an overview of functionality and requirements (for more details, see Chapter 11).
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
2xQ
Medium
Statistical LDS
LD
9
Table 12: Functional summary of statistical LDSs .
Statistical methods need two flow meters at least, one at the inlet, the other one at the outlet. They provide leak
detection, but no leak location. The use of statistical methods can reduce the demands on accuracy of the flow meters.
Possible fields of application are:
Application
Method
Pumping
Dynamics
PC
Steady
Low Transient
Medium
TRFL
L/G
(a)
Statistical LDS
10
Table 13: Fields of application for statistical LDSs .
Statistical LDSs can be used in pumping conditions, but not under shut-in conditions. Statistical LDSs are able to operate
in moderate transient conditions, but with increased leak detection time. Statistical LDS provides moderate performance
on gas pipelines. They tick the following boxes:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working system that can detect leaks in steady state conditions.
LD = Leak detection
10
PC = Pumping conditions
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Sensitivity
Method
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Leak
Types
Gas
Statistical LDS
Low
Long
Very Long
Both
Table 14: Performance parameters for statistical LDSs.
Statistical LDS have are very sensitive with a low alarm limit, but time to detect is rather long. Statistical methods detect
sudden leaks as well as gradual leaks of adequate size.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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Leak Location
Leak Location
When a leak is detected, it is important to locate it. An exact leak location gives the opportunity to take swift containing
action to minimise harm to people and the environment. Localilsed repairs can then be carried out cost-effectively.
7.1
Gradient Intersection Method
The gradient intersection method is based on the fact that the pressure profile along the pipeline with its length L will
change significantly if a leak occurs.
V&I
dVLeak
dt
V&O
Figure 3: Leak location by gradient intersection method

11
Pressure drop in a leak free pipeline is linear (dashed, green line in Figure 3). If a leak occurs, the pressure profile
develops a kink at the leak point (continuous, red line). The leak location can be determined by calculating the
intersection point of the pressure profiles upstream and downstream of the leak. The classic gradient intersection
approach calculates the gradient of both lines using two pressure readings near the inlet and two pressure readings near
the outlet. The model-based gradient intersection method as used by PipePatrol E-RTTM LDS Chapter 10, calculates the
two gradients with the help of the real time transient model, computed by flow and pressure measurements at in- and
outlet.
Direct use of pressure measurements achieves accurate results, but only if pipeline is in steady state. The origin or
development of the leak (sudden or gradual) does not matter. PipePatrol E-RTTM uses the RTTM based gradient
intersection method, which compensates transients leading to good results even under highly transient conditions.
7.2
Wave Propagation Method
A sudden leak caused, for example, by careless use of an excavator, leads to a negative pressure wave propagating at
the speed of sound (c) up- and downstream through the pipeline of given length (L). Such a wave can be recognised
using installed pressure transmitters, giving a leak alarm. The leak position can be determined
12
if the moment
(downstream) and up (upstream), when this negative wave passes the transmitters is measured. Setting
the leak location is:
sLeak =
tdown
t = t down tup
1
( L c t )
2
The wave propagation method needs an identifiable negative pressure wave. Results will be good, if a leak is sufficiently
large and sudden. Small and/or gradual leaks cannot be located by this method. In practical use, it is limited to steady
state conditions. It is able to locate leaks in pumping or in shut-in conditions. PipePatrol E-RTTM uses the RTTM based
gradient intersection method, which compensates transients leading to good results even under highly transient
conditions..
11
This is true for liquid pipelines with constant local wall friction coefficient kR, a constant cross-section A, and a horizontal built pipeline.
The method must be slightly modified in other cases.
12
The speed of sound is not constant in liquid pipelines under multi-product condition or in gas pipelines. The method has to be modified
slightly.
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RTTM means Real-Time Transient Model. Some LDSs of the PipePatrol-LDS-Family by KROHNE Oil & Gas are based
on RTTM, also known as the Pipeline Observer. Chapter 9 introduces PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB), a
mass balance system using RTTM for calculating the change in inventory. It also uses statistical methods introduced in
Chapter 6. The KROHNE flagship is PipePatrol Extended Real-Time Transient Model (E-RTTM), which combines
RTTM technology used for the residual-method (Chapter 8.2) with leak signature analysis to prevent false alarms,
Chapter 10.
RTTM systems build mathematical models of the flow within a pipeline using basic physical laws such as:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of energy
When combined with an equation of state, introduced in Chapter 5, RTTM systems easily model transient and steady
state flow in a pipeline. A transient state means a large change in short time, so flow, pressure, temperature and density
may all change rapidly. The changes propagate like waves through the pipeline with the speed of sound (c) of the fluid.
Transient state conditions occur in a pipeline for example:
At start-up
If the pressure at inlet or outlet changes, even the change is small
When a batch changes or when multiple products are in the pipeline
Gas pipelines are almost always in transient conditions, because gases are very compressible. Even in liquid pipelines
transient effects cannot be disregarded.
An RTTM makes it possible to calculate mass flow, pressure, density and temperature at every point along the pipeline in
real-time with the help of mathematical algorithms. These solutions are called local profiles. The outputs of the RTTM are
()
shown in the diagrams that follow using the format: p s , for example. The "^" is used to indicate that the values are not
measured, but calculated. The addition of (s) indicates that these are not simple point values, but profiles and therefore
functions of the distance along the pipeline (s).
Calculation of the local profiles needs process measurements at the inlet (subscript I) and outlet (subscript O) of the
pipeline these points are known together as the head stations. Various combinations of measurement are possible,
as we shall see in a moment. A value of ground temperature, TG is also needed, assuming that the pipeline is
underground. As it does not vary much along a pipeline in practice, one sensor is used to measure a representative
"assumed constant" value.
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The simplest and lowest-cost possibility for RTTM is shown in Figure 4. In this case only temperature and pressure at
the head stations are fed into the RTTM, along with ground temperature.
Flow (F)
Pressure (P)
Inlet
Outlet
Temperature (T) of Fluid

Temperature (T) of Ground
PI TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O PO
RTTM (Pipeline Observer)
M& ( s )
( s )
p ( s )
T ( s )
Figure 4: RTTM to calculate local profiles; model using pressure readings
13
It is also possible to implement the model using flow at the head stations instead of pressure:
Flow (F)
Pressure (P)
Inlet
Outlet
Temperature (T) of Fluid

