Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Belyoev
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H. AA 6Ullle.
C0fV>01l1BnEliHE MATEPIo1AnOB
N. M. BELYAEV
Strength of Materials
He ..'......"1.....
_Il#
.H-rll'. \176
10 En(llt"" lranslallon. Mi. Pub""".." 1m
P,ill/H '" 1M U"t/Pl
o/
The pedaeocieal actlvily el Nikolal Mikh.lIovlch
..l"v was no!
restrided lo
ltninrld Institut! of RailwlY Engillet'f1ne. He
'o\IOfked.1 the Leningr.d Technologicll InsUtute (1919-1926), teningrad rutltule 01 Civl\ Avlatlon (I93J.J934j, and !rom 1934 onwards
was Head o{ Ihe Slrenath of Material! Department al lhe Leningrad
USSR.
of
Mah:riC!b bu
in lhe
Preface
to the Fifteenth Russian Edition
hu
f,
only when lhey beeame absotu!el)' ne<:e55.ry due to changes in standards Ind technical spa;lfications and In lbe light 01 recen! research.
corresponding secHons. The ob3otete sted pruliles grading has bern
replaccd by ntw ones.
A" in \he previous edlttons lt ""1$ Out endeavour lo pfl:5efVe Belyaev's
stylt Ind melhod ol presentalkm oi malerll/. Therl'rof1! Ihl' author's
161 ha! In general been preserved. 11 Nlkolll Mikhailovich
allve loday he would pclS:5ibly write man)' thmgs In a dill"erent
way. However, slnce the book WOIl wide popularlly as II,'ritlen by
N. M. Bel)'aev, we tried 10 preserve tM original lal as {Ir as pos.sible.
The work involved In preparing lhe
edltion loe publica
tlon '#ias dlstributed amoog lhe group as follows: Olapler 13, 80
of Olapter 14, Qapters 1519, 2425-L. A. Belyavskii; Chaplers 6,
Contents
"!toJaI Mikhailovldl
5
lo !be FiIlftlllb RuUlln EdItlon 7
1.
11
2.
l.
srnm..
1H.
3.
MllI 5!Rsscti 21
OUpI!ll" 2. SItaS and SI,..;" In J..,..iOl1 'Rd CompreslOll "'"'11,1" thc' EIll$llc Ll ..,It.
SeleclJOII 01 Crou-otellonrJ Ar... t7
ti. Determinin tht Il.essos in l1.1'It5 pelptlldlculll io ti ... UII
01 lhe bar "/7
7.
Permissibk
Stl...::!;og 1110 CfOl5-w<:lI00aI ..... 311
8.
under lell$lon Illd comp,essloll. Hooke's fu.' 32
9.
L.tcl"Il ddorrndiOl1 coelfito.nl. PoJSSQll'...Iio 36
3.
",n.
1".
t
i 13.
14.
16.
1".",
Stresssl'"Jn di1llJim
47
40
Truo Was-slllin
48
Slr.slnln
ro< elucide .nd brllllti mlw.als 52
Rupluf"lI! In
01 britt1e .nd ducl1oo mal,...,.ls. Comp.-asiQn tesl dl"'lUlm &1
Compar.U1'e $lucir ri !he mech.nK.1 proptttlC:S 01 clu<:l.ile .nd
brttl\t roater:!.b 51
in
al
IxlDl 59
PennIJsiblt
IIIldoPr teftlolon .D11 a.mlfer.iQn lar urious
materials (j.4
Sol"'.'
f 18.
19.
t 20.
1'"".
23.
n.b n
'"
Olaftfl'" 5. Acco.nl lo< 0...01 Vt'tlfhl In Tellilon
Strln!l' liS
24.
!6
Dt/ol"lnatlons dl't to dud Wdpt 11
cable 92
,'11.
I",.".r::
J<.
1."".
uS.,
103
Iot....
101
r
".".
''''''eY ", ..
St.--
'" '"
..
,'"
Reduced
aOfdHlJ lo dllfe,enl 111O"lllh lhtorlel
Peomlulbk sir_ In ptl/t sht... 149
de.el
"....".
_ n I for
1$1
1$3
'"
Coniltnts
11
........ ".
I.. Iema!
,","57.
1,,
...61.
59.
ClIlpler 11.
162.
,,,'"
f.,.. . la
"'<11"11'
Ilendll1"_
Plolttnc benltl...
.00 ..'l"wlne-foroo dl.ogrlu. 201
Plottlng btndlnmoment en" $lturlnfortt dlagr:lJll$ lar ",en
t<Jmplk.. ted 10tIds 21.
Tbe clleck
plotling 01 Q- lI1>d \1dlagrlrtlS 221
AppUc.ollon
...
'"
j6S.
S66.
167.
f 68.
,,,.
,m.
f 71.
In.
'73.
""'- '"
r.
247
Prlnclp.1 un of lner\l nd principal momenls of mert;. :l5O
mulmllm and mlnlTmlm v.llles 01 lhe cenll"ll momenls of
Imrli. 254
AppUo.llon of lbe rarmllla fOl ddermlnlllll norrn.1
lo
bloam, ol
"""lil\l\l 254
RadiJ of lnertll. OJncepl 01 Iht momenlll tlliplC 256
Slrtlllllh clleck,
of Il:Ctloo ,"d cletffrnln.lioo of pel'miltible
load In bendl
258
lUlO
nc
n.
78.
80.
263
'ne act.l0Pl
f 79.
l39
&wtu l'83
Shearin w_ p Ud lo lbo. neulf.l UIL
E:oneept 01 abe.- oenlu 283
Rlvded and wdded 1>e.ams 289
272
"
t l6.
86.
111.
ll8.
89.
90.
3)1
305
301
In Ilendln 3U
by lbe r.jlb-malyUc
bend1rc-momenl
196.
326
menls
97,
98.
99.
loo.
lO!.
,102
. lro:
IOt.
lOO.
106.
, 107.
lO!.
331
V....h;'-&In.. mdbod
OUpI_b In I r _ 351
o.,&ectIOll 01 bufnl; duo: lo
..I'1: ICIIOl! 363
341
of 11M
13
""..
I".
lU.
n2.
113.
115.
117.
'20.
\ 12t.
122.
JZ!.
124.
:188
... 1M
392
'"
,"d torslon
404
,"-".
1
,>l.
131.
0lafI1tt 24.
, 132.
f 133.
"..
l
,35.
,35.
1137.
"....
,JI.
\ '39.
,,,,.
141.
lo.dllW .fOlI
DtltmllfllllJon 01 normal
410
DeU!,mln.Uon 01
.. str_ 413
w_
fb" 423
Gener.l Cdapb
of bcndlnc _ b Ind
IlOl"mlJ
1M
kRa 424
DtlermlnaUm of str_ due lo IlCIffll.ll ond
ion;e; 42\1
DttmnlnatlOll al SlreHS due lo bendln mcmcnl U7
QmpullllOll al lhe. t.dJ ... al CW'Y.tllJ1l el tbe neutral
In.
rect.r.lcUbc
wclJoa '33
OdtnniIIIUon al lile rldlll$ ouv.ulI'e al lile ,,",Iral 11)'8 lar
dale ancI trlptZOld 434
[)etaminfne lile kallon al ne.IIJII laye- ltom bblcs 436
14'.
145.
1';.
Analyj 01
cyllndlrs
446
446
O1aptl:t 'l6. Destilo 10r P...-rnlstlble Loads. Deslio lO' lImlllnl! 51111$ 457
147. Deslgn lO!" perml.'l6lblt load. AppJlc.tron to 5tattca!ly 'Ieterminal. 5.tem! 457
J4l:l.
Desllln O sbtically ndetermlnal. sr,slems "nde; l.n.ll)n or
compression by the melhod of permisslb. loads 458
Odermlnallon of ltmiUn, IIflln espadly of I !...alad rOO 4ij2
149.
ISO. Selectlnll be.m sedion for permlssible load. 465
ISI.
Destilo 01 at8tiCllly ndetermlna!. bum. IQf pum($';,bl.
The fundamental. An'l)'Sta 01 Iw.,."pan
468
l '5' 153.
474
g:
g:
PART IX.
Dynamlo
Actlon uF Forces
f lG4.
t 16S.
166.
,167.
168.
I&J.
lIT:
172.
521
lnlloduclion 521
Ddermlnlng .I.esses In unllorm1y I<:<e1cr.ted mollon
bodies 523
S\mse$ In a rotaln 'lng (Dywheel 'lml 524
In connecling rads 525
RotaUng di .. 01 uni10rm
529
DI.. 01 u"Horro slrength 533
Elfe<:1 al
GIl tite magnltude 01 stresseo; 535
Oelennlnotion 01 slresses in elemenls subJe<:ltd lo vibrallo"
The elfed 01 m;ss of lh. el.,tle syslem on vlbrallcUls S-tl
01
69
0C9
II)WP.1p<lW
W
110
"9/H
919 ull!S"'p
o "l'lu;wepun.:l
''061
t6l
6O'J I".\..
l'iJil-nlJl pUl
"rel
lOO l""iJil-R1l1 pUl d'*"D
W9 SJ"1:lW
""
qB11I 10 \93
:>.mil'!
pUl>OdUlQ;l pUl
Lli9
I:l)g
8UlPlO1 'I"'[JIA
Rlun
999
l':9S
,,Bu"JI'
"
00
xIPlRddV
UC>
"111""1'W 10
.", ,
"161
'/i81;
'll\ll
"l81
"91111
"Wl
"lil
!ll
"IS1
4IB"'lJIS
'OS[
illJ.
1lL1
"Ul
10
S'lIW
JO
1ll'31pl 'O
;ss Ilq U!,JIJ,un-ue>u I 111 _Jli pldw
m lJ9dw I Rpon
!ulpnPllC>J PUB R&SOIJ1' !uIUIIU.liI13P 10
"lWUCO
WC>11
'6.1.1
1OId<"O
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"9![
PART I
Inlroduclion.
Tension and Compression
CH......
tn'
Introduction
1. The Scitl'Kl' of Slrenglh 01
In designing struCIUftS and machines, 3n enllinel'l'" has 10 select
material ami the cfoss-scclional area 01 t;tl'h tlemen! of the stru<:!ure
1-3uo
..
[Pa,t I
dimemions. Iht shape 8nd lhe material of Ihe 'lIrious e1elllenls ron1vris
ing lhe struclurr.
ol slrenglh o IIliIlerials 3S a stparlltt SCiffict' daln
back lo 1638 ;lntl
nlimale!)' connt<:tf'd wilh lhe \I:o;ks of
(aliJei, {he greal Ilalian
Galileo \l:as a proJes,.<;Of 01 mathe
malia al Padua He lh-ed in a period ....1l1ch sa.,, lhe
01
Ihe leudal syslem, lhe developmenl of tradc capital antl inlemalional
marililOl! Iral1$port.8nd lhebirlh 01 minin.!!: Ind ml'lallurgiul mlustrie!.
lile rapitl economic developmenls 01 Ihose tintes called fOl" spcedy
Incrt'llSoC' 'lO intemalional
solutiollS 01 oew lechnological
maritime rade perpetWlIM lhe nceo for blgger ships V.11irh in tum
entailt!d r:hanges 10 lheir
al lhe S<lflte IUlIe it ber:al1l<.' nCl:('SS1!ry
lo reconslruct Ihe existing ano lo butld nev.' mternal \\'lIll'f\\'ays, in
c1uding r:anals Dno sluicl'S, ThMe Ol'W Itl:hnkal problems mulo not be
solvtd b)' simply copyin.l: lhe exblmg lIe.signs 01 ships; il beca me
net:e:ssary lO juogl' Ihr slrenglh of elemenls keeping in mind lheir site
3ml Ihe lorces acting upon Ihelll.
Galileo devoled a considerable par! 01 his work lo the studr 01 lhe
dependence belween lhe dimensioos 01 beams aru! brs and Ihe loads
of his experi ments
lhey could wilhstand. He poinled oullhYI Ih!!
ma)' prove ver)' uselul in building big shlps, especia!ly in slrengthening
anrlooveringbecauSl' low weighl is ver)' importao! in slruc'
lhe
lures of his type. Galileo's works have heen publisht"d in his book
Disrors{ , Dimo1.luu;Qtli Mal/motic/le ... tDialogue on Two f'e"N
' ,
(1638. Leiden. Holland).
Further developmeol of slrenglh 01 malerials ,,'('ni on in step wilh
1Ilt! progres.s of mechaniral and civil engineing. and rllalena1i1.t!d
O'A'ing lo
.....o rk done by a largre number of eminent
lisis. nurlhernaikians. phy.ski.sls and l.'nginters. Rmsian ;:lod Soviet
.stffili.sls
an importanl place lmongsl hen!. Brie( informali,,&::
skelches aboul Ihe role playM by individual sdenl ists in th(> Orvl.'lop.
ment or sorne problems of strenglh of lnatefials are iVdl ln correspondng ehapler.s o[ Ihe book.
11
Ch.
/lllrodllrfiM
"
body
,.
",,lh.
{Porl /
I.:etlain period of time-Ihe welghl of lhe train moving along lhe bridge
may be ciled as an ex.ample.
ACl.:ording lo Ihe nature of adion, Ihe loads may be c:Iassified as
static amI dynamic.
Sla!ic ioos act on Ihe struclure gradually, alter being applied lo Ihe
slructure they
do nol change al a1\ or ehange nsignificantly;
the majorly of loads acling in civil and hydraulic slruclures are 01
Ihis nalure. Under the influence of slalic loadin:: al! elel1lents 01 Ihe
in Ihe elemenls oi
conslrudion r<'main in equilibriulll;
lhe structure re either tolally absent or .so SlIlall Ihal Ihey may be
neglected.
11, however, tIJe aeceleralion is considerable and the change in
velocily or lhe machine or strueture lakes place in a shorl time, Ihe
load is known as dYllamic.
lhe examples or dj'namic loads are suddenly applied load, impact
load and repeated variable load.
Suddl:ll/Y applil:d loads are IransmHled instanlaneously in their
tolal lIlagnitude. An example 01 this Iype of loading is lhe lorce 01
pressure 01 lhe wheels 01 a locoOlotive when it enlers a bridge.
fmpuc! Juads appear whell there is a sharp change in the velocity 01
adjoining elements 01 il slruclure, lor example the impacl of drop
hammer during pi le driving.
lhe repeated ooriable (oads ael on Ihe elements of strudures ror a
considerable number 01 limes. For example, repealed stea111 pressure,
al lernately stretehing and eomprcssing lhe pislon rod and lhe connecl
ing rod 01 Ihe sleam engine. In a number of cases Ihe load represents
a combination 01 d)'namic loads 01 dillercnt natufe.
We shall flnl of all sludy Ihe resistanee of malerials lo slalic loads;
Ihe selection of material and cr0S5-sectional arca lor eaeh el..menl 01
lhe struclure does nol "resent man)' difficuHies in lhis case.
In Chaptet1l 2931 we shail discuss Ihe actioll 01 dynamlc loads in a
number of instances which occur as often as stalic loads; lhey require
carelul sludy because lhejr elfecl on the eJements 01 slruclures dilfers
rom Ihat 01 static loads, and the malerial also resisls Ihem in a difiero
....nl manner.
Conduding Ihe c1assi6calion of lorces ac(ing on lhe elemenls of
slmclures, lel us consider Ihe aelioo of parls whieh supporl Ihese
dements; lhe forces acliog on lhese supporls are known as the reaclion
furets-lhey are unknown quanlilies and are dell'rmined from lhe
<.:odHion Ihal each elemenl of the struclure musl remain in equilibrium under lhe aclion of JI! Ihe external rorces applied lo jI HIIllhc
l"I.'lIction lorcl'$.
'" JI
3. OeformatioJlS and Slr($5(S
"
Pad I
....P
and // by a p1ane mil. Under Ihe action 01 forc{'5p both ha1vesoF Ihe
bar tend lo go aparl, bular" h"ld logelher owing lo lhe forces 01 mle
radion betwl.'t'1l Ihe toms localed on bolh sities of plane nUl. The
resultanl 01 Ihe forces of inleraction is Ih" infernal !(}fe.! Iransmitted
Ihrough mil from one hall of Ihr b:lr to the ather, and vice versa. The
internal force or inleraclion per unit area around any poinl 01 st'elion
mil is called lhe slress al lhe poinl of Ihe given seclion. The slresses
ading rrom parl If on par! I nd from parl f on part If are equa1
in magnitude according lo Ihe law 01 arlion aud reaelion.
" Ilumber of planes dividing Ihe bar in t\Va pnrls in t1ifferen! ways
can be dra\\'n thrOllgh a single poinl 01 lhe bar. Thl' rnagnHude and
direction ollhr
Iransmilled Ihrough lhe given point [mm one
part ollhe bar lo the olher will clepcnd upon ho\\' lhe plano.' culs lhe
bar.
ThllS, il is wrong to speak of slrfSSl'S wilholl{ ndiellting {he plane
through which they are being Iransmillecl. Therefore \Ve speak bout
"lhe slress on a parliclllar area in <l par[i<:ular plane". Sinee slress is a
rorce per ullll are.1, il is Clll'1lsured in kgf.'Clll, kgl/mm t U:cm', Ulm',
N/m' etc
In
we shall denole
by Jellers p, a, and t; lelter p is
used ror strCSSl'S applied to cerlain area in 'In}' plane indini'd al an
arbilrary ang1e, C1 denoles slress al right ,mg1es to Ihe plane, i.e. /!ormal
and T denotes stress in the phlne, Le. s/lrorillg stress.
Thl'slressal any roinl is {he measnreo[ intern:tl [orces which appear
in lhe material owing lo lts delormation under lhe aclon 01 exlernal
[orces. The rorce Iransmilled from parl J or Ihe lwr lo parl 11 (see
counlerbalances lhesystem of
Fig. l) holds part 11 in equilibrium,
forces ading on parll f. This lorce may be cxpreMed jo lerms
01 the slress lo be delenninetl: jf \Ve considcr an elementarv area dA
in lhe plane 01 culling, Ihen lhe elementar}' force arting o this ele
mentary arca wil! be p dA, where p is the slress al Ihe poinl arollnd
\\'hich lile elel1lenlary ar...a is lacated. The sun! 01 Ihese t:lemenlary
lorces gives us lhe total/orce translllilted through the particular plane.
Ch.
JI
2J
Thus, to
Ihe strcsses. it is nettsSary lo imagine Ihe ele
menllo be cut in 1'4"0 parts and write clown Ihe: condilions of e:quilibrium lor lhe system of Jorct:S aciing on one of
cutoll' par\s.:
s)'sle:m IllCludcs the ulernal {orl'U appHtd to lhe parl of the bar unrk'r
ronsidn-ation and also Ihe: lorce tro1ll5mitttd through lhe
ami uprt"SSCd in lerms 01 slresse::s sou!!hl. This is Ihe melhod
so.'C.
tioM, whlch we shall \,:ollSlanlly apply in lulure.
Let us point out, that, in slrcngth oC materillb. lhe lerm
is very oCien uscd nstead oC Ihe: exprcssion -inlernal lorces 01 inlenlelherelore in futurc whm \Ve nlcnlion
lion Ix!twccn parls 01 the
ami nonunirorm dislribu\ion oC strl':SSCS OVl'f the
and
as be SUll1 or slrC$SCS", we must bcar in lIlind tbal
expressions ar ... lo j cerlain degree convenUonal. For example. lo del('rnline Ihe force on(' caJlnol 5um up the slresscs al various points;
Il1cnlioned above. it is nccessary lo find al each point 01 sed ion the
tlcmelllafY fafre whiclt is transmittetl lhrough an clelllenl"ry arca dt1
and Ihen sum up a\1
values. RL"Capilulating what has beL'fl wriL
len above, .....e come to lhe conclusion thal when ao exlernal [orce js
applit'd lo an elelllt'nt of structure, Ihe hlller gets delorlOed alld lhe
defOfmation is lK'ronlpanitd by slresses In Ihe clemen!.
Slrenglh or malerials sludies. on lite one hand, the rdalion bc.'t\l,'eCT\
lhe external lorces ando OCI the 01111'1' hand. Ihe deformaUons 2nd
slres5l'S due lo hem. This mables the engintc'r to salve the import.1nl
problem 01 :lell'Cling a bar of proper dimeru;ions and approprialt material lo re<ist lhe extemal forces. In Ihe liellt seclion weshall give an
outline 01 the solUliort lo l!lis problem.
"
lhe
s/rlSS is
square bracbls: il is
klwing expression:
bv Ihe
lo Ihe uit imale
[p]-1'
whffe k thC:S(lfl'ly {De/o' whkh 5hOl\'5 ho\\' many times lhe
stress [5 [ess Ihan Ihl" ultima!e (tenslle) strenglh. 1h(' value 0' Ibis
factor vares lrom 1.11.8 lo 810 and depends upon IheoperaHng con
dilions al the slrurlure. It will be di5cl.'ssed in grealer detall In 16
and 17.
Cenoling b)' P... Ihe muimum stress Ihal
in lhe deslntd
(1.1 )
This is lhe sfreflgtl (XmdilioJl, whlch slales Iha! the' adual slrE'SS mllS!
be not grtaler lhan Ihe permi!>Sible.
Nov.' we ma)' compile lhe plan rOl" solving lhe problelllS al slrcngth
01 materlals as folkN.'S.
(1) Ascerbin lhe magnilude and nalure of all Ihe external forces,
includug lhe reattions, IICting on Ihe element IInder cornideution.
(2) Selecl an appropriale material Ihat is mosl suilable in lhe
"..orking conditions 01 lhe eleml!nt (struclure) and lhe natureof loading;
dell'fmine lhe permissible stress.
(3) Set the cross-seclional arra oi lhe elenlCnl in numerical ur algebraie iorm, and calculale 1he maximum aclual stress p",,, which <levelops in il.
(4) Write do""n Ihe slrenglh condilion P_u"'- lpl and with lhe hl'lp
01 it calculale lhe erOSS'Sf!('torJal area or the element or clleck whelher
lhe set valoe ls sufficienl.
lhe plan oI solution of problems in slrtnglh of IIUllerials is solDttimes
altere<!; in sorne slruclures Ihe saret)' lactor lar the "'!lote slructure
is found lo be greater Ihan lhat lor Ihe m.alerilll in the poinl of rules! stress. 11 lhe limitin Ilfling capacHy of lhe material is exhaU$led
at lhis poinl, this does nol necessarily nlean Ihal Ihe limiling lirtiOR
capacityof lhe wbol/! struelure has ,Iso been reoched. In sueh ClIses,
the strl!nglh coodifioo p....,,.;;lpl is replaced by lhe strength condllion
for the struclure as a whole:
p<p...
htre P is Ihe load on Ih/! s1ructure.
is i1s permissible valu/!. and
p. is the limitin force whiclt the stn.lcture can wittlslan4 wilhout brell-
"
king dO\1m. Thus, the design based on permissible stresses is replaced
Ch. 1I
IPurl I
'"
)-.-.tP
,,)
fig. Z
dal.
Ch.
1I
5. T)-pe5 01 DefonnaliON
"
prwion. (tll and (11), as in ehaios. ropes. c:ables, b.no ollrusses \\''OI"king
unt'r lension or cclilpression, columns; (2) shearing Ir), as Jn bolls
.nd rivels; (3) torsion (ti), as m shails; (4) bendmg (1'). as in beams 01
aH Iypes. These- iour Il'Pes uf dciormatioos art Clllk-d simple ut!vrma
IU)IIs.
The operation 01
in slruclurcs is (enemll)' more tomple;
Ihe)' are subjectcd lo 1\\"0 or more Iype$ 01 deformallons simullancousl y.
lor exampl.., Iomsion ar eompression and bending, I)('nding and lorslon.
ele. These ar.. cases 01 Ihe SQcalled composilt dl'!Oflllolion. FOI' t'aeh al
lhe abovemenliont'ulrpes of deformations ....e shall lind oul melhods
lor delermining Ihe slresses. selecling the material and cross-setlion
al aru 01 the elemenls and delermining lhe magnilude 01 deformation.
lo make il easy 101' Ihe reacler ta undenland, iniHall)'
shall
INicler only
elernen15 of
and mtdunes which are in
Ihe rorm of prismu/ic btus wllh asifaighfaxlS. A bodr which has a unlorlO CfO$-wdiooal area aH long ils Irnglh m.lY be considefl'll a
prismalic bar. The cenlres 01 gcavil)' 01 alllhe secHons of Ihe body He
on one slraigbt line, whkh is caUro Ihe axu vf IN lxir. Lal("l" on we
511.11/ aiso consider bars .....ith a non-unilorm cross-sectional ,lita and
eurved ois.
CHAPTeR 2
"
tPcrf' 1
saiJ lo be untler lemioo IFig. 311); in th(' opposile C.iI!>e. under comprl.'S
4- nn+" !:+__
rN
(IlI
FJl[. J
'=Elmine lhe permissble stress and seled lb!.' CfO$!seclional area in slIeh a
w'Y Ihal he actual stress does nol eXCffd lb maximuIJl perrniuible
value.
e.+
-J-
-11- -
J--e
FiJ:_ 6
(l.
2J
5Irt$.< (md
30
(Parf 1
7. Permissible Strtue5.
0'.="
p.
A,
P
fOi
(2.3)
Wilh the help of formul. (2.3), one call Sol'led lhe crossscclional area
of lhe bar.
Ch. 1}
SI.as
llN
ElaJllc
SIra;"
'""iI
31
k-r]::t:I3.3
Therelore, in Ihis case we lOa)' take lhe JX!rmissible stress
" ..
"':"-A,16.7
\,!herefrom
-4.5Sclll :=t4.5c.m
'The
corre3ponds lO lhe base 01 Ihe Ihread lJ.'ilh
lhe mlnlmum crossseclional area. When Ihe crossseclional area of
bar is decreased in a parlkular place. for eX31l1ple due loa bolt or 11
rivel hole, a circular cut or a groove (lhreadmg). il is essenliallo delermine lhe mlnimum cross-sedional area, caBed "et aret1 and denoled
32
and ComprrsJiof1
[P.ar/ I
by
Tlle formulas derived above are val id fOf Icnsion. rhey can be used
ior compression as well wi,thoul any changes. The difference wlll be
in ,he direction 01 normal slrcSS('S antl Ihe magnitude of the-permissible
stress, 10"1. The compression of bars ls morecomplex in Iha! lhe bar lIlay
becorne unstable, Le. il may suddenly hendo Designing IOt stability
will be discu.ssed in Parl VIII.
p-E!3i EEj-P
Ir
p->I-
-1-
+P
F)G. 7
pression (lor short bar,;, i.c. bars in whkh lhe Jenglh does nol exceed
five
Ihe diame{er or UQI;S secUon). In other malerials (e.g. cast
iron) (he permissible slress is different in (ension and compresslon,
depending upon Ihe ullimale Slrl'nglh lor the recrdcd dl!formations.
In a number or cases. compressive stresses are IranSlnilted from one
eJement 01 conslrudion lo another through a comparalively smaJl area
01 conlad between Ihelll. This type 01 slress is generally caHed the
/Jrorillg. or amlart s/,,!ss. Slress dislribution arollnd the nea 01 conlad
is
comptex and can be analyzed only by melhods 01 Ihe !heary
01 elastkity. Usuallj\ in si mple designing. these stresses are
as ..:ompressive s!resses and a special permissible slress limi! is Fixed.
Laler on Ihe qlleslion or sele<:ting permissible stresses in spedal caws
will be deall with in grcaler details.
& 10).
Ch. 21
33
A/=.E..!.
EA
(2.5)
7-
[Pan J
strm
0', '4'e
12.61
'"
0'=t.E
(2.7)
Ch.
2J
Limil
Table 1
01
Co"rf;,;l<nt 01
01
lo'er.1 d.lorm.
d.d'<lly F.
110' "'l."')
1..
2.0.2.1
kc al temperatures
ti"" l'
0.230.27
0.240,2g
0.250.30
0,310..3-1
0.32-0.%
2.1
11
l.J5
0.910,99
0.36
1.0
1.1
O-m
O.'"
200 kgl/cm
-,"<:
_3'C
( -5"<:
and below
Rubber
B.kelile
Celluloi,j
Texl(JlIle
Lamillaled Bakente
Rll!ld l'''ly\'inyl ehimi,le (PVC)
Cap",larr
Highpressure pol)'otbyiellC
Pltenoplast
Polyearl"'llale
Plexlglas
0.84
0.17
0.56
0,42.0,5lj
0.18
0.090.1
0.06
0.027.0.030
0.14GO.l% }
0.lC"0,214
0.182.0.232
O 1.0.12
0.005.0.01
0.04 ,
0:07
O,ln)
0.00008
0.020.03
0.01740.0193
0.000.1
0.10.17
0.040
0.020.(121
0.0020.0025
O 150.20
0.022'0,024
0.028
0.32-0.3(;
o."
0.25
0.1130.34
0.160,18
",0.36
0.47
0.3'J
0.220,3
0.<4(l0.4G
0.220.27
"
PO'I I
o"""A
H lhl' externa! force is nol lmown bul Ihe elongation 01 the bar can be
n1l'usurctl, a is de-terminl."d frum formula (2.7):
o=tE
The relalive t'longaliOll ma)' be eakulated according lo lhe follo\\'ing
formula lhe {olal elona:!Iion M lar a lenglh 1 aflhe bar can be mea
surl'd:
A'
t=T
We shall show lalt'r lhat lhe sond mdho<! has lo be employed \'ery
ofltn lo
sllUSotS in a number oi cases.
si
.,
t=
,.
f l - .
In compre:ssion. lhe shorlening 01 lhe bar is illlongiludinal deformalion aM lhe incRase in its erosssn:lional area is llit' lalNal IIclorllllllion. 11 has been expefimenlally proved Ihal for 3 majorit)' f !he 013lerials ti Is [rgrn 3 to 4 times less th.m e.
Ch. 21
Pt
v, =
Al (1
V, = V [1
+2o( l-2fL)]
38
[Parl /
v,-v
[5
(1-2,,)
I@
N,
4'-.lO'
/t.-J(]"
'l1!il
N,
F'IE.
Flg 10
N,= s'?:JIJr:a:02Q=81f
N.= Q (QI3O'- QYJ -
6.93 ti
Ch. 21
A, = 1"
"
HOOO
N,
G930 277
A '=l"-J=Y==;
cm
Diameler o[ rod AB is
d=
y'
a=
'JI""A: = 11 277 =
16.6 cm
;=::
17 cm
80lh 1he values have belln rounded-Ior Ihe slccl rod lo the nearest
mlll, and for lhe wooden rod lo Ihe neare;,t cm.
To determine 1he displacement f 01 point A. lI'e dlsconnecl the rods
and represen! Ihem by lheir new lengths 8A, and CA,. increasing and
,e
(b,
Fig. 11
decreasing thcir initiallengths by M,=AA,- and 6.I.=AA,. respectiveIy, wilhout ehanging Iheir diredion (Fig_ 11(a)). lhe new posilion 01
point A can be located by bringing logether the delormed rods by rotat
ing thcm aboul paints B and C. Poinls A, and A, will move along
ares A,A. and A.A., which duc lo their smaJllel1gth may be considere<! as
Unes, perpendicular to BA, and CA . lhe horizontal
displacelllent al point A will be
t, =A.A. =
The segml'llt
A,A.+
B,'
Therdore
IJlI"
' M,ros'"
U"
Consequenlly,
II
-A A +A A _l'
.,
IIIICl
.. ,,"
...
.1
2.4 X 10 - t .(ln
1(lO y. 17' -
,\',1,
,_....--:;-""
<""',
_507
lO' cm
.
X
.\1,+ 411, lS a:
(ISIn"
=
Ir
IU)
_1.43 mm
f-
mm
CHA.PlVI )
ClI. JI
IPar! I
P
JI
21
Xl
Al
..!..
----
.........
-T-/7l----
7t""'
,f-----cof,
K.
i1
iI
I
I
I
I
I
I
F,!( 12
fig l;
(;h. 3)
CompreS$i{m
Iring bctwe<'n points e and D, Ihen unloading will lake place along
tine 20" whlt'h is alrnost paraJlel lo Ihe line DA. The specirnen in
Ihis case will nol regain its initial dlrnensions, segmenl 0,0, .... ilJ
represent Ihe elastie delonnation, which, as in Ihe previous case, ehanges ln direc! proportion wHh Ihe load al constant modulus of el<lsUc ty.
Segment 00, will represenl the fl'sidwl deformaliull and segmenl OO.
lhe tlila! dl'/ofmalillll al a load 02," We mav
a load 08, below
whkh only elastic delornwtions OCCllr. The' oorresponding polnl B
on Ihe diagram llsu<llly lies a titile <lbove bul very <:lose lo poinl A,
whieh represents Ihe limil 01 proportionalily. lhe stress which I[
l'xce<'t!l'd results in ver)' smllll (o[
Ihe order 01 0.001-0.03%) residual
delormnlions Iseallcd theelaslie limil {Ie.On Ihe lenslon lest dlagrarn
(Fig. 12) Ihe load causing Ihis slress
iSH'prj!Scntcd by Ihe ordinateOB,.
Poinls A <lod 8 aresodose lo eaeh
olher lhal Renerall)' lhe 1imil of pro
porUonality nnd Ihe elaslie limil
areconsideret! lo belhesalrle. Therelore a1though it is commonl}' said
Ihat a
lollows Hooke's law
liJl il reaehes Ihe elaslic limil, il
would bt more prC'Cise lo say lill it
reaches Ihe limil 01 proporlionality.
lhe fl13xi lI\um lensile force slrelch
FiS. 14
ing Ihe speciluen is reprl."senled
by Ihe ordinale DO,; il Is cOlllmonly referred to as Ihe cruslling /ood,
because il is essenlial lo apply Ihis load for ruplure lo begn; lhe
ultiuwle breakdown occurs al load rt"prest'l1tell on lhe diagram by Ihe
onllnale uf poinl K. lhe stress cauS<'d by he maxlnlum load is called
Ihe ultimale slrcngtl or ultimale r"sistancc 0 . Thl.' ulti mate slrength,
obln.ined as 11 ratio of Ihe nwxilllum load lo the initial crosssectional
area 01 Ihe spt'Cilllen, char<lclcrizes the force required lo crush the specil"en 01 lhe given maleral under lension; for lowcarben steel iI
reaches 4000 kgl'cm'.
