Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
TESIS
Que para obtener el grado de
Doctor en Ciencias
Uso, Manejo y Preservacin de los Recursos Naturales
( Orientacin Acuicultura )
Presenta
CONFORMACIN DE COMITS
Co-directores:
COMIT TUTORIAL
PREFACIO
I.
A. M. Maeda-Martnez. (2009).
296: 136-142.
II.
Garza-Torres, R., A. M. Maeda-Martnez, D. A. Guerrero-Tortolero, H. ObregnBarboza y R. Campos-Ramos. (2011). Description of meiosis in female and male
RESUMEN
En la acuicultura, el crecimiento de las especies es la caracterstica ms
de la glndula sinusal que se encuentra en el tallo ocular y el efecto que tiene al ser
ablacionado, adems de un anlisis molecular de su expresin. Se describe
gnada ocurri a partir de PL68, en donde fue posible distinguir entre ovario y
ii
muda, se analizaron las etapas de la profase meitica I en cada uno de los estadios de
ecdisis en ambos sexos. Se observaron clulas meiticas en etapa de cigoteno,
no existe una relacin entre esos 2 procesos. Se realiz un bioensayo para analizar el
efecto de la ablacin unilateral y bilateral de los tallos oculares sobre el rgano genital
y la GA. La ablacin en ambos grupos mostr un efecto significativo en el peso total del
rgano genital con respecto al grupo control. Los conteos espermticos se
medio y el mpula terminal, lo cual denota una hiperplasia producida una semana
amplificaciones de ADNc por RT-PCR en tejido del vaso deferente medio y mpula
traduccin peptdica tiene la misma estructura del tipo-insulina que muestran los
dems decpodos para la hormona de la GA. El conocimiento general que se obtuvo en
iii
ABSTRACT
In aquaculture, growth is the most important characteristic for the profitability
of the industry. Peneid shrimp have a gender dimorphism, where females grow larger
than males. Sex reversal of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei could
white shrimp and finally integrate a biotechnology that could produce a monosexual
culture in shrimp. In the present work, 4 AG investigations were carried out, including
its development during the organogenesis of the genital organ, its function in the
maintenance of the spermatogenesis related to the molt cycle, its endocrine control
from the sinus gland in the eyestalk, and the effect if ablated, plus a molecular analysis
of its expression. Timing of the organogenesis and subsequent development of the
genital organ of females and males of L. vannamei is here described. The genital organ
was fully recognized from postlarve day-16 (PL16) as a bilateral lobe located in the
anterior region of the midgut gland that connects to an anterior collector tube that
extends dorsally towards the posterior region and forms an inverted U-shape
collector. 8 lobes, an oviduct, and a posterior lobe in females and 7 lobes including the
vas deferens in males, are connected bilaterally along the collector tube. Around PL50,
where external gender differentiation is recognized as the thelycum in females and
the gonopores in males, the AG appears along the vas deferens, surrounded by
connective tissue that attaches it to the eighth testicular lobe. Gonad differentiation
occurred from PL68, where it was possible to differentiate the female ovary from the
male testes. The meiotic prophase I stages were analyzed in both genders on each
molt stadium to establish if the gametogenesis and the molt cycle are related. Meiotic
and diplotene stages were observed at inter-molt, pre-molt, and early and late post-
iv
molt stages in all individuals, which suggests that there is no relationship between
molting and the meiotic prophase. A bioassay to analyze the effect of the unilateral
and bilateral eyestalk ablation over the genital organ and the AG was conducted.
Ablation in both groups caused a significant effect over the total weight of the genital
organ over the control group. Spermatic counts also had a significant increase in the
bilateral group (6X106) over the unilateral and control (2X106). An increase in the AG
cell number in the vas deferens in both ablated groups was observed trough histology,
which denotes that eyestalk ablation caused hypertrophy of the gland. Finally,
ampule tissues of L. vannamei. The sequence of these products was similar to those
published in peneids, and its peptide translation has the same insulin-like structure
that other AG hormones in decapods have. The AG knowledge here achieved, will
A
La Paz
vi
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Agradezco a mis directores de tesis, el Dr. Rafael Campos Ramos y el Dr. Alejandro M.
Maeda Martnez.
Barboza, gracias a Sandra de la Paz, Carlos Cesea, Carmen Rodrguez, Eulalia Meza,
Quiero dar gracias a todos por haberme ayudado a llegar hasta aqu.
CONTENIDO
INTRODUCCIN .....................................................................................................................................................1
ANTECEDENTES ....................................................................................................................................................5
Aparato genital en hembras y machos de Litopenaeus vannamei ................................................5
Organognesis del aparato genital ............................................................................................................8
Descubrimiento e investigaciones de la glndula andrognica en malacostrceos ..............8
Relacin entre la gametognesis y el ciclo de muda en decpodos .......................................... 15
Control neuroendocrino de la glndula andrognica ..................................................................... 19
HIPTESIS ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
MATERIALES Y MTODOS .............................................................................................................................. 27
ORGANOGNESIS .......................................................................................................................................... 27
RESULTADOS........................................................................................................................................................ 35
ORGANOGNESIS .......................................................................................................................................... 35
DISCUSIN............................................................................................................................................................. 60
ORGANOGNESIS .......................................................................................................................................... 60
CONCLUSIONES ................................................................................................................................................... 71
RECOMENDACIONES ........................................................................................................................................ 72
LITERATURA CITADA ....................................................................................................................................... 73
ANEXO ..................................................................................................................................................................... 86
LISTA DE FIGURAS
Figura 10. Modelo linear de la pro-protena (A) y en 3D de la protena madura (B) Pm-IAG
....................................................................................................................................................................................15
Figura 11.Tlico abierto en hembras Litopenaeus vannamei (A); y tlico cerrado ................. 17
Figura 30. Comparacin del peso del rgano genital e ndice genital-sotico entre
camarones ablacionados ................................................................................................................................. 51
Figura 31. Comparacin del peso del testculo e ndice gonadosomtico entre camarones
ablacionados ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
Figura 32. Comparacin del peso del vaso deferente e ndice vaso deferente entre
camarones ablacionados ................................................................................................................................. 54
Figura 33. Comparacin del peso del espermatforo y conteo espermtico entre
camarones ablacionados ................................................................................................................................. 55
Figura 34. Efecto de la ablacin en L. vannamei .................................................................................... 56
Figura 35. RT-PCR de L. vannamei usando como templado ARN total de diferentes tejidos
del vaso deferente. ............................................................................................................................................. 57
Figura 36. Anlisis de alineamiento de secuencias de aminocidos de la HGA ........................ 58
LISTA DE TABLAS
INTRODUCCIN
nivel mundial, y es por esto que se necesitan avances cientficos y tecnolgicos que
identificacin
taxonmica
de
estas
especies
(Prez-Farfante,
1988).
el caso del camarn blanco del Pacfico, Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone), en donde el
dimorfismo sexual comienza alrededor de los 10 g de peso (Chow y Sandifer,
1991) y se vuelve significativo aproximadamente a los 17 g (Prez-Rostro et al.,
1999).