Temperature (T) of Ground
vI
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
M& ( s )
p ( s )
( s )
vO
T ( s )
Figure 5: RTTM to calculate local profiles; model using flow readings
14
Especially in shut-in conditions (chapter 10) this method of RTTM is used.
13
Subscripts are used as follows: "I" = inlet, "O" = outlet, "G" = ground
14
The RTTM is needs the flow as a velocity v in m/s. Usually, flow is given in terms of mass or volume flow, so velocity has to be
calculated. Details can be found in section 8.4
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Compensation Approach
It was mentioned in 5.1.2 that a compensated mass balance calculation needs to integrate the density () at every point
along the pipeline in order to determine the mass inventory of the pipe. The RTTM provides the necessary information to
do so accurately, as shown in Figure 6.
Inlet
Outlet
PI
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
PO

( s )
A ( s ) ( s ) ds
Line Pack
Compensation
M Pipe
d/dt
M& I
dM Pipe dt
-
M& O
M& = M& Leak

Figure 6: Compensated mass balance with RTTM based compensation
15
In this implementation, the RTTM calculates the density profile based on pressure and temperature at the head stations.
Independent flow measurements at the head stations are combined with the calculated pipeline inventory to perform a
complete mass balance.
PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB) (Chapter 9) combines the mass balance with statistical methods (Chapter6)
and RTTM-technology.
15
The flow needs to be mass flow here; if volume flow given, mass flow has to be calculated see chapter 5.2
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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Head Stations Residual or Differential Approach

The flow at head stations in Figure 7 is not necessary to calculate the local profiles, as pressure is used for this
purpose. The RTTM calculates flow at the end points of the pipe as well as everywhere else. It is therefore possible
check the difference between measured and calculated flow. A difference between the two indicates a change in the
dynamics of the pipeline in other words, a suspicion that there may be a leak.
Inlet
Outlet
PI
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
PO
RTTM (no leak) = Pipeline Observer

M& I
M I
M O
-
M& O
Flow-Residuals
Figure 7: Residual or differential approach for head station monitoring
16
Both of the Flow-Residuals can be used as leak indicators
x M& I M& I
y M& O M& O
The no-leak hypothesis H0 is true if the indicated flows agree sufficiently closely with the model. The leak-present
hypothesis H1 is true if there is a positive residual at the inlet and/or a negative residual at the outlet. Mathematically:
H 0 : No leak
x 0, y 0
x > 0, y < 0
H1 : Leak
We insist on the appropriate signs for the residuals because a positive residual at the outlet, for example, would indicate
that more fluid was leaving the pipeline than expected. In other words, the cases x < 0 and y > 0 would indicate a
negative leak. This tells us something interesting about the performance of the meters or the validity of the RTTM, but it
is not a physically realistic basis for declaring a leak alarm.
PipePatrol E-RTTM (Chapter 10) uses this technology together with statistical methods (Chapter 6) and RTTMtechnology.
16
The flow here needs to be mass; if volume flow given, mass flow has to be calculated see section 5.2.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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Substations Residual or Differential Approach