While sludying the lension lesl tll<lgralll, we nlDrked 00 iI a number
e[ ordinales represenling loads connected wllh varous mechnic<ll
properties 01 Ihe material. Table 2 contins a summary of [hese loads
and lhelr corresponding characlerislics
wilh lhelr notalions.
Any 01 the requ ired stress can be ebtained by d ividingl he eorresponding
load by Ihe inilial t'rossseelional arca o[ Ihe speclllen.
Alllhe mechaneal properlies(limit of proporlionalityand ('Iaslle
linll, yield stress, nd ulUmale strength) characterize Ihe Ilbility of
a IJlnleral lo resisl lhe lensile force.:; tendlng to deforl1l lIud crusll a
spt'Ciml:n .made Irom j[,
..
[P"d I
Table 2
Mt<hanlul
01 Material,
Cono,pon,lIC1a _tr... ,,,d
lu
Load
OA,
load
lo Ihe begillIllng 01 residual
Mlwmations 08,
load corre,pondnl: t" lhe no", 01 lhe
(inerca!. In ddQtmall<)1l al
OC,)
Muimum
00,
Limll Df proKIrlianaJiI)"
Elblk IImll
Yleld slre\.>
<1 p
It.
lJ
=,:. x 100
"
CIl. JI,
SllCh lhallhe Imglh belween the heads somewhal exceeds the estiro..lenglh.
Tht pliabilily al a material under tension lit oompressiOfl c.m abo bl:
3SCt!flained by anolher quanUl)' called lhe ptI71UJl/Lfll (tlarhlt ,rola/ion
(01 area). AHer the maximum load i5 reached. a "neck" starls iorroing
in a partic::ularsedion 01 lhe bar. and
al the place of failure the CC0;S5'SC'CIlonal area of lhe sptdmen is gene
P
rall)' 1m than ils nitia! value (Fig.
Lel us denole the lnitial cross
sedlonal uea by Al. and the area of
lhe secUon al which the specimen
breaks dawn by A.; Ihe quantily
$"",A.-II,X 100
A,
For
1i9.
..
lP",/ I
elementar\' atltlilJOf\S 01 loads dP. we find tha! lhe \llork doJJe by lhe
externa! fOrce; in glddually slrelching he spedmen is the sum of he
ol lhe elementarr t\'1:langles (Fig. 15). Whtn he load P is in
crellsl."d cool inuous]y. l.l!. IIP and df,l are infinilesimal quanlities, lor
11Ilrlkular values of P anLl Al, Ihissum ma)' be obtained liS lile area
28,8,08, ='jPtil
Thll5. lhe work perlorrned in elaslic Jeformation of a bar by
may be l."xpres.sed by Ihe formula
1
11" -'2Pj,/
c.l
(3.1)
<>31
spechnen of lhe !.ame material, whkh has
:rl.'liminaril)' loadetl up
to poinl Z ami Ihen loode<! back lo poinl O,. \/'1.' see Ihal he limil el
proportionalily increases lo rl'ach lhe slrm up lo whkh
specilllfn
has been preliminarily loadl.'d. w!rel"eas lhe plasti<: delormal)of decmses by 00.. Le. by Ihe residual delormation inrurrt'd during prclimi.
nary loading.
dening is much more complex Ihan lhe simple process by which i! has
bC(!n exv1ained heTeo In particular, ir Ihespecimt'n is allowed
'.
..
lbal
P.11
Knowin tba!
t.=.z.
-r-:lAJ-::l
.. '"
T "'" 'il
(3.2)
By analogy. lhe tolal area of he diagram shown in Fig. 16 reprt'SCnts
f:J=
,,
I
Fi(. 16
" '1 whieh
F1c
0M:
(3.3)
upon lhe product of lhe ullimate strength llnd Ibe slrain aHer the
mplure. Tberefore. very oflen, ihe abilily of a material to Wilhsl.:IO<1'
shock! is judged by lhe product aM.
From lhe diagram in Fig. 17, JI is evldtnt thllt
"" E
o,.
..
JI
(3.4)
0_..".
..,- .'(--,
'.
(3.5)
e= 'J.
Finelly
'.
'.
'rcoin(1 +e)
(3.')
ro
{Par! I
where
'.
is th(l condilional slrain.
Formula (3.6) cannot be used in case of non-uniform deformation
because il is diflicult lo rneasure 0./ lar computing e.
It is known lhal the specimen I/alume does nol change uoder nonuniform deformalion br.ginning ram Ihe momenl of neek formalion.
This is known as the lawof constancyof ooLume and may be expressed as
Al
where A. is Ihe original crosssectional area. lt ensues thst
AJ. = (A.-aA) (lo+M)
after dividing by Aol.
1 =A._AA I.+ll.l
A,
1,
wherefrom
I+e=-',->
Upon subsliluting thellas! expression in formula (3.6), \Ve finally ob-
tain
-e=ln-,
(3.7)
P-=oAo=aA"
wherc l] is conditional slress, Le. stress rclated lo the original cross
secUonal atea. Furlhcr.
,-,,
a-a--
el_
J)
"
ii_o(l+e)
(3.8)
orup
,
F"ig. 19
Fig. 18
P,
Yield slress
The [rue ultima[e slrengt}
is calcuJaled lrom
Ihe formula (3.8).
The (rue rup/ure stress is lound from formula (3.4), Le.
Ji
troe unifarm
The
erop=ln l_>/>
,.
"
IP", J
lional IDf'lhod.
HO\\"t'ver. it ...."ould be ermneous lo use the laller yalueforcalculal
illl: lhe maximum lo.ad whieh lhe bar can wilhstand belore breaking
ckr,1m, \\itich i.s very importanl from the practical poio! oi "iew. This
is dear {rom Ihe lension test diagram in Fig. 12. lile maximum load
that the specimenwithslandscorresponds nol lo lhe morncnt of break
dowII bul lo an earlier moment-the magnilude of Ihis load is charac
terizect by lhc ulttmate strenglh oc lhe Spl'l.:tmen of a given crossK"Ctional area. Th... aclual stress increase in
is due lo Ihe
sh3rp redlletion in Ihe \\"orking cross-sedional
of lhe
Le. du(' lo Hs fuplure.
Wc II1<1Y se! a number 01 mechanical properties uslog lht! fUe stressstraln ctiagram. lhey were I'nunleraled (m<lrked b)' ilalles)
Ihe
plotling or Irue stref.Sslrain lension test diagram was explained.
lhe- onlinates 011111" lrlle stressstrain dial:ram show Ihl' abilily of
maleral lo resisi plasti<: deformation.
lo increase lhe ptasllc (residual) defOfmalion, \IX' musl subject Ihe
malerial lo a continuousl)" increasing slress; lhe grt'ater lhe plMlic
is ils resistance lo such a (letlelornlallon of Ihe malerial, Ihe
fornll1hon. This is knoo.t."J1 as Urtngfhrnillg. The abilily o[ 1I material
lo sln.'nglhening is judged by Ihe sleepness oi lhe true stresssirain diag:r3m, i.e. by lan .
lhe dilTl'ferK:e of Irue lolal and unilorm elongalion is characlerislic
01 the abilily of malerial lo deform locally <al lhe- IlI!Ck) !lid is known
M loo! elungaUQfI.
Ch.
31
8Ql10
,o
6000
lIIiJO
Ip ..ZZ.5% ".-7f3fxpf/Ut t
:
d'-5J.8%
,I ,I
I I
I
I I
I
,
I rs,.-JJ78Kf/CIf/! :
I
I
I
I
'i
I ,
(b)
o
O
9f55tgl/'ff! t
800
':\. '.
'QlI
I
I
I
11d'%r I
lOi' JO I O
"
"
.!
"1
-'--\:;--':llt,;--'=--t-r;,.,
JO
50
Fig.
fZOO
'"
r.
54
IPwt f
modulus
or e-Iastkly increases
Q(
C}']
IilUe lllOn' Ihm ils diameler are uscd in studying Ihe slrtllglh of malerials under coUlprt55ion. In longer specirr.ens 11 is dlfficull lo avoid
bending.
,-
---f
el<. 3\
"
.. ..
6..,..,qt
-r/
/
/
1
'"
""
,'-------..,
."...'
""
""
."
.,
"
Fic
"
D.llfJ
(1,1;(111
.,
Fl,. 26
should be note<! Ibat the sea les al diagrams in Figs. 25 and 26. espel'lalIy tbe horiwntal enes. are much larger Ihan lhe seale of the diagram
in Fi. 24.
WIlft /
Fil. 29
"
\ f1
n al 1ft
el
tral
In
x ,
le
eh
26)
",.
:;:J.
,,
I
"
,,'
z:,.
,I
.;1'1 r:'l?'iT
PI
J
'!
"t'i.: 1101\ hy
fhe
:'olJ 11
r' l
eq
p;
.,,
, -i
,
1J
on I)rlJl hl
n "ore,
,,
anJ
Ihl.'
S('(IIOI1.
t'
+,
Sl't.'
tha!
6"
"
r r. "
1\\l:r haln'S
1 t:umlJ 11011
(2G 5)
prt ,1.:111.:(' of
Ld
U\
rfll1 .. idlr
of lllliform l'dlon
lJl
(f J.: :377111)) 11 .. Ill'nding: 1ll01llt'nt dilgralll ior \\orl\ \\ Ilhin tlll' l'I,1 tll.:
(jr;lphir ,u!Jtradion 01
alio
, dt:ll r 11-
JI
r"
(J,
\\
lh'rt'frurn
h.
Id
P11
.
1
[Part 1
i5 grealer
than lhal required for brittle maleriaJs. Therdore, ductile mate
rials are moTI" suilable lor struclures designed lo absorb the maximum
possibJe kinelic ellergy al impact wilhout [ilure.
lhe brittle materials {aiJ easily undee impacts jusi because Iheie
specific work af delormation is ver)' smalL Oue lo Ihe!e small deformalion up lo stresse5 c10se lo lhe ultimatestrength. thesame belltle mal<.."rials are sometimes eapable al bearing far greater stresses Ihan lhe duc
lile materials provlded delormation is under the aclion 01 a placid.
gratlually increasing compressive force.
The second dislinguishing feature belwe<.>1l (hese maferials s that
in the inltlal slages 01 derormalon. the dutUle matcrials may be consldered to behave jdentically under lension and compression. The resislance olnn ovcrwhel ming majorily 01 the brittle materials lo lension
is considerably lo\\'er than Iheir resistance to compre.s.sion. This reslricts
the field or appl ication or briUle materia ls or requires thal special measures be Il'ken to ensure their sare working under lension as, [or exampie. in reinforcemenl 01 L'llnCrete elements, workjng under lension,
with sleel.
A sharp difference is cbser\.'ed in Ih!! behaviour of ductil!! and brittie
malerials with respecl lO Ihe so-called local
which are dls1rlbuted over a comparalively small portlon of the cross seclion or (he element bul the magnitude al which ('xceeds lhe average or nominal
value, cakulaled rmm commen formulas. Local slrcsses will
diseussed in delail in 186.
Sinee \\le do nol observe nny consierable dcformalion in brill1e
malerials almost up lo Ihe moment ollailur<:', the non-unilorm stress
dislriblltion shown aboye remains Ilnchanged under tension as well as
oompression right untillhe ultimaleslrength is reached. Due lo this. a
weakened bar 01 brittle malerial wilh local stresscs wil1 lail Of crack
as compared
al a much lower value of the GfJf!rage normal slress
lo a similar bar withoul local stresses. Thus, we may say IlJal locl1
stresses greatly reduce the slrenglh 01 brittle materials.
The ductile materials are afiected by local slresses lo a much lower
degrec. The role of ductilily as regards local stresses is lo level them
lo some exlent. The mechanism behind Ihis levelling wilJ be discussed
in Cbapler 31.
\Ve have given a very simplified piclure of Ihe working 01 a bar with
a non-uniform distriblltion of stresses. Aclually, levelJing out of slresses is hindered nol on!)' by slrain hanlening. but also by the change in
the slressed slale al the location 01 slress concentration. ils lransition
from a linear stressed slatC' to a ihrCl'-dimensional stressed slate. This
oompound stre.s.sed sta le will be discussed lat<:'r in Chapter 6.
There is olle more aclor which stipulales Ihe seleclion or one or the
other lype 01 material for praclical purposes. Oiten, while assembling a
CIt.
31
"
,lruclure. it is
lo bcnd er lo ,Iraighlen a bent elemenl.
Since Ihe britile material, are eapablt' of willulanding only very mall
dclormations, such operalions on them l1Mlalty ive rise lo Cfad,s. The
ductilc rnalerials. eapable ol taking ronsderable deformations "'-'ilhoul
ruplurc, elln be bMt and straightened wiihoul an)' duflcullY
Thus. britt1e
ha"e poor resislanee lo lemion and impacb.
are ver sensitive lO local ircsses and eannol bear ehange in lhe
shape el t'terr.ents made from tlern.
The doclile malerials are free from lhesl'. drawbacks; therefore ducHlii)' is one of Ih(' most important and dt:'Sirable preperty in malerials.
The poinls in favour of brHtle malerials are Ihal Ihey
usually
cheaper and often havc a high ultimale strength under compresslen:
this properly
be ujj]izecllor work under placd loading.
Thus. we sec that ductile Imd britlle materials llave cxceedingly
dilferent and contrasling properties as far as their slrength under
temion ami compres.slon ls concern('d. However, this dilJerenee in pro
perlies is only relalive. A brittle material may acquire the properlies
of a ductile material. and vice versa. 80th brillleness and ductilil)'
depend upon lhe trealllK'nl ollhe material, strM&td slate and lemperatune:. Slone. ""hich is convcnlionally a brillle malerial under compresSlon, may be made lo deferm like a ductile malerial; in sorne eJ:peri
IIJtnls Ihis W2S achicvt<! by
a c}'lindrlcal specimen no! enly al
ils laers bul also on iu ide MlrlnCt'. On Ihl' otMr hand. mitd sleel,
COIlvenlionall}' a ductilc- material, mar under ceruin condilions.
t.K. Iow Ic-rnptralure, bchavt exacl1y Iikl' a britlle material.
and
wheh \\oe assign
Hcoce Ihe proptflits
lo 11 material on
bllsis of compressien and lmsion tesis., arl' rtlated
lo lhe malerials behaviour only al ordinary
and ror lhe
ghtIl kinds of deformalion. In general. a briltle malerial mayehanee
into a ductil.. material. and vice versa.
it would be more precise
lo speak nol 01
and
mal('l"ials bul 01 brllle and pla.
slie stales 01 materlals.
II musl be not..>d that a companliively srnall ncrease in {he ductilily
01 a britlle malerial (even up to 2% relalive elongalion before breakenables lis use In a number el cases \\'hich are olherwi5e preclud
ed lor briltle malerials (in machine parlsl. Thert'!"ore, re.search \l:ork
on improving Ihe ductili!)' al brittle malerials such as concrete and
casi iron demands lhe maximum poMible a!lention.
16. Considuations .in Selec.tion 01 Saltty Faclor
However, Ihe in[ormalion given lill no\\' is nol surticien! to flnd out
the pcrmissible stresses suilable lor differenl types o[ loading. Tlle- values 01 atl the mechanical prpperlies of materials (ultimJlle strenglh,
relative elongalion. limil 01 proportionality, elc.) are obtained from
laboratory experiments under sta tic loading, Le, when he load inuea
'" raduall y wHhout impacts, shocks and change 01 sign.
{he ormulas correlating normal stress 1] with the lensile or compressive
10fl;e P have becn derived lor stalic looding. lt was assumed lhal the
external (orces and stresses acting on the cutoil portion 01 Ihe b;lr
balance each other. In pracliee, however. we often come aeross dynamic
and s)"slemalically chllnging loads.
As compared to lhe slalic load, he suddenly applied load has a Iwolold effect; on Ihe cne hand, Ihe briltle and ductile rnalerjals read
differently to lhe dynarnicadion of the load and, on lhe other hand, the
stresses are also differenl. This problem will be discussed in greater
delaijs in Ihe chapters on dYllamic loading. Here we shall pay altenlion only lo Ihe ad hal stresses are generally higher under a
load Ihan under a static load 01 the
magnitude. This statemenl is
conlirmed by experimental resuHs and may also be proved Ihoorellc.1I1y, as has becn done in Parl IX.
ratio or stress 0,) due lo dynamic aetion 01 Ihe load lo
(J
due lo siatic adion or the same load is called the coe!rcienJ of dynamic
and denolcd by Ka:
'!i = K
The coellicient of dynamic response depfmds upon the typc 01 dyname looding and has a very large value in a number 01 cases.
B. The slrcnglh 01 TIlalcrials undc.r loads systemalicaHy changing their
or lnagnilude aud sign is mllch dilTerenl hom lheir strength
lInder slalic ami impact loads.
1, for eX<llnl'l(', we al!eflln(ely snbjcctll slcel bar lo a large llllTIlber 01
tensions nml
weshall obscrve (hat after a dclinite number
01 sueh cltangC's in slress<'S, {he bar in some cases cracks and lIJen ruplures al a stress considerably luwcr Ihlln ilsullimale slrength. Even lor
plasllc maierials Ihe plstk deformation 01 Ihe specimell belore breakdo\\"n lInder similar loading is ver}' srnaj]: a brHlle fraclure lakl'S
placo:.
The railure of lJIatcri:lls undcr a variable load at slresses lower Ihan
the ullimate slrength is called faligue. This name does not reRecllhe
physical nature 01 the phenomenon. but il has become suth a cuslomary
term thal il is used lo this dal,
Experiments show thal under alternative lensioo or cnmpression a
decrease in the acting force results in an incrcase in lhe: number of
alteralfons 01 this force required to break Ihe specimell. Each material
has a maximum normal slress a at which the specimen can wilhstand
"
Ihe slresses.
sdtcling !he
1)('
Ihe same. when delerminlnR lhe sarely factor k Irom lhe [ormulu
(scc .. ami 7)
[o] =
(3.9)
TIle salely faclor should be so seJeded Ihal the normal slresses ad iug
on tbe ",hule sedion tia nol I'Xceed Ihe elaslic lliTllI (or \'il."ld slro;sl
of Ihe malenal, olherwise Ihe bar will gel plaslically deformed; undeT
a varying load Ihe normal stres.ses should oot rxCffil lhe- endurance I i
mit, whieh is usually lower than lite yil"id stress.
Ji should bl' l:lken iuto consideralion Ihal lhe strt'$5C!i are
higher under impacl loading. Since Ihe slresses in this case are a!so
usually delermine<! br assuming 1M Io,d lo
actfon of lhe load musl be- occounted ror by a oorresponding incr\'..se in
the !afely factor.
C. As (;Ir as the local
:lrt! COOCl"fn<.'d
15). JI is IJossible lo
reconcile lo Iheir
Ihe elaslic lillli! or yield stress in Ihe Cas'
01 duclilc In:llcrial5 provided the allem:lling load is :lbsenl. In lhis
case plllSli<: dc!orJll:llion occurs over an extremel)' 5mall porlion ollhe
seclion and does not nlTrel Ihe working or Ihe conslruclion. Due lo
plaslic tleforlllalions the local slresses slop increasing antl parlially
approach Ihe nornlal slresssl'S in lhe reUlaining portion or lhe seclJon.
Tite britlle L1llllerials do 001 have litis properly (see 15): in Iheir case
a higher sarety faclO( has lo OC> laken, the more so bee.1use Iheir strenglh
under Impacl loading is IU""et Ihan lhat 01 duclile materials.
Undcr an allernalLll:: load, \\Ohm we have lo reckon wilh Ihl" possib1 i.
Iy of devcloping craek$ due to faligue, il is very essenlial lo lake inlo
consideration lhe local stresses, which .seriously alfed Ihe selcclion 01
safely laclor el duc!ile malerials. Fur lhe criK'k due lo fatigue to appear,
fhe actual slresses in a pulK:ular section musl exCffil !he
limil. Sioce Ihe local slrts5t$ are grealer lhan Ihe
elsewhere
(acUne over a larger portian of Ihe secUon), lhe chances of Ihe crack
appearlng are due to name.lr the local stresses e,tcee<!ing the endurance
limil: As lhe dimensions o lhe .seclion are compuled Irom considera
"
{Par' 1
a....
lhe
faclor wleded lar lhe general permissible slresses should
ensure that lhe local slresses do nol exceed the endurance limil. This
requres considerable increase of lhe salely factor k as comp.red to
iu v.lu!' under static loadiog.
In lhe case of ductile materials, when lhe endurance timil tXl:eeds
lhe yield stress. lhe local stresses mar be Ignored as yielding reduces
Ihe pOMibilit}' af lhelr spreading. playing Ihe role of a buller.
Far brittle materials, which do no! have a yield platean, Ihe danger
01 faligue cracks appearing under variable loadiog la lUore pronounced,
and tllls requir(!S lhal Ihe corresponding safel)' musl be inct(!aseu in
comparison with Ihal under stalic loading.
Thus, sillCe lhe choice 01 Ihe safe!)' laclor dt'pcnds upon Ihe proper
lies of Ihe malt'rial aoel lhe method of applying the ulemal lorces, ils
value I.S generally grealer lor brittle malerials lhan 101' duclile ones:
similarly. a higher \'alue ollhe salely faclor hasto be taken 101' dynamic
and varying 100ds as compared lo slalic loads.
D. A number DI olher laclan ha\'e lo be takm inlo accounl when
selec:1i1lR Ihestres.ses. The mllgniludes 01 lorces require-d
Sor compulatioos are 001 koo'll..n exacll)': the mec:hankal properties of
maltfials frequently devlale considerably from lheir krlOllm values;
al lhe: inletadion belhe methods 01 computlllion and OUt koo'll..
Iween dilf('ftJlt parls 01 slroclutes ar? usually slmplilied amlllpprollimate. The salcly fllClor must COVef all these unavoidable inaccuracies
of compulalion and designo
Tlle les.s lhe hornogeneily al malerial, Ihe poorer Isour knowledge 01
Ihe lorces ading on il, Ihe more simplilied is our presenlalion oJ lhe
inlcracHon between various e!cmCflls of Ihe slrutlure, and the realer
has lo be lhe sarely lactor. In opetlllion, machine parls we-ar oul; there
lore, in 11 number or cases a '\\;ear factor" has lo be provided lor.
Similarly ('orros/on and ro1ting have lo bl' tllkp.n iolo 3<:<:ounl in Ihe
desigo 01 metal and wooden structures.
Ihe olher haud, il! <:ertain
laeroplanes), lhe
faflor
has lo be reduced lo lhe lower possible vall)(! to ensure minimum weight.
Hence. proper selcctlon al lhe permissible stresses is a highly compli.
uted
c:onnecled wilh Ihe method of c:omputalion. investiga
lion al properliesal lbe mateorial and alargt Ilumbef of olher c:onsideIlItiON inc:luding ec:onomic one. A partic.ular vah:e of Ihe permissible
slress dell'l"mines Ihe consumption al Ihe gin'l'\ mat",lalllnd "".. of
lb U5(" in lhf' strudure; lhis v.1lue determines lhe life al Ihe slruc:ture
and the 6eld al .1ppllClllion al lhe various materials.
In a large numbef of slruc:tures Ihe standard values of permissible
by the slandards, and lhe enineer should only
slresses are
en
Slufg
CI>.31
all4 Compnmion
o =
l".
0""
u
Hence. formula (3.9) ma)' now be wrilten more precise1y anl! r(>placed
by Ihe Ihree lormulas depending upon lhe nature of crilical slale:
v .
[o"] ...
(3.10)
where
hu and k. are the corresponding safety fadors. lhe three
formulas lIlay be generaUsed in Ihe form
..
IPutt 1
JF only lhe general poinls are coru.idered while asslgning the safel)'
factor, Le. Ihe overall salel)' factor is laken eqllallo (he maio safel)'
lIelion al ortes and Ihe local stresses are taken
faclor, the
account or, as lar as possible. in he value of the actual stress, multip.
tring Ihe lAajn slress under slaiic loading by Ihe coeflicients of dvnam c
loading and stress ooncenlrations. lt is IlOt diHicult lo see tla\ Ihe
resulls in both Ihe cases will be identical.
Table 4 oonlains approxlmate vaJues 01 Ihe ov('rall salel)' factor
wHh respecl lo the ultimale strength ror varlous Iypes of materials
and loads induding the f.elon. accounting lor lhe d)'narnic nalure
of loading and local slrtsseS.
'.
Sblic INU
"I(lad Iwd
(lenl.ion
comprC5Sion 01
..
8rillle
Ducllle
Ductll, Mcd)
:U-2.6
3.0.9.0
2.85.0
Ch. 3)
5
Tent'tiv. Valuu 01 lh. Permlsslbl.
.. ial.
/1101,'1.1
Und.. IO",iOn
p.... ,lon
""-800
10002000
llOO.2500
JOOO4l)OO and 1l1.:IJC'f"
300 1200
1()(1I-WI
Brome
Alum!,,!um
Aluminium bronze
DuroluminJ"m
Texlallte
Lamirl1led Bakelile lll$ul,Uon
Bakclit. ;mprq<nated vwet:t
Plne .long lbe libres
Pino
Ihe fibres
Oak alan: Ih. libres
O,k 'oToSS Ihe 6bru
Slonewark
Brlekwerk
Concrete
t'ud,., ''''''_
6001200
300-800
BllOI200
IJlO!SOO
O.IOO
800-""
400500
00130
up to 3
up lo :2
,-,
lOO_I20
1520
130150
2(135
440
fJ25
10-90
The malerials enumeraied in lhe Table 5 must satis!y lhe requiremenls and llorms (or slrenglh, duclility, produclion process, chemi('al
eolllposilion, ele.) 01 the corresponding slandars. It does nol
all
malcrials, nor the dlverse conditions in whjch (he\' Il"ork. In eaeh design problem the pl'rmissible stresses should be Slle<:ified in accordancc
with the olficial technkal specificalions and
slandars lor Ihe
given structure, ando in their absence, on Ihe basis 01 raclof:5 lHscussed
in Ihe preceding seclion.
PART 11
Complicated Cases
01 Tension and Compression
CHAPTER.
Ch. 4'1
Deslgll 01 Sta/ieal/v
Syslems
G7
ng. JI
Flg. 32
The extra equalions are lormed on Ihe basis oi lhe eommon principIe;
they should express Ihe condilions 01 joim deformatioll$ 01 Ihe syslem.
Any slructure dcforms in such a way that IhITe are no ruplures
of the bars, Iheir disconnection or ;lOY unrorescen relaUve tlisplaccment
ef one part of Ihe struelure with respecl to the olher. This in briel
ls the principie 01 joill! deformalioll of lhe elements 01 a s)'slem.
lhe general melhod 01 solving statically indelerminale systems is
as follo\\'s. Firsl 01 al1 we must decide whal are the.larces to be determlned, lhen wrJte down alllhe slatie equalions 01 a salitl body, and
final1y derive the requirec\ number of exlra equalions to nd Ihe unknown forces.
A course of Ihe solution 01 Ihe problem js shown for Ihe particular
I?xample (Fig. 32). Suppose the side bors 01 equal cross-se<:tional arcas
are made 01 steel, whereas Ihe mitldlc bar is made or copper. The length
01 Ihe middle bar is l. and that 01 the sitie bars, {l. Suppose (he permissible stress for sieel is [0.1 and Sor copper la,1. 11 is rcquiretl lo
determine the sale dimensions of the cross sections oi Ihese bars under
the aclion of suspended weight Q.
Pirst of aJl we shall determine the forces acting on eaeh 01 Ihe three
bars. Since fhere are hinges at points A, B, e and O, all the Ihree bars
can be sllbjected to only a}ljal lorees. Let us eonsider lhese rorees to
be tensile. In order to determine lhese forees, we must eonsider {he
equilibrium of point A to whieh the only known force Q is applied.
A schemeollhe rorces aetingon point A and the local ion 01 coordinale
axes are vi ....en in Fig. 33. Lel us equate to:ero the SURI or projeclions
of Ihe forces acling on poml A 0fI Ihe eoordinale axes:
N.sina-N, SilH1 "'iO
Q -N.-N, cosa-N. cosGt= O
From the nrsl ualion \\"e gel N,=N.; replacing N.
cond cqualloo, we oblain
N, in lile se-
Ns+2N,coso:_Q
(4d)
are of
ume ,"lIterial. elongaHons M, and Al. will be equal ir Ihe
ban are of equal length, poin! A will destend verlically OOwn\\'ards.
Le! liS denote the elonga\ion of lhe Ihlrd bar by Al,.
elongallon 01 aH lile three bars isl.ained, Le. Ihe bars remain
hingell ut poiol A !jer ddormalion. To ntl Ihe O<!w posilion ollhis
poin!. wc assume Ihe bars lo bc disconnl.'Cled aod rlOI en Ihe dlagram
(Fg. 3-I) lhe new lenglhs of Ihe side bars
an( BB. by iocre3sing
loilial ll'flglhs by l, ... AB, and
The ncw posilion of
poinl ti is oblaincd by ro13ling lhe elongated bats CC, and BB. abollt
poinls B and C. Poillls B, arW Cs will coincide al point A" moving
310ng Ihe ares CoA, and B.A, which dUe lo tho SllJall dt:-iormalion
ma)' be considcretl 3S slraight Ines perpendicular lo CC. and BB,.
respt.'C ti vel y.
The l1ew posHion or the side bllrs BA, and CA, is shown by dotted
Iines. Sincl' tho entl 01 Ihe middle bar s also laslened lo lhe hinge,
il will also come to poiot A and elongalion bl. will be equal ta AA,.
Aceording lo Hooke's latw. ihe elongallons .dI" 61" amI 61. of al!
the thrce bars will be directly proporlionaI lo Lhe {ensile lorces slrel
"1
Ch. 41
ching them. \fler linding Ihe relalion between Ih<:'SC elongalioM frOn)
the ligur.., IH' shall oblain Ihe extra equation correlalin Ihe:' Ul1knOWll
iorcel; in (he bars. From Iriangle A,AB. we have
AB,=AA,cosr.l.
or
COSr.l.
(4.2)
TtJ<:n
'1
LI
N,I,
(4.3)
= E.A, ;
E,A,
COSIZ
E,A.
I,=l,c.osa.
Thereiore,
",A,
N , = N E:A:
, cos o:
(4.4)
(JI
[Parl 11
EA,
N +2N "r;:::-;coso;=
Q
whencelrcm
N,
(4.5)
Knowing lhe force" and Ihe pe-nnissible stress we can find Al and
t";;:[I1];
,
(4.7)
Ch. 41
A.
Then
4X 2X 10' cos '30-
N,=N,=
N.=
i'X'i'Oi
2x 10"
1+' xfXi(iicos"V
2)(10'
1.67tf
=1.lItf
N.
lUlO
L 85
600 =.
cm '
A,=A,=1.67 cm',
A.=I.83 cm'
(4.9)
Ihen forces N" N,. and N, will change immellialcly; Ihe ratio A,/A,
will no longer equal 1, as assumed earlier. bu! wil1 beO.9. In formu13
(4.5) the denominator becomes less and N, ncreases; in formula (4.6)
the decrease in Ihe value o[ the denomnalor will be less as compare<!
to the numeralor, therefore N, and N, wHl decreaSE'.
By decreasing lhe crosssectional area 01 ihe side bars as comparM
lo lhat 01 lhe middle bar, we reduce lhe lorces ading on Ihe side bars
and ncrease Ihe forces acting on lhe middle bar.
This refleds the generallaw which govcrns the force dislribution
bctween lhe elements al all stlltically ndelermnate svstems: the
forces IIre distributed in accordance v"ilh the rgidity of ui e bars; the
12
[P<lft fl
This requires A.=2.0 cm l and A,= 1.8 cm l instead 01 1.6 cm' as found
rrom the
coodilion foe steel bars.
Had wc assumed A,=I.G cm" lor !he sitie baes, he ratio 11 would
llave been reduce<! agaio. and he mitldle bar would have gain f!ot
over]oaded. Thus we should again be rcconcileu with Ihe res('Tve in
sirle bars. From formula (4.4) it 101l0w5 lh! a particular rallo, 11=
which ensures Ihat Ihe stresses in al1 Ihe bars aceequal to the
permissible str<'SSl;S, is possibleonly for a delinite value o Ihe anglea.
Jndeed, had we detertl1ined he areas A exactly in accordance wilh
Ihe pennissible stresses, we would have gol Ihe relations
=4;.
N,=A,[O"sJ,
N.=A.[O"e]
(4.10)
A, f<J.l = A,
f<JcJ
(4.11)
cos' a.
whererrom we have
(4.12)
lUl
o.,
0'
LO
L2
0.,
(.5(;
l.(jO
1.67
1.75
0."
m',
Uf)
LOO
1.20
1.11
0.97
0.82
r.q"I ..
LOO
0."
0."
1.()7
1.75
...uroed
1.74
LOO
1.94
2.06
N.
(,ro')
2.17
2.00
1.85
LO'
1.37
eh.
"
.fJ
ct_
l000XI)(IO"
llOOX2XIO"
E'nce
In Ihe
secliom wt' cstllblished Ihe main ealures oS tlle
I\'Ol'king ami dcsign 01 slalically indeterminale systems.
1. Th<- ('dra equalions rl"quired lo calculalc llit rorces roay be oo
I.ined only hom lile condilion 01 joinl deformalion o/ lhe syslem.