1998; Hansford y Hewitt, 1994), la especie hind Penaeus indicus (H. Milne-
de esta glndula fue descrita por primera vez en el anfpodo Orchestia gammarella
(Pallas)
(Charniaux-Cotton,
1953;
1954;
1960).
En
langostinos
como
al., 1990) y acociles como Cherax destructor (Fowler y Leonard, 1999), Cherax
quadricarinatus (von Martens) (Khalaila et al., 2001; Barki et al., 2003; Manor et
al., 2007) y Procambarus clarkii (Taketomi y Nishikawa, 1996), la andrectoma
(remocin de los vasos deferentes del macho) y la implantacin de la GA en
King (1948) y muchas otras descripciones subsecuentes revisadas por Dall et al.
(1990), la anatoma del rgano genital en hembras estaba mal descrita; toda esta
informacin se puede consultar en Garza-Torres et al. (2009).
por ende la meiosis) es un proceso continuo a lo largo de los estadios del ciclo de
corroborando que al igual que otros decpodos (Khalaila et al., 2002; Sroyraya et
as como su expresin en los diferentes tejidos del rgano genital. Cabe resaltar
marino y no de agua dulce. Por ltimo, en marzo del 2011, se dio a conocer la
secuencia de nucleotidos del precursor de M. japonicus por investigadores
japoneses (Banzai et al., 2011), resultando ser muy similar a la de P. monodon.
investigaciones.
ANTECEDENTES
fusionados (ms el oviducto), cada uno con lbulos laterales cortos que se
extienden desde la regin cardiaca, dorsalmente al hepatopncreas, hasta el telson.
La revisin de Dall et al. (1990) sobre peneidos hembras describe al ovario como
anterior, de seis a ocho lbulos laterales, y un lbulo posterior largo, adems del
oviducto en el sexto lbulo lateral (Figura 1).
un par de testculos, cada uno con siete u ocho lbulos laterales, algunos
cada uno de los dos lbulos testiculares y continan lateralmente en una direccin
(Figura 3), coincidiendo todos que el testculo presenta ocho lbulos testiculares
corta y estrecha que asciende y se ensancha hacia la parte dorsal (vaso deferente
ninguna otra especie de peneido se han estudiado a fondo el desarrollo del aparato
reproductivo en machos, y las hembras han sido consistentemente excluidas de
una caracterstica muy peculiar: en la cara interna del protopodito del primer par
de plepodos se forma una depresin en forma de mueca, lo cual es una
10
11
segundo mes como postlarva, despus de que alcanza un peso mnimo de 150 mg
del vaso deferente medio, o bien en la parte distal del tubo eyaculador. De cada
12
observaron transcritos del gen que codifica la vitelogenina, lo que indica que el gen
est regulado negativamente por la GA. Mediante la implantacin de GAs en
Este gen especfico del sexo, fue denominado como Cq-IAG (C. quadricarinatus
crustceos decpodos machos (Figura 8). Esta protena consta de un pptido seal,
dos cadenas (A y B) adems de un pptido C, que se dobla y une a las dos cadenas
mediante puentes di-sulfuro en los residuos de cistena de las cadenas.
13
14
IAG). Para silenciar este gen, inyectaron in vivo dsRNA, lo cual previno
de acuerdo con los parmetros para esta especie. La ablacin tambin detuvo la
espermatognesis y el desarrollo del espermatforo del mpula terminal, adems
IAG), la cual se muestra en la Figura 10, que resulta ser muy similar a la de M.
japonicus.
15
acumuladas
en
los
vasos
deferentes,
en
donde
la
16
continuo, sin relacin alguna con el ciclo de muda (Heitzmann et al., 1993). Por
otro lado, Parnes et al. (2006) observaron que cada vez que el macho muda el
2004).
et al., 1990). Por otra parte, en peneidos de tlico abierto como L. vannamei y L.
17
para la transferencia del espermatforo y una fertilizacin exitosa. Es por eso que
(Hansen) en los que la meiosis I inicia en el momento del desove (Qiu, 1986). Sin
18
(Figura 12) es un complejo protico que se forma durante la primera fase meitica,
en donde ocurren la sinapsis y la recombinacon gentica entre cromosomas
1956; Fawcett, 1956; Carpenter, 1979; von Wettstein et al., 1984; Schmekel et al.,
1993; Loidl, 1994).
19
comerciales los cromosomas mitticos han sido estudiados ampliamente (CamposRamos, 1997). La mayora de las especies tienen un nmero diploide de 88
glndula sinusal, que se encuentra en el tallo ocular (Figuras 13 y 14), sirve como
(OM). En el cangrejo araa Libinia emarginata (L.) Laufer et al. (1987) reportaron
20
Figura 13. Tallo ocular de un peneido (Decpoda, Natantia) mostrando ganglio del
rgano-X (GOX); poro sensitivo del rgano-X (PS); glndula sinusal (GS); el tracto
rgano-X - glndula sinusal (TGOXGS) y el tracto del poro sensitivo del rgano-X
(TPSGX) (modificado de Adiyodi y Adiyodi, 1970).
21
al., 1991, Subramoniam, 2000; Khalaila et al., 2002; Parnes et al., 2006; Huberman,
2000), el crecimiento (Hopkins, 1984) y la regeneracin de miembros (Holland y
22
Figura 15. Efectos de ablacin del tallo ocular. (A) GA de langostino intacto (B) GA
de langostino ablacionado (C) grfica representando el ndice del peso gonadal en
langostinos intactos y ablacionados a travs del tiempo. Glndula andrognica
(AG), ducto espermtico (SD) (tomado y modificado de Khalaila et al., 2002).
Sroyraya et al. (2010) ablacionaron bilateralmente al cangrejo nadador, P.
del espermatforo, lo que incluye una mejor calidad y cantidad del esperma en
23
(Ceballos-Vzquez et al., 2003), por lo que la edad del macho puede ser un factor
implicada en el eje neuroendocrino inhibitorio rgano X/glndula sinusalglndula andrognica-testculo. De igual forma, no existen reportes cientficos que
espermtica (cantidad).