If a pipeline is long enough, substations with pressure sensors will often be included. The indicated pressures can be
compared with those calculated using the RTTM method, giving pressure residuals as follows:
zi = pi p i , 1 i n
A significant residual leads to a suspicion of a leak, although negative leaks are once again ignored for the purposes of
leak monitoring.
p1
p1
Figure 8: Residual or differential approach for pressure substation
p 2
p2
17 18
Note that temperature and flow measurement at the substations are unnecessary.
8.1
Flow Calculation
Flow Q can be expressed in three ways:
Mass flow M& e.g. in kg/s or t/h is needed for Line-Pack-Compensation (Figure 5) or flow-residuals (Figure 6).
Volume flow V& e.g. in m3/s or m3/h.
Flow velocity v in m/s. This way is needed for RTTM as shown in Figure 4.
The relation between those values is given by M& = A V& = A v , where A is the cross section of the pipeline in m2 and
the density of the fluid in kg/m3. Three options for calculating density have already been presented in Chapter 5.2.
17
For a better point of view only two substations are shown. The method is able to handle as much substation as present at the pipeline.
18
P-substations provide pressure readings; P,T-substations provide temperature readings in addition; P,T,F-substations provide flow
readings in addition.
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PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB) combines mass balance with statistical methods (Chapter 6) and RTTMtechnology (chapter 8). Figure 9 presents an overview.
Inlet
Outlet
PI
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
PO
Line Pack Compensation
Without compensation
Using measured p and T along the pipeline
Using stationary model
Using RTTM
dM Pipe dt
M&
M& I
M&
M&
M& O
Leak Classification
Classification:
- Leak yes/no
- if yes: leak flow
Figure 9: Functionality of PipePatrol SMB
19
The estimated leak rate is analysed by a statistical leak classifier. This reliably prevents false alarms. Line pack
compensation is possible with any of those methods presented in Chapter 5.1.2. Leak classification provides the
following advantages:
Minimum probability of a false alarm ( PFA min )
Maximum probability of giving an alarm in leak conditions ( PM min )
9.1
Summary
An overview of functionality and requirements is given in the following table (functionality and requirements in
comparison to the other, introduced methods will be summarized in Chapter 11).
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
Medium
PipePatrol SMB
PipePatrol SMB
uncompensated
LD
2xQ
PipePatrol SMB
with direct P and T compensation
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
n x (P,T)
Medium
PipePatrol SMB
with steady state model
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
Medium
PipePatrol SMB
with RTTM
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
Medium
High20
High
High
20
20
21
Table 15: Functionality and instrumentation of PipePatrol SMB .
19
The transformation of the volume flow Q to mass flow is done within PipePatrol, see chapter 5.2.
20
Medium when meeting TRFL (a), high when meeting TRFL (d)
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All balancing methods need at least two flow meters, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet. They provide leak
detection, but no leak location. If the change in pipeline inventory is compensated, the compensation method defines
additional instrumentation such as pressure and temperature sensors.
If PipePatrol SMB is combined with highly accurate flow meters, it can detect gradual leaks according to TRFL d). The
accuracy requirement on the flow can be reduced if all that is required is an autonomous, continuously operating system
that can detect leaks within steady state conditions. These demands are lower than when statistical methods are not
used.
Application
Method
Medium
TRFL
Steady
Low Transient
L/G
(a)
PC
Steady
Low Transient
L/G
(a) (d)
PipePatrol SMB
PC
Steady
Low Transient
L/G
(a) (d)
PipePatrol SMB
with RTTM
PC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b) (d)
Pumping
Dynamics
PipePatrol SMB
uncompensated
PC
PipePatrol SMB
PipePatrol SMB
22
Table 16: Possible fields of application of PipePatrol SMB .
All versions of PipePatrol-SMB can be used in pumping conditions, but use under shut-in conditions is not possible. All
versions of PipePatrol SMB are capable of handling low transient conditions, even on gas pipelines. PipePatrol SMB
based on RTTM technology is able to monitor in heavily transient conditions, for example start up and shutdown
conditions, and shows outstanding performance on gas pipelines. All versions of PipePatrol SMB are capable of offering:
TRFL a), an autonomous, continuous working system, which can detect leaks within steady state conditions.
If pipeline inventory compensation is used and the flow meters are accurate, PipePatrol SMB is also able to offer:
TRFL d), a system to detect gradual leaks.
PipePatrol SMB combined with RTTM technology additionally offers:
TRFL c), a system able to detect leaks in transient conditions.
21
LD = Leak Detection, LL = Leak Location.
22
PC = Pumping Conditions, SC = Shut-in Conditions.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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The following table lists the associated performance parameters. As the performance varies according to whether
gradual leak detection is required, two sets of sensitivity requirements are given in some cases:
TRFL
Method
Sensitivity
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Leak
Types
Gas
PipePatrol SMB
PipePatrol SMB
uncompensated
PipePatrol SMB
Low
Long
Very Long
(a)
Low
Medium
Long
(d)
Very low
Long
Very Long
PipePatrol SMB
(a)
Low
Medium
Long
(d)
Very low
Long
Very Long
PipePatrol SMB
with RTTM
(a)
Low
Short
Medium
(d)
Very low
Medium
Long
Both
Both
Both
Both
Table 17: Performance parameters of PipePatrol SMB.
All versions of PipePatrol-SMB offer (very) sensitive alarming thresholds. Time to detect a leak is long without pipeline
inventory compensation, but shortens significantly if it is available. Use of highly accurate flow meters enables detection
of gradual leaks in which case very sensitive alarming thresholds are possible, but time to detect a leak will rise. Time
to detect a leak is longer for gas pipelines because of the dynamic inertia of pressure and flow. All versions of PipePatrolSMB detect both sudden and gradual leaks of sufficient size.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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10
10
PipePatrol E-RTTM is KROHNEs flagship LDS, which fuses the RTTM technology described in chapter 8 with leak
signature analysis described in chapter 10.1 in a unique manner. For this reason it is called Extended RTTM
[Geiger/Werner/Matko]. PipePatrol E-RTTM is able to monitor pipelines in pumping conditions (PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC,
Pumping Condition) and in shut-in conditions (PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC, Stand-still Condition or Shut-In Condition).
10.1
An LDS that generate false alarms cannot be trusted, so it is a key task to eliminate them. PipePatrol E-RTTM uses leak
signature analysis, which executes after the pipeline observer, to prevent them. In this second stage residuals are
analysed for leak signatures:
Sudden leak. This classical leak develops quickly by external damage of the pipeline. It causes a dynamic signature
in residuals. When such a leak recognised, a leak alarm will be reported and the leak location and leak flow are
determined.
Sensor drift or gradual leak. These may occur by contamination of the flow meter or by small leaks caused by
corrosion. They result in indistinguishable, slow signatures. When drift is recognized, a sensor alarm is reported and
the apparent leak flow is determined.
This boosts the reliability and the robustness of the system without compromise to sensitivity and accuracy. False alarms
are prevented, even with low alarm thresholds.
10.2
Leak Location
PipePatrol E-RTTM locates leaks using two methods, both introduced in chapter 7:
Model-based gradient intersection method
Model-based wave propagation method
The model-based gradient intersection method ([Billmann]) is calculated using the mass residuals at the head station (x,
y). For a pipeline of length L:
zLeak =
y
L
x y
The model based wave propagation method analyses residuals x and y for the appearance of a step. If a step is
recognized downstream at time tdown in y, and recognized upstream at time tup in x, the leak location can be determined
by the runtime difference t = t down tup :
sLeak =
1
( L c t )
2
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10
10.3
PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC Leak Detection in Pumping Condition
10.3.1
Head stations monitoring
Inlet
Outlet
PI
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
PO

Q
M& I
M&
M& O
M& I
M& O
M&
y
Leak
Signatures
(Head-End Station)
Leak-Alarm
Leak flow and location
Figure 10: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, head station monitoring
Sensor-Alarm
23
The example in Figure 10 shows head station monitoring based on the residual approach described in chapter 8.2. With
the help of the RTTM, PipePatrol E-RTTM compares the measured flow at inlet and outlet with the calculated flow
assuming a leak free pipeline. The flow residuals, which are used by the leak signature analysis, are:
x M& I M& I
y M& O M& O
Use of the RTTM Pipeline Observer compensates the transient behaviour of the pipeline. Even under heavy transient
conditions (for example during pipeline start-up) residuals stay close to zero in leak-free conditions. Sensitive leak
detection is therefore possible in transient conditions
The dynamic-free residuals are now passed to the second stage, the leak signature analysis. Its tasks according to
Chapter 10.1 and 10.2 are to:
Manage alarms
Determine leak rate and leak location.
23
The transformation of the volume flow Q to mass flow is done within PipePatrol, see Chapter 8
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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10
10.3.2
Substation monitoring without flow measurement
Inlet
Substation 1
Substation 2
Section I->1
PI
TF,I
Section 1->2
Section 2->O
Outlet
TG,I->O
TF,O
PO