2. lhe force dislribulion belween Ihe l'lull'tlts or slalically indeterminalt slrudures depends upon nO(' ratio 01 lheir cross-sectional
areas, moduli o/ elaslic:ily lInd
lenglhs.
3. 1be more rigid an e1tment,
6
I.e. Ihe smaller lis length and lhe
greater i1s cross-seclional area ami
modulus oF elaslic:ily, the greater
.....ill he IIx.> shart of force Ihal il
will tah.
in Ihis seclion we shall study
anollltr propl'rly of slalically indeterminate slrudures which is 01
greal Ilractkal imporlanee.
11 is impcssible lo manuracture
parls of struc1ures with absolute
fll. 35
accuracy: small manulacturing errors and inaCCllracies musl always
be laken i"lo acCOU"1. In a sla!i
eally dtlerminale struclure. Ihese
inaccuracies cannol give rise 10 slrl'SSl'S in Ihe syslem. Thus,lor eJam
plt, if bar AB (Fig. 31) is madea liUle shorter lhan ilshould be according lo the drawing. alllhat will happen is a slight diSlorlion al triangle CAB. In Ihe
of force Q the forces in bus AB and AC
will be equal lO tero irrespedive or Ihe manufaduring accuracy of
the bar lenglh.
The slalital1y
slrudure shown in Fig. 32 will behave
in an cnllrely difierent manner. Ltt lhe manuFaclure<! lenglh of lhEbar be Iw than lhe requirNl by AA.=li (Fig. 35). To join the ood 01
lhe middle bar A. with Ihe tnds A of the side bars sollJe'o\'here al pomt
Ah il is necwary lO slrelrh lhe rniddle bar by 4/.=A.A .. and lo
oompre:s.s th(> side bal'5 by 4l,-A8._AC,_ Orawing Ihrough poinls
C. and 8,
lo lhe lnilial posHions oi Ihe sde bars as
explalntd in 18, we get lhe point 01 junction A, of the ends of al]
lhe lhree bars. From (he figure we may wrile dmrm the c:ondilion of
joint defOlmation:
"
(4.13)
(4.14)
M,
E,A,
M _ N.t.
and
N,I, cosa
.- [
l.
OC.A,
1+ 2E.A,
fc J 7iJ
N_2L
,
2COSll
(4.15)
The plus sign befare Ihe values 01 N, and N. signifies that our assump
lions abaot Ihe dlf('CIIOI1s 01 these lorces are ccrrt'C1.
II should be poinledoot lha! in formula (4.3) ttK-length of Ihe middle
b;r can be replllced b)I. and not b)' l. -, bause 6 is an infinitesimal
as fomp<lrcd lo f,. Thi!; smpllficalioo can al'l.a)'s be applie'll whm Ihe
manufaduring in<lccuracies are being COf'lSidered.
The bove oomputations re'\'eal that Ihe manufacturing inaccurncies
Vi i11
T1Sl' lo !>lri55l'S in lhe bus even if thl're are no utanal
acling on lhe slruclure. Hl"OC(', the possibilily 01 lhe so-<:alled jnilial
strases is aho an importanl propn-ty of Ihe slatical1)' indelermill<'lte
slruclures.
If alllhc three baTS are of lhe same material and have lhe same crossseclioTUlI are!l, then under \\-eight Q (Fig, 32) Ihe lensil(> force in the
mjdJle bar will be grealer Ihan in lhE-side ban (4.4). The manuradur
inlllnaccuracy gives rise lo an addjtional IrnsHe force in lhe middle
bar and lo
forces in Ihcsidl.' ban. In Ihis particular example
rOlUS
CA
"
41
"1
FIJ, 36
If
---
" 91
11
Fil", :I1
11 (Flg. 36 (a) and (b. The tyre is fastened lo the central porlion by
mean5 al special flxtures; besides, iis interna! diameter
is made a
lillle less han d 1 . Usually this dilfereflce is 01 the order 01
drapproximatel)'
d" Befare slipping the tyre on the cefllral portion,
It is hule<! so Ihal lis inlemal dlameler btcomcs gJ"l.'ater lhan Ihe dia.
neles- 01 the cenlral portien; the lted l)'re oontracls upon caoIin
and
the central portion. A iensile force N appears in tbe IvTe,
and a reaction p, bc:tween Ihe Iyre and thecenlr.1 portion (Fig. 36 (b.
Compliooted Ca.... o(
[Part 11
and
If we cut Ihe Iyre across Ihe diameler (fig. 37), lhl.! 1\\"0 forcl!s
N lllusl blance Ihe lotal pressure on the inlerna! surlace 01 the
("U 10fT portion of Ihe Iyre. Le! us wrilc down the equilibrium
all Ihe forces on Ihe y-axis (Fig. 37). A preso
condition by
slIn.' J ds atls upon Ihe elemenl or lenglh ds or Ihe lrrr; i1s projl'Clion
on Ihe yaxis Is equal lo -pds sin a--/l; sin a da., brcause ds=
={ da..
2N -
S p{sinIl.OO=O,
or 2N-p
'"o
2N-pd=O
aml,V
='4,
-"
z f sin
11 dll. =
2N
P=(f
Thus we llave one static equatilln for 11'.'0 unknowns N and p: this
is a slallca\ly indeterminate problem. The unknown [or<.:ffi can he
de!erlllincd
by consiMring lhe joinl deformalion of Ihe slructure.
Thl::: lension in lhe lyre and the compression in lhe cenlral portion
should be surh lhat lhe,. level the differencc belween Ihe dialllelers
d, and d. Neglecling the derormalion 01 lhe cenlral porlion dUl' lo
ils tIloch greater mass as compart"d lo Ihal of Ihe Iyre, we lind Ihat
Ihe lev...lling 01 the uiff"rencc. in diarnelers takes place chieRy due to
elongation 01 Ihe Iyre. jf Ihis difference is
oi the tyre diameler,
Ihen (he relative elongaUon En Or Ihe rJjamekr and, consequently,
of Ihl;' whole Iyre will also be 1...
"
:A'
_1..
I'A-n'
N=EA
rt
whellee
(4.16)
eh 41
"
0=
p=
2X2XIO"x97,!i
9Ox\l)OO
4330k l'
g,lm
',@},:
......
Jlttl
't
, d, ,'"-
ness t.
(4.17\
is a slalically lllllelcrminale prohlem. lh<>
cfllwlion
is ob!ained from lhe oondilion o[ joint delormation a<;:conhng to
"which bolh lbe bronu: jacket and sleel bar al !.he column (Fil!. 39)
must shor1l?'n by Ihe same length M. since the top and lhe boltom
planes el both roinc::ide. From Hooke's law we have
t1l_.!Y.. ...
ctA.
P,I
(4.18)
l;r.
This is the second equalioo correlating PI> and p._ From (4.18) \lie
'o,
A,E.
P,= PtA;!;
(1
A b El>
'"'
(4.19)
('.20)
The dislribulion al rClrC'tS
the demenls 01 slalically inde
ttrminale struclUre5 depends upon the ralios or their crosssectiona[
----- -----------W
+\-._._._._._._._.
Fil_ 39
consideration (hat
'"'
p.
A, =0,
,,e find that the ralio of Ihe stresses in brome and steel depends only
upon the ralio ol their moduli el elasticity:
If.
E,
E,
"
o. 41
E -
A.+A.'t A.
p
A
t. )
1+ A: i''
'-;.[0.1
(4.21)
Let P=2S If. rhe ratio A,IAb of Ihe cross-secllonal areas is usually
seleded rom designconsiderations. Let AJA.-=2, and lhe permisslble
stress [ObJ-SOO kgf/cm'. Equalion (4.21) will lhe" be wrilten as
2>000
A.(l+2X2)';;;;SOO.
\loMe/mm
''''''
A.=2xlO_20em t
and
-V
S.05an z 51 mm
wherelrom
ni
3,,10
ti'
_
_ 6.48 cm
65 mm
..
S('IS
Ip"r 11
whef1 Ihe lempenture changes wilh respect lo Ihal al whl.:h lIK'Y
/A--- fl
.--
ti
Fil(. 40
lhe supporls A and B. lhe supporls will resist Ihis wilh rt'adions
,Iirecled asshown in Ihe figure. These l()("ces will cause lhe bar lo be
rompressed.
These lorces cannol be round from static condiUons, becausc 1111
Iha!
come lo know Irom Ihe single equilibrium condmoo is lhal
the reactions al points A Ind B 3rt equal in magniludt and opposile
lO each olher.
value 01 the reactiol'l P rernllins unklJO\l,T1, and ht':fIQ
lhe!
may be oonsidered slalically indeterminale.
The! addiliooal equalion can be writ\en 100m lhE' oonsideration lh81
lenglh f 01 Ihe reslrained bar remains unchanged in spiteol !'le change
in ltmperalure. This implres that shortening lJ.{p due lo fo.n P is
tqual in ils absoluh.' \'alue lo {he temperalure elongation t'!.l, whkh
Ihe bar \lo'ould have experienced had lhe end A been fixed and end 8
Iree lo loove. Hence
(4.22)
Sioc\!
"
/p-n.
and
lJ.1,_4/(I,_I,)
"
:r.;:-o.l(f.-t,)
"d
(4.23)
el,
41
"
P_aEA(l._I,)
In lhis example. if 1;>1" slress a lIIill be compressive, beca use lhe
diredion 01 reacUon P illSitle lhe bar has been considered posilivc.
1f \\'e follow Ihe generally accepled oonvention of writing Ihecompres
sive slresses with a minus sign, and the tensile slresse5 wilh a plus
sign, lben formula (4.23) should be
.." ,rilten in lhe following manner lo
,
automalic<llly give Ihe proper sign:
o_aE(t,_t,)
I
I
Jf lhe crosssectional area of Ihe bar
I
is not constanl along ils lenglh or ir il
I
materials, or if
is made from
I
Ihe supporls permit a slight change in
I
length,or ir al! these condiUons take
I
place simultaneously, Ihe melhod of
I
delermining Ihermal stresses somewhat
I
changes although basically il remains f1.-Z0
I
lhe same.
I
I
The variability in lhe cross-seclional
1
area and Ihe use 01 differenl maleria1s
mus! be laken into accountwhencaku
lating M; it is deternlined as Ihesum
iJlt II
01 elonglltions calculaled S{!parll!ely for
each portian. Tlle possibilily of the
bar lo si ightly change ils length is reFi. 41
l1ected in Ihe equation of joint deformation (4.22); the difference of deformations caused by the temperalure change and lhe rorces is in Ihis case
not equallo zero, but equal lo Ihe lenglh. by which the bar is fre lo
elongate.
A sleel bar consisting of two porls of length /,=40 cm and 1,=60 cm
and crosssectionnl arca A=IO cm' and A 1=20 cm', respeclively,
has one end rigidly lixed whereas lhe olher end misses the support
by .o..c>O.3 mm (Fig. 41). Find lhe slresses in bolh the pars il lhe temperature increases by 50C, a.=I25XIO-'.
locrease in lemperature caU5:CS elongalion 01 the bar by 61 10 and
Ihe compression from the support reacUon P resulls in ils shortening
byM". The
01 thestl two deformations (in absolule value)
PI
'1".
j
__ JT
4_1110
Par! fI
"
AI,-fJl'=,
6.I, ""'cd{'.+IJ.
Thererore
EA,
al (ti +l,)-:!t [1 +
whencefrom
p
PI. _ PI,
"I'A;"lA;
[a/(/,+'.)
a.IEA.
- 1.['+.:6] -
1125xtO- 1xlOOx50
valul'S of
[1+"A'J
_A.
O.03]X2X10'XlO
,,[,+"lXlO]
4O'X!ii3
/, A.
l,iI.
= 9300 kgf
0'_ :,
Stress in
{!le
lower portion is
0"_
A,
20
(bolh lhe
are compressive).
Had lhere been no gap A Ihe force as well as lhe slresses ,,"ould
ha.e increased 1.92 times.
CIl. 41
,"
"
)
L ,er1
..-,
pi
"
iJl,-o- ...
1._iJz_1 ,
FJg. 43
Fig. 42
,
2
M.!.".I
Ste.
Sl.el
"
I'm')
fl<tl<m'j
2
I
IXlO'
2;<"10'
2Xl0"
,.
..
(Patt 11
Flg. 42. As lhe rorces 3re paullel, IVe can "'rite down only \Va cqullibrium equalions. Tlle flrst is Ihe SUIIl 01 Ihe projcclions 01 lorcl'S on
lhe vertical axis and has lhe lollO\.1<'ing lorm:
N,+N.+N,-P=O
(4.24)
For lhe second equalion 11'1 us talle lhe slIm 01 momenls of all rorces
lI'ith respecl lo Ihe poiol 01 support 01 lhe second rod:
NJo-N1 b+PC=
(4.25)
diagrarn 01 Ihe structure, with the assumplion tha! all lhe three r(){)s
are sub"ected lo ensile forces. From his diagram we may write clown
lhe fol owing cORdillon 01 jolol deformalion:
!<I,-M,
1'.1,
a+b
h--,-
(.t.26)
-.!!4 +,I_\!,
",.'1,
M. _
ul, -
'_,",
+ 'X.Ut
N
+.,j. ilI-..,......"....-' -a,/M
",11,
R,I + /
N,!
1\
b
t,A,
t:1,61- E,A,-t:1_'-
/1+1>
u
(4.27\
0', =
"
CIt. 41
of Sfaliully
Inilelenninale
lhtre may be
case!
or
.11,
<ro
and
86
[Parl 11
CHAPTER S
"
I
- 1,
N
M-
LI J
p
"!
Fig.
a (x) =-A--"A+Yx
(5.1
Thus, when Ihe tirad weight is acrOLlnled lar, Ih(' normal slre5S('s
arE' loLlnd lo be nol constan along the length of the bar. The mosl
stressed and lIenee the crilieal section will be the uppennosl section
Ch. 5]
[or which
\Vill be
Dtlld
X
87
0 ....... (
A ;;;a.lol_yl
(5.4)
The only dil1erence belween Ihis formula and Ihe one ror deler
mining Ihe crosHectional area of a strelched bar wilhoul accounl for
Ihe dead weighl is lhal quantity ,,1 is sublracled From Ihe permissible
stress.
Let us calcula!e Ihe stresses for both Ihe cases lo evaluate the im
portance oF Ihis correclian. Consider a mild-sleel bar 10 m long having
101= 1600 kgf/crn" and Ibe quantity ,,1-7.85 X 10' x lO'", 7.85 kgf/cm'.
Tbus, for a mildsleel bar lhe correction in Ihe cross-sedional area
will be ;;:. Le. approximately 0.5%. Lel us now consider a brick
column also 10 m long, which has [01= 12 kgl/cm' and Ihe quanlily
111= 1.8x IO-'x 10'-1.8 kgl/crn". Therefore, Ihe corred ion tor Ihe
brick colulnn wHl be!J, Le. 15%.
It is obvious that Ihe ell'ecl of dead weighl in tension and compreSsion may be neglected if the bar (column) is not very long or if it i.s
nol made from a lowstrength malerial (brick, slone) with a greal
weighl. The dead \veight has to be considered when designing long
elevalor ropes, varlous Iypes of long rods and high slone slruclures
(beaoon towers, supports of bridge trusses, ete.).
In such cases il becornes necessary lo delermine the mas! expedienl
shape 01 the element. If we selec! Ihe cross-sectional area of a rod
(Fig. 45) according to lormula (5.4) and take il uniformalong Ihe whole
lengih, Ihe malerial of Ihe elernent will be poorly uliHzed: Ihe norstress will reach the permissible 1mit only in lhe uppermosl seco
tion. In all other seclions we will have rnargin 01 stress and canse
quenllyexcessive material. ThereJore. it is desirable lo deslgn Ihe
elernen! in such a way Ihat the normal slresses are lhe sal11e in al!
ils seclions (perpendicular lo the axis).
Such an element is classitied as the bar 01 uniform strenglh wu1er
tension alld COlllpression. The elelnent will have minimum weight if
the slresses are equal lo Ihe permissible slress.
..
(P.....I JI
-'(x).
Let us establish a relation between lhe cross-se<:liona] atea of a Sl'C"
lion :md ils dislaoce x rrom lhe top end.
The Cl"OSBectionai aTea 01 lhe top
tnd A. is dclermined {rom the
slrength condilioll:
f -rol
OT
A,=
o .. ro}=,,A.
Lt't U5 take 1""0 inlinitl'lr dOS('
sections at I distanct' x (rolO lhe lop
.
ro,
[J
= a
dA (Jf) CJ ..!
JI (Jfl
"l
(5.5)
dx
(5.6)
el, 5)
Thererore,
,
4)
"
A (x)
A(x)=A.e l;1
(5.7)
A --_P_,
[P"rl 11
[(It
A_
lile volume
hy -120
v_ Ah -
P le
Illl-
a'
A.=
P+'l'A,'i
10
'fOO+2.2X4.48XI4
-
10 1-'31'
120
14)(2.2
6.04 m"
A
l -
P+yA,3'+l',"'s
h
(<7]-"3 V
4()J+2.2xulIxI4+2.2x6.04X14
J2U
14X2.2
8 lO
,.. . -
=261 m'
eh
"
In Ihe case of suppofl of unifO/'m slrenglh undtr compression, the
Sj
is
A. -1=1 "",m=3.33m'
A... _
txn
"" 3.3&--:- =3.J3tO n ... 7.15 m'
2
P+G=[ojA...
whererrom
V_..Q.=460=209m
2.2
1/.!hich is 20% less Ihan Ihe volume of lhe slep supporl :ilnd :ilpprollimalely Ihree til:1ts less than thal ollhe support 01 <:onslanl.5el:tion.
+l'x]
r dx -iT
r"l'-;r+vx]-n+2F
PI
,1'
"1
'--y
[f'ilrl 11
1"1 I
PI
y
h
,
Q
.--
"
--O.1
"a:
"
\
",,'
1
"'r--7--'
- :
Fil. 50
Y-m
It loIlows from his NJuation that the sag curve is a pllraOOla. Whm
OOlh Ihe supports are al Ihe same level, 1.-',=1. In this case 1 ls
c.all\'d lhe sag. It can !:le easily c1etermlOed from tqualion (5.8) Ihat
dUe lo symmelry Ihe IQ'I\'esl poinl of lhe cable is al lhe middle of Ihe
splln, snd
Substituling 111<- \"alues of
and y=1 in
x-=b-{
[Parl 11
"'
f- JH
(5.9)
,l'
(5.10)
H""'ijf
(5.11)
T=....!!......
<OH>:
(5.l2)
fmm
..
(S,S)
Therelore
'"
.,
.1}.
T ....
8f
+ (.2!.)'
2
'"
8JA';;;;:[a]
Sag
l- IIA1<l1
yi'
='i"'[a
""""2FT'
qb'
f'-'JH
(5.13)
(5.14)
-IJ;
b b
a= bV';'
find
4;-=-1 or b-
1 :e
i'h..
"
..
(PQI!
ti
ff-
. I
:' '"L ,
.1 /IIt't
..... . ,__
1 " ' '_
' __ +L
I "/
.1
1
Fil. SI
t.
Lel U$
the V3lues of ti and f, from equation (5.13) in Ihe aDo\e
v:pressioo and Iransform il keeping in mind Ihal o+b=l:
qIi'
q.."
'lb
ll-w--m=rnl
' . +0)(-u
'
) '""Uf
file lcrtIwLl for /110 lh" ... m ..... Irst oblabll!d by P'rol. I
(....wk I TtJrIlnikJ:. Odeau
Imtltute
1925).
-o)
Sbl_m,\u
"
Ch. 61
.,
wherefrom
.n'
,
ff'
o-T--;r
'+ qr
ff'
b =1'
[t should be noled Ihat lor 0>0 Ihe lirsl shape of sag wil! ocwr
lFig. 51). at a<O. thesecond shap<' of
and a\ a=O, the third shape.
Pulting Ihe
of a and b in expressiolls (5.13), we gel the values
sac.
of fe and
'"'
ti:
fl-m+zqTT
(5.11)
98
Clmlplicaltd
CI1S!5
Par! If
The change in [he lenglh of (he cable will also cause change in its
sag. lnstead of', jI wilJ becomef.
Lel us now subslilule fOI SI and s. in equatlon (5.18) heir expressions fram formula (5.11), and for he deformations M, and oS, thl'ir
values {rom formulas (5.16) and (S.l). Theo equation (5.18) takes lhe
following forlO:
1(1
Replace
31'
(1 +Jr
8{:)+01"( - t )I+"-If(/
""""EA
1
(5. ]!JI
f,=srr,
and
q,J'
f.=W;
+EAa(fl-IJ -H,]
(5.20)
han 5%.
f=t
Ch. 6/
Oi ..... TER'
'<'1
""
Fil. 52
p
Fie. 53
Ihe bar lseul into 1\\'0 portians' and TI by plnne mil forminganglea
wHh cross section mk perpendicular to Ihe axis. lhe normals lo Ihese
sections also rorm Ihe same angle.
Lel \lS assume thal angle a is posilive if mk coincides wHh mn when
rolatrd counlcrc.lockwise. We shall call normal DA dirccled oulwards
wllh rcspecl lo the cut-afi" porliOll 01 lhe bar Ihe outer normal lo seclion ron. Let us denote Ihe cross-sedional area mk by A. t1nd Ihe aTea
al seclion mJ1 by Aa.
lo determine Ihe slresses transmitted through the iven sectk>n (rom
fhe upper portion (1) lo lile lower portian (11), \l.e imagine Ihe upper
portion lo be removed and ils action on the lower porlian replaced by
slresses Pa' To majnlaln lhe cquilibrium afilie lower portion, S!ces5C5
must compensa le flX" force P and musl be diredtd parallel lo lhe
axis 01 Ihe bar. I t is n>ident that theslresses are nol pcfl)endicular lo
Ihe plane on which Ihe)' are actlng. Their value will abo dUler !rom
that in .seclion mk.
IPaf/ 11
100
P",--
A.
A
Bul slnce
P.. - A;- =
(J.
cosa
\lIe may llave lostUllyonlyone and Ihe same t}'pe 01 slrcsses rrespective ol Ilngle ti, wt' Tl""Olvt
P.. ioto tIVO componen!s: cne in
planc mil
lhe olher III aplane pNpt'ndicular lo il lF'ig. 53). ThhS,
.'
-,
I
I
I
I
r.,
r')
Fill;, M
havc
o.. _p.. coslX_a,C"O!'U
(6.11
(6.2)
lel us lay down lhe foHo\\:ing condilions liS regards the signs 01
slrt'$SCS a. and T., Tensile
a... Le. slresses f'Oill("jl!ing \\'ilh ti...
dlreclion oIlhe ouler normal will be l'OllSldercd positlve. ooflu1 stres
'"
CII 61
<;('S in
dlrf'CllOn, .e. compressive
"1'111 bt-ron
sidl!l'eO negalive.
\Ve will consider the sIleanng slresses positive if Iheir direclion is
suc::h Ihat Ihe otlll'f normal has lo be rolaleil clockwise to make il coII'Iride 11.. ilh IlIero. The re"c.-se direclion of Y" \\'ill be coosid<'fed ntga.
ve.
Figure 5-4 shows lhe
conventien as regnrds Ihe sigm of
0:4, (J, and "1'.
We
have en!y t\\'o
of stresse5 actlng at ever}' point 01
lh;,' cutling lime irrcspective o its angle of inclination 01: norma! alld
1IIoc.nillg.
55 sliows these slresses acling on a Ihin layer of lhe maleTlIlJ
(hatched in Ihe figure} cul out of lhe strelched bilr by 1'.\'0 paralltl
!toeClions /-/ i1nd 22. Each of Ihe planes
tensile
strC!&'S o" as well as shearing slresses f" \\i!ich make secliolUi /./ 3ml
22 shear ene paralle! lo the olher.
It lDeans tha! the two l)"pes al slresses correspond lO 1\\'0 t)'lJeS ef
t1clonnaliom; lengthwise t1eformation (efongatiOll or shorlening) Ind
shear. Corresponding to Ihese two lypes of deformalions v.'e llave
11I00es of failure 01 the material: by lJretkiflg awo.!I and by shturiflg.
lo chc<:k the slrength 01 Ihe material, il s esS<'f\tial lo determine lhc
/1lllximum values ef 0a alld T.. depending upon lhe loclllion of plant Inll.
11 fol!ows rroltl formulas (6.113nd (6.2) thal 0'" reaches ils 1lI11;'{imum
valuC' when cos' 01 is equal lo unll\" Le. a_O. lhe maximulU value
or f", is obtained when sin 2-1=1, Le. when
or 11=45'. The
llIaximuUl ylues o( Da lInd la wlll be
p
muo... -o'-A;'
max1..... '.
T
(63)
Hcnce.
maxilllum norTll31 slres.sH
acling in setlions perpmdi.
rular lo lhe axis of the bar: Ihe ml'lIimum shearillR sltcso;es acl in
"l.'Ctlons (ormlOg an angle of
with Ihe axis o lhe bar and are hall
oi Ihe maximum value of the IlOfmal slresses.
" loginll queslion Ihal ariS<!$ is lor which oi Ihese slresses should
lhe bar be lesle<l, which of these stresses plays lhe <leclsive role m Ihe
lailurC'o! material. Tht'SC' polnts .....ill be discussed in delail in Chapter 7.
Malerlals
P,rl 11
1\1.:0
type or stres-
pllrallel
"
"
"
F" ..
and insecUons
principal s/rcsses.
11 has been proved In lhe theory
of (']aslicily tha! Ihree mutually perpendicular prIncipal planes through
which three principal (normal)
siresses are lramlerr!d can be drawn
through an arbitrary poin! or a
slressed body. T'Ilo'O of them hav!' extreme values: one is lhe maximum
0:.6J
103
,.,
'"
in lwo direcUons: by
o' in seclions perprndiculllf lo he g<:ne
ralrlx and siresses (Jo in sedions along Ihe generalr!x (Fig. 57).
lhe meihod of SKtions will be emp]oyed [or ca1culaling stresse-s
o' and o', Suppose lhe irllernlll dlallleler 01 Ihe reservoir is D, amI
lhll Ihkkne5S 01 its \\'3115 is l. \l/e shall consider i lo hesmal1 as comperN!
D
lo D(l<W"
Le! liS imagine lhe reservoir (Fig. 57) cllt along lile plane ami con
sillcr lhe tquiHbriullI of lhe cutolJ par!. lor lnstann', UlI.' rgh! :me
:lO'
P""'r-,-
A-:::< InD
-.:r
"D'
qD
= 4T
Ch. G!
'"
Stress all<!
COlIIPOfMd
"
'iDa
'10
These 5tresscs lite two limcs greater than stres.scs rr' ading in lhe
ring se<:tion.
Since there are no shcaring slresses in the ring and diamelrical seclions. Ihe scdions 11 3nd Al qua!i[y as principal planes, and slrcsses
{J' and o" as principal stresses. The third principal stress o"'-.-q
acting on {he reservoir wall in lhe racHal direclion is negHgibly smllH
llS compared lo (J' and (J"; il may lherefore be C<lnsidered equ3[ lo Z('fO.
ConseC]uently, elemenl ABCDcul out of Ihe reservoir I\"all (Fil.:. 57)
is subjected lo plane slress (biaxial leuson). In accordance with lhe
1lCcepted numeral ion, lhe principal slresses are
qD
0 1-2/'
qD
0'=41
and
0.=0
(6.4)
BiaxiDI
of stress also IX'curs in sphericat, conical and olher
Ihin.....alled vl:'ssels, plales, variolls types 01 shells, etc
El. The example of a lriaxia( slress is Iransler of pressure from the bnlls
lo (he race in a oallbe:lring or Irom tbe .....heels al a roHing stock lo
rails.
As Ihe conlad between Ihe rail head and lhe Iyre mar be looked
upon as that belween 11'.'0 cylindersol dilrerent diameters ami crOSSl\"ise
generalrices, lhese surfaces musl toucb each other al a point. The normal slresses llrising al {he point 01 contad when pressure is tran5mi! lecl
Irom one body to the other are known as conlad stresses.
When lorce is lransmilted, Ihe malerials of fhe Iyre and lhe rail
get (lelonneci around the point of coniad, and pressure is traflsferred
Ihrough a C<lntaet surface of elliptical shape. The area 01 contad depends lIpon lhe pressure and Ihe radii 01 the conlaeting surfaces. H
we cul out a Slllall tube (for example, wilh sicies of I mm) of lhe rail
material al Ihe centre 01 Ihe conlacting surlace, and il lhe laces 01
lhis euoe are parallel and perpendicular to Ihe rail axis (fig. 59),
then the stresses ading on Ihe faces \Vill be nOflllal compressive ".
Thus (Fig. 59 (b)) ....'E: have three mutually perpendicular planes loadeci
by principal slrl'SScs l1',
anul1". The emergence 01 laleral slresses
These struses are ca1culated in Ibe Ibeory of elasticily.
..
W:rl 11
a'" --BOkgr/rnm'
el" --90kgf/rnm',
In the given example all the three principal slresses are negallvl!'.
This is a case al Irjaxial comprt;SSion. An example d lcictlcia]
15 Ihe yielding el material al the neck in a specimtn subjeclt'd lo
'"
"..
,,
'd"
,.
,L
,
o'
lbJ
M
Fig
"
.sion. Wf.'
oflen come llcrosS
al composite Iraxial slreued
in whlCh thf.' principal slresse; have oppo!ille signs: 0,>0
anrl (f.<O {rOl"
in thf.' 1l'1I11 or a thck..alled boHerl.
The Iriaxial slrmf.'d slale is lhe lIlG5t general slalf.' of slr!o'SS al a
poin!; lhe biaxial and uniaxial !tlres.wd
ilre lhe particular case
,.hffi ene oc two el Ihe three principal slresses beco/tle f.'qulll lo UfO.
Ch. 61
'"
G,
Fig. 60
Ihen Iheir values in Ihe succ:eeding formulas mus! be laken wlth a mi
sign, and Ihe numeralion ShOllld be allered in accordance wilh Ihe
arder given in 28. Thus, one 01 Ihe principal slresses is tensile and
Ihe other is eornpressive. then Ihe first will have lo be nurnbered 0 ,
and Ihe selnd 0.; if bolh 01 Ihe stresses are eornpressive. lhen the stress
having lower absolute value will have 10 be nurnbered o,. and lhe
grealcr 0",.
Our aim is lo delermine 1he maximum normal aol! sh('aring
io scdions perpendicular lo Ihe fronl laces.
Lel us draw a seclion lhe normal lo which forms angle 'Xi wilh di
redion 1 (Fig. 60). The same normal forros angleo:. wilh direction 11.
This seclion wi11 be subjecled lo bolh normal stress o" aod shearing
stress 1"", which depend upon Oi and 11,. Their values can beobtained
by studying lhe adion of 0", and 0", separately and sumrning up 11]('
resulls. The fradion olllie normal slrl!Ss caused by 1)", may be
according to formula (6.1) 1.15 O"i cos'a,; Iht othe-r Iraclion nf 11".
cause<! uy stress o .. llJ(lY be \\"rilten accordlng lo the saine formula as
P...., /1
"lO
(JI
0" _
(6.5)
[o, sin2a,
2a..J ={ro,
,... -"';"Sin':ht
+o,s]n1
(a, +901]
(6.6)
(J"
and
T..
el
FI,. III
In lulure. in formulas iving lhe values or o" and T" we $hall denote
a, by 11., 1I1ways meuuring il from lhe muilllum
principal
slre:ss in lhe anliclockwise direclion.
Employing formulas (6.5) nd (6.6) whictl ive Ihe stresses in .se::tion
a-o (Fig. 61). we can easily
Ihe stressf'S in
secUon bb which has norlnal
forming angle
with lhe
n.
61
'"
(et
+90')
(65')
16.6')
formulas derivl!d aoove c1:lriiy lhein lIl\ltually perpl.'ndicular planes. FuI normal
cJ slresses aclin::
we llave
a.. =o,cos'a+a,sin'u
= o, sin' a + 0". COSO et
Summing up, .... e get
0"
16.7)
=:
=-20,cosas!U<2+2a,,.inacosa=0
4;:: __ (O,_0.)5io'1a_0
(69)
{Pa, 11
'"
(ata_O)
mino._o.
(ata-m
(6.10
maut
0;
(6.10')
'"
CA "
In Fig. G2 botll
slresses are cor.sidered
and are Ilid 011'
on lhe a-axis in the posili\'('
Had ene oc bolh 01 Ihe slresses
compressivl', wt' would have laid thelD 011' in lbe opposill' directlon. Taking segment AB as the diamE'ter, we draw 11 circle with the
<:entre al e, whidt is ca1led the stress circle (Mohr's circle). To delermiM normal stress (f.. and shearlng stress T.. in a flane lhe normal lo
which makes a'lgle a with the maximum princ.ipa stress o,. we mus!
draw a cenlral angle 2a al poln! e, plotling ils posltlve valuc from he
a-axis counlerclockwise. Poin! D of lhe stress ('irete will eorrespond
lo lhe required plane; iis coordinales DI( and DI<. will be equal lo
a.. and'f... respective!)'. This can be easily proved. From Ihe diagram,
the rlldius af he stress tircle 15
eD =
Ae =
,018' 0,01-08
o,-;a sin2cx
Further
-11. + 0',-;0'.
-o, +0,
<l,-a.
8e -""2=--2-----r
_T.
0,--;
(1 +cos2l'z)
COSO a. +11.sin' a.
=0.
0',-0, . ,,_
T.. ---y-sm"",
112
Compl/((Wd, CUMS
01
lPall 1I
.-\s is qlear [rolO Fig. 62, Ihe lnaximum shearing stress is equal lo
scglllenl eD., l.e. Ihe ratlius 01 Ihe shess drde:
max
la
a,-a,
=----r-
,
"...