24
JUSTIFICACIN
En peneidos, no fue sino hasta aos recientes que algo de informacin a nivel
25
OBJETIVO GENERAL
OBJETIVOS ESPECFICOS
26
HIPTESIS
I.
27
MATERIALES Y MTODOS
ORGANOGNESIS
realizaron recambios de agua del 50% tres veces por semana. Las postlarvas PL4
hasta PL20 se alimentaron tres veces al da con nauplios de artemia y microencapsulado comercial (250 500 m); camarones de talla ms grandes (>PL20)
cada cuarto da, a partir de PL4 hasta PL80, se tomaron aleatoreamente diez
camarones de cada uno de los seis tanques. Se analizaron las estructuras sexuales
(King, 1948; Kong y William, 1988; Dall et al., 1990); la examinacin interna y
Tokio, Japn). Los rganos genitales internos se tieron con azul de metileno
comercial (Acuario Lomas) en una solucin de NaCl al 0.9%. Los camarones
28
etapas meiticas se bas en las descripciones de von Wettstein et al. (1984) y Loidl
(1994). Los rganos genitales de un grupo control (sin tratamiento) de camarones
dejaron secar al aire. (2) Las laminillas se tieron con DAPI (diclorhidrato de 4',6-
8.5 ajustado con tetraborato de sodio 0.01 M). La suspensin celular resultante se
29
etanol, dejndolos secar al aire. (3) Las laminillas se tieron con nitrato de plata al
50% (Howell y Black, 1980). Las clulas meiticas se fotografiaron con un
en
seis
ncleos
de
cada
etapa
meitica
(software
Image
J,
30
31
ndice del vaso deferente-somtico (peso del vaso deferente/peso corporal) X 100.
Los vasos deferentes con la GA de los camarones analizados en la primera semana,
se fijaron en solucin Davidson (Howard y Smith, 1983; Bell y Lightner, 1988) por
utilizando el programa SPSS ver. 16.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL), con un nivel de
los oligos publicados por Banzai et al. (2011), con los cuales amplificaron regiones
32
Jap(F)-CTTCGACTG-CGGTGACATCG y Jap(R)-ACACGTCCGCTGGCTCACGT.
partir de los siguientes tejidos: 1) la parte distal del mpula terminal (dAT), 2) la
parte proximal del mpula terminal (pAT), 3) vaso deferente distal (VDD), 4) la
parte distal del vaso deferente medio (dVDM) y testculo (T). Posteriormente, se
sintetiz la primera hebra de ADNc usando 2.5 g del ARN total utilizando la
33
los oligonucletidos diseados (Tabla 1), en diluciones 1:4; 1:3, 1:2, 1:1 y 1:0,
preparadas con Agua Sigma. El programa utilizado para las amplificaciones de PCR
consisti de un ciclo de 3 min por 30s (desnaturalizacin inicial), 35 ciclos de: 30 s
a 94C (desnaturalizacin), 30 s a 55C (alineamiento), 1 min a 72C (extensin), y
un paso de extensin final de 3 min a 72C. La amplificacin del ADNc se llev a
de Fast Blast DNA Stain 1X (Bio-Rad), tiiendose con agitacin suave por 5 min a
34
35
RESULTADOS
ORGANOGNESIS
Lnea de tiempo de eventos durante la diferenciacin sexual interna y externa
En la Figura 17 se muestra una lnea de tiempo con los eventos que conforman el
en PL16. Durante este periodo, el peso corporal del camarn oscil entre los 80
130 mg con una longitud de 15 18 mm (Figura 17).
36
Figura 18. rgano genital de L. vannamei, PL24. Vista ventral de la hembra (A) y de
macho (B), localizado en la regin cefalotorcica. Tubo colector en forma de
herradura (hmc), lbulos gondicos (nmeros romanos), oviducto (ov) y vasos
deferentes (vd).
Morfologa del rgano genital
Tanto en la hembra como en el macho, el primer par de lbulos anteriores est
conectado a un tubo colector que se encuentra perpendicular al eje del cuerpo, que
se extiende dorsalmente hacia la regin posterior del hepatopncreas formando un
absorbido, dejando un espacio evidente entre el tercer y quinto lbulo, sin dejar
rastro de lbulos rudimentarios (Figura 19 A). Por lo tanto, la morfologa final de la
37
laterales bilaterales, numerados del II al VIII, adems del oviducto bilateral (Figura
19 B), y del IX lbulo bilateral distal abdominal.
Figura 19. rgano genital de la hembra de L. vannamei. (A) Vista ventral del rgano
en una hembra juvenil PL80 (3 g), las flechas muestran un espacio interlobular que
corresponde al cuarto lbulo. (B) Hembra adulta (28 g) mostrando un lbulo
anterior y siete laterales (nmeros romanos), adems del oviducto (ov) y el tubo
colector en forma de herradura (hmc).
Desarrollo temprano de la gnada (PL12 a PL28)
La morfologa inicial del lbulo anterior indiferenciado est compuesto por clulas
ordenadas en forma irregular (Figura 20 A), las que para PL28 se forman en
grupos de clulas en todos los lbulos gondicos (Figura 20 B).
Histologa del oviducto y del vaso deferente
El oviducto bilateral es un tubo colapsado que, visto transversalmente, tiene una
forma de media luna, lo que le permite distinguirse de los dems lbulos gondicos
(Figura 20 C). Esta estructura se localiza entre los lbulos VI y VII y contina
38
corporal oscila entre 180-280 mg y la longitud entre 25-35 mm. Se observaron dos
caractersticas externas importantes: 1) el endopodito que surge como una
pequea protuberancia con una o dos setas apicales. En el transcurso de los das, el
endopodito de la hembra se ampla en la parte externa proximal-media, formando
39
Figura 20. rgano genital de L. vannamei. Corte longitudinal del lbulo gondico
anterior en PL18 (A) y PL28 (B). Corte transversal del oviducto localizado en la
parte postero-lateral del hepatopncreas en hembras PL40 (C). Corte longitudinal
de la regin cefalotorcica posterior y abdominal anterior de machos PL32 (D).
Aorta (a), semi-arreglos de clulas mesodrmicas (sgc), paquetes de clulas
mesodrmicas (cgc), intestino (i), hepatopncreas (mg), msculo torcicoabdominal (tam), msculo flexor-abdominal oblicuo (ofam), oviducto (vd) y vaso
deferente proximal (vdp).