p1
Leak
Signatures
p1
p 2
z1
z2

(Substation 1)
p2

(Substation 2)
Leak
Signatures
Substation Evaluation
Leak-Alarms Section (i)->(i+1)
Sensor-Alarms Section (i)->(i+1)
Figure 11: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, pressure at substations (Substation monitoring without flow by pressure
24
residuals) .
The example in Figure 11 shows a pipeline with pressure measurement at substations, an idea already introduced in
Section 8.3. The RTTM Pipeline Observer uses pressure and temperature sensors at the head stations to calculate the
local profiles, including the pressure profile along the pipe. Any discrepancy between the calculated and the observed
pressure at the substations indicates a change in the pipeline dynamics: in other words, a leak. The pressure residual at
each station is:
zi = pi p i , 1 i n
These are used by the leak signature analysis to detect a leak and find its location. This kind of pipeline monitoring is
called substation monitoring. The Pipeline Observer compensates for any transient behaviour of the pipeline.
The compensated residuals are now passed to the second stage, the leak signature analysis. Its task is to manage
alarms for each individual substation. Results of leak signature analysis are combined in a Substation Evaluation stage,
which groups substation alarms and determines leak flow rate and leak location.
24
Two substations are shown for clarity. The method is able to handle any number of substations
KROHNE Oil & Gas
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10
10.3.3
Segment monitoring for substations with flow measurement
M&
M& I( I 1)
M& 1( I 1)
M& I
M&
M& 1(12)
M& 1
M& 2(12)
M& I
M&
M& 2
(2O )
M& 2(2O ) M& O
M&
M& O
25
Figure 12: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, PTF substations (segment monitoring by measured flow with flow residuals) .
The example in Figure 12 shows a special case where flow measurement is available at substations in addition to
pressure and temperature. This configuration permits Segment Monitoring, where the pipeline is split into independent
segments as shown in the diagram. Only two substations are shown for clarity, but the method can be scaled to cover as
many as required.
Independent RTTM Pipeline Observers and E-RTTM Leak Classifiers may be applied in parallel to every segment, each
using the methods already introduced in earlier sections. The shorter length of the monitored sections compared to the
overall length of the pipeline leads to several advantages:
Significantly lower smallest detectable leak rate
Significantly shorter time to detect a leak
Significant improvement in accuracy of leak location
The Segment Evaluation chooses the segment that shows the most significant leak signature, determines whether a leak
alarm or a sensor alarm is present, and reports the leak location and flow if appropriate.
This method achieves better performance then the method shown in Figure 11, especially on gas pipelines. The
disadvantage is the complex instrumentation needed at the substations.
KROHNE Oil and Gas is able to configure this method to assign pipeline segments dynamically. For example, in the
event of a transmitter failure at substation 1 it is possible to skip this station and perform leak detection between the inlet
station and substation 2.
25
Ground temperature is omitted for clarity
KROHNE Oil & Gas
34
10
10.3.4
Leak detection with substations and virtual flow monitoring
M&
M& I( I 1)
M& 1( I 1)
M& 1(12)
M& I
M& 2(12)
M& I
M& 2(2O ) & (2O )

MO
M&
M& O
Figure 13: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, PT substations (segment monitoring by virtual flow with flow residuals).
The disadvantage of the complex and expensive instrumentation from chapter 10.3.3 can be eliminated by the virtual
flow measurement, as shown in Figure 13. The functionality is nearly the same as shown in Figure 12, except that
direct flow measurement is replaced by values calculated in the RTTM Pipeline Observer.
Each RTTM Pipeline Observer calculates flow at every point along its associated segment, including the inlet and the
outlet. The measured flow at the head stations is compared with the calculated flow in the usual way. At intermediate
stations, the calculated outlet flow for the section upstream is simply compared with the calculated inlet flow for the
section downstream.
This method has no significant disadvantages compared to real flow measurement at intermediate stations. As only one
RTTM Pipeline Observer calculates the flow at the head stations, a real flow measurement is still needed at these
locations for comparison.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
35
10
M&
M& I( I 1)
M& 1( I 1)
M& 1(12)
M& 2(12)
M& 2(2O ) & (2O )

M
O
M&
M& O
M& I
Figure 14: PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC: pumping conditions, P substations (segment monitoring by virtual flow with flow residuals).
It is possible to take this approach even further. Figure 14 shows a pipeline with only pressure sensors at the
substations. The functionality of configuration is nearly the same as shown in Figure 13, except that the temperature at
substations is now calculated by an additional single RTTM Pipeline Observer.
This single RTTM Pipeline Observer calculates temperature profile along the entire pipeline, using inputs from the head
stations. In leak-free conditions, this gives exact temperature values at every substation. In case of a leak, the dynamics
of the pipeline are disturbed so in principle the calculated temperature values will show an error. As leak flow has little
effect on pipeline temperature, these errors are negligible in practice.
Using an RTTM Pipeline Observer, it is therefore possible not only to eliminate flow measurement at substations but
temperature measurements also. This is highly advantageous, as all intrusive process measurements are now
eliminated. With the KROHNE Oil and Gas E-RTTM model, it is therefore possible to realise the advantages of
Substation Leak Monitoring without compromising the ability to pig the pipeline from end to end.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
36
10
10.4
PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC Leak Detection in Shut-in Conditions
PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC is the abbreviated form of PipePatrol E-RTTM/Stand-Still or Shut-In Conditions. A model-based
pressure-temperature method is used, which is valid for both liquid and gas pipelines. In shut-in conditions the pipeline is
pressurised using pumps and valves, the fluid is sealed in the pipeline, and the pressure is monitored. The relevant
valves must be leak-tight, and this should be considered when choosing them.
10.4.1
Head Station Monitoring
Inlet
Outlet
TF,I
TG,I->O
TF,O
M& I = 0
pI
p I
p O
zI
zO
M& O = 0
pO
Leak
Signatures
(Head-End Station)
Leak-Alarm
Sensor-Alarm
Figure 15: PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC: shut-in conditions, no substations - Head station monitoring
The simple case in Figure 15 shows leak monitoring in shut-in conditions. It is possible to deduce even without direct
measurement that the flow at the inlet and outlet should be zero. The RTTM Pipeline Observer can use this to calculate
the local profiles, including the expected pressure at the two head stations. It is possible to compare these with the
measured values, giving pressure residuals zI and zO:
z I = pI p I
zO = pO p O
The RTTM Pipeline Observer is able to compensate transient behaviour of the pipeline in shut-in conditions. In addition,
the equation of state in the RTTM compensates for temperature influence on pressure.
The compensated residuals are passed to the E-RTTM Leak Signature Analysis, as introduced in chapter 10.3. Leak rate
and leak location will be determined when necessary.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
37
10
M& I = 0
pI
M& O = 0
p I
p1
p1
p 2
p2
p O
pO
Figure 16: PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC: shut-in condition, P substations

26
(Substation monitoring with pressure residuals) .
Figure 16 shows a pipeline with substations. The pressure profile for the entire pipe is calculated using one RTTM
Pipeline Observer. Calculated pressures can then be compared with measured values at the head stations and the
substations.
If the relevant valves are completely leak tight, even very small, gradual leaks will be recognised. In this case, PipePatrol
E-RTTM/SC meets the requirements of TRFL (d).
26
Only two substations are shown for clarity. The method is able to handle as many substations as required.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
38
10
Summary
An overview of functionality and requirements is given in the following table (see Chapter 11 for more details).
Instrumentation
Method
Function
Complexity
Demands
PipePatrol E-RTTM, KROHNE Oil & Gas

PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC
Head station monitoring
LD+LL
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
Medium
Substation monitoring
LD+LL
2 x (Q,P,T)
TG
nxP
Medium
Segment monitoring
LD+LL
2 x (Q,P,T) TG
n x (Q,P,T)
Medium
Segment monitoring by virtual flow
LD+LL
2 x (Q,P,T) TG
nxP
Medium
PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC
LD+LL
2 x (P,T)
TG
Medium
LD+LL
2 x (P,T)
TG
nxP
Medium
27
Table 18: Functionality and instrumentation of PipePatrol E-RTTM .
All versions of PipePatrol-E-RTTM in pumping conditions (PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC) need measurements of flow,
temperature and pressure at the head stations. Ground temperature is reasonably constant along the pipeline, so a
single representative measurement at some point along the pipeline is sufficient. All versions of PipePatrol-E-RTTM in
shut-in conditions (PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC) need measurements of temperature and pressure at the head stations.
PipePatrol-E-RTTM provides leak detection and leak location in both pumping condition and shut-in condition. Use of
statistical methods reduces the demands on instrumentation to medium. In particular, the absolute accuracy of the
instruments does not matter.
Possible fields of application are:
Application
Method
Medium
TRFL
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b) (e)
PC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b) (e)
Segment monitoring
PC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b) (e)
PC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(a) (b) (e)
SC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(c) (d) (e)
SC
Steady
Transient
L/G
(c) (d) (e)
Pumping
Dynamics
PC
28
Table 19: Possible fields of application of PipePatrol E-RTTM .
27
LD = Leak Detection, LL = Leak Location.
28
PC = Pumping Conditions, SC = Shut-in Conditions.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
39
10
PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC provides leak detection in pumping conditions; PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC provides leak detection in
shut-in conditions. All versions are able to monitor steady state, and transient conditions. Even gas pipelines can be
monitored without problems.
PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC performs the following functions:
TRFL a), one autonomous, continuous working systems, which can detect leaks within steady state conditions
TRFL b), one of these systems, or a third one, has to be able to detect leaks in transient conditions
PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC performs the following functions:
TRFL d), one system to detect gradual leaks,
TRFL
Method
Sensitivity
Leak
Types
Alarm
Threshold
Time to Detect
Liquid
Gas
Low
Very short
Medium
Both
Low
Very short
Long
Both
Segment monitoring
Low
Very short
Short
Both
Low
Very short
Short
Both
(c)
Low
Short
Long
(d)
Very low
Long
Very Long
(c)
Low
Short
Long
(d)
Very low
Long
Very Long
Both
Both
Table 20: Performance parameters of PipePatrol E-RTTM.
All versions of PipePatrol-E-RTTM provide a sensitive alarm threshold, PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC even a very sensitive
alarming threshold if required. PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC provides very short times to detect a leak for liquid pipelines. Time
to detect a leak becomes longer for gas pipelines because of the dynamic inertia of the fluid. Instead of substation
monitoring, section monitoring should be used here, because it is much faster. If PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC is used to
detect very slow gradual leaks, time to detect a leak will raise.
All versions of PipePatrol-E-RTTM are able to detect and locate sudden leaks as well as gradual leaks of sufficient size.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
40

11

11
Instrumentation
Sensitivity
Condition
Stationary State
Stationary/
Transient
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
a), c)
a)
a), c)
High
High
High
High
Long
Short
Short
Short
Short
Long
Very Long
Long
Long
Medium
Long
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
Spontaneous
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Leak
PC, SC
Stationary State
Liquid
a), c), e)
Medium
Medium
Medium
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Fields of Application
Low
PC
Stationary State
Liquid
a)
Medium
Medium
Short
Time to detect
Gas
1xP
Low
PC, SC
Stationary State
Liquid
a)
Medium
Short
Time to detect
Liquid
LD
1xQ
Medium
PC, SC
Stationary State
Liquid
Gas
a)
Medium
AlarmingThreshold
Pressure Monitoring
LD
1xP
Medium
PC
Stationary State
Light Transient
Liquid
Gas
a), b)
TRFL
Flow Monitoring
LD
2xP
High
PC
Stationary State
Light Transient
Liquid
Gas
a)
Main
Application
Negativ Pressure Wave

(without leak location)
LD+LL
2xQ
High
PC
Stationary State
Transient
Liquid
Gas
Demands
Negativ Pressure Wave

(with leak location)
LD
2 x (Q,P,T)
n x (P,T)
High
PC
Stationary State
Light Transient
Complexity
Mass Balance,
uncompensated
LD
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
High
PC
Function
Mass Balance,
compensated, Metering p and T (Case a)
LD
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
Medium
Method
Mass Balance,
compensated, Stationary Model (Case b)
LD
2xQ
Substations Monitoring
Head Stations Monitoring
PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB),

RTTM

Stationary Model

Metering p and T along the Pipeline

uncompensated
LD+LL
LD+LL
LD+LL
LD
LD
LD
LD
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
nxP
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
n x (Q,P,T)
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
nxP
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
2 x (Q,P,T); TG
2 x (Q,P,T)
n x (P,T)
2xQ
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium TRFL a)
High TRFL d)
Medium TRFL a)
High TRFL d)
Medium TRFL a)
High TRFL d)
Medium
SC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Transient
Stationary State
Light Transient
Stationary State
Light Transient
Stationary State
Light Transient
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Liquid
Gas
c), d), e)
c), d), e)
a), b), e)
a), b), e)
a), b), e)
a), b), e)
a), b), d)
a), d)
a), d)
a)
Low TRFL c)
Very Low TRFL d)
Low TRFL c)
Very Low TRFL d)
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low TRFL a)
Very Low TRFL d)
Low TRFL a)
Very Low TRFL d)
Low TRFL a)
Very Low TRFL d)
Low
Low
Short TRFL c)
Long TRFL d)
Short TRFL c)
Long TRFL d)
Very Short
Very Short
Very Short
Very Short
Short TRFL a)
Medium TRFL d)
Medium TRFL a)
Long TRFL d)
Medium TRFL a)
Long TRFL d)
Long
Long
Long TRFL c)
Very Long TRFL d)
Long TRFL c)
Very Long TRFL d)
Short
Short
Long
Medium
Medium TRFL a)
Long TRFL d)
Long TRFL a)
Very Long TRFL d)
Long TRFL a)
Very Long TRFL d)
Very Long
Very Long
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Spontaneous
+ Creeping
Statistical LDS
Balancing Methods
Pressure- and Flow Monitoring
Mass Balance,
compensated, RTTM (case c)
LD
Segment Monitoring
LD+LL
2 x (P,T); TG
SC
PipePatrol E-RTTM, Krohne Oil & Gas
PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB), Krohne Oil & Gas
Segment Monitoring by Virtual Flow
LD+LL
Medium
41
KROHNE Oil & Gas
Mass Balance,
uncompensated
Head Stations Monitoring
2 x (P,T); TG
nxP
14.07.2008
LD+LL
Q = Flow, P = Pressure, T = Fluid-Temperature, TG = Ground-Temperature