/
""_+JOOl!!f/t,,Z
;.---
Plg. G3
Let, lor example, lhe principal slresses al some poin! o[ the material
be O",-3IXl kgllem t ami 0,=-700 kgf.cm t . We shaU find the normal
and shearing slresses in aplane nclined al 0:=-3(jO lo lhe direction
of o,. Th'e construction is shown in Fig. 63. For lhi' chost'n seale Ihe
stresses were found lo be a,,=50 kgf/cm' and T,,=-430 kgl/cm'.
Their
are shown In Fig. 63 on the right.
Ir lhe principal slresses a, and 0 0 are kno\\'n, then with the helll of
lhe
clrele we can delermlne Ihe slresses in Iwo mulually perpen
dicular $ecHons a-4 and bb Ihe normals lo which (Fig. 64) make
anglps tX
respeclively. wlth. the dlrection of the maximum prin
cipal stress (l.
Cfr. Gl
'"
-. --.,
1
>-- -,
1',
Fil. 64
(J.
SIres.ses
and
are
by
D,K, and OK res
pedively, It is clear lrom Ihe diagram Iha!
and
0",+0,=0, +0, =cons!
The stresses acling on the lace; 01 the element cul by planes a Ind b
are shown in Fig. 64 00 lhe rrght.
By bringing in line the direclion 01" lhe maxlmum (1I1gebrai<:ally)
prin<:ipal slress o( wilh Ihe oaxis 011 lhe slres.\ c.ircle (Fig, 64). v.'e
'",--1'.
Fil. M
lind that line BD", joining the extreme lelt poiot el Ihe c.ircle ...i1h
D", js parallel lo slress o... and line BD, is parallel lo slress ",.
The IrTQWS are put in accordlloce with lhe sigos oblainfi1.
Figure 65 shows how lo construct \\ohr's circ1e when both 01 lhe
principal slresses are compreuive.
5-111.
114
[PaTI 11
wllh Ihe
SomctilllC$ l'
requlfcd lo salve a problem npposite to lhe one discuS5ed in [he pre<:eding sectiOll, .e. determine lhe principal stre5Scs
lhe slresses 0'" '[ti.
3nd
3fe known. lhe easiesl way 01 doing
tha! is by pl"ltillg Mohr's circle.
AMume thal Ipe nOfmal and sheZlring strcsses in t\,Va mutually per-
Fi a:.66
us denote "the nO[;lIal slresses in lhe vertical plane (11,.) by (1". and in
lhe horizontal Ilane, by
sinee they make (erlain angles a and
....th lhe principal stre5SCS a, 35 yet unkno\vn. lhe 5h('11r-
ing
according lo
",
",-"
ment under comidffation, -,,-e musl plol Ingle Cl in !he opposite direc-
} ,
<1_
lana. = _
(6.11)
__
8/(",
"--".
a,_a",
The minus
Is usa! because for
\alu.!$ of o.. and t". angIe DI
(the angle 01 rolalion of plllJlt o.. to lht principal direclion) is mea
sured rn lhe dockwise direclion.
From Fig. 66, ....", can
Ihe formulas lor raJculaling the principal
rq>Iesented by segmenls OA and
OA=OC+CA
and
DB-OC-a
Further
-
,.
CK..
lI,,;-ot
o, Te,ula"
IPar/
'"
The rallli 01 he str5S circle CA.,.CB are equal lo CD ..""'CD(I which
Comp/lcaftd Caa,
,,"lid ComprtssIon
/1
=+ V
y(O"
(1(1)'
(0""
Therefore,
(6.12)
In praclice \Ve aiten come across lhe cases 01 biaxlal slress when
0(1=0. For lhese cases Ihe formulas for principal stresses wiJl lake the
form
a. \
'[
V=ro=]
a, ="2C1.. 0"+4T,,
(6.13)
Here the mininlUm principal stress is denoted by o. because Il is negalive (lhe quantity under lhe radical sign is greater than 1],,).
Tlle angle or incJination of lhe first principal stress lo the lJ-axis
is determined by formulas whieh are a carollary 01 (6.1l):
130'20:= _ :ha }
(6.14)
0"
lan a; = -
..!!.
".
-r,,=-300 kgf/clI\'
= - 200 kgi/crn"
= 300 kgi/cm'
Figure 67 shows Mohr's cirele conslrueted lor Ihese tlata. lhe principal slresses are
0 ,
=530 kgf!em',
0".",,-330 kgicrn'
(J,
is a_22".
(0,=0)
Ch. 61
'"
;irclr is shl,lwn in Fil:. 68 from which
r,tfl&mz
B.
"
u"4!J
'. '.
uJ
:".4
"
For bolh example;; the reader is advised lo cakulale Ihe principal
68
'"
Par! JI
In particular, when lJ,=O'.=o,=o (uniform triaxial (ension DT compression), lhe stress tensor is known as sphericol.
Suppose we have a cubic elemen! cut from the bady. The faces of
lhe cube are subjeded 10 principal stresses 0'1, o, and (7. (Fig. 70). OUT
3im is lo determine he normal and shcaring stresses in 3ny inclined
piune cutling (he given cube, provied O,>I1'>C v O.
"
"
F1e. 69
Fig. 70 (o).
given plane gives tise lo neithe! normal nor shearing stresses in it.
el.
'"
,f---f--+.!,.LJ>-f4
1.-- .,---1
fi. 71
Thus, coonlinates ar Ihe [)Oin!s on Ihree stress clrdes (Fig. 71) represent Ihe normal and shearing stresses in sections or lile cube which
are parallel lo one oi the principal strt'SSe!i.
As for Ihe planes culling all Ihe Ihree axes or pril'lCipul stresses, II
has becn proved in Ihe thoory or elaslkily lhal slresses 0n and 1:.
are: represenled by coordIna tes of poinl! D in Ihe: halched area of
F;,_ 71.
The values of Ihese stresses may be ca1culattd by Ihe following formulas:
a. 1:. =
a:
<f.
(6.15)
(6.16)
Here(lf. lI, Ind (lo are angles whidl (he normal ti lo lhe plane makes
with !he ditlions 01 pril'lClpal stres.ses o" a. and (JI, respeclinly.
It is dear lrorn Fig. 71 Ihal in Iriaxial stress the muinlUm and mi
Ihe muimum and minimum prinnimum normal slres.!eS are
cipal slresscs. respectively.
T11e maximum shearing slress is
lo lhe radius of lhe largesl
cirele and, consequefltly. hall 01 Ihe dilJerence of the macimum and
minimum principal stresses. ft acls in plane incline<! al 45" lo lhe
t1irecUon 01 Ihese rrincipal slresses. lhe normal slresst$ in Ihese planes
being eqUlllo hat of Ihe sum of lhe maximum and miniruum prlntipal stresses (ol><J.>uol.
TIII". in Ihe ntoSl
CIlSl!' 01 Ihe slresK'!I slllle of a malerlal,
all Ihe Ihree principal slres.<t'S ilre nonzero al the gven poin!.
".
[rur! fI
we have
minon=o
In planes paralll.'l lo one af Ihe principal stresses and inclined al
45" to lhe olher Iwo, (he shearing slresses will be max 1=1"". acconJing
lo formula (6.11), and {urlher
"l-a.
(5.1?')
"t", .....- , -
The slressl's
shearing s[resses.
"
"
J'
,t
FIg. 72
all the Illree principal stresses (Fig. 72). Bearing In mind Ihal
COSO 0':1
= (
(6.18)
=+ "JI
(a,
0'1)' + (a,
a.1 + (al
0.1"
(6.19)
T'.I
'I,.,T".
(6.19')
C/J. 61
'"
11 ls evidcnt irom expressions (6.18) and (6.19) lhallhe normal oclahedra! slress is equal to the arilhmelic mean 01 lhe Ihre;: principal slresses. whereas lhe oclahedral shearing stress is proporlional lo tite gromelric sum of lhe principal shearing stresses.
An expression of Ihe Iype (6.19) will be used in Chapler 7 under (he
na me of stress illtensifll. which also charaderizes he slresses in a malerial:
a,= V"211(O',
a,l'+tO'
O'.,)"+(a,
0'.)'
(6.20)
It can be easily seen thal wh..n (J,=0.=0, Le. in lhe case al simple
uniaxial teU$ion, Intensity 01=(J,.
. 0'
e,=-;
The first edge, however, is simultaneously fhe lateral dlmension
ior stresses o. and (J,; therefore, theelement llndergoes relalive shortt'ning in the direction of lhe first edge due lo slress lJ. and slress e"
which is equal lo (see 9)
.
"
e:,=-fl.T'
",
f,
n.
=-ll7
Tlle tolal relalilie tldarmaUon in (he dircdlon o! Ihe firsl edge filay
be wrilhm as
(Parl I1
t.=i-It(i+?) 1
-.(-']-+ ';;)
'.
( E'. +T" )
(6.21)
If sorne 01 Ihe
\J" (f., (f, are compressive. lheir numerical
values should be pul in formulas (6.21) wilh a mmus signo
Now fmm (6.21) \Ve can easily get eXfJrl'SSions lor ension or compression io 1\\'0 dire<.:tions by putlillg one 01 the principal slresses equal
t<> zero. For eumple, far Ihe case shown in Pig_ 60, we have
(1,
(1,
(1,
(6.218)
".
Lel u... calculale the chaogl.' in Ihe volume of a redangular parallelepiped having edges. of a, b and e, ir It is I,;nder Iriaxia! stress. lis
volulrJe bdore defoTlllalion is V.=abc. Alter deformalion, due lo e1ongallon of its edges its volume be<:oOles
V, = (u+ 6a) (b+M) (e + .c)
or, negleding he product of small d('forlllations,
V , -abc+ab.1c+acM+lida-l'. (1 +e, +t.+lIo)
The relaUve change in volume is
V,-v.
+ I'.+p.
ev=-;--=e,
Repladng lhe
SlllJI
(6.22)
ey-e,+e.+e.=
1:;
;."
and
(6.22')
f.
(cr,+(fI+<J.)
(6.23)
Cn. 61
+,
'"
It is
lrom (6.23) Ihat il Poisson's ralio Jt is equal lo
the
relalive change in volume is zero. Wl! have already ob(:Jined this re
sull for uniaxial slress in 9. It is clcar (rom Ihe same formula thal
il lhe sum uf Ihe three principal slresses is equal lo zero, Ihere will be
no change of volume within the Jimlls of elastic deformation.
It shuuld be noted lhat formulJs (6.21), (6.22), ami (6.23) can also
be used for 3n arbitrarily oricnlated clement 01 the material the faces
01 wlllch experience both Ihe normal and shearing slresses (Fig. 69).
For Ibis all Ihal is required is lo replace 0"0,, and o. by normal strcsses o."
and 0" and lI" 80, l . by lI",. Eu' amI E,. I t will beshown laler
( 36) Ihat shearing stlesses change neither Ihe linear dimenstons of
the clemenl nor ils ,olume.
Le! us r('lurn lo-formula <6.23) frolll which ti is obvious Ihal the
change in vu(ume depmds unly on the sum of Ihe princIpal slresses
and no! on their ralio. This means thal the volurnc will change by lhe
same value il he cube's faces are subjected lo equal mean slrCSS('s
m.u =
,
0,.1."'+0,
J
"....
0"'+".+0.
3K
(6.24)
= Kev=3Ke....n
(6.24')
EV=-r-=
0'
O"'.. n
Formulas (6.24) alld (6.24') deUribe Ihe general Hooke's law silllllar
lo Hooke's ]aw lor uniaxial Imsion. 11 is evidenl (rom Ihese formulas
that il equal mean slresses
forming the spherlcal slress tensor are applied tu the cube's lacC'S, al1
the edges eJlperience identical sira in
(6.25)
change ol' Is
cubt- r'maim I cu!x'. bul
dimensions el
lhe nrw
are diiftt'MI. Thertfore.
.re interested in problems
lo the chang4' in volume and shapr under compound stress. il is
con\'enienl lo represenl each of Ihe principal slresses as a sum el 'I\'O
slresses:
0',""""_+0;.
0',=11_ +0.:.
0",-6_.+0;
lile! gi\'eI1 s!rt"SS tensor formed by the principal slresses (1,. o,. and
o, l:'OnsistJ of lwo lerms: lhe spherical tensor (made up of equal stresses
(Fill:. 73)
11 can bfo
seen Ihal lhe sum al these .5upplementary stresses
is equal lo lero. Obviousl}'.
.... "'O.
therefore lhey do nol cause any change in ,>,olume ( 34). rhe stress
fFlg. 73 on lhe rgh!) i5 onlr reponsible lor Ihe change
oF Sh3JK'.
\Ve shall rtturn to the problem of Ihe change In volurnc amlshllfle
later whilc discussJng pro[)lems or strength 01 materials in compound
stressed state (Chapler 7J.
35.
o, Gl
S/,o"',
12S
Whcn the load increases slowly and gradually, lhe velocily of displ._
bar is ver)' sm.U. Thtreiort',
mar
-ment of Ihe iree end 01
glect he inertia 01 Ihe moving mass ando consequenlly. assume Ihat
thfo deformalion IS 001 accompanied by
change in lhe kinelic enero
gr of Ihe 5)skm.
Unoo thl'SC.' rondHioN liJe polential tflf'l'gy 01 Ihe loU'ering load 15
lransfofnted iolo lhe poh'ntial energy of elastic dclorlMlion o{ Ihe bar
analher.
dP
FIl:. 74
IV
-,
_ plJ,/
. o,
=v
(6.26)
PI
=EA'
(6,21)
'"
Qf
Complitllffd e"..,
[Parl JI
artes- multiplication
(6.28)
t. ..., ""31[""
Ik
1"
wh<'reo..... =<l"!+"
3 .J..o, an d"h,., bU'moduUSf\-;lt1_21l)'
The specific energy due lo {he change in volume will be
"
=3
,,:n.,.
""2i(
(o,+(I.+o,)"
laR
(6.291
lhe polential enere:y rorresponding to lhe change in !hape of the
isolated elerneni mar now be calculaled as he differenee
u. _ u-u" -21'
After !lmplifying,
\\'e
Uoh""
IV
get
(6.30)
01_ J
utIl =
(6.30')
(l
o'
(6.31)
Obviously, the sum 01 the 111'0 will glve Ihe total spedfic energy or
tension:
(P", 11
lO'
dre!e for solving lhe problem .....i1h lIJe following dala:
$inc:tthenormal
'('1""'(
t, __
'f
":"7=7::;'
4
/I.-!-- /
,'
//
1/
","
l'
., ,J...:
,>1
d
Fig. 75
"
,
(1
'*'"V.,..
Flg. 76
points 01 the diameter 01 ,\Iohc's tirde. ils radius is equal lo OO.. =T.
The sements DA and 08 cut by lhe tirde on Ihe oaxls :lre also equal
to Ihe radius and determine Ihe magnitudes of Ihe principal stresses:
OA=O,-T,
11,_0
00
-=0',-0 and
t ...... T
(633,
in for-
mulas (6.12).
1be dirtCtion o principalslress lJl is silo""n on Mohr'! tircle
lileUne BD, ....ilich makts ao angle ni 45" with ihe normal lo pl3Ill' ti<:
of lhe malerial around Ihe same poin! by lhe principal planes (Flg.
Ch. 61
'29
stresses lJ, along diagonal QC. This can also be proved by considering
tfw, equilibrium oondiUons 01 a parl oi lhe cubt cut out by a diagonal
plane (Fig. 77).
Thus, purt shear is equivalen! lo a combination of 1.....0 l'qual prin
cipal slres.ses--ont d Ihem Imsile and the olher oompressh'(' (Ihe
Ihird equal lo zero). In other u-ords Ihis is a parlkular case oi biuial
sltess whm
Planes inclined at 4s- lo tht't1irtclioo oi prjJlCjp
21 stresses experieK:e only shearing slresses whkh subject lbe ele-
Fil'. 71
,.,
Lel us study Fe:. 78 lo estaulish lhe relalion between T ar.d ,. Oue
lo \\'.rping uf lile gi\'ffl eltmefll. diagonal AO getselongated.This eJc.n
gation mayon lhe one hamJ be
to the acting
.nd on lh"
0100, lo tht ani1e 01 sheat; combinng the \\"Q rt!lations ....-e tan estab
lish thedependt'llt'c between 1 and y.
",'
Frolll
78. we can oblain Ihe
absolute e1Gnglllion 01 Ihe diagonal
by culting Ihen('w diilgQnal AO, by
liD are wllh a centre A and cadius
AD We gel a right:lngll'l.i lriangle
ODIO. inwhich afm DD, represenl5
Ihe absolu!e elongallan s and arm
D,D, represenls Ihe elongalion Al
Di he diagonal. lhe mgle al poim
[j, may be laken as 45" dUe lo he
sllIall value al (\eformation. Then
"
AI_lI.scO'!i 45'
Fil:. 78
'"
where 1_....
Thertlore
15"".!!. (OS
Sloce
"
45"sin 45"
get
t="!'
(6.35)
O.
,.,
\\'t:
get
whererom
(6.36)
Ch. 61
(In(!
S"(lin
,JI
Thus,
01
'1 and shearing stress Tare diredly proportlonal
to
other, Le. in shCllr toe stress and corresponding slrain lIre related by Hooke's law.
Denoling
by G, we gel
proportkm<llily factor
T=G'I
2(1
\\'here
E
(6.38)
6/= EA
.WHh thl' help of expression (6.39) we can Iso calculate tbe potential energy or shear through Ihe work done by forci! Q. Considering lhal
force Q is applied slatically, gradually ncreasing rolO zero lo a finite
value, \\'" can express the 1I"0rk done by Ihis force in affecling a displacernent l!.s as
132
Par! 11
QIII
'""w;;r=2G
(6.40)
u "
H=-V-RJ
(6.41)
The
resull could have
obtainecl Irom formula (6.28),
35, by considering pure shear as a compound slressed slale wilh
CHAI'rER 7
lo
failure.
Ch. 7)
lJJ
IJ'
time.
lo
Wtv.
onlyone tylM' of
lo
resistaoc-r lo shear. SlKh a
resislance lo ruptull' or
concept of f.ilure
I
round.
Al.., 'e3l'S ago 11 new concept lbat has a sound txperinlffilal support
lilas pul orward in
Soviet Union. AccOfding lo Ihis eoncepl every
material depending upon 1M working candillons may fail bolh duE' lo
ruplure and shear and may therelore possess resistante lo bo!h types al
OJ'
However, we do not have suflicient data lo be lIbll' lO
lO a similar
condusion 101" ducllle matcrials. Sorne expl'f"imCfllaJ sludll'$ poi"1 oot
Inlt tesistance to rupture
upon cold hardenlng-it
wilh the degree el cold hllrdening.
Failure dile lo shear is more oomplicated Ihan rupture because iI is
usually preceded by considerable plastk derOfmatlom whicn result in
r!islribulion of strenes and ot!ler complicalioos. The existence of
I\lis t)'pe or lailure. caustd maiol)' by shearing slresses, is confirme<!
by a numMr or experimental dala.
The lailun! or materials under tension accompanied by neck forma
tion. shear, lorslon and bending usually occurs along planes clase lo
the planes ar
shearing slresses. Although il Js nol always
po!>Sible lo conclude abou! (he Iype or lailure tupture or shear)
Irom lhe angle 01 rupture, 11111 number or cases the location of Ihe plane
ollallure and t.he appearanee oF Ihe breakdown surlace can be decisive
factors in tbis resped. Tbus, loc Instance, il lailuTe under torsion occurs in planes perpendicular lo Ihe bar axis, il is undouhledly caused
hr shllaring slresses because in Ihis case lhe surface 01 b!\'aktlown plane
is complelely lree of normal slres.ses..
11 is much more difficult lo dilfercntiate betwem faHures dUe lo
rupture and shear when the body is under a compound stress. Slill in a
thal shearing
number of cases 01 complex loading il \Vas
stresses playe<! a major role in many irnlances el lailuTe. whic::h \\--ere
carlier considered obvk>us examples 01 lailure due lo nrplure.
In ductile materials shearoccuffing wilhout prC!CCding perrnanent set,
usually 01 a considerable magnitude, is higllly improbable. because
slressn. which also play
lailure due to shear lakes place due lo
lhe major role in plasth: dclarnwlion of materlals. Al leasl ji has not
!leen possible till now lo practicaHy achleve such failurc in melals
allhough sorne 01 tbem (far exampll', eompressed magnesium and lts
alloys) fajl r1ue lo sllear afler small plaslic ddormallon (5.15%).
This is known as the $O-called
Experimental dala show tllal resistance lo shear practical1y does
not depend upon lhe typc 01 slressed slale for pure metals (copper,
aluminium, iron) and sorne alloys. 1I is alsoeslablisbed lhal it depl!llds
upon Ihe rate 01 delormation and temperature to a mueh grealer exlen!
litan lhe resistance lo rupture. Resislance lo shear increases wilh
increase in rate of delorlJlation and reduction in templ'f"ature.
Tite assumplion aboul malerials havlng resisl.nC'e to both types of
.Iure is ronfirmed by expcriments on 11Iilurc 01 cold-short mel.ls
and $ODIe brillle matetials. For one and lite saine material the mllfl1lludes of resislance lo ruphtre and shear are difi"erl'flt: lor duclilC' male
ri.1s uslI.lIy T"...
. ! on
centrar), for briltle matcrialsT"...
lhe laws governing 'foil and an;, may ditler depending upon thecltangtS
in compositioo of material and its machinin and heal ireatment.
<o...
>a:"'.
".
(P,"I J1
, .-
o,
"
0,
,,
.,
KIlllIIIIf:
K_
c,'<:I"z""'J
S.....
.,
or slres-
",; ..
Jl-D
ISJD
CIIIIIt(IIa!
F,
"
Sl.'L1 sIal!.', Le. upon Ihe ralio bdwl'Cn Ihl.' Ihrl!e prindpal slrases.
SillC(' Ihe nllmbcr or various possible ralios between lhe principal
slresse:s is infinilely larqe. thl.'fe uisl a rorrespOJuting Infinil!.' nllll1ber
ni
sial...... oIf<ulllrt' 01 lhe slructure elemento Hence. lor each
new ralio betwl"l'fl lhe prlOnpal slresws il is n(-'('l'$S.Iry lo experimcn
1,,11)' linLl the
slresses anew. It shoold be borne in mind lhal
il is moch
L1ifficul! to condoct tesis in compound stresse(:htale as
compared lo simple lension or compression: these leslS 3rt' more time
conMlming and
ando as a rule, require special 8cccssorit'S
lo lh<'
8vaHable in laboratories.
Therefore, it is ne<:essary jo lind wars or expressiog the slrenglh
coodilion under compound stress in lerms or 111 and l1 u oblained Iroln
I'xperiml.'nls lar lhe uniaxial stress.
ThllS, in UM! general case. when all lhe Ihree principal slresses are
nom:('fO, Ihe stret1glh 01 lhe malerial is lestfil .ccordiog lo lhe follIlao:
(1) lbe Ihrce principal slresses 0,>0,>0. are caku1ll1ed;
(2) lhe material is seleded;
",
01.71
a"
(7.1)
e-a, e-a",
'"
"na:
CumprtSSiun
IPMI 11
Formulas which hal'e bem derive<! in lhe precedin< se<:lions and which
are valid only w\thin lhe limits al application of Hooke's la\\! for cal-
= 01 <-,- =[olr
II","P
0"'"
(7.2)
whe!re 101, is lhe permissible slres in lension. Equation (7.2) repreconuition acoordillg lo lhc firsl strenglh Iht.ory.
sents lhe
lt s applicable only when 0,>0.
This [heor,' is confirmed by lensile tests of brittlc ma{crials such
as slonc, brick, concrele, glass, and porcelain. In Ihe case of compound
stress thl' theory oflen comes inlo conAict with experimental data be
cause il does not take iolo account the olher l\Vo principal stresses
upon which Ihe str(!nglh of material depends in many
B. The idea Ihat briltle laiture is conneclerl nol wilh Ihe rnaximum
lensile slress butwilh maximmn slrain was lirst expressed by FrE'nch
scientisls Ed. Mariot!elin 1686) and C. M. L. Na"ier (in [826) 3nd tater
sllpported by other French scientists, J. V. Poncele! (1839) and
(;1,.
71
S'rtlllllh
o/
139
B. SamlVenafll (IB37). The strength Iheory based upon Ihis supposiHun is klli)\vn as Ih" fheCJryCJ! maximum strailt, or lhe seconrl )/renglh
l!loor". According lo 11m Ihl'Ory raHure occurs irrespedive of tile
slllle 01 stress \vhl:n maximulIl elaslic sira in t m"
equal lo a
rerlain valuc l';,up which is conslanl for Ihl! given malerial. in general
E",. . ""'1';,
--rrI
],
(7.3)
Thus in Ihe [hoory of maximum sira in, lhe permissible stress under
lcoson is compared nol lo one 01 the principal slresses bu! lo a combi
nalion 01 atl of Ihem, called lhe reduud stress and delermined by the
formula
aro<! = o, -1'- (o, o,)
fe
and I 1=
wp . Le. times grealer). However,
lhe second strcnglh theory is also conflrmed rnainly by experimenls
on britlle malerials only.
80lh Iheories discusscd aboye are theories of rupture: none of Ihem
is universal, i.e. ",al id in all Ihe cases 01 lailure due lo rupture.
'"
PQrl IJ
dala. sorne-
IiIMS Ihese<:ond. For a solid uniform body lhe SKOnd theocy 3ppc8TS
lo be RlOl"e logical and \\''ell lounded Ihan the: lirsl ()I'l(!.
A. rhe fael hat shear IJnes appear 011 lhe spl'Cilll('n liurlaec during
plutic: deformation and Ihat under tension duclile materlals Ii) 31011i
he planes of maximum shearing slresses enables us lo aepl lhest'
slrcsses as the criterion of sirength. This idea \\'85 lirs! proposed by Ihe
French physicist Ch. A. Coulomb in 1773 and suppotled by lhe experi
ments Df H. Tresca (1868), J. J. Guest (1900) and olhers. The slren"rth
thoor)" basetl upon lhis assumplion carne to be known as lhe l1U'ory o{
lIlaximUnl sJwulng siresses OC' Ihe Ihird s/rellgth lhrory. According lo
Ulis !Ieory Ihe critical slafe af material (in lhe forln 01 yield or lailurej
OCc.urs. irrespective 01 {he
slalt', when IIK' maximum shearing
stress f." becomes equal lo a eerlain \'Ilue" wllich is constan! for
lhe ven material, 1.1'.
1'.
(7.4)
slrrsseiJ slale. we shall find ils vslue from experilllents on simple lension in whkh aHure occurs as 3 resull of shellr. In lhls casea.=O and
1'. . .
IF stress a, in Ihe righlhand side or the lasl l:'xpression is
raised lo permissible stress lal, the leil-hand side of Ihe Slllle expre<;slon will
the ptrmiuible value of shearlng stress 1'; IhllS,
Id_';!. Sub.stiiuting now Ihe valUfS el TilO> ::md hl in expres.sion
(7.4), we oblain
-1-.
, (o,-a.) 7[a]
,
T-., -2'
o::;;;:
(7.5)
'"
CA. "
stress in lensioo
11... =11,-11.
(I,;02",",
n,;".=,..
aboYe shoutrl be looketl upon in a broack1" aspecl han as mere interpretation 01 the Iheoryof maximum shea.ringslresses. AC('()l'ding to these
formulas, it can be consldered Ihat crilical slate is determined only by
Uw: maximum and min;mulIl principal slre\5eS. Ellperimcnls do nol
fully conhm Ihis hypolhesis;
lhe maximum possible error
due lo ignoring medium priRripal stress Ot does nol CJlceed 15% and in
majorily nr cases is considenably smaller. Therclore whilc wrltin
;1
,.,
[P4ff 11
oursrlves to sludying
the eff:t on strl"nglh Mly 01 the maximum and minlmum principal
stre..."SeS.
,
JH
fig. 81
sh('ar:
stress
called
lo Ihe
,,
I
,,"
1.--
r"+t- :",,--.J
Jo..
l1d--O<
FIl:. 82
slate o stress depided in Fig. 80 are shown in Fig. 81. The diameler
of Ihe limitng circle which depicts lhe critica] slate in simple tcnsion
is (1# ro Ihe ul timale strength in tension: in Ihe case or si mple compres
sion the ultirnatedrde diameter is a._ , ullimate strt"llgth in compression: and in theC3Se 01 pure shear ihe fimiling cirde diameler 15 equal
te 2foll _
ell. 71
"3
t,
N
1,
F(. ll3
o,z;=O,O,
a.c.
o,c,
00,+00.
or O::. OlC.-lfQ,+OQ,
By subsliluling correspondn, slresses in place al segments.....'P obbin
/T,
o. rol! I"J, {o,+o.l
101, - [oh+lol.
JH
(P"'f IJ
(7.6)
'f<d"'I'tI+fO',;r'-J,od
(7.7)
2CJ.,,+=
=1':' s ,
(=
101,
and
....1'Ien (=0 slrenglh condition (7.7) changes inlo lhe similar condilion
al Ihe third strro:th lh!or)'; if 0'>0 (temion), rondilion 11.7) is salis
fied 01111' ",,"heJ lhe value of 1,-1 is reduced u compared to lhe value lor
0'=-0; i a<O (compression), condilion (7.7) is saUslied even wilh a
higher value of I'tI ascompared fo lhe value fOl" OElO. These conclusions
are slIpporl'd b)' expetlmenls discusse<! earller at the end al 4UA.
11 can be easily seen lhat {he strength condition (7,6) according lo
:\tohr's theory coincides wilh lhe strength condilion llccording lo the
IhecT)' 01 maximum shearing stresses ji p_l, Le. 100J,=[al. H Ihe
perlllissible slress um!er lension is very srnall (brittle malerials),
Le. if 1I can be considered lhat [01 1 -0 and p-=O, /tlohr's lhecry
changes inlo {he lneory 01 muimum normal stresses. In hiaJl:ial slren,
when 0.=0 and
Mohr's theory coincides wilh fhe lheary or
maximum sfrain. ThU$, lo a certain eJttent J'!1ohr's lheory genet'alizes
th' lirsllhree slrength lhtories; it corrtdly deseribes plastic deforma
tion and (aiJure due to shear al m.a.lerials having differenl resislances
lo lension and compressioo, AH e:cperimenu thal verify lhe firsl and
Ihird thoories and sornt e:cperimenls vcrilying lhe serond iheory also
supp1 Monr's lheor)'. 1I undoubledJy rtpresenls a forward slep as
q MaItr..,1s, l(ublldlo.
Gil. 71
Slrcnglll 01
In
Com{J<JImd Slrrss
'"
u ""u
where UO is Ihe polential energy accumull\led in a unit volul11c 01 the
malerial when yield or ruplure seis in.
T1Iis hypolhesis was nol confirmt!d by experiments amI is only or
historlcal imporlance. 11, however, lormed Ihe rounf!alion upon whith
Ihe new energy lfu?ory o{ slrellgth was buill: Ihe lat\er general1y gives
resulls malching weJl wilh the experiments.
Considcring Ihe (ad lhal plastic deformation takes place wilhojJt
any change in volume. F. Huber in 1904, R. Mises in 1913 and 1--1. Hen
cky in 1924 proposed lhal inslead or lotal polen1ial energy 01 delormation only Ihal parl 01 Ihe energy which was spenl on changing'theshape
01 a body should be accepted as the strenglh criterion. A;cording
lo Ihis hypothesis, irrespec.live of lhe
yieldjng or rupture of the
malerial slarts when lhe polentlal energy of dlstorlion per unit votume,
Uott, reaches a cerlain limiUng (crilical) \'alue
for the given
material. Le.
(7.8)
..1. nr U:h""'U",. ,"p'
11 ls known Ihal in compound slressed stale (see lormula (6.30'),
wherc
35)
U'h= .!.f.[{
GE
0',-0'. j'
+ (0',-0'.1'+10'.-0,1'] = 30-1;")'
21;
T""l
I1we accept, as airead)' slaled, thal the;rilical value of the polental energy 01 distorlion (lor example, corresponding lo the beginning
6 _allO
..,
/P",l 11
upon lIJe
of stressw stale,
\\Ie can consider Iha! in uniaxial as weU as in any olber type of stres!
U-......
Subsliluting Ihe expressions rO:' u... nd t4 in l"qualion (7.8), dhld
in bolh sides by
and e:clracting (mm lhem squart 10015. \\.t
gel Ihe following t!xpression ..\'hich determines lhe beginning oJ criti
eal slate:
, V(a,
1""2
0'.1'+(0".
0.)'+(0.
01
)' -
11 can be casil)'
Ihat Ihis equallan represents lhe ccndilion
of constancy oI slTes (or eonstane)' 01 lhe octnhedr.ll shearing stre5<).
TIJe strrngth CQnditioll according to his heory, known as Ihe thwry
cf poIerial tllUgy c.{ dislorllOll or Ihe fourih sirtngfh (heory. ma)' be
wrilten as
,-V(O,
O'I)'+tO.
0,)'+(0.
0',)"
=0;""
",
.liO;--=[oj
(7.9)
(7.10)
0.)'+(0"1
(7.11)
"'-11
'"
lIf parts af machine> and slructures made nol only al dudiJe bul.lso
of sorne briltle lIlaledals. UnfU'lunately lhe possiblllly or applyin
Ihis oondition lo briUle materials has nol been studled sufficienlly
Hit now.
lJd:!!l;fa)
(7.12)
where a,oa \5 lhe redUC'ed slress and \0'1 15 lhe permissible stress in
simple lension oc
The reduced stress
may be Interp-
concerned.
'"
fParl 11
slalic .1nd gradual), Iype d stress (stales oi stfeM clase lo unorm {riaxial tension are krrown as
and hey
lo hlgher brHlleness;
on lhe contrar)' slressed $lates dose lo uniform triaxial C(lmpression
are kno'A'n :lS
and improve ductility).