Diferenciacin sexual externa subsecuente (PL44 a PL48)
La diferenciacin sexual externa continua en PL44; con un peso corporal entre los
0.5-0.6 g y una longitud entre los 45-50 mm. En hembras, en el tlico se comienzan
40
oblicuo (Figura 21 A). Poco despus (PL52) las clulas ovaladas se acumulan en
esta rea formando el tejido de la GA (Figura 21 B).
y el rea que rodea la aorta en el lado izquierdo del cuerpo. Los ncleos de estas
clulas se desplazan hacia la periferia por el alto contenido graso en el citoplasma
(Figura 21).
41
mayor tamao y toman una forma triangular o de pera, llenando y expandiendo los
lbulos que caracterizan al ovario. Por otro lado, los espermatocitos primarios del
42
GA. El tejido conectivo del vaso deferente se encuentra tambin sujeto al octavo
Figura 23. rgano genital de macho de L. vannamei. Vista ventral del rgano genital
del macho en PL48, 0.5 g (A), un adulto de 26 g (B). Detalle de los vasos deferentes
de B (C). Tubo colector herradura (hmc), lbulos testiculares (tl), bulbo eyaculador
anterior (aeb), bulbo eyaculador posterior (peb),octavo lbulo testicular (etl), vaso
deferente proximal (pvd), vaso deferente medio (mvd), vaso deferente distal (dvd)
y mpula terminal (ta).
Durante el crecimiento del macho, la parte media del vaso deferente
fijado por Treece y Yates, 1988). Cada uno de los vasos deferentes medios
incluyen un bulbo eyaculador anterior y posterior (Figura 23 B y C). En camarones
43
Figura 24. Vaso deferente medio de L. vannamei. Anatoma externa del vaso
deferente medio en macho adulto mostrando la interconexin a travs de un tejido
conectivo (ct) entre la regin distal del bulbo eyaculador posterior (peb), la
glndula andrognica (ag) y el octavo lbulo testicular (etl). Levantamiento del
bulbo eyaculador posterior (A) y diseccin junto con el octavo lbulo testicular (B).
En el experimento de ablacin del pednculo ocular que se detalla ms
44
Figura 25. Vaso deferente de L. vannamei. Histologa del vaso deferente distal
(VDD) y mpula terminal (AT). Las flechas indican el cordn de la glndula
andrognica (GA). Barra = 500m.
45
exceptuando la etapa de leptoteno (). Tanto el grupo control como el tratado con
46
47
48
ncleos de diploteno (en ambos sexos) presentaron 44 bivalentes, de los que ~40
presentaron forma de anillo y el resto una forma de v. No se observaron
diferencias significativas en el dimetro de los ncleos entre ambos sexos: cigoteno
49
Figura 29. Dimetro de los ncleos (Media DS) en etapas de cigoteno, paquiteno y
diploteno en hembras y machos de L. vannamei.
Tabla III. Conteos espermticos (MediaES) en los vasos deferentes y en
espermatforos durante el ciclo de muda de L. vannamei.
50
grupo bilateral, respecto a los grupos unilateral y control. Sin embargo, el grupo
bilateral fue significativamente mayor (respecto a los controles) en cada una de las
(Figura 30 B).
51
Figura 30. Comparacin del peso del rgano genital e ndice genital-sotico entre
camarones ablacionados unilateralmente, bilateralmente y controles. Semana (S).
Letras minsculas diferentes denotan una diferencia significativa.
52
a los grupos unilateral y control, mientras que en la tercera semana no existi una
diferencia significativa entre los tres grupos (p=0.66) (Figura 31 B). Cabe sealar
control mostr una oscilacin bien marcada: de forma descendente durante las
primeras dos semanas, ascendente durante la tercera y cuarta, y descendente
durante la quinta y sexta semanas (Figura 31 A y B).
Los resultados del peso del vaso deferente mostraron que no es sino hasta
la cuarta semana que existi un incremento similar entre los grupos ablacionados,
peso del vaso deferente con respecto al peso corporal, el ndice del vaso deferente-
somtico mostr un patrn muy similar al anterior (Figura 32 B). El peso del
espermatforo mostr una tendencia ligera de incremento hacia la cuarta semana
de cultivo, seguida de una ligera disminucin hacia la sexta semana. Sin embargo,
los datos no mostraron una diferencia significativa (p=0.93) en los tres grupos
bilateral
aumento
significativamente
(p=0.01)
de
1.5
106
53
Figura 31. Comparacin del peso del testculo e ndice gonadosomtico entre
camarones ablacionados unilateralmente, bilateralmente y controles. Semana (S).
Letras minsculas diferentes denotan una diferencia significativa.
54
Figura 32. Comparacin del peso del vaso deferente e ndice vaso deferente entre
camarones ablacionados unilateralmente, bilateralmente y controles. Semana (S).
Letras minsculas diferentes denotan una diferencia significativa.
55
Figura 33. Comparacin del peso del espermatforo y conteo espermtico entre
camarones ablacionados unilateralmente, bilateralmente y controles. Semana (S).
Letras minsculas diferentes denotan una diferencia significativa.
56
mpula terminal, lo cual denot una hiperplasia producida por la ablacin (Figura
34).
ANLISIS MOLECULAR
Mediante RT-PCR/secuenciacin se obtuvo un fragmento de la secuencia de
nucletidos de la hormona de la GA de L. vannamei (Lv-IAG) utilizando los
57
Figura 35. RT-PCR de L. vannamei usando como templado ARN total de diferentes
tejidos del vaso deferente. Escalera (E), mpula terminal distal (AT), mpula
terminal proximal (ATP), vaso deferente distal (VDD), parte distal del vaso
deferente medio (dVDM, carril 4) y testculo (T). Gel de agarosa-TBE 1.5% teido
con Fast Blast DNA Stain (Bio-Rad).
El anlisis de alineamiento de la secuencia nucleotdica de L. vannamei
realizado con el programa Mega 5.0, mostr que existe un 87% de identidad con
58
59
Figura 37. Dendrograma consenso de similitud, sin raz, basado en las secuencias
de aminocidos de la HGA de L. vannamei y otros crustceos decpodos. Algoritmo
Neighborg-Joining (NJ) y mtodo p-distance del programa Mega 5.0 (Tamura et al.,
2011). Soporte estadstico calculado mediante 10,000 rplicas de remuestreo
(bootstrap).
60
DISCUSIN
ORGANOGNESIS
La anatoma del rgano genital en machos de L. vannamei concuerda con las
bsica
de
lbulos
bilaterales
anteriores
lbulos
laterales
peneidos (Laubier et al., 1983; Chow et al., 1991), sin embargo, esta anatoma no
ha sido estudiada en otras especies.