LD = Leak Detection, LL = Leak Location
PC = Pumping Condition, SC = Standstill Condition
a) continous stationary conditions, b) continous transient conditions, c) standstill condition, d) Creepinges leak, e) leak location
Stand:
Substations Monitoring
Legende
Instrumentation:
Function:
Conditions:
TRFL:
Table 21: Comparison of all methods for leak detection.
Bibliography
Bibliography
[API 1130]
API 1130: Computational Pipeline Monitoring for Liquid Pipelines. American Petroleum
Institute, 2002.
[API 1155]
API 1155: Evaluation Methodology for Software Based Leak Detection Systems.
American Petroleum Institute, 1995.
[API 2540]
API 2540: Volume Correction Factors. American Petroleum Institute, 2002.
[Baehr]
Baehr, H. D.: Thermodynamik. Springer, 1996.
[Billmann]
Billmann, L.: Methoden zur Leckberwachung und Regelung von Gasfernleitungen.

Fortschrittsberichte VDI Reihe 8, VDI-Verlag.
[Bohl]
Bohl, W.: Technische Strmungslehre. Vogel-Verlag, 12. Auflage, 2002.
[Geiger/Werner/Matko]
Geiger, G., Werner, T., Matko, D.: Leak Detection and Locating A Survey. 35
Annual PSIG Meeting, 15 October 17 October 2003, Bern, Switzerland.
[Hancock]
Hancock, John C.; Wintz, Paul A.: Signal Detection Theory. McGraw Hill, 1966.
[Kay]
Kay, Steven M.: Fundamentals of Statistical Signal Processing, Volume 2. Prentice

Hall, 1998.
[Krass/Kittel/Uhde]
Krass, W., Kittel, A., Uhde, A.: Pipelinetechnik. Verlag TV Rheinland, 1979.
[Kroschel]
Kroschel, K.: Statistische Nachrichtentheorie. Springer-Verlag, 1996.
[RFVO]
Rohrfernleitungsverordnung. In TRFL - Technische Regeln fr Fernleitungen. CarlHeymanns-Verlag, 2003.
[TRFL]
TRFL - Technische Regeln fr Fernleitungen. Carl-Heymanns-Verlag, 2003.
[Wald]
Wald, A.: Sequential Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1947.
[Zhang]
Zhang, X. J.: Statistical Leak Detection in Gas and Liquid Pipelines. Pipes & Pipelines
International, July August 1993, p. 26 29.
KROHNE Oil & Gas
th
42
Definitions
Definitions
Accuracy
API 1130
API 1155
API 2540
Balancing Methods
Batch-Separation-Pig
Coefficient of
Compressibility (z)
Compressibility
CPM System
Gradual Leak
Density Meter
Detection Limit
Difference Method
DRAG
Drift
Error threshold
E-RTTM-System
False Alarm
Flexibility
Flow Monitoring
Flow
Flow Computer
Fluid
Forward Processing
Gaussian Distribution
Gradient-IntersectionMethod
Head Stations
Monitoring
Head Stations
Hypothesis Test
Inlet
Inventory
KROHNE Oil & Gas
LDS
Leak Alarm
Leak Flow
Leak Rate
Criterion of API 1155. This especially concerns leak location: details of the leak location
must be accurate.
Computational Pipeline Monitoring for Liquid Pipelines, American Petroleum Institute.
Covers Design, Implementation, Test and processing of .
Evaluation Methodology for Software Based Leak Detection Systems, American
Petroleum Institute. Helps to compare different ldss. Defines Sensitivity, Reliability,
Accuracy and Robustness.
Volume Correction Factors, American Petroleum Institute. Describes relations to calculate
density of common crude oil and its products (such as gasoline) from temperature and
pressure.
Also Mass Balance. Ldss that use the conservation of mass for leak detection. These are
compensated and uncompensated Mass Balance as well (e.g. PipePatrol SMB), In the
broader sense also RTTM- and E-RTTM-Systems as PipePatrol E-RTTM.
Device to separate batches from each other in multi-product pipeline.
Dimensionless coefficient representing the departure of a gas from ideal behaviour. A
coefficient of one indicates ideal behaviour.
Attribute of a liquid, representing the rate of change of density with respect to pressure. It
is compensated by (e)-rttm-systems.
Computational Pipeline Monitoring system
A slowly developing leak, often with a very low Leak rate. TRFL demands special
Systems to detect gradual leaks
A sensor that monitors the actual density of a fluid
Theoretical Value of the smallest, detectable leak rate.
Synonym for: Residual Method
Drag Reducing Agent. Added to liquids to reduce pipe wall friction
Very low frequency disturbance in measurements.
Maximal or guaranteed difference of a measured value from its true value.
LDS based on Extended RTTM-Technology. This technology combines RTTMTechnology with the Leak signature analysis.
A leak alarm that is raised when no real leak is present
An attribute of the wall for a pipeline, representing the rate of change of cross section with
respect to pressure. Can be compensated by (e)-rttm-systems
A simple LDS, where flow is measured at one single location at the pipeline; flow changes
in case of a leak. Method is out of date.
3
Collective term for mass flow (e.g. In kg/s), volume flow (e.g. In m /h), and velocity (e.g. In
m/s).
Device used to pre-process field signals and apply calculations
A substance that is capable of flowing, including all gases and liquids.
Pumping the fluid from the inlet to the outlet of the pipeline. Such flow is counted as
positive. See also reverse processing.
Well-known form of probability density function, published by Gauss. Many different
procedures in nature are described by this function (approximately).
Method for leak location, where leak location specific change in pressure profile along the
pipeline is analysed. PipePatrol E-RTTM uses a model based version, which is able to
locate a leak even under transient condition.
This Configuration of PipePatrol E-RTTM uses measurements from the Head Stations of
a pipeline to calculate the flow-residuals and monitor the pipeline for leaks. Related
Substations Monitoring.
Metering Station at Inlet or Outlet
Method of the statistical decision theory
The "left handed" beginning of a Pipeline, where the Fluid enters the pipeline in forward
operation. Related Outlet.
Also: line-packing.
Netherlands subsidiary of KROHNE Messtechnik Duisburg gmbh & Co. KG. PipePatrol is
the LSS-Family of KROHNE Oil & Gas.
Leak Detection System. A System to detect leaks in pipelines, additional leak location can
be detected, too. In Germany LDS have to make grade to the TRFL.
Declaration of a leak event. Related to E-RTTM-Technology this alarm will raise in case of
a spontaneous leak.
3
Lost fluid at leak location in units per time, e.g. M/s, t/h or m /h.
3
Quantitative value about the size of the leak. Absolute e.g. In m/s, t/h or m /h. Relative in
% related to a reference value.
Method to avoid False Alarms related to E-RTTM-Technology. Residuals are analysed for
different Leak signatures. I case of a leak Leak Alarm or Sensor Alarm will raise.
43
Definitions
Leak Signature
Specific signature in signals, which occurs in case of a leak.
Likelihood-Ratio-Test
Statistical method, to decide for one of two predefined Hypotheses (e.g. Leak no/yes) by a
collection of measured values.
Line-Packing
International common definition for the change of inventory stored in a pipeline.
Local Profiles
Flow- and thermodynamic Values as e.g. Pressure and temperature, described along the
pipeline.
Mass Balance Method
Also Balancing Methods. LDS-method, which uses the conservation of mass for leak
detection. These are compensated and uncompensated Mass Balance as well (e.g.
PipePatrol SMB), In the broader sense also RTTM- and E-RTTM-Systems as PipePatrol
E-RTTM
Measured Section
Section of a Pipeline terminated by Metering Equipment. Is (maybe the only) part of a