Al present Inan)' rnalerials can be made lo acquiTe brillle or ductile
stale by dilferenl means. JI a material can deform and ral bolh as brit!te and ductile, Ihen. aswas earlier st3ted. it al50 has 1\.\'0 characleristks ol Tesistante to falure thal are delermlned expf'rimentally: resislance to ruplure and resislaoce lo shear. The re:sislance lo (uplure
0'.... is [ollod as
maxjmom normal tensileslress required rOl" cat15ing
(uplure <1.... -0. (/irsl slrenglh theory) or lhe reduced nOflua! stress
lI,hkh 15 lhe prodllCt of m.u:imum slrain r.. -e, .nd nJOdullls el
t1aslkily E. Le. (J1,ri-O,--f'-(o.+oJ (secood str<:'nglh 1Morr). The
reo;islarJC'e lo .shear IS
by the maxilllum shearing stress
when
occurs due lo shear t ...
(a,-<7.)- (lhird slrength
Iheory), by lhe Iimiling valu!! oI stress
al lltt! momen1 01 /1l,lurC!
(fourth slrength lheory) and lhe lirniting vlIlue 01 reduccd stress
( (f t in he case of shear railur!! (Mohr's lhl'OfI).
In lhe light of above,
designing, ror
the e1emenls o
froln mild sletl, a duc!ile material in certain colldilion:s
(st;ztic loading, room lemxoralure, unia.rial slreM), it is nol al""I)':'O
pos.sible lo apply Ihe Ihird or rourlh slrmglh
",;haul t.kin"
inlo acrountlhe actual .,..ori\ing oondilions of (he slruclures; similar/y,
while rlesigning paru from ooncrete-a briltle m.1tHi:t1 under lhe
COI1dilions, Ihe firsl Ihoory is IlOI always applkable.
The problem of applyin\l:Olleo-theoUll'f strt'n.q1h theorycan beglved
lo lhe rlrst IIpproxima(loo with lhe hdp of the SQcall("d
slate diagrarn proposed by Pral. Ya. B. Fridman 00 Ihe basis 01 re
search 00 lh!! slrenglh al materials carried oul by PraL N. N. Davidenkov and his lollowers."
fU ao uarnple COf1.'lider the transiuission 01 pre5SUre hall! lhe locomolive whetllo the rail (Fig 59). The dementar)' robe wilh edges 01 I mm
cut at the
oi Ihe area Ihrough which the pressure from the ,,'hecl
is being iransmitted to Ihe rail is subjecled to coml'ressve principal
slresses: 0,=--80 kgl/mlU': 0,=-90 kgf'mm'; 0. __ 110 kgflmm".
We sIlall
by the Ihird 2nd lourlh slrffigth theories the reducC'd
whieh sIlould be compared 1I'1Ih lhe permissible stress. According to the
al maximum shearing slres.res
a:
J'
110 _30
r .. '.....IIOIIt(', _
jin
R"$&>a").
fJ/
M<Wri"J, 10...
tdilillm,f252
Ch.
71
>4,
oli'd=
l/{
80+901'; ( 90+110)'+{
110+80)'
=26.4 kgfimm'
[t:jl_[ol/
(7.13)
+",)
ro],
Thc malcriRl 01 a bar subjcdod to torsion cxpl'ricl1<;e!; PUf" shcar (sec Chap-
ter 9).
[Part JJ
wherefrom
,+,
['t]Il=...!.2lL.
(7.14)
O",-O'.:E;;fo-j
the values of O" and
0-
Le.
(7.15)
The s{rength eondllion according lo Mohr's {heory is 0',-p<J.';;;;
'rO']
[l'JM=r::p
fOIl (01<
(7.15)
1"1.+101<
In Fig. &1 permissible slress ['tJM is represented by segment Of.
Applying the fourlh strength theory, we find
1=
V(T
0)'+(0+.1')'+(1'+'t)'=V3't';;;;[al
,e.
V3
and
['tr= 1"!-
ya
(7.17)
I'tJII =
= (0.75-0.8) O]I
PART 11I
CHAPTER 8
lance. The simplesl examples of 5uth pnrls are bolltd ami riveted oinb.
In many lields rivels have been rcplaccd by wt'ldlng; hawever, riveted
joinls IIre stil1 widely usl!'d lar joining all Iypes 01 Rletal structurl'$:
ranen. bridge trusses. cranes, loe joinlng plates in boilers,
reservoirs, el<:.
To make a riveled joint, hales 3fe drilled or pres.sed in both plates.
A rtd-bol rh'e!Ilo'ilh one head is placcd in these boles and ils olher end
is riveled by strokes from a special hammer or by pressure from a hydraul ic press (riveting machine) to make Ihe .second head, Small rvels
(having dialMler less than 8 mm)
deformed in a cold .51ale (in
aviaUon structures).
A. Ld us take lhe simplesl riveted joinl lo sludy the-Ilo"Orking 01 rivels (Fig. 84). SI.x rivels pIare:! in t....,o raws join 1\10'0 plales by a 14ppttl
joint. Under the action 01 lorces P these plales Imd lo
over Me
anolher, this brin hampered by lhe rivels lo ...hich (orces P are lnnsferred .
While checklng the slrenglh of rivels ...: e shallstick lO lhe eslablished
arder of solving problems of slrength of maleriab. r . . , o equal and
1be.
trJlalKt
'"
'rposile
PUl! tlf
10rt\"5
Iransh.Tl'l"rl 10l'och ri\'el: one Ilding flOIll ttK- fir.;t
P ale and the olher. !ron theserond plall'. 1I has been experimentally
shO'Nn thal sorntof the rivtls in a fO',\'urry tfeatff load lhan he othn-s.
IiO"I!C'off. al lhe nIOOIM! oi brl'akdo"':n. lhe forces acting 0lJ vanous
rivels IlKn Of less le've! out
lo plaslic deformatiOll. ThI'fclO!'P. it
is gmerall)'
lhat alJlhe rivels work under similar rondHions.
fig. 85
Thus ir there are 1I rjVt'ls in the joinl shown in Fig. 84. then ea<:h of
lhe ,ivets will tK> subjecled lo Iwo equal and opposite Icrct'S
Fig. 85). Thest' rorces 3rt' lunsmitted lo llw rivel through lhe pressure
al the corresponding plall' on Ihe semicyl indrkal surfac.. o: Ihe Mi.nk.
Forus P, tl'fld lo Mar Ihe rinl along plalll' mk whkh is he parling
plane 01 lhe pistes.
lo detC'rmine lhl' slres.ses aclilij!: in Ihis
Jet U5 imagine Iht' nvet
shllnk lo be cut by seclion mk a!ld the 10Wff portian removed (fig. 85).
Tite inlernallorces which are lransrerred Ihrough Ihis sec:lion lrom lhe
lov.'er poclion 10 Ihe upper one will balance rOf'CC' P,. Le. they will
tK:1 parallelto iI in lhecutting plane and wlll gve a resullant Ion-e P,.
Therelore. Ihe stresses appcaring in this s':!Ct Ion and acling tangenlialIr lo 1I will becalled shearing strcssesT. GeneralJy it is assumed Ihat
they are dislributed unllormly O\'er Ihe II'hole sec!ion. II the rivet
shank has diameter d, Ihen Ihe slress per unll :lrea 01 the seclion wiJlue
P,
/lT
:d' "'rT)
"-.
t8.1)
Le. lhe actual shearing stress T ading in Ihe rvet mal("l"ial shoulrl not
lhe permissible shearing stress (see 012).
81
Prurticaf
of Dr&ign
GIl
SIu:ur
103
Prom this conditioll w(' Clln determine the requiretl diarncter or Ihe
rivets if Ihcir numbcr is known, ami viloe versa. Usuallv {he diameter
01 the rvl'.l shank d is given in accordance with Ihe lhfckncss I of lhe
parts lo be joine<l (generally d;::;;:21) and Ihe reqllired number of rivets
11 is determine<! rolO the reJation
(8.1 'J
The dcnominator of this formula represen!s Ihe force which each of the
rivels can withslaod safely.
\Vhile deriving formula (8.1) one more inaccuracy had been allowed.
AcllIally forces PI aeting 00 the riv!!1 are nol direcled along a straigh{
a
collplc.
Jloe but
This couple i5 balanccd by another
force coup[t>, lormed by the reaclion
01 tlt... rivet('l1 plales on lhe rlvet
head (fig'. 86) md gives rise lo norIllal stresses llcling in planl." II1k.
Besides Ihese normal stresst'S,
section mk is subjecled lo normal
stresses from another SOllrce; during
PI
cooling Ihe rivet shank !ends to
sltorlen which is hindered by Ihe
stop al the rivel heads by lhe plates.
Tltis.on IhE' one-l1arl{!, !eads to 11ghleniog of lite plates by lhe rivets
givjng rise to forcrs of friclion beI\\"een Ihl'lll, anfl 00 the- other han
fl.!:, 86
causes consideT<ible normal strt'SSes
io Ihe sectiOI1S of the rvet shank.
These
ore nol very harmful. The rivets are madI' of
possessing suflkient ductility; therelore. even if the normal slresses altaio
Ihe yield point \Ve can onJy expect sorne plast!c deformalion (elongalion) 01 the rivd shank. which will reduce the Iridion beiween the
plates. The rivels will however continue to \.\'Ork 011 shear as Iesigned.
These normal stresses IIre there!ore nol takell inlo
whiJe
riveted joints.
(8.1) has been derived lar single--shcar riveled joints.
li Ihe joiol is lapped by l\Vo caver plales (Fig. 87), each rivct experiences shear in two planes-mk and gf (Fig. 88). Such rivels are known
as dlmbie-shear riw(s. Jf 11 rivets are requ ired lo tnmslOil forc<' P from
one pIafe lo the cover plates, lhen force- llcting 00 one rivet is r,=
=P:II. TI!e uea or
and Ihe shearing slresses in
,5<
IPllfl 111
gf (Fi.
88) are
't_
2:14'
"-,-
T';!lJ.
wherelrom n;;;a
p
"ji
(8.2)
:"",,[1:1
@@:@@
I@@:@@
\p
In lhe case al
rvels that are
slruelum, lhe shear area of tach rivel is AOII -
afI.
used in metal
and the strenglh
<:ondilion s
n;;;,;;urr
p
(8.3)
se
Ch. 81
'"
"
p
rlld';;;
[o.]
(8.4)
wheff' labl is the permis.,ibJe bearing slress. From fhis formula the
required nllmber al rivets may be delermined as
p
tI;;;J:
Id
l"bJ
(8.5)
Fjg. &9
strenglh for contad stresses. Expressions (8.4) and (8.5) are equaJJy
valld lor singleshear and doubleshear rivels.
We shall illustrate with an example how lo calculate the required
number of rivels. Let us compare two Iypes 01 a riveted joint, one
apjoint with singJeshear rivels (Fig. 84) and Ihe other with doubJe
shear rivels (pig. 87). Let P=48 000
1=1 cm. 1T1= 1000 kgflcm'
and lab l=24Qt) kgl/cm', The thickness or cover plates 1, is aJways more
than 0.5 l.
,,.
[PI/TI /11
48000
";'-d-'-=JI4X2'
(TI
_0_ _ 1000 :::::15
ac:cording lo 111(' hcaring strenglh oondilion (8.5)
P
.. 000
n"'>dlo.
IX2Xz.oo=IO
IIJi
'-,-'"
:::::8
(806)
where m is lhe number of holes in the sed Ion (in our c;ue lhere
lwo
of lhrm).
KoowlJ1Jl: Ihe plah.' thlekness 1, wecan lind ils width b from lhe above
c01ldition. lhe arta oi lhe weakened seclion (b-md)t is
the nel
llrea. when'as the arca or the [ull sedlon bt is called the groos area.
rhe account ollhe ('freel of lhe rivet holes on the slrength of riveted
plates Ls gcnerally accepleJ bul is ralhnronditiona1. Acluall)", consid
trable local stresses arisc over Ihe c:onlour of the plate, at Ihe ends
of the diauK.'lt'f perpendicular lo Ihe direction of tension. 1he:se local
slresses in Ihe material may reach the yield poinl and C3lJ5e plasllc
delocmations, lOOugb in J small volumt of tM plale material.
ell.. 8/
15i
FUI
F9"'U
Fil. 90
pedally in bridge building. 1bese bolts are used imlead al rivets .nd
are tightened br means of lorque
10.11 very high values of
lensile forces. wtlkh ensure such gh! pressing of Ihe joined e1eIDl'nts
that Ihe [ritUonal orces at Ihe inlerface are able lo bear all Ihe forces
Iransmitled lhrough (he joint. rile high'slrenglh bolts
neilher sllear nor bearing slrain.
rhe basic idea behind lhe design 01 (hese bolts lies in provillinll: lhe
equilibrilHJl be!wNIl exlerllal forces P Iransrnitted through the oiot
and the fricUonal forces th3t develop belween lhe joined elernents. If
<\"c denote lhe lensile: [orce for one boll by N and the toeffidenl of
Irlclion by /' we gel Ihe lollowing slrength condilion lar lhe joinl:
P=aNf'l
{8.7)
Here" is lhe
01 bolls ami (l is a coeffick!fll that accounls lor
possible deviations or N and Irom iheir nominal
(0.<1)_ Therequift'd oumber 01 high-sttength bolts s c:akutaled from equalion
(8.7):
P
11;;= <>.NI
W"""
(8.8)
v.oe
,so
[Part 1/1
-= d t
-=-
PoO/tl'
flectnt
lIIT
Pi, 91
In
welding by Slavyanov's methGd lhe eleclrode mate
rial (sll'el) melts under Ihe heat 01 lhe eltric an:: and fills lhe joint
of lhe elements to be welded, which are also heated to the {lISion poin!
by lhe eledric are. As a result, upon cooling Ihe molten melal forrns a
",eld \\1lich rigidl)' joins lhe elemenls (Fig. 91).
A thick protecllvl! eoating is appliecl to lhe e1eetrode to shield the
molten metal from the harmlul n"uene\': 01 the surrounding atmo
When Ihe eleclrode melis. the proteclive eoating forms a large
Illl10unl of slag anli gases whieh isolalo:! the molten melal (rom Ihe
surroulIlilng atmospherc. Thls ensuTes high qualil)' of lhe welli metal.
wllieh 013)' olherwise have very poor mechancal properlies due lo
:llmospheric ox)'gen anli nilrogen (il the el<!Clrode 15 nol ooaled ar 11
\Ill! coaling i5 Ihin).
Al prt'&'fll manual are welding is used mainly in joinls requiring
rt'13lively shorl
lar example, in welding
trusses, laeking
of angla. elc. Slruclura requiring kmg \\-elds (slX:h as mass produced
\\'eWed beams. ship bodies and gas holders) are welded by aulomalie
are: welding under a flux layer lFig. 92). In automatic are welding the
eleclrode .....ire rolled inlo I coi! is fed lo the joinl al a
di.5tance
from Ihe \\o-eld. Ihus ensuring constanl are I!fl.gth. The earriage with
Ihteledrode mova along the joint al a rale which 15 deterrnined by Ihe
wehling condilions. The are and weld are protected from atm05pherk
oxyen and nitrogen by a larer 01 BUl( (granul.ted sl.g of special cern
CII. 81
..
posilion) whkh also melis in tm- arc name, lorming a brill1e, easily
removable skin.
Slructures madI' 01 aluminium a1l0)'s, Ihat have won wide popularity
in rKMt Yellrs, are wclded by argonare
using an infusible
lungslcn eleclrOOe and an aluminium welding roo. The dislinguishing
lulure of argol'Hue welding u Ihal lhe are .nd molle" melal are pro'
tected lrolO lhe 1Ilmospheric undesirable impurHies by ao argon jel.
Resides are wl'lding, resistatn spot welding is l'lOployed in sorne
t.a5l'S when Ihin metal sheeh have lo be IIo't'lded (Ior uample, welding
oi thin plating and thin proliles). In spot welding lhe parl'> lo be joined
are placed bdwet'n tightly prt:$$td to lhem oopper electrodes Ihrougtl
..,..hich elcclric current is passed.
melal arotlnd lhe pomts ol tor'Itacl
fu heated up lo a le-mpel'81ure which is sulfideflt lo ensUI\'
01 lhe elemenls.
If lhe joinl desio/!, Ihe electrode malerial and Ihe welding melhod
are properly selecled, Ult'welde-d joint is fnund lo IK' in no way inlerior
lo lhe rivl'lt'd I'oinl under sla\k: as well as dl'IJamlc loading (including
impacl and a lernaling enes). Jn addllioo, declric-are welding has
a number of advanlage5 over rivetlng, lhe mosl importnnf of which
are lower labour consumption olJd Ihe absence 01 weakening DI l!le
secUon of thl' eic'ments due to rivel hales. This gives c:onsiderable $8V'
ing DI resourcl'S and melal besides Ihe economy due lo grealer compoel
ness of the join\. The econOlllic gains Imm el:lrieare welding and
lhe facl lhat it simplilies Ihe s(ruclllres have in the lasl few years
leel lo gradual replacem..nl of riveled Joinls by welded.
rhe welded ;oints. like lhe riveled joints, are designl't! 00 the
assumption Ihat lhe slresses are unilormly dislributed in lhe wl'ld
secUon. rhe dc$ign is c1osel}' connecled lo the welding method; in
particular, Ihis is rellected in Ihe permissible slresses, which are selecled lor lhe parlicular weld material in accordarlCt' wilh lhe weJding
mtthOO (manual or automalic wtlding) and a150 Ihe Ihk:kness and como
posilion ol Ihe e1eclrode <:oaling.
According lo existing standards. lhe permissible slress for weld
malerial is laken the same as foc Ihe base melal in Ihe case: al alllomatic arc .....
undl'!' a l\ux layl'l' and manual are weiding with topo
quality eledrodes. For v..elding with common eleelrodes the permissible stresses are redlX'l by 10-',.
The
len'l'lh o Ihe weld is oIfen assutned lo be 10 mm les.s
lhan lhe Klu.l lenglh to account for peor fusion al lhe beginning and
crall'r larmation al Ihe end o the u'eld lInd also lo take mio consideration Ihe dill'erl'llce in slruclure 01 lhe base .nd weld melals.
Let us discuss lhe design lJ)elhods lar sorne I)'pes o \!.'elded joints.
Tlle bull joinl is Ihe simplesf and lTlOSI reliable 01 all joinls. 11 is
oblaint.'d by lillinlt Ihe gap btlwt'<'fl lhe end faces 01 lhe e-Iemenls fo
be u-eldt.'d wilh fille1 metal. The butl Jolnl, depending upon Ihe lhiekncss al Ihe elements is made according lo one o fhe melhods shown in
,ro
Fig. 93.
[Parl 111
.......,
p
by menns of fiHet wetds (Fig. 94). Similar welds are elllployed in 1;1]J
and bult Joints which are made with the heJp 01 oover p1ales.
The filie! welds 1aid perpendicular lo Ihe direction 01 force are called
eLIge transverse fillel welds,
those Jaid paralle1 lo Ihe force
acting on Ihe lap joint are known as side or side fiJ1el welds.
The fillel wehl does nol have a very definite shape 01 section (Fil{.
95 (ll. In Ihooretica1 cakulations of slrength the weld sectlon is con
sidered lo bi! an isosceles triangle (shown by dotled lines) 01 heighl/"
(Fig. 95(b).
,
1. Kimis, D. l.
01
SI,"uglll o; W<!ded
Somdlmes
fillo! welds ar" made '"'Ave ",ilh
h<O.71.
Tito calhelns ,,{ lhe welrl may be "ven tess Ihall lhe thkkness 01 thl.' plall.'.
(.h. 8)
UIt
'"
SIle<JI'
The joints made with IhE' edge (l'nd.lap) we/ds are shown in Figs. 94
and 96. These welds fail in the weakest secUon AB, as e;tablished
experimentally.
Il is c1ear [roln Fig. 95(b) Ihallhe tota) slress acling in set:lion AB
may be resolved into normal and shearlng C(lJnI)(mcnts. As lhe resislance
,01/:).0")--+
1')
Flg. 95
==<1
t--
II
__
rorce P acting 011 Ihe joint is laken by 1\\'0 end-Iap welds (Fig. 96),
lhe upper 3nd (he lower ones, we get
T..
p
2A",
(8.10)
'"
P", 11/
lhe
sound experi IllefIlal supporl, reve.als Ihat Ihere is a high stress roncen!
oJ welds.
ralion ai
Aparl from this, due lo shrinkage of lhe joinis in lh<' \\"elding ZOfle
durlng coo1ing, addilional slresses occur not enl)' in lhe II.-eld material
...- l'
.:-
Ii
"
'"
,
.#-t.
Re. 97
Thi5 factor mar rt':Sult in 10\l,"ef" ductilil)' of lhe weld melal hus ma-
Idng lile joinl (wilh transverse fillet Vo"flds) less reli.ilble. especilllly
CO"tf plales.
A joint wilh side (longitudinal) fillet Wl'ld is shown in Fig. 97(0).
11le \\.'t'ld shown in Fi. 97 (b) fals aver a considerable lenglh of lhe
joio! due lo shearing 01: Ihe weld lIIetal parallel to lhe weld in Ihe weak
l'$t sec.lion AB. The strenglh cundilion ror t\\1l symmttrkally placed
welds may be wrillffi as
p
T"-2XU.711'[t",J
(8.11)
(8.12)
1e requircd gauge hmglh 1 of lheside fillel welds is genrrally ulculated from formulas (8.11) and (8.121. The aclWlI lenglh o each weld
is aken as 1.=1+10 mm.
slxn\' lhat lhe side lillel wt'lds f.iI in a way similnr
lo Ihe failure al dudile matetials wilh large: pl'l'manenl deformalion.
This makes lhe workinof sldt fillel welds mote fa"our.ble ascompared
lo lhal of end-Iap (Iransvt!"Se filld) welds. HO'olo"ever I il should be borne
ell. 8J
,.,
in mind that there is high 5tress concenlra[ion al lhe ends 01 side filie[
welds loo.
In designing welded joinls grealer reliability of Ihe joinl i5.soughl
lo be aehieyed by using, inslead 01 a but! joinl, or in addition to it,
overlapping coyer plates, which are welded by side fillel \Velds or edge
weld5 or both. As wasearlierpoinled oul, uoder impaci and alternat01 Ihe hut[ joinl may do grealer harro
ing loads such
ihan benet.
In design 01 a combine<! join! using cnd-Iap welds and side fillel
wclds simuHaneously, it is considere<! lhat Ihe join! re-sistanel.' is the
..... here
sum 01 Ihe re;islanees 01 individual welds, Le.
Ihe resistanee of lhe edge weld for a gauge length l. is P.=0, 7 ti. {I.. I,
ami Ihe resistanee of the side .....dds is P,=2xO.7 tI, iTUl ]; here I.=b,
..... here b is the width 01 the cover plateo By subslituting Ihese values
\Ve gel
(8.13)
p = (0.7tl. IAU,) [t..]
The length of Ihe side llel weld l. can be delermined if lhe length
01 lhe edge w.... ld is knoll'n. lf cover pla(es are used on bolh sides, the
number of welds doubles, Le. the righl-hand si de oi formula (8.13)
shou\d be doubll.'d.
The wide applkalion of eleclric-arc welding in melal slruclures has
led lo the development oi varlous types 01 wE'lded joinls, lhe design
and analysis 01 whieh are dlscussed in speclallilerature *.
The nlcthods discusserJ in this chapter on Ihe design or riveled and
wl'lded joinls for prrmissible stressE'S Me accepted in mach:ne building,
ship building. airerar1 building, de. A fundamrnllllly new melhod
01 design for limiling sta te (Chapler 25) is applied in the Soviet
Union lor de.'1 ?nlng I'ngineering- sttuctures (civil aOl) industrial buildings, bridgt'5, lunnels, etc.). Thls method, howevcr, dOl':S not differ
nluch from thl' design lor permissible stresses.
The joints in timber slruclures (grooves, keys, ele.) working under
shear and bearing are also designed by the Iimiting-state method.
The distinguishing leature 01 timbcr s ils anisotropy due lowhich it
has dillerent shearing and bearing strenglh depending upon the angle
between Ihe direclion 01 force acling on the element ami lhe direction
01 libres. Timber has higher shearing and bcaring strength along the
libres Ihan aeross lhe fibres or in an inclined diredion; this is taken
into account by means of coeflicienls. The design and analysls olthesc
jolnts is avalable in special literature .
Stt. lor
Dl!Slgn and PrtptUatilJll o{ W"dtd Slruawl<S, Vysshaya Shkola. 19i1 (in Rns-
sia,,.
, See. lar example, A. P. Pavlov, Timbu Strudw"S.
1959 (hl
Russian). See al"" Bul/djll- Strudum, edi1ed by G. Ove<;hkin, GosslroJitdal. 1975
(in Ruuian).
HU
IP"rJ 111
CHAPTU 9
Torsion.
Strength and Rigidlty of Twlsted Bars
45. Torque
resutls obtained durina: lbe study oi shear tl'lable us lo pass
over lo lhe study of slrenglh under torsion. In praclice wt' colJle across
lorsion very dlen; the eXllmples al rods y.'OI"king under tOTsion 3fe
axes 01 a rotaling whe<.>J, Iransmission sharts, elements of three-dj
mensional mechanisms. sprlngs and even an ordln.3ty war key.
[
,," .
'
F',- 98
CI,.
9!
105
t9 . 1)
Thus forcl.'s T, Imu ti form <1 lorque (T,-l,) R, whieh Iwists lhe
shaft in one diredion (shown by arrow), wherens Ihe resislanee 01
machine tool gives a lorqut' (r. -r.) R. which is dirl'<:lt'd oppositcly.
For unilorm operalion 01 Ihe machine al! Ihe orces ilcling on Ihe
shaft lI1usl hl' jn equllibrium; the lorque (T, -I,)R, should aH Ihe
lime be balanced by the resisting torqut' (r, - I.J R" Ll'.
(T,-I,JR,=(T.-I,lR,=M
(9.1')
Flg. 99
parall('lplanes, that rolde one \\ilh resped lo lile olher: Ihe shart gels
Iwistt'd. Thus
is callsed by force couples Iying in planes perpendicular lo tht' shafl axis.
We shall cmploy the method 01 seclions in arder lo invesligale {he
inlernal rarees aelng in cross seclions of Ihe shait under the aclion
oL lhese force couples.
us consider, for example, Ihe par! of
shaft which is tocaled lo lhe leH 01 section mr (Flg. 99). It t'nsues
from Ihe condilions af cquilibrium af Ihe parl under considcralian
internal rorces Illust rcsu!! in a momenl M -M, {hal balanct's
Ihal
Ihe t'xlernnl mOllll'nl, Le. aels in the opposite direclion. Similarly. if
\Ve consit!t'T tht' equilibriUlll of Ihe pllrl io Ihe righl 01 secUon mn
we lind Ihal in Ihe 511mc secUon Ihe inlerna! lorces crcale 11 moment
M,-M,.
The momenl of internal rorces acting in an
section of the
shaft subjeded lo lorsion thal lends io rolale Ihis secUon about lhe
shaft axis is cal1ed lorque or twisl/1/g memenl. The magnitude and di
red ion 01 lorque dcpend upon the magnitude of Iht' external momenls
acting on the length of shatl under consideralion.
".
IP",t 1/1
ternal momeot acls in lhe anliclockwise diredion when seen from lhe
si(!e e1lhe secUan; in Fig. 99, M ,>O.
Thls Sil"
lO\' M r corresponds lo Ihe direclion of intemal
forces Ihal .re lransmitted from he parl 01 the shaft under consideration lo the olher parlo lor imtanet. from leH to righl.
In Ihe abo\'e case Ihere ",,'ere only hoo pulle)'s on
shalt, which
transmitled lo it equal and opposite ques (9.1'); his re$ulted in
tonion of lhe portion of Ihe shart belween lhe pulleys by the torque
M,=M.
are more romplex situatiOflS when a numbe.- DI pulleys
mounled on the shaft, ene of them being Ihe driving pulley and
resl dri\,er Each pulley transmits ils torque to lhe 5haft. and jf
shaft is runnine: uniformly, lhe Stlrn of aH lhe mornenls acting on
8re
Ihe
Ihe
Ihe
'.J.
M 1,=-/I1,
SimHarly. iI we consider Ihe porlion 01 lhe shah located lo lhe Idt
o section 22 (Fig. 100). we find tha! lhe ITlOITIffit o inlernal forces
Ch. 91
Torslon.
"7
alld RI(Jidi/1I o{
The value of lhe torque in dilferent portions 01 (he shalt may be rep
re;enled graphically by plotliog lhe SO'"Clllled lorsional moment diag
ramo For Ihis, Ihe x-axis is pioUt'li below the shail drawin: and the
ordinates represenlng the value 01 lorsionai moments in Lhe parli
cular section are la id off Irom il with proper signs (positive upwards).
N,
N,
<Da
Flg. lQ1)
Wa=2PRa=Ma
168
IP", 111
--..
p
fll. 101
2""
...
(9.3)
;tJI
..
102 X 601(
J(
kgfm _973.6-;-kgf.m
(9.4)
For given L or 1( we calculal!' 111(' momen! lransmi! lal by l'llch pul ley
from formulas (9.3) and (9.4), plol lhe Iwisling llJOBlCflt diagram ami
find lhe critical seclion in which MI-M,.",...
47. Oelermlntng Stresses In
Torsion
11
o/
Sil"
'09
,T
H
,
FIg. 102
direclly proportonal to lhe torque and lhe dislance bi'lllo-een lhe seco
liom.
TIle end lace remains a pl.ne and Ihe con.toun oi all the secUons
remain undistorted (clrcles remain cirdes). Radii marked on lhe ffld
lace. renlain straight lioes even aiter deformalion.
The distance belllo'tel1 adjacent sectioos praclicatly does nol change.
Le. secHom 11 and 2-2. while tuming with respect to Olle another
through angle Alp relain lheir re!alive dislance d.t.
Thus. the experiments show Ihat a bar in tonion represents a systern
of rigid disc.s rnounled cenlrally on a common nis 0,0. Upon delor
mation aH these discs lurn w.r.t. one another withoul changing their
slUlpe. si:ze al1d relativc distance.
The experimental observlllions enumeratel1 aboye ive liS lhe basi!
ror fonnulating lhe rolJowlng hypotheses:
1. all cross sections remain planes;
2. radii on Ihe sections remain slraighl Unes:
3. distllrJCeS between lhe secliom remain unchanged.
Tht' appliclIbilily oi these hypotheses is furtlter supponed by lhe
facl Ihat thfo formulas oblained on their buis ive resul15 which agree
well with lhose oblaint'd experimentally.
8. Let us now pass ovtr lo dttermining stresses in seclions perpendicular to Ihe sharl axis. ul lIS
(Fig. 1031 lhe twisted shalt
0,0, to be cut in t ....,o porliOl15 J and JI by a stdion 1/
to lhe shafl axis and Jocated al a distarxe x frem secUon O,. ut lIS
remo"e >ortioo 1f and consider pol"lion l. This parl
remain in
t'quilibrjum undel' lhe acHon of eJ[ternal momen! M applied in Se(tk'fl O, and torqueM,actln in sectiOll /-1. The equilibrium candilion
'"
or lhe rutol( portian may be upressed as
[Parl / "
M,-M
Actordlng lo ib delinilion, torque M, is lhe momeol of interna! forces lhat
lhe aclion oi thf' removed portlon oi he !halt. In
order lo able locreale mOll}(!flt M" the internal forres in these:lion
OInd lhe- corresponding slresses ml.l'St be tangential lo the section Illd
perpendicular lo he radi! . For calculaling lile momenls el thl!Se
F'I_ [03
t'lemenlary
and lheir .sUffi !M.=M " lel us consider an arbitra/'}'
poi"! al a distante p froro Ihe cenlre al' lhe cire!e and isolate an ele
menlary ared dA around it (fig. 100). The force ading on Ihe elemenlary area will be dP=t dA, where t" is lhe shearlng stress al lhe given
poio!. The mament o lhls rol'l.'t about poin! O is
dM._T,.,pdA
, 1'o(>dA =!\-I,
(9.5'
Ir .....
Iblt T 11 nol PftpeMkular 1<> radhas. IhM 1I IIILlSI lave: I compo.
_1 llonr
l.dillS, '-b!dl. lICalrdil:l( lo tllPI.w of eunpJementll}' shfarine stm.mllU llft ri50e to
stresses akq: 11M: cyll!ler
ipc!udine
ulrmal smace of lhe mil! cbidl il te 01.11 slteDei (leerl(. 122).
IlIt onlIl 011
171
CII. 91
-+llh . -
Fil. 104
'"
AUer deformallon both secUons /-1 and 2-2 turn about the fixed
end Ihrough angtes (section 1-1) and ff.+dlp (section 22). On
lhe basis o the accepted hypolhese, \l;e can sa)' that bolh seclioos
will remain planes. radii OafJ, O,A, O,e and
\ViII remaln sfraight
Sltror and
/parl 111
lines and dlstance, dx betlVet'n sections ]1 and 22 ,,iJ1 rema In unchanged. UmJer these condillons Ihe whole elemenl ABDCO,O. wiJl
be displaced and warped because its rig111 lace which lies in sedion
2-2 turos lhrough d,p w.r.1. the left luce II'hiL'h les in secUon ]-1
RC'Clangle ABDC OC'cupies Ihe position whlch is shown ;n Fig. 104 by
hatehed lilJes, The w<lrpro elelllent
A,B,D,C,O,O. is shown In Fig. lOS:
on Ihi; sanie figure Is shown lhe lorm
ollhe element il it hao remained
undisJoried, Le. il its Jefl <Ind
right
f<lces bolh had lurned
through lhe same angle.