Cotton y Payen, 1985; Chow et al., 1991; Nakamura et al., 1992; Campos-Ramos et
al., 2006). En ambos sexos, la notoria separacin entre el tercer y cuarto lbulo
cuarto lbulo bilateral se forma junto con las primeras capas de clulas
mesodrmicas que dan la estructura a cada lbulo gondico. La regresin de este
lbulo no es clara, dada la dificultad del anlisis de todo el rgano genital durante
estas primeras etapas de desarrollo; una vez que se desarrolla la gnada en cada
de vista anatmico, la posicin fsica del cuarto lbulo coincide con el eje ms
ancho y alto del hepatopncreas anterior, por lo tanto, si el cuarto lbulo se
desarrollara, sera ms largo y externo que los otros lbulos. En cambio, este
lbulo sufre una regresin, posiblemente por la morfologa y desarrollo del
hepatopncreas.
61
cual coincide con el desarrollo de M. japonicus (Nakamura et al., 1992). Esta etapa
est representada y, hasta cierto punto, en sincrona por el desarrollo externo del
tlico de la hembra y de los gonoporos del macho, adems de la aparicin interna
se acumulan en los lbulos gonadales son clulas mesodrmicas, mientras que los
oviductos y vasos deferentes crecen a partir del tejido del rgano genital que se
diferencia a epitelio columnar. Para PL52 (0.5 g y 45 mm), estos grupos de clulas
forman estructuras tubulares ovaladas donde las gonias se renen alrededor de un
lumen, lo que indica una zona germinal. De PL68 a PL72 ( 2 g y 72 mm), los
camarones muestran ovocitos primarios en desarrollo, indicando el tiempo de
diferenciacin de la gnada, ocho das ms tarde de lo que se reporta en M.
japonicus por Nakamura et al. (1992).
62
bajo dos condiciones de temperatura diferentes (27 y 32C), donde el tamao del
camarn fue variable, y que tambin la diferenciacin en condiciones de
temperaturas
menores
(18C)
condiciones
biolgicas
ambientales
nica para malacostracos, existe evidencia que en dos especies de peneidos esta
glndula no est involucrada en la diferenciacin y determinacin sexual, ya que el
63
64
65
muda, lo cual concuerda con las observaciones de Heitzmann et al. (1993). Por lo
cuando se compara con la etapa de inter-muda del morfotipo tenaza azul (Sagi et
al., 1988, 1991). Tambin en esta especie, las etapas de la profase I coinciden con
los estadios de la muda (Poljaroen et al., en prensa). Por lo tanto, no existe ninguna
regla general que indique que la espermatognesis es continua en todas las
especies de decpodos.
66
bivalente por meiosis. Los otros siete pares de cromosomas que presentan una
configuracin tipo v y donde ocurre un solo intercambio, pudieran ser
japonicus (Li et al., 2003b) y de L. vannamei (Zhang et al., 2007) sugieren que existe
un bivalente involucrado a la determinacin sexual, lo que implica que la hembra
es el sexo heterogamtico en estas especies.
citometra de flujo (Li et al., 2003a) y con el anlisis de CS (Xie et al., 2008). Una
alternativa a la hiptesis de los genotipos dominantes y letales, es la
recombinacin entre cromosomas sexuales, ya que explica mejor el sesgo en la
67
al., 1987; Mair et al., 1991). En cualquier caso, la proporcin de sexos en triploides
sugiere la existencia de un cromosoma sexual en peneidos, requiriendo futuras
investigaciones de determinacin sexual.
incremento del peso del rgano genital muy acentuado, en donde el peso del
testculo se increment significativamente en los grupos unilateral y bilateral,
principalmente durante las dos primeras semanas de cultivo. Este resultado,
conjuntamente con la hipertrofia de la GA, conlleva a sugerir que las
espermatogonias fueron estimuladas por una hiperactividad de la GA, que fue
supervivencia y mostr que para la quinta y sexta semanas, el peso del testculo
deteriora. Estas observaciones estn de acuerdo con Khalaila et al. (2002) quienes
documentaron un incremento en el tamao de la GA de C. quadricarinatus despus
de la primera semana de ablacin bilateral. Posteriormente, el peso de la GA
disminuyo sustantivamente al trmino de la tercera semana, en comparacin con
68
resaltar que no fue hasta la cuarta semana que se observ un incremento similar
en los grupos ablacionados, que fue significativamente ms alto que el del control.
El incremento del peso de los vasos deferentes coincidi con el incremento de
Sin embargo, esto se pudo deber a que la concentracin de esperma no fue mayor a
edad (38 g) coinciden con los datos obtenidos en los controles de este estudio. Sin
embargo, Ceballos-Vsquez et al. (2004), observaron una concentracin de
esperma de entre 25 y 30 millones por espermatforo en camarones
Los autores discuten que el conteo espermtico pudiera estar relacionado con el
peso y no con la edad, por consiguiente la calidad espermtica depende de las
69
ANLISIS MOLECULAR
El xito en la obtencin de amplicones (por RT-PCR) a partir de ARN total de la
deferente distal y de la parte distal del vaso medio. En L. vannamei se us ARN total
obtencin de amplicones sea ms factible al usar este tejido o este influenciada por
el estado reproductivo del camarn disectado.
70
residuos de cistena (C) en posicin, uno doble y dos sencillos; una cadena B y ente
ellas un pptido C.
71
CONCLUSIONES
posterior.
lbulo testicular.
a partir de PL72.
sexos.
72
RECOMENDACIONES
La continuacin lgica de estos estudios deber ser la caracterizacin del gen que
expresin del gen que codifica la hormona de la GA, teniendo como objetivo la
reversin sexual del camarn blanco.
73
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Man,
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neurotransmitter
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86
ANEXO
Aquaculture
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / a q u a - o n l i n e
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 February 2009
Received in revised form 5 August 2009
Accepted 5 August 2009
Keywords:
Androgenic gland
Genital organ
Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei
Organogenesis
Sexual differentiation
a b s t r a c t
Timing of organogenesis and subsequent development of genital organs were studied in female and
male Pacic white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei postlarvae. This was linked to the timing of
differentiation of external structures that differentiate the genders. Anatomy of the gonad appears to be
unique for penaeid species. The genital organ was fully recognized from postlarve day-16 (PL16) as a
bilateral lobe located in the anterior region of the midgut gland (rst anterior lobes) that connects to an
anterior perpendicular collector tube that extends dorsally towards the posterior region of the midgut gland
and forms an inverted U-shape collector. Eight bilateral lobes in females (second to ninth) and the bilateral
oviduct between the seventh and eighth lateral lobes and seven bilateral lobes in the male (second to eighth)
are connected along the inverted U-shape collector tube. These lobes extend over the surface of the midgut
gland beneath the pericardium. Shortly after organogenesis of the female gonad, the tenth bilateral lobe
emerges from the distal region of the collector tube and continues dorsally along the intestine, and the fourth
bilateral lobe did not develop and regressed until apparently absorbed. In males, the posterior bilateral vas
deferens emerges from the same region. Around PL50 (0.50.6 g; 4550 mm), external gender
differentiation was recognized in the form of the thelycum in females and the gonopores in males.