Measured Section.
Measurement Station
A station at one specific point of the pipeline, equipped with metering sensors and/or
clusters. At In- and Outlet these are called Head Stations, otherwise Substations.
Monitored Section
Part of a pipeline, monitored by a LDS. Consists of one ore more Monitoring Sections.
Multi-Batch-Condition
Condition, where several different Batches are pumped through a pipeline. Related
Single-Batch-Condition.
Negative Pressure Drop
LDS method, where with Speed of sound propagating, negative pressure wave is
analysed. If several pressure meters are used, leak location can be determined by Wave
propagation method. Detects only spontaneous Leaks
Nominal Flow
Flow at nominal conditions, e.g. In m /h.
Nominal Flow
Flow, given at nominal conditions, e.g. In m /h.
Outlet
The "right handed" end of a Pipeline, where the Fluid leaves the pipeline in forward
operation. Related Inlet.
Pig
System which is inserted into a pipeline on demand e.g. Separate of batches (Batch
Separation Pig).
Pipeline-Observer
SW-Module, which calculates Residuals based on measured values. Is used to eliminate

Compressibility and Elasticity-Effects.
Pipelin
Serve the purpose to transport Fluids.
PipePatrol E-RTTM
PipePatrol Extended Real-Time Transient Model; LDS by KROHNE Oil & Gas based on
E-RTTM-Technology and Leak Signature Analysis. Provides Leak detection and location
in Pumping Conditions (PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC) and Shut-in Condition (PipePatrol ERTTM/SC) for stationary state and transient state defined in API 1130 and TRFL
PipePatrol SMB
PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance; LDS by KROHNE Oil & Gas, based on the mass
balance method and Leak-Classification. Provides continuous leak detection in Pumping
Conditions for stationary state and limited transient state as defined in API 1130 and
TRFL.
PipePatrol
Family of LDS by KROHNE Oil & Gas
Pressure Monitoring
Simple LDS, where pressure is measured at one single location at the pipeline; Pressure
drops in case of a leak. Method is out of date.
Probability Density
Function
Function of probability theory, which enables calculation of probability for an event.

Related Gaussian Distribution.
Process-Conditions
Actual conditions for pressure and temperature. Also values for density and (ProcessDensity) and flow (Process-Flow) belong to process conditions. These values differ from
the values at Reference Conditions in general.
Process-Density
Density of the fluid at Process-Conditions.
Process-Flow
Flow of the fluid at Process-Conditions.
P-T-Method
Pressure-Temperature-Method. In this method pressure within a tightly closed pipeline is

analysed. The temperature is analysed too by use of the thermodynamic equation law of
teh fluid. PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC uses a model based version of this method.
44
Definitions
Pumping Condition
Condition where fluid is pumped through the pipeline. TRFL assumes special LDS for this
condition
Reference-Conditions
Defined condition for pressure (e.g.. 1,01325 bar) and temperature (e.g. 15C Also values
for density and (Process-Density) and flow (Process-Flow) belong to process conditions.
These values differ from the values at Process-Conditions in general.
Reference-Density
Density of the fluid at Reference-Conditions
Reference-Flow
Flow of the fluid at Reference-Conditions
Reliability
Criteria by API 1155, e.g. Probability for a false alarm, most times related to one year.
Residual
Difference in measured values (e.g. Pressure or flow) of by Pipeline-Observer calculated

values assuming a leak free pipeline. Input for Leak Signature Analysis.
Residual-Method
A RTTM-based Method for leak detection, where redundant measurement values are
analysed. The measured values are compared to the calculated ones; their difference is
called Residual.
Reverse Processing
Processing, where the Fluid is pumped from Out- to Inlet. Per definition flow will be
counted as negative in this case. Related Forward Processing.
Robustness
Criteria by API 1155; Defines the processing of a LDS, if conditions are not ideal, e.g. The
damage of a sensor
RTTM-System
Real Time Transient Model System, International common for a real-time capable model
based LDS. The mathematical model of the flow within the pipeline is simulated on
industry computers in real-time. It is capable to handle even transient conditions.
Section Monitoring
In this configuration of PipePatrol E-RTTM leak detection based on flow residual is

processed for single Sections. Related Substation Monitoring.
Section
Synonym: monitoring section
Section-Residual
The Flow Residual calculated by Section Monitoring of one monitored Section.
Sensitivity
Criteria by API 1155; combined criteria, combines smallest detectable leak rate as well as
time to detect a leak. Example: Lost Volume by leak rate from beginning till Leak Alarm.
Sensor Alarm
Declaration of a leak event. Related to E-RTTM-Technology this alarm will raise in case of
a gradual leak or Sensor Drift.
Sequential Probability
Ratio Test (SPRT)
Published by Wald, a sequential version of the Likelihood-Ratio-Test. Statistical base of