The warping eaused by unequal
lurning 01 sedions ].] and 22
transrorms right angl('S of re<:tllngJc
A8DC inlo acule ami obtuse angles:
he matt'rial of the eJemenl expl'r
iences shcar (Figs. 102 ami 104).
Fig. 1/)5
lhe magnilude of this ddormalion
is characlerizcd by the al/g/" of
distorlion or lhe nngle of shear. On lhe shafl slIrface in reclangli'
A,8,D,C, this angle is equar to BA,B,; ji is uenoted in Fig. 105 by y.
We aIread)' kno\\' that shear is accompanied by appelmlnCe of
shearing slresses in the faces 01 Ihe warped eJemenl ( 36).
Figure 105 depkls the stresses acting on an el('mentar}' mw B,D,O,
cncJosed belwel'n (he right race (se<:tlon 2.2) aod Ihe horizonlal sur
race of Ihe eJerneol A,8,O.o" Their value may bt' e,;presscd Ihrough
Ihe angl(' f shenr y which characlcrlzes lile warping of tbe rectangleo
A,8,D,C, by formula (0.37):
't,=Cy=rC
d,'
"
Le! us nolV de!eorl11ine lhl:' stress TI' al anotht>r poinl of st'C(ioll L"
whkh is al 11 dlslance f' from the 'nlre {Fig. JOO\. For this 11'1" must
find Ihe angle 01 shear of lhe material al po;nl L l . In Pig. 105 the
angle of shear or ht' angle of waf]ling L/(t, is c1enotNI hy 1'1" 11 will
be less than the angle of shear l' at Ihe shaft surface. By lhe same
Ch. 91
TarsiOtl.
Rlgidily DI Bar;!
173
ami gel
"
=(lG/li
(9.6)
S, pidA =M
I/I(JI/I(!/t/
G -J,=},j
"
From lhe equalion wc can fin Ihe Iwisling angle per uni1 lenglh 01
{he rod
(9.7)
d'f'
SubslituLing 7X
into (9.6), we gel
M/
'fl'=il
(9.8)
IUtI''''''
M/r
--r;=--r;-
(9.9)
..
M,
=----;--= (" ) =
1".....
Al,
\v,
(9.)0)
'"
[P<v1 1/1
TIle quanlities J,. 4nd 11"" are geomelrical characleti!lics of the seco
1100 unde! tmkln, .l'. they show how shape and siu of !he seclion
inOumce the torsional resistanc:e oi the todo As described lata- ( 48),
Ihl'lt "alues are dtlermined through he rod's dlalMter.
48. Delermination of Polar Momenls 01 Inerlla
and Stdlon ModuJl of a Shafl SecUan
P Ilnd
p+dv (Fig.
dA. We
SUtil
Fil. 108
vs1ues oblained from 0111 Ihe Tings intowhich lhesection ma)' be divided. As aH lhe elementar)' areas in a particular ring are located al a
fixed distance rom {he celltrt', (l. we have
In a ring LA is the area oF a hin circular strip; !dA-2np dp and
therefore pl!dA _2rtp 1dp. Summing these quantities loc the whole
01 the section. \\"e
J,-
'"
This Is lhe polar momenl of nerUa 01 a circular sed ion. The seclion
Ch. 9)
/\f'.r
11(/'
(9.121
TI is (\ur Irom Formula (9.8) that shearing slress 1" is no! large III
pemls of lhesection clase lo thecenlre (where p is small). The lwistirog
momen! is ba)mced. chiefly. bystresses acling in lhe section near ils
surlace; lhe mate-ial of the central porUon 01 the shaft experieuces
low slresses and dots not conlribule rnuch lo the rtsislance to torSlon.
Therelore lhe shaUs 01 lare diameters are sometimts made hollow
lo make lheln lighler and cheaper (Fig. 108). In Ihis manner \\'e remove UIf' unlral portion o lhe shall. which is inddenlally tbe weakest portion of
forging, alfecled mosl by harmful inclusions.
We shall delermine lhe momenl al inerUa and sectioo modlllus 01
such a tubular
Le! us denote lhe oul('r radlus by R and lhe
inner radius by r. Then substituling dA ... 2np dp, we gel
(9.13)
Jf
Jp
p""" P;;;-
;t(R'-r')
2R
-
l'l(D"-d')
16D
(9.14)
'O'
(9.13')
(9.14')
W...
r._
+r) (R-r)
-f and
=i (R'+r')2r.t
(PDII fU
ll$
2nft
(9.16)
culalions.
rt is obvious lhat for eoch cross sedion lhe polar monleJll of nerlia
and lhe se<:tion lIIodulus have a single definite value which depends
upon lhe dimensions of Iht' sbalt se<:tion.
te
lrom formula
(9.10).
maJC1"O=;:'';;;;[tJ
(9.17)
Froln tbis formula we can determine lhe se<:tion modu1us rar a known
lwisiing Inoment and lhe aSSUll1ed permissibJe stress, llnd lhen lrom
lhe detennined section modulus we can calculal/! the required radius
or diamclCf of lhe shaft.
,\5 explaincd taTUer ( 42), Ihe- permifoSible stress [TI should be laken
0.5 to 0.6 or he principal permissibte tensile stress, as In the case 01
pure shcar. In pra<:tice IhE' \'alue 01 ITI lor mild steel vares from 2(K) lo
100;) kgllclQ', and rOl' carbon steel lrom m lo 1200 kgf/cm1, depending
upon
lype of load (slallc, alternating, impacl) and Ihe magnitude
or local
that occur in lttle kl"yu'a}'s. bos.ses and olher places
where he shape of lhe shalt sectlOll changes.
,MI
1%'=GT;'
IIlhe dislance
between
or
"'-
J,
tonion is
(9.18')
<> "
Usually lhe lorque is conslant wi\hin Ihe Iimi1s of a parlkular pottion: therefoce inlcgralin wlth respect lo JC.
oblain
,=a"
Al,/
(9.18)
a" "'-';;flJ'1
(9.19)
"'tI.
1 _'110
'"The
par! Uf
ression (9.3):
M ...
"
ro' kgf cm
W p"""
/1)
11J
600
cm 3
Le! us jake d;o11 ,5 cm and che<.'k Ihe secUon for ri,l:!'idity. According
lo formula (9.11) Ihe polar momenl of i!lertla may be calculated as
JI'::::: O. !d'=O.! X(II.S)' = 1745 cm'
The angle- of lorson per melTe (or lOO cm) length 01 he shaft Is
ca!cuJated Iroln formula (9.18);
M,I
lJ' = al p
> ['1,1
J
whffe!rom, by
in radj;m
MI!
P#GI''1
Hence, lhe shalt's dillmeler should be taken d=H.6 cm lo ensure required rigidity.
e/l.9/
'"
109),
FJg. 110
Tne value of tnese stressc.'l vafies Irom polnt to poiot in direcl proporlion lo their c!istance from the cenlre and Is equal lo t. Britlle milterials like casi iron lail In torsion due to rupture In an inclined sec-
flf. 111
tion Be (Figs. 110 and 111), i.t. in a sectioo whtre Ihe lensile slresses
are maxlmum.
}\nowing Ihe magnilude and dim:tlon or lhe principal stresses al
any point. ....oe can determine Ihe normal and shearing slresses in any
"
..
[Po,1 111
inclintoli plane by lhe stress drdc or 9o'ilh lIJe help of lormulu 16.5)
and (6.6). As the lIbsoll.ltc VlIl.le5 01 lhe muimum normal and she:aring
suases
equill and Ihe permisslble shearing stress is less than nor
mal one, \\"t can limil lhe strength check in lorsion. as in pureshear, lo
rod willlln Ihe llmil or elasticitv, then, when Ihe externa! rorces are
n.'mowd, il \ViII untwisl snd perform work at Ihl.' expense af Ihe potenllal energy iI had lH:cumulated durinll
deformation. Neglfeling Ihe irrevtrsible
losses (healing. internal Iriclion. etc.), we
can rooslder Ihal Ihe work done by Ihe
intemal forces, whidl is determine<! by Ihr
amount or aceumulalcd polenlial ent'l'gy
U, is equal lo the work \17 done by Ihe
tJl:iemal forces.
Suppose ,,"t' have a shaH eme end 01
which is fixed and Iht olht'l' is k>aued by
a force couplt which ('reales a Ulomenl
Ihal gradually inaeases from U'fO lo a
linHe value M. TIK" iocrease in M \\'i11
resull in a corrC'SJKlnding iocrease or lJ' which is relllled lo M I by
equalien 19.18):
Ip ....
MIl
(9.20)
conslant 1:'2 in formula (9.20) is dLH! to the f.eI ha! fhe moment
M las !Jot bem applied in i1$ full Ulagmlude al once bul il1Cl?Jsed
Ch. 91
TMSIOll.
",,11 R;Ridfll o(
8",.
'"
Ihat U-I\", \Ve get the expression lor polential energy in lorsion:
U=....!::!.!.!...
20l
p
(9.:21)
p
1\11,=-,-"
01 l'
V = 21
(9.22)
JI is eviuent from formulas (9.21) ami (9.22; (hal the potential energy 01 lorsion, as 01 lension, is a funcHon 01 the square 01 10TCe or tI,,formation.
'"
fParl 11/
..,.,'---,
pj
,,:
'"
Flg. IIJ
Flg. 114
1',
""T=iifi
(9,23)
The torque MI that prevenls lhe section from rolating (fig. Il4)
is related lo shearing slresss T, in torsion by Ihe formula
M,
PR
't"'=-;P=J";P
92
t . 4)
-r
_.MJ.._ ZPR
'm" - W p -fi(T
a. "
''''
poinl A 011 the interna! l'dge of lhe oontour will be lhe critical poinl
since hl'fl' slresses T, and 1": add up
Hence, 1M- mall.irr:um
lolal shc.arini stress in lhe ",pring Sl'Clion 15
,-
From
p
2PR _ P (1
.... '"" i71+""-::T
+,"')
condHion
(9.25l
!TI. or
I+ 2n ,;rT]
(9.25')
siderably greater Ihan unlly, Ihe firsl term is usually jgnoted, Le.
lhe slresse:s due lo pute- shear are negleded and only slresses due to
by momen! PR afe cons
p.
dered. Therefote
I1
2PR
(9.26)
1".... =";j3
116). As we select Ihe sec.tiOl1S very clase to ellch other. it may be- (/J)
llS$llnled Ihal belore tlC'formlltion
Ihe radii R drawn from Ihe
spring's axis lo the centres of the
sec:tions J ie in Ihe!ame plane aod
Fil. lIS
form a triangle O,CO I
Altl'f deformation due lo lorsiOll of thesegment lis. Ihe second sed ion
tums w.r.t. the first by en angle dpConsequently, radius
O,c lurns \I/.r.t. radius
by he same angl: dlp and point occupies
lhe position eh 'olo'hkh rneB115 that Ihe end of lhe spring IOOves do\\n by
o,e
01,
If
considef thal all similar elemenls lis deform in an idenlicai
manner. hen Ihe lolal dislance by which !he lov..'er spring end moves
".
[Par/ 111
(9.27)
il
l'
is Ihe [('la-
under lhe :lssumplion tha! Ihe spring wire has been slraightel1ed.
"'-PI? ,"
r?3
" " '" y
_ - 4,
r, - - - - '
dl
..t....-.-.
_-'
l1.
C,
flg. ilG
1/ \\"1'
311<1
1= 2J1Rn
Therelore
, .... M,R 2 R
.
aJ,; n
4PR'"
Gr.
(9.2')
u=
A=
p.]
Formulas (9.25') IInd (9.28') enable liS to check the slrenglh and find
Ihe delormalion 01 Ihe spring.
Tile greatl?r the permissible shearing slress ITI. lhe more flexible
is lile spring and tile greater will
its compression umlt"r a particular 10arJ P, be<:ause it ma>' be lI1anulaclured Irom a thinner wire. The
wagon springs must be sufficienlly flexIble, lhcrcforc lhey are made
(rom tempered sleel wilh a high elastic Iimit. Tlle perJllissible shearing
CII. 91
'"
11/ San
f,
"alue of racior k.
to
PR
(9.29)
maxT=kr-k "i;T
4
11
f.42
, , , ,
r.3r
1.25
r.2r
l.rl!
l.lG
10
11
1.12
12
l'
1.111.09
Gr'
(9.30)
'"
From formula (9.26) \Ve hay!'
[Pllrt I f I
PR=
Puiling Ihis valu' in equalion (9.30), we ollla!n
U =""""iQ
2"R" ITr 'T'
U=WV
"
(9.31)
4GT
=w
(9.32)
TIIUS, by assuming Ihe 1mil ing vahl{' of stress --ITI we can calculate
lhe volume of Ihe spring required to absorb t'nt'J'gy T=U such thal
lhe permissibJe stress -ti is not exceeded. The compres.sion olllu" spring
umler 1.1 should he checked; il should b.. such
that IhC' gap between lhe spring turos is nol
compJl.'lrly e!iminatet1.
ximum stress
tllld
R=IOO mm,
2PR
.v' =
1.14
2x22flx10
=1592kgi/cm
i_4PR'_4X220xIO'Xlfl 104
- (f;r 1l,5x IU'X 1_ ...
. mm
CIt. 91
'"
R-R +R1-R'a
where n is Ihe number 01 turTlS and a i5 lhe angle formed by the radius
under consideralion wilh the lop radius R and measured along lhe
spring tUrll!.
The slrenglh al conical sprlng is checked with Ihe help 01 formulas
(9.25) or (9.26) by replacing R wilh ils maximum value R. To deter
mine l., as in Ihe previous case, we must add Ihe elemenlary delormations
dA Af,RIh
-7fT;"
M=PR is
A-
,-
[R,,+tR'll""r
+R.l
(9.33)
'5
''''
SIW!lt
Ton/on
ne.d torsion.
,.,
"1
lo,
Ee!
,9J.
,wb'"''I"Ii,
H,
(I)
=...=:::
".
.IM .. ,! _
"\.
, "'D
"1
l'iC. 1J9
1"
"1
f'lIl
120
been found by 1101" 011 Ihe basis of Ihe general mt'lhOO of design of
suth rods devtloped by SaintVtnant. Howevet, in splle of lhe complexity nvolved in solving ihese problems by Ihe Ihecr)' oll.'lasllcily,
Ihelr resulls can be presented in a simple <lnd convenien! fOTln lor
pradical use. The lormulas lor maximum shearingslresses lInd strains
are presented in lhe forro 01 upressions ....hich are conlpletely idenli
al to the formulas lO!" maximum shearing slre:s.se.s and Ingle oll....ist
'"o
Part 111
(9.")
(9.35)
r=::-
(9.36)
Hert a nnd b are lhe major and minO!" axes of thlO dlipse.
vely. Th<' shraring slrC'SS diagram rN lhe elliplical seclion s shown
10 Pig. 121. Along tbe profill" el the st<:lion lhe slresses form a cont
1
.... -1---, -,.1[1-._- ,
fl;:
J21
noous lhu t:mgenl lo Ihe prolilt, and atta;n maximuln value al lhe
end d Ihe minar axis
); al Ihe end oC Ihe majot axis
.. (jt_,.
(l.....
'
t._
'"11"should
l!ll
roo
We can
'" J/_"',hua,
wherr
a. - Ta
W,=f\,libl
and
(9.37')
IJ, -1Iti
flr,:. 112
t_
-Y".".
Gt.
ilnu y.
Table 9
Cod6c1enll lor
l.'
0.1
0.199
1.2
I.S
"'S
O.,,"
'.S
O.'"
.,
0.3i5
0.4ft1
O.'"
O.\l3:S
1.00>
3.'
O.'"
O.'"
O.""
O.'"
S.,
..O.'"""
0.a18
O.a93
0.645
0.76l
,..
10.0
1.123
155
I.'R'}
2.4St>
3.123
0.1Il1
lo 12l!
.....
1.455
3.123
,
0.753
0.7.5
0.744
0.7&:1
0.7a2
0.142
192
[Parl 111
10
iG liilT-lT j
-a
A<
, ",
.'
1
hh,
middlc
"f
VI,".'"
W,."-2/',J.l),
T, ""'-w;;-
'"
Ihc mj,ldlc
01 s/'OIt.... ,de
M,
t.-li"';;"
Wl
-I
"(
rr; 2.6;[-1
"
) ",
(O':?"O.7)
d> 0.5
t,....
:If,
-w;-
"f
:\1 Ihe
lile
'"
O'
J,-Cll'ir
(l
M,
t",,, ""lt'"""
fOI]"
dlD.
dlD
0.0
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.40
O.GO
0.80
LO
"
1.51
lUlO
11.81
IUl2
lJ.i6
O.m
0.52
O.:3S
1.57
1.5',
1.5(,
0.':1'1
0.63
0.:18
0." , 22
'"
'".9)
J'='jIllJ'.
W'-:rhb'
(9.38)
J,_J,,+J,,+ ...
where n=l, 2, 3, .. , are Ihe numbers of he elemenlry parls Inlo
whkh thl' s:tlon ls divlded.
As lhe angle 01 wis! 1s Ihe same for Ihe cOlllplele secUon am! all
lis parls, IVe have
lhe jorque i.s dislribulf'<! over dilil'rt'nl porhons of lhe secUon in dired
proporliDn lo ther rigidity:
Al
'f !.h.
M n - M r J,' ",,=,..,
J, , ... , < ,.-=<"TI,J;"
J,.
"",&
... w;
Aj, (',,) ... .&(.!b.)
IV,.
J,
JI. 1V,
0- is
.... - .,
" ,",
.- (iI;;-L
J,=ill:Eh6'
(9.38<)
Parj 111
1"
Angll."
lp
lar an L-sedion
II = 1.00
lar an I-st'dion
lor
11
T-sedion
lar
ti
Usedion
'1-1.15
'1= 1.12
lp-= GI,
z:
M , 6_,
(9.::19)
J,
or
(!)AOJ
This formula may b(! employed for thE.' analysls ef Ihln-wal1ed reds
non-circular c10std sections_
The angle 01 twist may be determine<! by the formula
Al,Ir.
Ip-
ti
aJ",. -lit;
,s
CP-EA; 1
W't
:et
(9.41)
.....
S
thl" hmelh or Ihe ({'flIrt' lint' ti Ihe pipe section, and A,
ls lhe area bounded by the mitllil'll.' olllle givf'n cIOSt'd seclion.
PART IV
CHAPTER 10
P,
Fl. 123
100
4hn'rA
P-XJtf
Id
pi'r unil lenglh or Iht bearn lit he givm point -. In olhrr words.
qlx) i50 cqual lo Ihe! limil af Ihe ralio or load acling O"Cf a Jenglh al
(/x n{'lIr lhe particular point lo lhe [englb dx.
A few l'xamples of beams are given in Fig. 124(a), (b) and (el. rile
nrsl Olle is a joisllOllded by a unilormly dislribuled forceq-200 kgffm
the SCCQnd bl'3111 is a dike supporl loaded by a triangular force {wnler
or inll'nsily l/ (xl "arying from O lo qo-12OO kj:([/n; Ihe Ihird
(nI' is Ih\! lIlain
of a bridgr, whirh
lhe forces exerted by
tillo cll::inc
Th" "gon
s a bram supported by the
:llld subjecled
lo Ihe prCSSllre of the allle box; bearm in lhe aeroplane "",jngs are benl
dut' lo air pres.surr.
For lhe lime being Il:e shall study ooly lhe beams whkh satisfy
Ihe follO\\'lllg t""o Iimilalions;
11) the belllll Sol'Cticn must have al leasl one axis of syrnmrlry
trig. 125);
(2) alt external fOfCft mus! lie in Ihe plane of s}'mmetry 01 {he beam.
The reaclions of Ihe suppol'"ts, which batance lhe exll'f"nal rorct'S
applicd lo the beam, must also, obviously, Jie in he same pltmC'.
Noh.liun q(;r) 5hlll''S
Jf.
Ch. JOI
IlIlc'r",,1 Forcn.
'"
Q- und \jdi..,.rOll'U
o=J
,
round a hingt mounted at Ihe eenlre of gravity A 01 Ihe suppocled
se<:tion, but does nol IX'fmit linear tlisplacemenl el Ihis end or Ihe
beam. The resislance of such a sup(HIrl is exprtsSed by Ihe reaclion
which s lnmsrnilted from lhe supporl lo lhe beam end through the
hinge Ilnd which lies in Ihe plane 01 aeling 101"\:cs.
;2i ----Jt
Li
..(
,
,
FOil:. 121
'"
[P"rl IV
J.'"
"'
'.
m
I"C
1:'8
k
k-'
'"
0.. 101
'1<
'" ,
"
'"
Fill
'"
PI,
I
lb}
Fil. 130
{k'IIJiM!. SIfmi11r.
DI
Bttlt1tJ
tI;'!le (Fig. l3f}jo) Ihal Upl'l"i<'1'ICe; prt'MUre- P ollhe wagon body and
be lcoke-d upon as a beam loaded by lor
lransmll.. 1I lo Ih!' rails
tes P al poinl!; A .nd 8 .nd fesln on hingt'd $lJpporls e and D ol
which one
oonsidered roovable (Fig. 13O(b. lhis schelllalic:
dr.wing describes lhe a<:lual working vf Ihe
ade wilh some
.pproximatlOl1 liKaust the supporling seclions ma, rolale under
and D lDay also
bending load and lhe di$lance belween poinl!
slighlly change.
We shall emplo}' Ihe Ihree equalions ol equilibrium to dl.'lermine
Ihe slIpporl real.'lions in slalkalJy determinail.' bearn.,. lhl:' axis of
Ihe beam is assumed as Ihe xaxis aml Ihe tentrl.' 01 one of the hinges
os lhe
01 coordinales; Ihe y.axis is dircclc) verlically Ullwarlls
(il is assumed Ihal Ih(' bNlnl is horizontal).
10 determine lhe horizonlal componenl 01 Ihe reaellon \\'t' equ<lle
lo zero Ihe sum of projeclions of alllhe 100'tl's 00 Ihe x-axis. TI1<l ver
IiC<ll compvlll'nls of Ihe readions and Ihe Sllpport momen! l/re deler
mmed b)' equoting lo zero Ihe sum 01 monK'nls uf all forc<"S /l00u1
any 1\\"0 poinls 01 Ihe beam. usuatly abolll Ihe celltres 01 gra\'il)' of
tlJe stlpporlf'd sr<:tiOllS 01 Ihe beam. The sum or projections 01 nll
Ihe foro'S ora Ihe g'IXIS shoold be fijllated lo tero lo check lhe correct
ness ol calculaliom; lhis condilion musl bereome aJl idenlil)' whl.'fl
lhe
/llmdy obtaintd are wb.slllulf'd in it.
In be-alllS \I,'ilh
hinges. \I.'l' lin! sludy Ihe equilibrium
01 the .sUSp<'fldfd beams as beams on two .supports and lind their rtac'
lions. These reaellOllS mllSl balallCt lhe forces IraflSmillf'd fmm lhe
suspended tM-am.s lo Iht
bea.m through ttll' hlnges. Knov.'fng
{he forces. we can dettrrnine Ihe- readions of Ihe ba5t' beam (Sl.'t" 59).
56. Nalure 01
in a Ikam.
Iknding MOlllen! and
Force
""
z:
131
in his seclion
\\l.'
6 ji}
6 .. .
----...Jr
[Par! IV
lli ID
P
....._ _.1_ ' _ ,
-- ,.!fel , -_._Pt
_.r
8
-1
F11 133
To delermine
slre:sses aclirll!" in "Mioos st('liMs 01 Ihe bum.
we IDU5lleam lo determine lhe magnitudes and dirt\:Hoos el inlemal
forres aeting jo lIn arbilrary seclion oi Ihe beliO by ('xpressjng Ihem
Ihrough edernal lon::es. ul os censider. fOl' cumple, an arbilrary
secllOn }2 {Flg. 1311 and nd lhe inll'tnal force; transmiited from
Ih(,> lefl porliorl of Ihe
lo Ihe r1gbl. In order lo do this we
renlove lhe left porl ion lllld Irllllsler Ihe fcrees oel ing on il to lhe righl
porllon-to l!le crnlre 01 grllvily ;f se<:lion 22 poinl O,). In lhe prO::I'SS cf transrer. Ihe lorces lid ing in a pIune IIre rellucN lo a reS"ultant
[orce lIclin,g atlhe centreor torces aud a fOfce coup!!'. Hence, the forces
lr<lII.derred 11'0111 Ihe e11 porllOn to 1111' righl musl be applied al point
O, in Ihe f01m of fcrct' raclOfS tf'lg. 13.1): force
Q =A-P,
(IO.I)
Ion::e couple wilh rnornrot
M,...<!x-P, (x-o)
(10.2)
Ao;suming lhal A>P.. Wf' direcl force Q upwards and momeol Mdockwise. Idmlical inlerf':/I[ force ractor:s Q IInd M acling in the opposite direclion are lransfl1'rrt'l! lrom Ihe righl porliOfl or lhe beam lo
Ihe MI (Fig. 133).
It is clear from lhe aboye discussion Ihat in an}' cross 5{\(lion oi
Ihe beam 1M inlernallorcescan be n:duced lo force Q and force couple
Ch. 101
or
mamenl M, .....hich
replace lhe ac:lion of one cuto!f portian
or Ihe b!.am on lhe
Fon:e Q. lhe resultanl ol eleJnl!nbry shearing
acling in the
beam SKlion. is known as lhe (Qurol Of
fora:. This force has
!he tendency lo shear lhe section under coNideration with respecl
to 3n adjoiningsection (Figs. 133 and 134). 1I is evidmt from equation
(10.1) tha! lhe shearinll force in each cross section is calculare<! as
the Sllm of prnjediON on Ihe normal lo Ihe beam axis of al! edemal
rorCts acting lo lhe right or leH of the seclioll. When aH lile forces
acling on the beam are perpendicular lo its axis. lhc shearing force
rorce:s
0'0
O"
,
r.)
fE
00
'"
,
(b)
f'l. 134
,a)
('J
fil. 135
[P",I IV
0.. 101
Q. an4 M-<lilJtrtJlll.J
1"/UNlI
!aid olJ undE'r Ihe given $tion from lhe x-axis par.llrl to lhe axis
ollhe beam. Posilive ordinales of lhe Q. and M.tliagrams wlJl be ald
011" up".ards and negati\"t' dO\l'flIl."lIrds. Some books recommt'fld plou
ini 01 lhe bendinmomenl diagram en he COf1"U Sl<re 01 Ihe bt'flt
beam. lhe po.silive ordinales dO\l.'nwards antl negative upII."ards.
Ho.....t'\'er.lhis ls mmly a matler ol liking, wbich is not sigm6cllnt.
11 may berome easier lo plol lhese diagrams iI "'1! are abll.. lo {'Slabli-<h sorne relalion bet","een lhe "aluesof bending moment and shearing
force in /In arbilrary secUon and aiso Ihe relaUon of Q 3nd M ..... ilh
lhe [orces :JCling on Ihe beam"
In lile lleJd secliOll IV\.' shall explaln how 10 correlale lhe t'xternul
forces, lIJe
force nd lhe bending rtIomenl.
'1
ff,
\
'ITft
'ITml
Ull11,
'liLu r
JJ.1
nJ.
n,
f'l. 13tl
Q+qd.x-fQ..,..dQl_O
r:\1."",O,
from lhe
qdx-dQ =0
No ......ll;1!utultd force or m.JlI1eS1\ acts
O'iCf
-r(Z)
IJcnding. S/rcnglh
(lf
8wnu
[Parl IV
whererrom
(10.3)
Le. Ihe derlvalive 01 Ihe shearing force W.r.1. Ihe abscisSll of Ihe seco
tion is equal lo Ihe iotensity 01 Ihe oonlinuous load io Ihe salOl' sectioo.
FrolO lhe second equation, neglectiog Ihe iotioilesimals 01 fhe
second arder, we gel
Qdx-dM=O
dM
-= Q
or
(10.4)
Le. Ihe derivative 01 Ihe beodiog momenl w.r.l. Ihe abscissa of Ihe
se<:lion is equal lo Ihe shearing force in Ihe salOl' secUon.
Diffcrenlialing both sides of Eq. (10.4), we get
.r:M
dQ
-;;r-=d;
or
d'M
'j'X1
=q
(1(1 ..;)
Le. Ihe second derivalivc of Ihe bcnding moment w.r.t. Ihe abscissa
is equal to lhe inlensily of Ihe continuous load. lf q is direcled downwards, equalions (10.5) become
d'M
dQ
(10.3')
Q(.)dx+M(O)
(10.4')
lhe arbitrary constants Q(O) and M (O) are concentrated force and
momenl (i! they exisl) in Ihe beginning 01 lhe segment. lhese formulas are convenient lo use while plolting dillgrams for non-uniform
loading q=q(x). 10 the geomelrical sense each inlegral represeols
Q(x)dx=wQ
"
is Ihe art'8 01 Q-diagrllffi ayer length x. Formulas [10.3') and (10.4')
be wrillen in the form
Q(x)=W,,+Q(O)
(10.3")
M{x)=wQ+M(O)
(IDA")
Ch. lO]
""
A number 01 example< on
books.
N.!-I. Bc11'8ev.
1966.
'"
Slrtngl',
01
DWIII$
(Par! fV
+AI-Pb=O
,
Similarly
-BI+Pa=O
oc
A-P-j-B=O
or
A+B_P
f!'.+
"
(o-'-b)
= P
Q. /01
x,
from supporl A:
"
Q,_+A =T
(10.6)
The shearing lorce in a sed ion having abscissa X, doe\ nol deptnd
upon Ihis dislance. Thus, as long as x. varies lrom O lo ti, Ihe slK>aring
lorce
constanl, and iis diagranl in Ihis portian is represenled
by a slraghl line F,D. paral1el lo Ihe axis oi abscissa A ,8. (Fig. 137).
Expression (10.6) ror Q, "olds good as long as Ihe secUon tlOts nol
go lH.>yond poinl e, i.t. liJl
H x,>a, Ihe lefl porlion 01 the
beam will experience two forces A AO,) P; consequcnll)'. lhe
of
Ihe projeclions 01 forces acling 011
lelt culoll portian \\,11 change.
To find Ihe .shearing force in Ihe secOl1d portion, we shall have lo
tab aoolOO SKlion betwren poinls B and e with cenlre of gravily
at 0,. lis distance x, \l.m be mea.sured irom lhe rihl support B.
JI v.:ill be
lor us in this Cllst> lo consider tne eqUJlibrium
al lhe right portion of Ihe beaDI as il is acled upon by OIIly on(' lortt 8.
lhe righl cutoff portian of lhe beam, v.'t' gel the expres
slon lar &bearing forc:e in section 22:
p,
Q. = - B - - T
(10.7)
lhe minus sign sho\\'s Ihal force 8 acling on Ihe righl culoff portian
ls dirccled upwards.
11 s obvious thal if we had considered Ihe lell cutoff portion, we
would have obtained Ihe same expression lor Q.:
Q.=A-P=-8 (since A+B_P)
Expression (10.7) is valid ror any "aloe of x,nol eueeding Ihe Jjm-
its al lhe portion Be. Le. lar O<.r,t;;b; tis u:pression also sIlov."S
lhat Q. does not depend upon X
The shf!aring-rorce diagram over lhe lenglh of UJe second portian
is a sifaight line EaG. parllllel lo the xaxis. lt has a dSCOlltinuilya jump al lhe poinl of appliclllion Di force PI_ Al this poin! the shear
ng lorce passes through zero and is not equal lo DoE.=P. In a
sectlon
e
p,
Q--T
Lef us note tha! \he absolute value of lhe jump is ('qual lo lhe concenlraloo lorce P acling in this secHon.
1-4111
'lO
[Part IV
+
U,:W
, b,""
I Q.... I=T
ca
AH sedions 01 portion
or Ihe
beam are prone to fadure due lo
shearing slresses.
In plotting Ihe bending-moment
[,
diagram we shall use Ihe same
sec:lions /-1 (with Ihe orlgin of
FIl!. 138
coordina les at poinl A) for the ter!
porlion 01 lhe beam and 2-2 (",ilh
{he origin of coordinates al poinl Bl for the righ! portion of Ihe be-am.
Considering lhe leH portion, we determine lhe momenl in
as lhe sum 01 lhe momen!s 01 forces ading on iI aboul the cenlre
01 gravi!y of lhe section Q,:
J.,
(10.8)
P:b,
'"
CIl. JOI
(10,9)
In lbis porlkln also ihe InOmenl is posilive, because we oonsider
and force 8 rolales it aboul poinl O. in Ihe anti
clotkwlse direcllon. Expres:siOll (10.9) represenls lhe equalion 01 a
Al x.-b, M1>D+
and
straight line and holds good far
at x.'"'O, M.=O.
Thus, Ihe seoJnd portian of the bendlng.momenl diagram is represenled by lhe sltaighlline D,8,. lhe bending moment is positive over
lhe whole lenlh 01 Ihe beam and is maximum In s:tron e, lhe point
?I appllcation 01 force P, where it
IS equal lo
:::
1
_
{he righl poriion,
'
Al
(IO.IO)
I-z-f l
M=-o .... --
1,
Iq
1,
(10.10') ,.it 1
-/
L.'
,.
A-B=y
'1'
[Parl IV
Le! us lake a section O at a distance x from lhe leH end 01 lhe beam.
We shall consider lhe equitibrium 01 lhe lelthand portion to delermine Q and M. It is acled upon by reaclion A 3nd toad q UnifOflJ11y
djstribuled over lenglh x.
We mus! lake lhe sum 01 all lhe forees ading on (he [eH cutoff
portlon lo determine Ihe shearing force in sedion O. To lhe leH of
Ihe secUan is force
directed upwards, and lhe resultan! of
Ihe unlformly distribuled load ayer lhe length x, equal lo qx and
direcled downwards. Therelore,
A=t
Q-A-qx=s.-qx
lhe shearing force varles wilh x [inearly, and Ihe fine may be plolted
by taking IWO values 01 Ihe variable x: al' x=O, Q=
and al x=l,
Q=-
="f.