Additionally, the male androgenic gland appears at the posterior-external wall of each anterior vas deferens,
surrounded by connective tissue that attaches to the anterior vas deferens and the eighth testicular lobe.
Gonad differentiation occurred from PL68 (1.82.2 g; 7074 mm), where it was possible to differentiate the
female ovary from the male testes. Timing of sex reversal studies in penaeids is discussed.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Information concerning development of internal and external sexual
characteristics in commercially reared decapods is useful because there
is gender dimorphism, whereby one sex grows larger than the other
does. In freshwater prawns, males grow larger than females, as in the
Malaysian prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Mann) (Sagi and
Aalo, 2005; Aalo et al., 2006). In penaeid shrimp, females grow larger
than males, as in the Pacic white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus)
vannamei (Boone) (Chow and Sandifer, 1991), and other American,
Asian, and Indian species reviewed by Campos-Ramos et al. (2006). The
relevance of sexual dimorphism in P. vannamei is that it involves a
signicant differential growth at harvest size (Prez-Rostro et al., 1999),
and therefore, an all-female culture would increase protability for
farmers based on size and market weight (Zhang et al., 2007). Sex
determination and differentiation is particularly interesting in crustacean malacostracans like isopods, amphipods, and decapods because
the organ responsible for maleness is the androgenic gland (AG). This
gland was discovered in the amphipod Orchestia gammarellus (Pallas)
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 612 123 8451; fax: +52 612 125 3625.
E-mail address: rcampos@cibnor.mx (R. Campos-Ramos).
0044-8486/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.08.012
137
crumbled, commercial pellets. Every four days (from PL4 to PL80), ten
shrimp from the six tanks were randomly chosen and their weight
(mg and g) and length (mm, rostrum tip to the end of the telson) were
recorded. External sex structures were analyzed, as described by
Prez-Farfante (1988) and Campos-Ramos et al. (2006), and their
internal organs, as described by King (1948), Kong and William
(1988), and Dall et al. (1990). Shrimp were xed in Davidson's
solution (Howard and Smith, 1983; Bell and Lightner, 1988) for 24 h
and then in 70% ethanol until processed with the hematoxylin and
eosin histological technique (Bell and Lightner, 1988). External and
internal examination was performed under a dissecting stereoscopic
microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). Internal genital organs were
stained with commercial aquarium methylene blue in 0.9% NaCl saline
solution. Prepared slides of the tissues were examined with a
compound light microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). Images were
recorded with an attached digital camera and stored in the software
Image Pro Plus 4.0 (Media Cybernetics).
3. Results
3.1. Timeline of events of internal and external differentiation of gender
A timeline of events of internal and external differentiation in
females and males is shown in Fig. 1, which links each sex-development
to a specic gure.
3.2. Organogenesis of the gonad (PL12 to PL16)
After histological preparations, no sign of gonad tissue was
observed in PL4 and in PL8. The gonad was recognized in PL12 as a
bilateral structure located dorsally at the anterior region of the midgut
gland. The genital organ of each gender was fully recognized through
dissection in PL16. During this time, the body weight of shrimp ranged
from 80130 mg and body length from 1518 mm.
3.2.1. Morphology of the genital organ
The rst bilateral anterior lobe is connected to a main anterior
collector tube that is perpendicular to the body axes, extends dorsally
towards the posterior region of the midgut gland, and forms an
inverted U-shaped collector. Along and perpendicularly connected to
the inverted U-shaped collector, eight bilateral lobes in the female,
numbered from second to ninth lobe plus the bilateral oviduct
(Fig. 2A), seven bilateral lobes in the male, numbered from second to
Fig. 1. Timeline of events of internal and external differentiation of female and male Pacic white shrimp Penaeus vannamei.
138
Fig. 2. Penaeus vannamei, PL24. Ventral view of genital organ in female (A) and male (B)
located in the cephalothoracic region. Exo-skeleton and midgut gland were removed.
Horseshoe-shape main collector tube (hmc), gonadic lobes (Roman numbers), female
oviduct (ov), and male vas deferens (vd).
Fig. 3. Penaeus vannamei. Ventral view of genital organ in juvenile female PL80 (3 g)
showing a bilateral physical space (arrows) that corresponded to the fourth lobe (A).
Ventral view of genital organ in adult female (28 g) showing one anterior and seven
lateral lobes plus the oviduct. Exo-skeleton and midgut gland were removed.
Horseshoe-shape main collector tube (hmc), gonadic lobes (Roman numbers), and
oviduct (ov).
eighth lobe (Fig. 2B), extend over the surface of the midgut gland
beneath the pericardium. They represent the basic anatomy of the
gonad. In the female, the tenth bilateral lobe emerges from the distal
region of the collector tube and develops dorsally along the intestine
through the ve abdominal segments during the following eight days.
In addition, from PL28, the fourth lobe did not develop and regressed
until apparently absorbed, leaving no rudimentary lobe-tissue and an
evident space between the third and the fth lobes (Fig. 3A).
Therefore, the nal morphology of the female gonad was composed
of the rst bilateral anterior lobe, seven bilateral lateral lobes,
numbered from second to eight, plus the bilateral oviduct (Fig. 3B),
and the ninth distal abdominal bilateral lobe.
139
Fig. 4. Penaeus vannamei. Longitudinal sections of the gonadic anterior lobe in PL18 (A) and PL28 (B). Cross section of the oviduct located in the postero-lateral side of the midgut
gland of a female in PL40 (C). Longitudinal internal section of the posterior cephalothoracic region and the anterior abdominal region of a male in PL32 (D). Aorta (a), semi-arranged
gonadic cells (sgc), clustered gonadic cells (cgc), intestine (i), midgut gland (mg), oblique exor abdominis muscle (ofam), oviduct (ov), thoracicoabdominis muscle (tam), and vas
deferens (vd).
gonad (Fig. 6B). The differentiation of the gonad occurred when both
genders reached a body weight of 1.82.2 g and a body length of 70
74 mm. Female oocytes grew larger and formed a pear-like or triangular
shape and began lling and expanding the lobes that characterize the
ovary. Primary male spermatocytes, which were rounded and tightened,
produced spermatids that were transferred into the lumen of the
testicular lobe. By this time, the dissection of any independent testicular
lobe showed a long and single seminiferous tubule.