PipePatrol SMB.
Single-Batch-Condition
Process-Condition, where only one single batch is pumped through a pipeline. Related
Multi-Batch-Condition.
Speed of Sound
Propagation Speed of Pressure-, Density- and flow dynamics in Fluids. Leak Location by
Wave Propagation method is based on the speed of sound.
Spontaneous Leak
A fast developing, step-like leak.
Shut-in Condition
Condition, where pumps are switched off. TRFL assumes special LDS for this condition.
Shut-in Conditions
Condition, where no fluid is pumped through the pipeline. TRFL makes demand for a LDS
capable of monitoring shut-in conditions.
Stationary
In statistical manner the time independence of the probability density function, e.g.
Gaussian Distribution.
Statistical LDS
LDS equipped with special statistical data processing e.g. Hypotheses Test (Leak no/yes)
as SPRT.
Steady State
Process Conditions for a pipeline, where physical values (e.g. Pressure) do NOT change
over time. TRFL makes demand for LDS, which are capable to monitor pipelines for leaks
under steady state conditions. Related transient condition.
Substation Monitoring
This Configuration of PipePatrol E-RTTM uses measurements from the Substations of a

pipeline to calculate the flow-residuals and monitor the pipeline for leaks. Substation
Monitoring is proceeded additional to Head Station Monitoring. Related Section
Monitoring.
Substations.
All Measurement Stations except the In- and Outlet ones
45
Definitions
Thermodynamic
Equation Law
Relation between Pressure, temperature and density (or a spec. Volume), which is true
for a Fluid
Transient Condition
Process Conditions for a pipeline, where physical values (e.g. Pressure) do change over
time. TRFL makes demand for LDS, which are capable to monitor pipelines for leaks
under steady state conditions. Related steady state
TRFL
TRFL stands for Technische Regel fr Rohrfernleitungen. Published in 2003 in Germany

it is applied to all Pipelines, which transport flammable and/or dangerous liquids or gases.
Chapter 11.5 of the TRFL instructs LDS are necessary for a pipeline.
Volume Correction
Coefficient
Coefficient describing the relation between Process-Density to pressure and temperature.
Volumetric Flow
Measurement
Measurement, where Flow is measured as volume flow or flow rate. To determine mass
flow the density of the fluids needs to be known.
Wave Propagation
Method
Method to locate a leak, where the difference in runtime of a wave-like propagating

pressure drop is analysed at different locations along the pipeline. PipePatrol E-RTTM
uses a model based version, which is able to locate a leak even under transient condition.
Way through
Missing alarm in case of a leak
Zero False-Alarm
Methodology
Synonym: e-rttm-technology.
46
KROHNE Oil & Gas
From the well head, through

massive
pipelines,
onto
tankers and into the terminals
and refineries; the flow of oil
and gas products needs to
be measured accurately and
reliably.
That is the world of KROHNE Oil & Gas.
The scope of KROHNE Oil and Gas starts with custody transfer
flow metering for oil, gas and liquefied gas and continues
through tank management, loading and offloading and leak
detection and localisation systems.
KROHNE Oil & Gas is one of the most important Companies
in the KROHNE Group. KROHNE Oil & Gas's headquarters are
located in Breda, the Netherlands, close to Europes major
Oil and Gas centres.
We have grown dynamically and now have over 120 engineers

solely dedicated to the oil and gas industry.
KROHNE Oil & Gas now has 6 manufacturing facilities in the
Netherlands, UK, Malaysia, USA, Brazil, Colombia, Middle
East. The headquarters in Breda services the worlds oil
industry through its own offices and through the KROHNE
group, in more than 60 countries worldwide.
The parent company, KROHNE, has 42 owned subsidiaries
and more than 45 representatives throughout the world. We
make use of this network to maintain a high level of service
for our customers.
KROHNE Oil & Customer provide specialised knowledge firsthand with the backing of the worlds most knowledgeable
concern in the field of flow measurement technology.
KROHNE Oil & Gas Overview

Systems
Flow Meters for Custody Transfer
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Gas Flow Metering Systems
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Provers & Master Meters
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Analyser Management
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Analyser Houses and Shelters
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Leak Detection and Localisation Systems
Revamps & Upgrades
Testing, Installation, Commissioning, Service
Training
KROHNE Oil & Gas

Minervum 7441 4801 LH Breda The Netherlands
Tel.: +31-76.711.2000 Fax.: +31-76.711.2001
koginfo@krohne-oilandgas.com
Products
Gas Utrasonic Flow Meters for Custody Transfer
Liquid ULtrasonic Flow Meters for Custody Transfer
Mass Flow Meters for Custody Transfer
Venturis for Wet Gas Metering
Flow Computers
Supervisory Systems
Meter Validation Software Packages
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
Level Measuring Instruments
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Temperature Measuring Instruments
Pressure Measuring Instruments
Analysis
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Flow Controllers
www.krohne-oilandgas.com

Leak Detection

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Leak Detection

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Principles of Leak Detection

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Geiger

Fundamentals of Leak Detection

KROHNE Oil & Gas

API 1130 (USA)

API 1155 (USA)

Negative Pressure Wave

Use of volumetric flow meters

Statistical Leak Detection Systems

Probability Ratio Test

Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT)

Gradient Intersection Method

Wave Propagation Method

RTTM Real Time Transient Model

Head Stations Residual or Differential Approach

Substations Residual or Differential Approach

PipePatrol Statistical Mass Balance (SMB)

PipePatrol Extended Real-Time Transient Model (E-RTTM)

Leak Signature Analysis

Installations according to TRFL a) and b)

Uncompensated mass balance

Fundamentals of Leak Detection

KROHNE Oil & Gas

PipePatrol E-RTTM/PC Leak Detection in Pumping Condition

PipePatrol E-RTTM/SC Leak Detection in Shut-in Conditions

Comparison of all methods

Head stations monitoring

Fundamentals of Leak Detection

KROHNE Oil & Gas

Symbols, Labelling, Units

Cross section of the pipeline

Mass flow or volumetric flow

Gas specific molar mass

Actual drained leak-mass

Mass stored in pipeline

Mass flow in general

Mass flow inlet

Mass flow outlet

Probability for correct decision under leak free conditions

Probability for correct decision under leak conditions

Probability for false alarm

Probability for false decision under leak conditions

Gas constant (8.314472)

Specific gas constant

One-dimensional coordinate along the pipeline

Velocity of fluid at inlet

Velocity of fluid at outlet

Volume-flow at reference conditions

Volume correction factor

Flow residual inlet

Flow residual outlet

Pressure residual in general

Fundamentals of Leak Detection

KROHNE Oil & Gas

Table 1: Symbols, labelling, units - part 1.

Smallest detectable leak rate

Density of the fluid

Standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution

Table 2: Symbols, labelling, units - part 2.

Fundamentals of Leak Detection

KROHNE Oil & Gas

Negative Pressure Wave

Statistical Leak Detection Systems