To plol
bending-momenl diagram
take the 5um of lhe moments ollhl:' same forces acting on the portion of beam under considl!ration about poinl O. Keeping in mind Ihat resultanl qx ac!s in Ihe
middle ollhesegment 01 length x. with:m arro of lenglh-rllboUI point
0, \Ve gel
q/
qx'
qx
'I(
1)
al x='4
3q/'
M=z; (-T -32"
/
a t x=:
ql(
M=+TI,L-2"
al x= 1
M =0
1) =+T
o"
=!!!._ 2q.o_0
:t
wherefrom
'1
M"'''-+"'T(I-x')=+"F
ql'
x.=2"
n<
00.11)
Ch. 10)
'"
1m
es
E!
FI,. HO
Q.=-P+qx,
(b)
MP
(1
e
''
,- x,-,-
,1<
(Part IV
at x.=O,
a1
Q.=-P= -sq".
P.
x.=-q="3'
M,=O
M qa./1qa"qa
'="33-2X9=T8'
Q.=O,
2
al x.""'a,
Q,=-P+qa="3Qa,
qa"
qll'
1t1.=Pa-T=-T
I I
q.'i
M", "" t
Q"'U=3 Qa
M=M(x)
and
Q=Q(x)
The curve adceb representing Ihe variation 01 q(x) is called the load
curve, and Ihe area bounded by this curve is caBed the load amI.
Q (x,)
- o(x,)
(10.12)
Here l (x,) represents Ihe parl 01 load area localed to fhe len of ,se(;lion e-C. Thus, the shearing lorce Q (x' equal to resultant R'I. 01 Ihe
continuous load over Ihe length AC=x, may be calculaled as the load
area (J) (Xl), Iying lo one sirle 01 lhe seclion.
The bending momenl in Ihe same section is equal lo Ihe sum 01
moments of elementary (orces q(x) dx, acling on Ihe cutoff portion
of Ihe beam, aboul poiol C, and rnay be calculaled as Ihe momenl
Ch. JO)
of resultant
215
R., i.t.
M(x.)--R rr """-tIl(x.)xr
(10.13)
$fl L01llltw..lll
rico
141
Loads of this kind are applied lo beams lhat support waler and
earlh pressure, lor example, dam supporls and columns for strengthening walls 01 water slorage reservoirs. Connecting rods 01 sltam ar.d
internal eombustion englnes are subjected to similar loading by lorcu
01 inerUa.
1M: load is charaderized by the ordinate q" the maximum inlensity
01 lhe load (in kgI/m). lhe reaclion HA-O; we have to determine
A and B.
For deiermining A we wrile down the'equalion 01 momenfs aboul
point B. The momenl or lhe load is equal lo the moment or its resul
tant, Le. momenl of fue load area
multiplitd by tile distante al
ib centre al gravity from poinl 8. lhe resultanl is shown in Fig. 142
by lhe dotted Une: !his emphasizes tilal the concentnted lorce equal
lo !he load area wdot$ not actually lel en the beam, bul we
'1f
!qJ
'"ulake
[PI/Tf IV
l.ISf'
q.,J
q'
A-;rtt)=T
AI-sllll=O.
B=;rfil""'-r
'!f
11
q;--T'
"
q(x)""'qT
wm
q.J
q .le
.1 ( J-fi""
"")
Q=-8+III(x)-=-\r+2T=-"t
ot x=O,
Q--q:=-B
alx-I,
Q"",q;"",+A
al
x-={.
Qo:o-qfi'('-.r)--
The shearing-Iorce diagram ls given in Fig. 142. It i.s clear Irom lhe
diagram (hat the maximum shearing force (in ab.solute value) occurs
in
A (al Ihe sllpporl):
Q.uC'+A=+!f
The shearing forte passes through zero al X.
mined by Ihe lolloll,.-ng equ8tion:
..(."'--
lI.. hich
may be deler-
CIl. JO)
f:
()
I
(x) '3x
.<
1
"o""'
-"2
q (x) :Ix","
---w-
This ('xpressien for tU holds good for Ihe whole eoglh al Ihe bean!.
The bending.moment uiagram is represenled b a cubic curve. To
plol Ihe cubical para bola we musl calculale 11 \'w ordinales:
at
al
x=O.
x=1-'
al x=l,
M=O
M =0
Mm...... 6IV3
(.
l' )
1- 3
qoll
qoJ'
-gy"'j=15.S8
(IO.14)
, ")
q (xl = 4q. T-1'
'"Due
IP",t IV
A=B=.!.
Hert
1Il
rq(x)d.I:_ "
r'5 5'J
xdx-t x"dJ;
l..'
"'[""l'
(10.15)
A=B",,";1
Le!
U5
now wrile down the expre5.5ion for Q(x) and M (x) in secUan
XI hom lhe left-hand support A. Denoting he load
area 01 length x, by It)(x), 'ft"e gd
(a) The shearing force Q(,r)-
1,1 al a dislance
'.
CI>(X)-S9(X}d.:t:
[!Xdx-+JX'dX]
"
(,)(x; __,_
Fig. 143
..
T--:Y
-f q:f (31-2.1:,)
It)
Q(x)-!f-
(Ji_2x,)
(IO.t6)
(b) We Mlall calculate {he bcnding IOOlIltnt with the help of for-
mula (10.41:
Q (x)dx+M (O)
The constan! of integralion M (0)=0 beeause IhHe is 00 conclmlra
le<! moment al Ihis end 01 lbe portian. Pulling the expression foe
'"
Ch. DI
"
..
r l"T-TT(31-2x)
",,'
]dx
dx+
q"J X
Zq.xT
M (x)=qj X,-
r4;,:'
dx
+"TI"'"
qo%t
(21-x)
(10.17)
1t is evident froro Eqs. (10.16) and (10.17) Ihal Ihe shearing force
varies according lo a cubical parabola, whereas Ihe bending momenl
varies according lo a fourlh.degree parabola.
\Ve shall take a few values oflbe variable x to Iind poinls for plott
ing these curves:
x=O,
I
Q(X)=q;.
M (x)=O
q"J221
x=l,
Q(x)=q;_jqJ=_q;l,
Bendlllg. SlrCIIslI
"1
lParl IV
fJtlJ.ml
cr tjr;-------At;
P-IZtf
HA
----I,S"
,
I
-.
"
l..i
SU
'.
I
l.-t
5/f
T
. HA
I
r
.llz-Z.o;1...--1,-5"---'
lb)
fig. 144
Nexl lI'e may II'rite Ihrec. cquations [ar Ihe momenls as [01l0W5:
(1) by eq<Jating lo zera Ihe sum af momenls af al! lhe forces balll
poinl A;
(2) by equating lo zero Ihe sum of momcnts 01 all Ihe orces aball!
point B or D:
(3) by equaUng lo zera lhe sum er moments of all lhe fOf(:es either
to Ihe lel! or righl af hinge e, aball! pajo! C.
By solving these three equations we can determine all lhe lhree
unknown reaclions A, 8 and D. HOlI'ever, lhe reac!ions can be deter
mined more (>asily by breaking lhe beam :lrrangement AD filo simple
beams. The suspended beam CD is sllpporled by a hinge a lhe end
CJ. 101
Z'll
C=D-: _61f,
2
1,
:<
8-
5 iI
and shuring lorces as In Ihe general case We shaJl check Ihe valucs
by equaling lo zero Ihe sum al momenb about poinl C. /1 should be
borne in mind lhal hinge
dnes nol represenl Ihe separaUon point
01 secUons or lile diagrams il is nol Ilcled upon by an external force.
The bending'lIlomenl ami shearinglorce diagrams are sho\\'n in
Fig. 144(0).
Afler delermining Ihe reactions il is more con\'('nient lo plol Q.
and M.diagrams separatl'ly lor eaeh sllspenl[ed beanl and Ihe main
tMlam. layng Ihe va[ues 01 Q and M rrom 11 canlrnon xaxis.
'"
(e) Q PaMeS through tero, changing its siz" rrom plus lo minus,
Af=M..
(d) Q=O. .e. tan (lcoO, M =const.
3. If q-=O, l.e.
=0, Q=const. Heln in portlons Irte al cootin
UOI.JS load, Ihe shuring-force diagram is bounded by slraight lines
parallel 10 the x-<Jxis; lhe bending-moment diagram is made up of
inclint'd slraight Unes provided Q:#O (see item 2(d. Ir q<O, Le.
tan 13<0. Ihe shearing force decreases.
,:,.::-_JjilJIIIlJIIIIlIIIlI
"
"
hr---l-"
.,
:
W-=-H'--'''I'lno-:...J
e ...,
Fil!. 145
Q-
by curves
Q.lol
unce of a concenlrated
also uro.
22J
9. At Ihe Ih:ed end. Q and \f are f'qual lo lhe reiKtion and momenl
of the supporl.
10. In sec.tioos ,,1I('I"e a lorce couple is acting, Ihe bl'l'ldingmomenl
dlagram undef"gots a jump equal lo Ihe moment 01" Ihis force couple.
The shearing-force diagram however, remains unllfJecled.
Fe. 1%
The
relalions explained in 57 and Ihe remarks given
above hclp nol only in checking the corredness of 1M diagrallls but
\Viii be used in fulure in plolting the diagrams loo (Oiaplers 15, 16,
elc.).
"
M (x)-Px-qT
t;,
[Part IV
tlistri
butcd load q(M!1l and concentraled lorce P(Ml')' The :Ibsolute maxi
lIIum value oi Ine bending moments al
rigidly hed end are
."
Ma=-T
and
Mp=-PI
SUIO
A1 q
al moments:
,,'
=--,-
,nd
Mp=-Px.
lIJe sigo o M" changes ir lorce P is ..Hrcctcd upwards. To add twa
une
diagrams having dilTerent signs. il is surficient lo
t-7;v.):
:r;-
ql
Pi'
,,, ,...
--l
1
'r'
P!.+y
(4)
Flg. lH
Flg.H8
M!_, Le.
1';'I>IP11
Upon superposilion 01 diagn ms their ordinales gel deduded aulomatkally, and in Ihi5 example we shall gel a negatiye ordinale al lhe
ftxed eml, Ihe ordinales belng positlve over Ihe splln al a cerlain dislance.
Obviously, in graphical summation balh the diagrams musl be
drWJl to (hC', same seale. In an identiclll
wc can plol jh!' shcar
Ch. /11
Normal
2"
CH"PTl:R 1I
Fig.
'"
IP"rl IV
Q-":):
IFh
,
,.,
Pie. ISO
Ch, 111
responding cross seclions also remain planes bul lurn wilh respecl
lo one anolher through angle 60:.
(2) Unes ab and al change their length: \ine ab gets shorler. whereas
cd elongates leading lo Ihe eondusion Ihal lhe upper f1bres are sub
jecled to compression and lower to lemon.
(3) As shown in Fig. lSOle). lhe cross-sectional dimensions also
ehange: in the upper par! ihe width 01 lhe beam increases, whieh coro
responds lo axial compression. whereas in Ihe lower part (stretched
zune) it deereases.
As lhe deformalion 01 lhe longJtudinal f1bres varies conllnuously
over lhe heighl 01 the beam, Ihere must be a layer al a cerlain heighl
which does nol change ils length al all; lhis layer is calle<! the neutral
layer and serves as lhe interface belween lhe COlnpressed and strelched
rones. In Fig. 150(b) Ihe neulral layer is shown by dolted Jine; segmenl 0,0, r{'tains ils in tia) lenglh 6x.
rhe neulral layer is perpendicular lo Ihe plane oI symmetry 01
the beam in which Ihe external forces aet and inlersecls each eross
sed ion of the beam along a straight Jine which is also perpendicular
to lhe plane 01 adion of lhe exlernal lorees. The IIne of inlerseclion
or Ihe neulral la)'er wilh th{' plane 01 a cross sedion isknownas lhe
neutral axis or the secUon. rhe neulral layer is an aggregate of lhe
neulral Unes.
As Ihe section is symrnelrical wilh respecl (o lhe plane 01 applicatian of Ihe externnl forces, both hlllves of lhe beam width musl deform
symmelrically aboul this plane; this enablcs us lo consider lha! Ion
gitudinal deformation 01 lhe fibres or an arbilmry layer parallel to
IfJe neutral one is independenl of Ihe lacalion of the libres along
Ihe beam wldlh.
!t has been experimentaUy established lhat deformalion in lhe la
teral direction is related lo Ihe defurmlltion 01 longitudinal libres br
Polsson's ratio. This gives surneienl ground lo presume Ihal the longitudinal libres do nol press each olher, amI under pure bending expericnee only simple compression on Ihe concave side and simple
leosion on Ihe convex, Le. on Ihe other side or the neutral layer.
At Ihe sal11e time, lateral deformalion is instrumental in somewhat
dislorting lhe beam secUon and making (he neutral axis curved
(Fig. 15O(c)), which leads lo additional deformation of lhe neutral
layer mllking il doubly curved. However, as Ihe elaslic deformntionS
are small these dislortions are ignored; in each eross section of Ihe
benn! the neutral axis is considered a slraight ine and lhe neulral
layer, a cyJindrical surlace.
Sinee lhe SE'Ction is srrnmelrical w.r.t. Ihe plane of applieation 01
external forces, the beam axis also curves in lhesame plane in bending.
Such bending in which after derormation Ihe beam axis rernains in
Ihe plane or applicalion of exlernal lorees is known as uni.planar
belldiJlg.
IV
Expf'l"imenlal sll.ldy of
bending al bcaln$
lIS lo make a
neoa. con
cll.lsions:
l. In
bending lhe cross stians which \\we planes prior Jefor
ntalion rel"ain pJane5 during deformation loo (lhe- hrpothesis o plane
sections).
widlh.
t'
lo $plln h
>
iI works no! as a beam bul as a plale and il musl
be analrud in 8
mannl'!".
Ch. JI)
"f
Oeams
""
Fig. ISI
or
M-
ozdA =0
Bm4l,.,.
(P",f N
wherefrom
(11.2)
};dNy=O
or
SOl/dA-=O
(11.3'
Thus, out d the sil: stalk equaOons ..-e. can use oniy three:
or
or
or
SozdA-M
(11.1')
(11.2')
(11.3')
HOWfVer, Ihe Ihree slatk equalions obtaint'd aboye are nol sur
licieot lo determine Ihe normal stresses, because o yaries wilh the dis,
tance 1 01 area dA from the neutral axis according lo a ay ",'hich Il.'l!
yd do not know. TIle dislance z is also
unknown, because lite do not know Ihe localion 01. tlHo: neutral axis Oy_
B. Let us isoIate an e1emeni d length dx
) 01 lhe beam by lwo inlinilely cIO$e $t'C.
11 lions J.J lnd 22 lo sludy i1s deformalion.
01 the eiement bd'on aOO afler
The
deformalion is shown in Fig. 152.
For greater darily lhe delormalion of
the e1ement is shown in a highl y mago
nilied formo 80th cross seclions continue
lo remain planes bul lum about Iheir
neutral axes (points O, and O, in the
Fronl ylew) lo lorm all angledo:. The neut
ral layer has beco shown by a dotted lineo
line 0,0. al lhe neutrlll layer relains
i1s inilial lenglh d.r aFter defonnalion.
AH brl'5 above Ihe neutrallarer shorlen,
""heteas Ihose below iI elongate.
We $hall Iry lo nd lhe elongation 01
an arbHrary libre AB al a dislance 1 from
lhe neulrallayer and stretched by stress o. The initial length 01 Ihis
Jarer Is Ib= _O,O.=p da. Alter deformation ib lenglh along the art;
AB bQrnes _AB-f9+z) da. The absolule eIongation al the fibre
is
Relatiye e1onalion is equal fo
,," ,
r. ... p .... =p
111
NormlJ./ SlreSSilJ
{JI
23'
Fig. 153
we move \Vay Irom Ihe neutral axis. Henee Ihe maximum stress
ceeurs al Ihe uppermosl and lowermosl layers 01 Ihe secljon when
z=zmu. The distribulion of slresses along Ihe height is sho....'" in
Fig. 153.
Equation (1 lA) only gives an idea aboullhe natur.e of distribution
of normal slresses ove' (he seclion; il cannol be, used lor calculating
Ihe magnilmJe 01 the slresses because bolh p as well as z are not known
sinee we do no! know lhe locatin of lile neulral layer in the height
of
seclion.
c. To
(J as a lunction of lhe bending momen!. we shall
simullanoously
Eq. (11.4) obtainetl from delormation con
siderations and the slatlc eqllalions (11.1), (11.2), and (11..1).
SlIbsli\uling Ihe value of O" lrom express ion (11.4) in Eq. (11.1),
wc gel
or
.>
IP,," IY
Since
%.-;const+O,
, ldA =0
(11.5)
P
\_lydA=O,
;.. JI
wherefrom il
or
Ej zydA=O
l'
('Ilsues lhat
111.6)
J,q=jZiJ dA
should in thjs case
:tero.
.
As Ihe scclion js symrnefrical aboul axis 61. for etlCh elerntnlary
area dA wilh coocdinales (l, y) lo the leH al lhe zaxis Y."l! can find
a similar, symmelritatly localed elementar)" area to the righl or
the z-axis. Thel-roordinales ollhese areas wilt be Ihe same by the magnitude and sign, while Ihey-eoordinates will be equal in magnitudebut
will have opposHe signs. Therl'fore lhe integral
,j"dA
,,'i1I consisl or 1....'0 integrals tqual in magnilude buloS opposile signs.
fur s)'mlllelrkal
IhlS inlegral is
Ch. 111
's,
-j'
z'dA=M
J,=j'"'dA
(l t.7)
or
p'
(11.8)
(11.9)
Hence, the normal slresses in an)' point of Ihe se<:tion are direclly
proportionallo the bending mamen! and ils distance from the neutral
axis, and inversely profortional lo Ihe moment of inerlia 01 Ihe section aboul the neutra axis.
The neutral axis passes Ihrough Ihe centre 01 gravity 01 Ihe section
and is perpendicular lo the plane 01 actioll 01 lhe exlernal forces.
It is obvious from formula tl1.7) Ihat Ihe mamen! of inertia is
measured in unlls oF lenglh lo Ihe lourlh po\\'er and depends upon
1he shape and sjze of the secUon. Methods of determining Ihe 1Il0ment
of inertia for various sedions will be given below.
Let us modify Formula (11.8) to undersland Ihe physical meaning
01 this quantity:
(11.10)
- In ulUle....hen denoling lhe moment or Inerlla aboul Ihe neulral !f-UI5. "'e
R.eplacing
t by ib va/ue .;;.,
da
1I.'C
get
Mdz
(11.11)
"'"'ET
dW-"2 M dt,
PuUio Ihe value o da. lrom Eq. (J 1.11), we get
.... I Af'u
dlJ ... d .... ""''TEr
Inleraling over the whole length
or
" 'lC/
CA.
al
Nwme:l Stnun 14
SlrmfJI
ef
&cms
'"
(11.1")
rar
(lUZ')
Formula (11.9) solves lhe question about the manitude and distrl
bution ot: normal
over the secHon. It has bn derived lar pure
bending, when the sectloos remain planes.
Experimenls show hat when Q js not tero. the stdions 001 only
lurn bul also slighlly warp under the adion al shearing slre:s.ses.
ThLs warping, hov:ever, does fI01 alter the dstribution o stre:ssl!S in
bres enclosed between ihe two adjHcen! sectloll3. Therefore, lor
mula (1\.9) may be used even when Q is nol zero.
11 should be noted here that as ye! we can use Ihls formula only il
(he .sections oF he beam have an axis o symmetry, and the external
(orces set in the syrnmetry plane.
The neutral axis of each secHon, from which 1 is rneasured, passa
through ts centre oi grlvily perpendicular to
axis al .symmelry.
Figure 154
examples o the distribution al
fOl" Mams
01 various sectioflS---f"Kt&ngular, T-shaped. triangular. 1be normal
str6SeS are the same io all poiols lacale<! at equal dislances from the
neulral axis. We get compressive stresses to une sde or the neutral
uis, llnd lensile stresses to the olher. The maximurn stresses occur
in poin!s whlch llre larlller from he neutral axis. For Ihe accepled
convention of signs of M and z, formula (11.9) aulomalically gh'l!S
Ihe proper sien o 0, plus (oc tensile slresses and minos far compres
sive stresses.
11 tlle hending moment
!he bfam bends with lis convexo
ily downwards, the upper libres are wmpressed (1<0), whereas
tiJe kiwer libres are slretcbed. The reverse picture oceurs jI !he bend
'"
IP,ur IV
....
'=
M ....
J
Z"'..
.,.
wh",
_M.,.
lf'
(11.13)
,_.
(11.14)
W_--!...
Ch. 1/1
of
Normal Sfrt&l!tJ
Btom&
IOCllled al equal distance from lhe neutral axis, and such a secUon
has a singll' liefinite value ol Ihe .serljon modulus aooul the y-axis.
Thus, ir we considC'r a
se<:lion of heigllt h (Fig. 155{a, then
w_.2..
1"
"
11 lile serllon s nol sY\l1l\1elrieal aboul Ihe neutral axis, lor eXllmpll',
a T-shaped seclion, we gel 1\\"0 vatucs 01 Ihe scclion rnodulus: Olle
for laver A (Fig. 155(b,
and the olher for layer B,
-
W.=!:-.
no
'"
"1
Flg. 155
[Parl IV
can be done in praclice. The values of W and J lar roUed sedions are
given in specificalion tables
Appendix).
We must dilferenliale belween Ihe folJowing two cases when using
formulas (11.15) and (11.16).
The lirst case i5 mOfe common in bending, when Ihe material shows
equal resistance lo tension and compression; in this case Ihe permissible stress is the same for both defOflnations:
0..121
IIlallltlltl
lIf
Im,lia. al
i,ufa
CHAPTEII 12
65.
,
where z is Ihe distance 01 any elementary area from 1he central y.
a:ds. This inlegral, whkh cov('rs Ihe whole
of Ihe cross seclion,
was ca1Jed the moment of Inerlia 01 lhe area about Ihe neulral axis.
The ability of a beam sectlOI1 to resisl deformation in bending depeml$
upon lhe value of moment or inerjia (11.10).
Apart Irom \his, lhe strength condillon in bendlng ( 64) lncludes
\he v:pression fot sedlon moc.IuJus (11.14):
w __
J,
,_.
It ensues irom \he aboyE' that we must leam to calculate Ihe moroent of inertia and sed Ion modulus far crCM sel::lions of any $hape
to ensure strength and rigidity uf the beam. let uulart wilh the sim
plesl beam sectian, a rectangle of widlh ti .nd height h (Fig. 156).
Draw axes 01 symmelry O: and Oy Ihrough lis CVilre al gravity O.
JI lhe external lorces acting on lhe bl'am lie in plane xOz, lhen Oy
15 Ihe neutral axis (axis Ox is direcled along lhe beam). Lel lIS linl
find the moment al inerlia aboul Ihis uis, and lhe .stlon modulus
of lhe redangle.
Elemenlary areas dA into which lhe whole area of Ihe setlion should
be divided will be taken as narrow rectangles or width b aOlJ heighl
dz (Fig. 156). Then
dA =bdz
and integral J,
J'-1
bz'dz
Ir Yo'e take Ihe inlegral over Ihe lolal area DI Ihe recl3ngular sllon,
vafies from -.;. lo
Therefoce
J,=
- ,bz"dz=b
[']"n
...
"3 _in-""ir'
(12.1)
IPwrf IV
(12.2)
,,'
(12.3)
Lel 1.15 note Ih.1t lhe 5um of Ihe products zldA does nol change ir
;..
rr--r
,
-"'[
'''--i''_...t
,
Flr. 156
ABGE:
(12.1)
M'
or formula
(12.1):
(12.1')
IZI
Fig1lreJ
2<,
/>h" = Bll"-b/l'
----,.."..-
(12.2')
,,' /Illrtia 01
The scclion
Is
W _ - 1M = BH'
12HI2
z'ou
011
r
O
ddz
bu}
,1
Frg. 158
Fig. "9
(Fig. 159)
dA=b(z)dz
J=
, z'b(z) dz
z=rcos";',
b(z)=2rsin%
'"
IParl fV
The limils of integration are a=tt al z=O and a=O al z=r, lherefore
"
(12.4)
(12.5)
For a cirde soy axis passing through lhe centre of gravity is the
axis of syrnmelry. Therefore lormulas (12.4) aod (IZ.5) are valid for
aJl 5uch axes.
11.
Hg. 160
Fil[. 161
The llJomelt!
I =1J4
(IVI')
"d'
(12.5')
JAB=r'b.dz,
J"B=
'"
lables (specilicalions). which contain Ihe dimensions and Ihe values
Ch. 12)
MOttItIlI
Qf 1Tl4r1la Df PlaM
Fig. 16'1
Flg. 1G3
We saw in 48 tha! the shalls are made hollow lo remove Ihe por
tion af malerial Ihat works under lower loading. In bending beams
the material near the neutral axis experiences very small normal
stresses (formula (11.9) and is consequently no! utilized fully. It is
therefore more expedien! to modily lhe rectangular section by re
moving lhe melal near Ihe neulral axis and utilizing a part of this
metal in lhe upper and
rones 01 lhe beam, which work undE'f
more severe condifions, and saving lhe resl of jI. Tllus, Irom a reclanguIar seclion we obtain an Ishaped secUon (Fig. 162). which has lhe
same slrenglh bul is lighter, The sections should preIerably be used
for materials which have equal resislance lo lension and compressian
(in Ihe majorily of lhe melals).
The T-shaped seclions are used in lhe cases when Ihis is diclated by
design considerations and when lhe materials, for example, cast iron
and concrele, greatly dilfer in resislance lo lemion and comprmion.
The lalter condition requires that Ihe sircsses should be dilferent in
lhe auler fibres.
It ensues Irom Ihe bove discussian Ihal Ihe most economic design
01 lhe secUon shauJd endeavour lo obtain (he maximunl mamenl 01
inertia and &ecHan lllodulus lor Ihe hed area A. In Ihis dcsign Ihe
greater parl of the material wlll be localed larlher Irom lhe neutral
axis.
"
[Parl IV
tion whkh i5 larihesllrom Ihe neutral axis. ][ we cul off lhe halched
segmenls 01 Ihe circular se<:1ion (Fig. 163), ils sed ion rnodulus somewhat increases, bt'l:ause Ihe decrellse in he momenl 01
is less
Ihan tha! of IHstance zm" irom Ihe auter libres.
Tlle mosl effeclive seetion in bending will be tha! for which he
'o,
0.31-0.34
0.29-0.31
0.085
RcdRIlt 1e
Orde
0.1\>7
11.M3
o.m
'-.. -Q
Z
Such
,,
ell.
,<5
12[
plex scction (Fig. 164(c)). Al! these seclions mav be divided into
simple shapt'S such as reclangles, lriangles, eirclei. It can be shown
lhal Ihe momenl of inertia 01 a complex section js lhe sum of lhe 1110'
menls of inertia 01 lhe parls into
which it is
Lel us take (Fig. 165) an arbil
rary figure representing thf' cross
seclion 01 8 beam: they.nxls is drawn
ill Ihe plane of the secHon. Tlle
momenl nf inerlia or Ihis figure
aboul Ihe I/-xis Is (11.7)
, z'dA
_L--_9
J;A
z'dA ""
A,
z'dA+
z'dA+
A,
A.
z'dA
Ji
whcrc
is the momenl 01 nerlia of area A, about Ihe yaxis, Jtl
is Ihe momenl of nertia 01 art'a A. about Ihe same
so on.
The resull ob!ained above' may b<' formulfed in Ihe following manoe.r: Ihe momt'nt 01 inertia 01 a complex fi,!lure s equal lo tht' sum or
Ihe moments of illerlia of parls comprising il. Therefore, lo calculale,
lar f'xumple, Ihe momen! of inertia of lhe section shown in Fig. 164(c)
about
Oy, we must calculate lhe
of inertia of approprtate triangles nd rectangles ..bout Ihe
amI add lhe re01 incrlia 01 IIn
sulls. \Ve Illusl know huI\' lo calculale Ihe'
arllilrar}" figure aholl1 un arhilrary axis Ir1ng in
planco
TIJe solution of (his problem Jorllls lhe conlcnts of Ihis chapler.
,<6
67.
Benil/lIg. Strmglh
01
Parl IV
BttUM
The problem 01 oblaining !he simples! possible formulas for computing Ihe momenl of inerlia af any figure abou! an arbitrar)' axis
can be solved in a number 01 ways. H we take a numher 01 aIes parallel to one another. Ihen lhe 010ment of inerlia 01 the figure abau!
any Df thes{' ues can be calcuJated
il \Ve know Ihe moment of inertla
01 the figure ahaut the axis passing
gravity and
through ils centre
parallel lo the selected axes.
We shall call the axes passing
through (he centre ef gravily the
cenlral axes. Le! us lake (Fig. 166)
an arbitrar)' figure. Draw Ihe central axis Oy and denote by J the 010ment 01 inertla el the figure abaut
this axis. In ihe plane 01 the figure
draw axis Oi!!l parallel lo 1he
Fig. 166
yaxis and localed al a distance o
from it. We shall try lo establish
the relallon belween I and Iv. the momenl al nerHa abou1 Ihe
y,axis. For this we shall have 10 write the expressions [or
and J;.
Break the figure info elementary areas dA, and denote by t and t,
Ihe distances af poinls Iying on the elementary area from axes Dy and
O,y,. respectively. We find thal
or
and
z,=:+o
ThereFore
J;= (z+o)'dA =
(z'+2az+a")dA
z'dA+2a zdA+a' dA
Ot. 121
Momtn/$
'"
(12.7)
(12.7',
J,-J;-a'A
We can similllrly delermine Ihe product 01 ineriia J;" al Ihe scction about axes OJ/l and 0)2, paralleJ lo lhe central axes, ir J ro dA Is known (Fig. 166,. From Ihe definition
=IY2
J;'-l y,l,dA
where y,_y+b. 1,-2+0; lhcrefore
J;,-
(y+b)(z+a)dA
yzdA +00
dA +0
+b .IdA
The last (wo inlegrals are equal to zero bKaust they represent the
slatic moments 01 Ihe area aboullhe cenlral 8Xes. Oy and DI. Therefore
(12.8)
We can draw any number 01 cenlral axes. But the question is: Can
we express lhe momenl of
about 8n arbitrary cenlral axis
in lerms 01 Ihe momenl or inertia aboul one or 1\\'0 definite ues?
2<'
If'orl /';1
Sl,engtl, vI &ams
\Ve Shllll see ho\\' lhe momenl al nerlia ahaul l\\.'o n1Uiually perpendiculllr ilXCS changes \\"hen lhe ilXl;S rotale Ihrough an llllf!le a.
Lej us tak<' 3n arbilrary figure and draw {wo rnulually perpendicular axes Oy amI Ol through Hs cenlre of gravity O (Fig. 167).
Supposc Ihat {he momenls of inertia abau! lhese axes, 1" and J"
and Ihe produd of llerlia 01 {he section, J )1' are known Le! us draw
Ihe second system of coordinatc axes Oy, llnd Oz, at an anglelJ. lo Ihe
first. This anglc will be lX>rIsidered
posilive ir lhe rotalion of lhe axes
about point o is anliclockwise.
rhe origin of coordinale$
is retained. L\!t us
lhe Illomenls
about Ihe sccond s\'slem of coordinale axE'S, J; amI j;, through tlle
kno\\'ll llloments J and j ,_
The expresslons
lhe mornents
$
of
iner!ia
aballl
lhese
.'(es are S
y
follows:
ror
J u....
, z'dA,
Flg. 167
y,=OE+EC=OE+8D=yco:>a+zsina
(12.10)
= ) (z'c05'a+ ytsin'(;l:-2yzsinacosa)dA
A
0'
J;
Similurly
0'
costa) ?'dA
(l2.l ()
J:=S, (ycasa+zsina)"dA
02.12)
'"
C1I. 121
J;, =
J
J ,= J
fl2.1.1)
,
where y, and
quently
1,
, (zsino:+ycosa)(zcosa-ysino:) dA
=sinacosa
"
z'dA-sinacosa
y'dA
+cos' a
, yzdA _sin'a , Y1 dA
Alter simplilication we gd
(12.14)
250
Slrellglil 01 Btoms
[Porl fV
J;+ J
(12.15)
Le. Ihe sum 01 he momenls 01 inerlia about any lwo mutually perpendicular axes Oy and Oz rJoes nol change when Ihe axes rolate. Putting lhe "'alues 01 Iv and J< [rom (12.9) in formula (12.15), we gel
(12.16)
Jp=S,
lherelore
11/'
Ch. 12)
MOmtl\l8
01
Inu/io.
01
Plo.nt Figures
251
o.r.;
... =O
Let us delermine Ihe angle IX.
between the principal axes amI the
central axes Oy and 01 (Hg. 158).
Fig. 168
In formula (12.14) for lhe produd
01 inertia, where we pass over lrom axes yOl to !I,Ol" angle IX is replace<! by a,: then axes Oy, and Oz,coincide wilh the principal axes,
and the product 01 inerlia of Ihe section vanishes:
at a=Uo
J v.>. =- {sin2a. (/,- J g) +Jg,cos2l:tc =0
wherefrom
(12.17)
This equation is satisfled by Iwo values of 2a, diliering by 180",
or lwo values 01 a. dilfering by 90. Thus, equation (12.17) determines
the locaiion 01 two 8xes al righl angles to each other. These are Ihe
principal central axes 01 inerlia Oy. and Oz. lor which J" =0.