3.7. Subsequent development of the vas deferens and the AG
The external appearance of the AG in juvenile shrimp was difcult
to observe because it is small and transparent. However, development
of an external connective tissue is evident at the wider middle region
of the vas deferens, which indicates the location of the putative AG.
The connective tissue of the vas deferens also attached along the
eighth testicular lobe so that the vas deferens and testis are held to
each other in parallel (Fig. 7A). As the male grows, the bilateral
anterior vas deferens continues to develop and turns into a huge
median and folded vas deferens that takes the form of an inverted U
(named double xture by Treece and Yates, 1988). Each of the
median vas deferens includes the anterior and posterior ejaculator
bulbs (Fig. 7B and C). In preadult and adult shrimp, the AG appears as
cords immersed in the connective tissue, connecting the internal
distal region of the posterior ejaculator bulb with the eighth testicular
lobe (Fig. 8A and B). After dissecting the vas deferens, the AG appears
as a slender and compact mass of oval cells with prominent nuclei
under histological examination. Detailed morphology of the AG in
preadult and adult penaeid shrimp is provided in Charniaux-Cotton
and Payen (1985), Alfaro (1994), and Campos-Ramos et al. (2006).
140
Fig. 5. Penaeus vannamei. Cross section of the vas deferens of male in PL44 (A) and in
PL52 (B). Primordial androgenic cells (pagc), androgenic gland cells (agc), white
adipose tissue (wat), posterior-external wall (pew), and vas deferens (vd).
4. Discussion
The anatomy of the genital organ in male P. vannamei matches the
description of P. japonicus by Chim (1983) and in P. vannamei and P.
setiferus by Chow et al. (1991). However, the female genital organ in P.
vannamei and, in general, of penaeids described by King (1948) and
Dall et al. (1990) does not match what we found. Both genders have a
basic anatomy of a bilateral anterior lobe and independent lateral lobes
arranged symmetrically on each side of a single collecting tube with an
inverted U or horseshoe shape. This structure appears to be unique for
penaeid species (Laubier et al., 1983; Chow et al., 1991; this study).
However, many other species have not been studied with this detail.
Our description of genital organogenesis concurs, in general, with
the few previous investigations of penaeids regarding internal and
external morphology and sexual differentiation (Chim, 1983; Laubier
et al., 1983; Charniaux-Cotton and Payen, 1985; Chow et al., 1991;
Nakamura et al., 1992; Campos-Ramos et al., 2006). The evident
separation between the third and fourth lobes in both genders (see
Fig. 3A in female and Fig. 2B in male) may suggest that the fourth
bilateral lobe forms during the early network of mesodermic cells that
give structure of each gonadic lobe. The regression of this lobe is not
clear, and the entire genital organ is difcult to analyze during these
early stages. Once the gonad of each gender was developed, there was
not a difference in gonad development among the ten shrimp
sampled, at each PL-stage. From an anatomical point of view, the
physical position of the fourth lobe would coincide with the wider and
higher transversal axes of the anterior midgut gland. Therefore, if the
fourth lobe would develop, it would be higher, and more external than
the other lobes. Instead, this lobe regresses, possibly because of the
morphology and development of the midgut gland.
It appears that in both P. japonicus and P. vannamei, the duration that
postlarvae remain gender-undifferentiated is remarkably short after
Fig. 6. Penaeus vannamei. Cross section of gonad in female (A) and male (B) in PL72. Arrow
in (A) shows pear-like or triangular shape oocytes (ooc), and in (B) spermatogonia (sper),
around a lumen (lu).
141
Fig. 7. Penaeus vannamei. Ventral view of male genital organ in PL48, 0.5 g (A), and adult (26 g) (B). Detail of vas deferens from B (C). Horseshoe-shape main collector tube (hmc),
testicular lobes (tl), anterior ejaculatory bulb (aeb), posterior ejaculatory bulb (peb), eighth testicular lobe (etl), proximal vas deferens (pvd), medium vas deferens (mvd), distal vas
deferens (dvd), and terminal ampoule (ta).
Most likely, the interconnection between the vas deferens and testis
seems to be related to spermatogenesis and testis maturation or some
regulatory process of ovary inhibition, since gametogenesis begins after
the AG is formed. In penaeids, it is still unknown if the AG is involved in
the eyestalk-AG-testis endocrine axis, as reported for C. quadricarinatus
(Khalaila et al., 2002).
In freshwater prawns, the AG induces masculinization and secondary
sexual male characteristics and inhibition of vitellogenesis in implanted
young females; andrectomy induces feminization (vitellogenesis) in
young male prawns. The strategy to induce sex reversal and produce
male monosex aquaculture in freshwater prawns, such as M. rossembergii, is well documented in the literature (Nagamine et al., 1980a,b;
Sagi et al., 1990; Aalo et al., 2006). In contrast, Li and Xiang (1997)
attempted reversing the gender of Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Kishinouye) without success. This unsuccessful experiment may be related to
the lack of adequate knowledge of the process of sex differentiation in
penaeid shrimp compared to freshwater prawns. It remains unknown
whether implantation of the AG and andrectomy in penaeid shrimp will
be successful in sex reversal. Certainly, previous studies and our study
should be taken into account. We conclude that in both genders of P.
vannamei, external gender differentiation develops around 1520 days
earlier than gonad differentiation. In theory, when external gender
differentiation is observed, any surgical procedure on the vas deferens or
an AG implantation in females would compromise the fate of gonad
differentiation in P. vannamei, which is the same biotechnological sex
reversal principle used in M. rossembergii. Pro-insulin-like genes
expressed exclusively in the AG of male C. quadricarinatus and male M.
rosenbergii have been recently reported (Manor et al., 2007; Ventura
et al., 2009). The discovery of these specic genes may show molecular
processes of sex differentiation and may provide clues to innovative
strategies for sex reversal techniques in commercially reared freshwater
prawns. From a gene regulation perspective, this study may have
142
Fig. 8. Penaeus vannamei. External anatomy of the medium vas deferens in an adult male is
showing the interconnection trough connective tissue (ct) among the distal region of the
posterior ejaculatory bulb (peb), the androgenic gland (ag), and the eighth testicular lobe
(etl). Lifted posterior ejaculatory bulb (A) dissected with the eighth testicular lobe (B).
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INTRODUCTION
Mitotic chromosomes have been comprehensively studied
in the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone,
1931), and other commercially penaeid species (CamposRamos, 1997). Most species have a diploid number of 88
chromosomes, where chromosomes are small, and with a
progressively decreasing length, which is difficult for
karyotype analysis. Nuclei at the diplotene stage were
obtained from male testes in Marsupenaeus japonicus
(Bate, 1888) (Hayashi and Fujiwara, 1988), Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) (Jixun et al., 1989),
Farfantepenaeus aztecus (Ives, 1891), Farfantepenaeus
duorarum (Burkenroad, 1939), and Litopenaeus setiferus
(Linnaeus, 1767) (Chow et al., 1990), and L. vannamei
(Chow et al., 1990; Campos-Ramos, 1997; Alcivar-Warren
et al., 2006), and there is only one report of this stage in the
female ovary of F. chinensis (Jixun et al., 1989). Counting
of highly condensed bivalents has led to establishing the
haploid number of species and confirmed the diploid
number that was previously obtained.
Currently, there are no comprehensive studies of meiosis
in crustaceans. The long and complex first prophase of
meiosis I (Strickberger, 1976; Bernhard, 1990; Loidl, 1994)
involves three important processes: 1) pairing of the
homologous chromosomes (synapsis), 2) genetic recombination, and 3) segregation of homologous chromosomes.
The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a protein complex that
forms during the first meiotic prophase, where chromosome
synapsis and genetic recombination occur during the
zygotene and pachytene stages, respectively (Moses,
1956; Fawcett, 1956; Carpenter, 1979; von Wettstein et
al., 1984; Schmekel et al., 1993; Loidl, 1994).
75
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Fig. 1. Litopenaeus vannamei. Tangled-arranged synaptonemal complexes of female (A) and male (B) at zygotene stage, and female (C) and male (D) at
pachytene stage stained with orcein. Bar represents10 mm. Zygotene, stage is distinguished from pachytene stage because homologous chromosomes have
just synapsed and started to zip-up in one direction, apparently from one end to the other (big arrowheads). During zygotene, thinner and longer than
pachytene bivalents are seen because of a less condensation stage of chromatin. Additionally, it is possible to observe chromosomes (lateral elements) that
are still unpaired (small arrowheads), in contrast to the fully synapsed bivalents at pachytene stage (double arrowheads).
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Fig. 2. Litopenaeus vannamei. Female (A and B) and male (C and D) at early diplotene stage, showing 44 bivalents. A, B, and D: orcein staining; C:
DAPI staining. Bar represents10 mm.
(2006), and the criteria for identification of meiotic stages were based on
the descriptions of von Wettstein et al. (1984) and Loidl (1994). The
genital organs (Garza-Torres et al., 2009) of one group of immature adult
shrimp (25-27 grams body weight) were dissected after identifying the
molt stage without any treatment (control). Another group, after
identifying the molt stage, was injected with 5-mg colchicine per body
gram, and dissected 8 h after injection. Each group consisted of six ovaries
and six testes in each of the following stages: late post-molt (Stage B),
inter-molt (Stage C), early pre-molt (Stage D1), and late pre-molt (Stage
D3). The lobes of gonads were dissected and processed using two
techniques and three staining protocols: the air-dried technique, consisting
of one hour of hypotonic shock in distilled water and then three changes
lasting 15 min each, of freshly prepared and cold Carnoy fixer (3:1
methanol to acetic acid), followed by dissociation of tissue in 50% solution
acetic acid.
Three slides per gonad were prepared according to Campos-Ramos
(1997) by dropping and immediately absorbing the liquid in a pre-warmed
slide around 30uC. Slides first were stained in 2% orcein in 45% solution
acetic acid solution for 5 min, rinsed twice in distilled water, once in
ethanol, and then air-dried. Slides then were stained with DAPI (49-6-
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Fig. 3. Litopenaeus vannamei. Female (A) and male (B) at advanced diplotene stage, showing 44 bivalents; A, orcein staining; B, DAPI staining. Mitotic
spreads (C and D) from spermatogonia staining with orcein. Bar represents10 mm.
RESULTS
The best technique for observing the SC was the air-dry
method, followed by orcein staining. The SC was not
resolved with DAPI staining and with tissue that was fixed
79
Table 1. Mean sperm counts (6 SE) from the vas deferens and
spermatophorores during molt stages of Litopenaeus vannamei. No
statistical difference was obtained.
3 103
vas deferens
spermatophores
diplotene (Fig. 3A, B) were observed at post-molt, intermolt, and pre-molt stages. Female oogonia (++) and male
spermatogonia (+++) were observed during these molting
stages, and only males showed a few mitotic nuclei
containing 88 chromosomes (Fig. 3C, D). As the first
meiotic prophase continued to the diplotene stage, a
reduction and disabling of the SC occurred, leaving
homologous chromosomes attached by chiasmata. At these
stages, it was possible to obtain the haploid chromosome
number of 44 because nuclei contained the highest degree
of bivalent condensation. Early diplotene nuclei in both
genders had, of the 44 bivalents, , 40 with an o-ring
configuration and the rest had a v configuration (Fig. 2).
There was no significant difference in the nuclear diameter
at each meiotic stage between genders. The nuclear mean
diameter gradually diminished from the zygotene (95 6
16 mm in females, 88 6 15 mm in males) to the pachytene
(66 6 9 mm in females, 60 6 8 mm in males) and to
diplotene (42 6 10 mm in females, 38 6 8 mm in males),
more than a 50% decrease (Fig. 4). Spermatids (++++) and
immature sperm (++++), as well as previtellogenic oocytes
(+++) were common during the molt cycle. Sperm counts
from vas deferens and spermatophores were not significantly different during the molt stages (Table 1).
DISCUSSION
The meiotic cells in gonad of L. vannamei showed the
general features of prophase I that are observed in
eukaryotes. Because of high chromatin density, the SC
from gonads was best obtained through the air-dried
technique using Carnoy as a fixative and stained with
orcein. This was easier to process than the paraformaldehyde fixative and silver staining that is commonly used. In
terms of spreading of nuclei, neither technique was able to
unravel bivalents. The many bivalents that are tangled in
the nucleus made it impossible to measure each bivalent
and recognize any bivalent associated with a putative sex
bivalent. From the arrangement of the SC and the low
resolution of the technique, no other bivalent structures,
such as kinetochores and attachment plaques were
observed. Most of the meiotic cells in both genders
remained at the pachytene stage, recognized by the
complete synapsis of bivalents, which support the histological observation of Heitzmann et al. (1993), in male L.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Funding was provided by Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas del
Noroeste and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa (CONACYT
grant 101556-2008) awarded to RCR, AMMM, and DAGT. RGT received
a CONACYT doctoral fellowship. Thanks to Adriana Landa for technical
assistance.
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