Using formula (12.17) and knowing
J" and
we ma'y'oblain
formulas lor Ihe principal moments 01 inertia J y and J,. For this
we &hall again use formulas (12.13); they give uso lhe values 01
[pa,! IV
J.
v'
S,ln 2a,
J,.=J.SIn
(12.18)
J!Io
/,+/,
Jy-J,.
,,_
.(t>'i
2"'. by
V'+I an '<)_'X._ r
{Jo ,l"'
\Ve gel
(12.18')
We would have obtained the sallle resull by a similar Iransformation
01 he second formula in (12.18).
Inslead 01 Oy and O: we may lake Ihl' principal axes OY. and O:.
as the basi; sysleUl uf (he
ases 01 inerUa frorn whi;h we ;an
pass over (o any othl'r s)slem. lhen Ihe prOdU;1 of inerfia or the
seclion will nof appear in (ormulas of fhe ti'pe (12.13) (J1,=0).
Lel us denote by the ang:le lhal aAis 01/, makes with fhe principal
axis Oy. (Fig. \69). In ckulatiog
J;, and J;" anglc lJ, in formulas fl2.13) aod (12.14) should be feplal"ed by B a"tI J", J" aod
JO' shoultl be rcpl:ced by J y.' J." and Jy,<.=O. Wc lind th:t
'(
,
J,.-J.,.
(12.19)
Ju.=--,-SIIlZP
lhe above lormlllas are exacUy the same as Ihe formulas lor normal
s(re$SCS o.. and sheariO st1esses T .. (6.5) aod (6,6) acting in Iwa mutually perpendkul3f p aoes in an elemenl subjeded lo tensioo in
111'0 dira:tions ( 30). lherefore f,10hr's cirde can be used in ths case
also. The axial moment 01 inerlia should be laid off long the hori-
,,,
rontal axis. liAd Ihe product or [nerli.. el (he seclion along verlkal
axis. 11 is proKli.Wll lha! Ihe ruder should himself plol IIRd llnaly:ze
the Mohr's crele in Ihis case. We Yall only gi\'e Ihe formula which
enables lIS to se.led Ihat "alue among lhe 1\\"0 values of . (fmula
(12.17),
corresponds lo dcdation oi Ihe first principal a:l"i!
(h' In mulmurIl J) from Ihe Ofjgina! positioo of lhe ga:-:is:
J
.
'
(12.17')
J",
Knowin: lhe
moment 01
inerlia
we can calculale lht:
rnoment oC inerlia about !In)' para]-
comes :tero.
This implies lh.. f in the prl'SMl case ay 8nd 01 reprCSffit tht principal Cffilral axes of inertia or the seclion.
the axis of syrnmelry
15 IIlwa)'S a principal axis, and the second principal central axis passes
through the centre 01 Clvity al rigbt angles lo Ihe axis o syrnlllElry.
cos2a
21,_
_tan
(see (12.17))
Thus. Ihe axes about which Ihe central mom(!Jl!s 01 inertia an! mut
mulO or minimum are Ihe principal central axes 01 inerUa. When
these axes are rota(ed, the sum 01 (he correspondini momenls 01 Iner
tia does no( change; lherefore
J;+J;_J,+J.=J,
When ene of Ihe cenll1ll moments of inerUa is mulmum. lhe olh
must be minlmum, Le. ir
J.. =J...... then J.. =-I.I.
Thus. lhe principal central axl'$ 01 nerUa are mutually perpendicular axes passing Ihrough the OOltre 01 gravity of (he se<:tion. about
whkh Ihe produc( al inedia 01 lhe .section is Zl'f'O and
axial mo-
By equating to zero the produd 01 inertia el stion aboul !he principal axes. \\"e can show Ihat lhe lormulas given in 63 are valid under
certain condllions loc nonsymmettical sections as \\'1'11.
Ch.
'"
r.M.-O,
SxydA-O.
(11.6)
SzydA-O
zydA
satis6ed.
Since '4"ll can alll'3}'S find
principal cenlral ue al inerlia lor
btam al any s/tape, 1000rPulas
(11.9) and (11.13)
o=J and
Al .....
11 ""'-r-
Fic.I70
may lit used fer !)caros al III1Y crass seclion, provided the external
of Ihe priocipal planes al inerlia
lhe beam and J
and W are laken aboul lhe otOO principal axis, \\'hich is perpendi-
fortts lit in
one
or
cul.u lo the plane of ael ion 01 Ihe external forces and repre:sents lile
neulral axis.
J._i;A
(12.20)
.0
i,--V
7
and
1._ .VT:
7'
(12.21)
11
.nd J. represenl lhe principal momenls oi inerlia, i, and i.
are known as lhe principal radii of inertia. For eJ:ample. lar a rectan
guiar secUon "'e 6nd wilh the help 01 formulas (12.1) and (12..3)
" -=
F
iI
./...,
V i1iiii = Vi2'
.
1, -
./W"
ilM - fi2
(12.12)
r;;c-
',=1.- V
:r1-T
(12.23)
The values Di principal radii of inetlia ror rolled profiles are gi"en
(se<' Apptndix).
Ch.
121
JIIomtnl$ o!
,s
o/ Plau Eleurt!.
The dlipse plotied on the principal radii 01 inerlia as lis majar and
minar axes s known as "wmell/al eliipse. To plol lhe lIlomenla.J dIipse we lay off Irom the! cenlre 01 gravitr 01 lhe section Ibe radii or
inerlia:
s normal lo the cenlral
yaxis, Le. along lhe zaxis, and i,
is normal lo lhe z-axis (along Ihe
y-axis). If
..' the majar nis
01 the eHipse
will lie along lhe
za:ds (Fig. 171).
The momenlal ellipse has lhe following remarkable properly: Ihe
radius 01 inerlia aboul 8n arbitrary
axis Ox drawn lhrough lhe cenlre
or gravily or Ihe sedion is !'qual to
the normal dropped from Ihe cenlre
or cllipse lo Ihe langent paraliel lo
lhe aboye at;is. Hence. with lhe
heip oi {he momental ellipse \lIe
Fig. l7l
can graphically find Ihe radius 01
inerlia i", lar an arbilrary aJ(is 0)(
making an angle with lhe princi
pal axis Oy. For lhis il is sullicient lo draw a llIngent lo lhe cllipse
paraJlel to the x-axis and measure dislance {'" between the axis and
tangent (Fig. 111). Knowing the measured radius 01 inerUa 1"" we
calculate lhe moment or inertia aboul lhe x-axis by lormula
(12.21)
Sorne sedions Iike circle, square, etc. (Fil!. 172). which are cornmonl}' used in engineering practice, have equal moments 01 inerlia
about he two principal axes oi inertia. Conselluentiy, Ihe principal
"I
i"" ""fl,
_.+--CF'!: 112
IWtdlfll. SIm,,11I
01 BtulllJ
IPlIrl fV
1e seclion modulus is
ell. 12)
=76806+2 [20
2'
+20 X 2 X (30+
1)']
153700 cm'
'"
BntdiIlIJ. Slunllilr.
gf
(Purl IV
lJt1IlIU
Seclion modulus
'_.
J
153700
W---L--n=- 4820cm'
According jo slren1h condition (11.I6)
nl..mum befldin mo
menl M. os =
musl no! uceed lalW, whtrd"rom
rq1.,...8101.
SXlotOOx4620
IO:X]OO"
"., f
.... e/cm
5400 kgf/m.
Ir Ihe dead \l,'eighl of lhe beam is t8ken inlo attount. Ihen we shoold
sublrac! the distributed load due to fhe weighl 01 two plsles, 2x
Ol"
f!l.7
,
J
1111
(]J
"r,
"-Ji
\
I J:J.
q_ fqj-q,C"'S400-171 l'::'S230kgl/m
D. Finally. we shall no\\' disttJss
of a co[JIposite
of
<
",
Ls tOnvenienl
whole figure Hes in liJe hrs[ quadranL lhe disby
lances of lhe (rolre of gravlly from lhese axes may be
lt
lhe lormulu
"._ -s"
A
and
S
A
S., amI Sz, art slatic rnommls al he aTea about txes Oy,
ltnd Ol..
lo determine lhe slatic moml'nb we divide Ihe area into two ree
talli1es, vtl"lical 1 and hor-izontal /J. The afea el lhe figure is A _
\\ill'rl'
800
cm
or
Lel liS no\\' chaose Ihe coordinale system 01 the central aXell
jner
lia Oy. amI
lhe simplest v.'ay is lo I.!ireel lllese axes parllllcl lo
lhe l1rms of lhe figure; this will be helplul in ca1cuJating Ihe rnomenls
or inertia 01 Ihe seclion abou! these axes.
Tlle lIlomenls of in<'rlia uf intllvidu111 rcclangles about axes Ol/,
and Di, can be <:a1culaled Iroll! Iht' rorPlulas of pralll"l axes 112.'7,
and (12.8), and lhe moments or inceUa 01 lhe reclangles aboul their
own aJles from lormula (12.1).
Table 12 (SC'l.' Fig. 115) conlains lht plan of (ompulatiOll5 wilh (he
help of whlch u'e <:<ln dclermine lhe lIngles bd\\'('('ll lhe prnclpal
axes and axis Oy,:
tan 2r.t.
u',
J.-J,
2a;--4P40'
The minus ,ign
!at angle
2x117
RiD-='ffi z= -1.09
Ind
should be Ilid 011" [n the clock
wise dlrection:
cosa.;=O.915,
, Ir>
il>dkd 01 1""
he ('$I
Ol" and tlle _Olld subSCflpl delloles Ihe arn.
__ O.74, cos2a.;=O.G73
$Ilbl,(f1pl
lhe Ud
or
Tabl,I2
Ddtf'lIlh.allan el 1_
al IMrlla
_ . al ,-,1.0
12
-2.0
<
19
2.5
"
I<H
"
48
192
1.0
27
28
M.6
86
28.6
43.8
72
29.6
70.8
100
3.5 0.6
"
+
+
61
97
... 278
0.404'+ 100
0.915"-97
O.74=58cm
l. J
= J;+.I:_278+ 100=378cm'
2. Jra=-I-(J;-J:)Sin2a+J:..cos2a
--2'(278-100)0.74+97
0.673_0
11'. . ,
DI' ,,...,,'
Ch. /JI
wherefrom
lF
aJ
max(M}l!i;ro]IV.
M._ max [M]'" 1600 X 39.5_63200k'l:lcm::=: O.63t1m
H lhe bcnding momcnt is applicd in plane %011. lben lile dislance
01 the ouler fibre from lhe lUis (h being 1I"I","4.12 cm, the scction
Fig. 176
modulus will be W.= .!..L -. ,"" -14.1 cm', IInd Ihe magnilude 01 {he
11... <
.
moment which can be applied safely wlll be
max M,l
which is three times les.s than the momenl which can be applied in
plane xOz.
Lelus nole Ihat if Ihe rnoment is located in aplane olher than Ite
principal planeo for example, parallel lo Ihe Range of lhe angle sec
tion. then Ihe bending ni" the beam wHI not be uni'planar, and the
slrenglh condilion will be different ( 120).
OIA1'TEJI.
1m.
[Part
rv
(2) sheariog stresses ae:ting in planes \I,'hich are localed a! ttlE' same
dislante 1 fram lhe neutral uis are ('.Qual in magnilude.
80lh lhese assumptions W('fe pul fotWard b)' O. 1. Zhuravskii.
lhe Iheory of elastidly reveals that Ihe llS$Umplions are valid fu"
m:langular beams il Ihe height 01 lbe beam i$ reate( lhan lis ""idUI.
,
foc:o 179
0.. 131
Q. 1t is quite nalu,al lha! in Ihe absem:e oi distribuled load 00
Ihe lsolated pllr( ur Ihe beam, Ihe AAe..ril1i rorces $hould be equal in
lnanllude. Seclions 1-' and 22 will also txperiem:e nor-mal slrtMt$
which, hO'l\"evt'f, are not shown
Accordulg lo lile law ur tomplemenlary shearing slrcsstS (CtIar
ler 6, (ocmula (6.8)" similar shuring stres.ws sliould be
lo
acl in planu pan.lle1 (O lhe neutrallayC1. Th!.'relore, if \l"l: take lwo
hori:wnlal SC'ttioos ollhc beam al d i s - :
lallC:es z aoo l+dz frOl1l
neulral axis tI1 A .
and i.solale an clrmenl of sid b. de.
and di
179), IlIen lhe verltlll faces:
"
ol Ihis cklllent will upt'f"iem-r sll<.-arin slre5).E'S f, ",-hereas lhe hocizon
1111 fas will be lICled upon by e1lual
bul oppos.le shearing stresses r'.
A,
4.
:\s Ihe rlbres paralld lo 11M:" .u:ls of ("
,
lh<.' beall1 do 001 I'ress on each other
in
01 delorm/llion. lile Ste
1
1
ti'
Iions ttll' i.lcam paralll-'l lo Ihr l'It.'ut
tal layrr do nol l!xpeienccany !lOfl1llll
slrl5SCS. Thrreior<.', inslead or deh.'l"IlJin
ing (he shearing slre5Sf's T oyer lhe
Ar
bo:lam tross set:lion, Wo:l shall do:l!crlllinc (e)
equal
T' aclillg in aplane p_a_
rallel lo lile !leulral layer (Fig. 180).
:..
l _ _--;j
Al /irsl il seerm slrange that shearI
ing
UppCllf in planes pllfllllel to lhe.-' neulral rayero However, \\1"
A
can eJlplain Ihis r,henomenon wilh lile f/
-:r
_ .-1
following uamp e.
- . -_,
lel us suppose Ihal Ihe beam con......
s.su 01 1"""0 idenlical rec:langular reds
, :
placH over one another (Fill'. rSI(a));
h
1
"
the lrkllon
lhe rods may be
FI, 181
ignored. 11 s a.s5umed Iha!
beam
btmls under
adien of at least 00(' 1Oft't P acting in the mitldle el
Ih<' span. The bent bram is sfxNm in Fig. 181(b) in a lIighly magni.
fied scalt. TIIe lo\\"er libres of lhe upper be.am A,B. Irelch, IIlhere'" the uppe- libres of lhe lower beam A,B. shorten as compared
t'l lhe-ir inilal lenglh AB.
lf Ihf. beam were a ingle red, il v,"Ould ha\"t bl'fll as sltoIln in Fill'.
181(t). Fibres AB \\"oultl be in UIt' neufralla)'er and "'..o uld not have
t"hanged lheir lengihs. n.erelore in bending of a salid beam, ihearing
slresstS T' prcvenling he upper and JO\\tf halves oI (he beam rrom
sle,r along lhe neutral ayer are IraR$lQilted Irom Ihe upper hll\{ lo
Ihe lower through Ihe neutral Ill)'U, llnd Yice \'ua (Fig. 181(d)).
l......
..
[pat IV
"--
: I ::
1---: i 1 :
'lA-
:::..::-,:::::::Jq;;z=--'---U;
FI,_ 182
!J
r;
1,
.J
"
bramo
faet al
,--,-
MI, dA
0.. 181
"i
N ,-,-,-f
-7
Jnlegral
'.
Z,
'"
(Fig. 183):
dA
,..o MS;
J
(13.11
II
(13.2)
N _ (M+d:M)S;
"
d.'o1S;
'1/
1 -
when projecled on axis O:.: (Fig. 183) is balanced by the shearing force
dT. Therelore
dM
s'
al:
'b
_m
-,tiQ]
_
D
Fe:. 184
Fill. 183
S:
ihrrdng. Slrtngllt
O/
Parl IV
BtQmJ
(%-,)
antl distance Zh is
(13.-1)
While camputing Ihe sta\ic mamen! of Ihe area 01 ti sed ion il is
lIllllateria! whelher \'JI' lake Ihe portion of seelion \\'hieh is beraw the
level Z or Ihe bigger porUon. because bolh lhe staUc mall1enLs are
Fi.
T=Qbh'12(
r'"F\
h'
=1....2..
'"
(l3.fl)
o.
'"
131
A;
h
'Al
A' A
'-'
Uf
6i
bl
"
or
'"_18
8etldbtt.
Stflllg/h
O, &ano
[Parl IV
o...
".;r-
"[.u -
We. see that redangular beam drsigned to lake lhe maximum nOfmal stress equal lo Ihe permissible remains highly underslresscd as
lar as he shearing s!resses are (oncerne<!.
}-lov.'ever, in pracUce we may come across jusi lhe ft'verse case; it
may occur when the shearing force is arge whereas the bending 010menl jo5 small. Jn such cases af Joading, even in a rt3ngular se<:lion
Ihe dedsive par! in determining lhe dimensions of Ihe beam i5 played
by the sheuing stresse.s.
.".
-.
".-
(I3.S)
Ch.
"1
J31
ror
r.
Fil:.
1"
9r
--r.
F 188
S,=81.4-0.5xO.51 x8.19'=81.4-17.1_64.3cm
lP"'1 IV
x &U
T,"'" O,".""1290XD.5.24QOX8J.4
'36 k 11
<>07k..f
T.1CI 1811xO.51=-'<';I
5"ClI1
rt=;i=::J
.,,, _ff-L
utilizaliQn
01
melal
can
be
ao,.
"
fon:e.
ell. 131
and Principal
w'-,--I
"
"-
'"
{JIlI !
!Jll)
('1
f'i: J!lO
- Qs!
T_
133
.)
, 1, dA = , l,b(l,) d1,
l,=rsinlp",
dz,-rcos'l'u dlp...
We shall limit
to de!erminillg
T
'OH
Smn
00:
HI_3310
b(z,)_Zroosq:>..
Q.. ,.5....
=---r;;--
,e I-cos'p" 1""o
="'3
(13.1)
=2,"
3
(13.9)
P"rl lV
",
_Qx2rx4 ... 4Q
", - 3x2rnr'
W
m.. = Qm..rJ>S",..
(13.7)
here
is lhe momenl or inerlia or the pipe seclion: Sm.. is Ihe stalic
momenl of Ihe semicircular ring, b='2t is tlJe double thickness or the
pipe wal!.
=!tr:t
(1 +::: )
llrot
(13.tl)
,,'
5(r) =3'"
(13.9)
=2r:(
[1 +
2,:t (13.12)
Therelore
'r
=
ro
... 22.....=2x2000
:l! =..!L
nrol
:<tlol
1lX9XI
QX2r:t
2lXll r
14IAkgl/CTn"
Ch. 13\
275
(13.7)
\Ve shalJ
Ihe elcmenls 01 beams whose strength may be
che<:ked by these formulas.
Figure [91 shows a part 01 the fronl \liew 01 lhe Ix'am heing analyzed
in the S('C(ions 01 maximum bending flIomenl and maximum shearing
force. rhe diagram shows the elements whose slrength is checked by
.,,
L
,
-.,ffi-b
-'--1
condilions (11.15) and (13.7). The first formula is used for elements
localed near the lop and bottom edges oi the seclion wilh Mm. These
elemenls ar(' subjected lo simple tension or compression. Tlle second
condition. (13.7), app[ies to an element lcx:aled near Ihe neutral axis
wilh Qm.,: Ihis e[emen! experiem;es pure shear.
Thus, Ivhen ehecking the strenglh of lhe beam undcr normal and
sbearlng str<'5SCS according lo the universlllly accepted melhod of
stress analysis, we aclua1Jy check Ihe strenglh 01 material in three
eleme.llls shown in rig. 191.
Generally speaking. it cannot be said wilb certainty Ihal Ibes!'
three elernenls :lre tbe maximally loaded. Tberel"ore, we must lean
how lo check Ihe strength of every element 01 lhe beam taken in an
arbilrary seclion 3t a dislance z rram tbe
axis. Only Ihen can
we be sure of ddining the maxinnlly loaded elelllen! and ebl'ck its
slrength.
''0
(1"1r1 IV
Ah
a-y,
T-Ib"
whereM IS Ihe bendmg momento and Qthe shearing iorce in (he isolat
ed e1emenl.
Lel us coruider Ihl! case when bolh a and T are positive. We shall
have to lake retourse lo lhe lheories of strength to check Ihe slrenglh
01 Ihe elemenl because it Is in a oompound slressed slale; the comput
IIons must be slarled by cakulaling Ihl! principal slrcsses.
,
,,
"',,
,
['Ig.
lllJ
As Ihe front lace ABCD 01 tht' element iFig. 192) and faces parallel
lo il do nol ex>('rience shearing strl!S$eS, lhey mus! lit' in one of Ihe
principal plana. The principal slress acting In Ihis plane is uro,
bec.ause lhe plane is frel'o or normal stressts. Thus. we are to study a
problem of plane slressed slale.
Our aim now L!; to delermine Ihe remaining 1\\'0 principal stresses
knowing lhe normal and shearing slresses in 1\\'0 mu!ually perpt'fldi.
cular planes. 0I1f" 01 whkh is parallel and lhe other perpendicular lo
IhE" axis 01 lhe beam (Fig. 191). We solved an idenlical problem in
32 by plotun: Ihe slress cirdE". There the- melllod was appli('d lo
Ihe 1110re t'ne-ral case 01 n slressed slale. where Iwo tnutualll' pl'tpendklllr planes wllh normal5 a and p art' aclfNI upon by slrwcs Oo.
To ami
In Ihis problem \\.'1' shaH a!tribule index a;
lo Ihe face 01 lhe ell'llIenl perpendiculllr lo lhe axis of lhe bealll. and
index
lo IhE" lare parallel to the
(Fig. 193).
lel
ay off (rom poinl O lhe stglMnt OK rtflresenlin.l! o.=a.
in Ihe posiilve 11ln.'tlion an,J anothl."f' segmenl K.D... equ31 lo T on
Sh81rillg
Ch. 131
Pn'lld{IQ/ Strtsstl
,,,
Ihe perpendicular lo the oaxis al point K",. Poinl D", on the slress
cirele corresponrls to the plane
lo Ihe nxis uf Ihe bcam.
Ihis rneans Iha!
In aplane paralJel lo Ihe axis of tIJe beam
coincides witl! poinl O. Sl"gmcnl
<lid off
poinl
represents lhe shearing stress
an<.l gives Ihe
poin! on
the cirele,
J oining Ihe Iwa palnts we gel Ihe cenlre af the cirele,
point C. ano the radO CD" amI
Alter plotling Ihe drell' we get
segmenls OA and OB rcpresenting Ihe principal stre.<,ses, \I.'hich re
main lo be determined. 11 is evident from Ihe drawing 1I1n! tlll'Se
have diliercnt signs. Thereforo:,. th!' nUllIbering 01 principal
slresses may be done as
1",
o'=1"+"2r
o +'h'=T\ 10+ ,1--1
-lJ'+4T'
(J
(J,
And
0".
}_+loVO'+4T"1
(l3.13)
We have plolted lhe stress crele ami compuled the stre.sses on lhe
a.ssumplion thal both rJ and Tare posHive. If any 01 the slns..o:.es is
negalivc, tIJen he corresponoing
in formula (13.13) shou!d be
changed.. A similar change ",,-ould also havc bc('n cssC'ntilll in graphic
dl'1ermination 01 o, and
by plolting the slress drc!l'.
Knowing 1111 lhe lhree principal slresSl'5, 11'1' can \\Tile do",,-n
oondilions o[ anal}'sis or all lhe' theories uf slrenglh.
,\ccording to Ihe lirsl thl'(Jry. tlJe Ihoor)' 01 maXiln\ln\ normal
slrcsscs.
(13.14)
[y(lJ + V o' +
A.ssuming
w('
!J,.
[o]
and o, we gel
Ve.",.+
...''''T')] < [o]
lilld
+ 4T'I,:;.;: [01
(13..15)
'"
&ndf'W. SlrOlllrh
01
&o.ms
IPQrt IV
strC5Ses,
[0,-0,]
'"
[a]
which yields
(13.16)
wherelrom
+[(0 + V 0'+ 4"')' +(0 -V o'
Vo'+3i' .. rol
[o'+3r)'i;[or.
(13 17)
Now wt' shall try lo f1nd the poinls al lhe bea m in .....hich ils strmglh
for principal slresses should be
As the reduced slrt:S5
bolh upon O' and "'1:, lhe slreI1gth check
should be carried out ror Ihose ele'iK'nh of lhe beam \\llich si multa
---E----.
_ '-I
--__
------
_._ . . _.
------
----
seclion.
el,. 131
A a
,1
I
I
d
l.
I
I
, ,
," ,
P
Fit 195
FIg. 196
o.." =
1380 kgl/cm'
,ro
IP",[ IV
ut (his height
l'
kg cm
+r
of slrt'ngth
(13.17) is
k,l:!f,cm'
1>,1-0
0,
--,,
r._r
-.,
.:c!
q
r;.-,y
-;;:-
0,
Fil. 197
Ch. 131
'"
Flg. 1911
The
01 the principal stresses rnay b\' delermined \vith
lhe help 01 lhe stress circle (Fig. 197). 5IJppose 0" ancl To, llc:ling in
a plane perpendicular lo the .uis 01 Ihe beoam, are posilive:
,w,
a.. = + a=7
lPar/ lV
and
QS'
't'=+t=-{
Arter ploll(ng ihe stress circle we see Iha! Ihe relative posllion of
lhe Unes 01 adion of slrm a" and Ihe ma:dmum
prin.
clpal stress a, is Ihe same as thl' relalive posiliof! of Jlne BD" lInd
lhe x-axJs; lhe lal'ter lwo make an angle (J; in lhestress cirde (fig. 197).
To mark Ihe direclion of a, on Ihe drawing we mus! lay off angle a
from the lliredion or G" dockwlse.
The principal siresses change Ihelr direclioo ",hin lhe limils 01
lhe secton. Near the edges o lhe beam Orle 01 the principal siresses
4"IIIiIIIllI!!lIlI!!!11l11fh!!!III!!1II1II!!!!lIlt
774fl
FIg. 199
is uoro, "",hereas the other is dlrect.ed parallello {he axis 01 Ihe beam;
al the neutral layer
principal slresses lIIake al! angle 01 45" with
{he axis 01 Ihe b('am.
Figure 198 shows lhe slress circles and
01 tiJe principal
slrcsses in varlous poinls of theseclion. 11 is assumed thal Ihe bending
Inomenl and shearin,: for'::l' in the M'clion are posilive.
Having oblained lhe direclions of lhe princ,ipal stresses in an aro
bilrary poiot 01 Ihe given srelion, '.1'<' contlnne one 01 the lines till
il inlerseds 111(' adjac"nt seclion. We determine [he direction of the
I'rincip1 strl'SS in Ihis new point ami conlinue Ihe Jine jill il Inlerse<:ts lhe next seelion. \Ve thus oblan a broken Hne .....hch in Ihe Imi!
changes inlo a curve (he tangent lo which coincides wilh Ihe dircelion 01 he prindpnl slress in Ihe point under consideration. This
curve
known as {he Irajectory 01 the priru:ipal stre5S. lhe directions
01 Ihe trajl'Clories of principal stresses depend upon Ihe typc 01 loading and lhe working condi/ions or the bcam. \Ve can draw 1.... '0 Ira'cctorles or principal stresses lhrough eVl'ry point of lhe beam-one
or Ihe tensile slresses and the olher for compressi,,'e slresses. lhe tra'
Ch.14J
'83
CHAPTH 14
(HIJ
IPllrt 11I
T,
'1
,I
"
" "
"
"
1,
"
'e,
"
(,)
('I
dislribuled
lhe :lrea 01 fare ABeD. ConseqUffilly. lhe sum of
elemenlar)' nternal shearing lOITl'S artine htre ""ill be
dT--TfJdx
The
condlUon of he isolaled
wrillen as follo\\'s:
N,+dT_N,=dT_dN_O
CM be
..,..hetd"rom
I
'*
(14.2)
Ch.
141
,,,
S/lmr
lIIO.I::..
,-, ," 1
Y-;...
-dll'l""'"
The shearing slresses in the flnnges and \\'eh 01 Iht Ihin-\\'a1Jed section form lhe so-callcd shearing str5S "s!re;Jm1.IIU;', Ihe slrcnmlines
lor nn l-section are depictcd in Fig. 201.
Lel us \\'rile he expression for sh"llTlnf/
T,_ One 01 lhe qullnlilies in formula (14.2) is Ihe
tl,ornl'I\t o( lhe llange area
hatched in Fig_ 201:
Therelore
(14.3)
'ti v;Jries linearly along Ihe lIange lenglh (in formula (H.3) Ihe y-coordina te is lo Ihe firsl power). This stress becomes
maximum when y=b:
't,.... "'"
Q(h-Iflb,
(14.4)
[Paft IV
'1;"
where S; is Ihe static momenl or (he hatched atea of the /lange. 5hearing slress ti is maximum al poin! N on the yaxis ',l,'here u=u.... -
'"
ell. 14J
=b-2a-T:
"
Q (
,,),
b-2a--r
(14.5)
tt JI we consider Figs. 201203, \Ve nole thal when Ihe l and box bcams
are loaded in Ihe plllne coinciding with Ihe principal central plane
01 ineriia xOy (or xOz), which is also Ihe plllM 01 symmelry 01 lhe
beam, the inlernal shearing [orces give a resultanl equal to shearing
lorce Q and direcled alon:: the axis 01 symmelry or the sed ion (Ihe
shearing-slress streamlines are, so lo say, in equilibrium).
'1
p.
Fig.
lPllr' fV
we
'JI
r.
=T
T/ .....J-O 11>
,--rf'"
Q/h-'rlbi1r
-
4J
The condition accordin.lllo whkh the momen! Dial[ inkrnal :;hearing rorces in Ihe channel scelion about lhe shear centre is equal lo
lero Olay be wriHen liS lollo\\'s:
Q,,-T(/I-t,) =-0
wherefrom
(14.6)
In !he
Ch.
NI
'89
ily or the sed ion if he lalter has Iwo axes or symmelry (Figs. 201,
2031, ][ lhe secljon has one axis 01 symmetry, Ihe sheaT centre lies
on this ;sxis (Figs. 202, 207, 208). If lhe se<:lion consists 01 rectangles
[1
r,.,
(
\ !'=
zi
:?06
207
1 A .
"
20S
"
1\
1 ,
[\
""
whnse middle Iinl5 interscc\ al one poinlo lhe shear cenlre lies al
Ihis point (Plgs. 207.208, 209). In Ihese ngures lhe shear centre is
denoled by A, while 1 ,md fI
Ihe directions (llong which the
101lcllng leads lo uni'rlanar benuing or lhe beam wilhout torsion.
h-fN ..--
Fif. 213
FI.c. 212
714600
u4
W6 =.:.L=--=--_III60cm"
'",,,
o...... j'
M
In6xJOi
_""""iliij)_
1592 kili/cm"
'T,"'" J
.. -
7I46OOxl
580
5' cm
Ch. 141
Shwr
8fQ/flS
",
._._._-FIII 214
Fig. 215
PART V
Deformation of Beams
Due to Bending
IS
Analytical Method
of Determinlug Deiormations
81. Oefledion alld Rotation 01 Ikafll StlOI1S
Whcn
forces ocl in one of lhe principal planes of ntrtia
or a beam, ils axis is observetl to bend in he S3m(' plane and uniplanar bending occurs.
rigidly Iixed al Orle ffid llnd
In Fig. 216 lhe dl.'formatlon 01 /JI
loaded at {he olhl!r
a eoonlrated force $
in /JIn enlarged
se.le. The cenlrr of gTnily O of a sec\ion having
x nlO\'t$
lo 0\_
Displacerm1l( 00, or the centre el gravHy oi /JI section in /JI direc"
lion pn-pt'ndicular lo he 3,;is el Ihe beam 15 c:alled Ihe di.'fIliotl of
I1Mm in 1M porlicu/ar gelfO:I or the dt!f't;fifHI of file parlicu/Dl sn:lioll
01 lIJe bum. We
ti,
,,
O' ,
Fi.211
J_
,, '
--
""
ell. 1s1
y=/(x
(15.1 )
represents Ihe equation of a curve along whieh the beam bends when
it is loaded; t is Ihe !!Qua/iot! 01 the de/lected axis of lite /;eam.
The langenl to Ihe defteded axis of Ihe beam (Fjg. 217) al poinl O,
makes an angle A with the x-axis. Le. an angle equal lo the angle 01
rolalion ollhe SecliOll about ils original posHion. On the olher hand
w(' know that (he Illngent of the angle between the tangenl to Ihe
curve y=1 (x) and Ihe x-axis is
(15.2)
"
(153)
Otfarmalion
lo
[Parl V
ot.
whue p(x) is Ihe radius of curvature 01 Ihe dellected axis between two
adjacent sections al a dislance x from th" centre of coordnflles, M (x)
is Ihe bending momen! in Iht' same section, and EJ is Ihe rigidily of
Ihe beam. Generally, Ihe effect of Q(x) on Ihe deIorrnation of beam
is nol large; lhe melhod ol laking to at'l:ount ils effect is given
in 108.
Figure 218 depicls Ihe change in Ihe radii or curvature as lhe bending momenl is increased. In order lo obtain Ihe equation of lhe dellecled axis v,re shall employ Ihe malhemalical relation belwecn Ihe
radius of curvalure of the axis and ils coordinales x and y:
",
(15.4)
"",--JlT'
(15.5)
'"
C1I. ISI
f-it::::n:',
i!y
;r>O
'4
JI
-;{-<O ;,
Fil. Zl9
the positive direction 01 lhe yaxis and negalive if Ihe convex side
faces il (Fig. 219). Hence, lhe sign al lhe bendlng momenl does nal
depend upon Ihe location 01 lhe coordinale 9Jl:es but lhe sign of lhe
second dill"erential 00es.
11 lhe y-3Jis is direded upwards. lheo lhe posilivc sign should be
ustd in equalion (15.6); Ihe negalive sign should be used if lhe y-uis
is direcled downwards.
In lhe lulure ...., . shall alwa)'S direci lhe y.axis upwards. and the
ditrerential equation (15.6) ma)' be ....TiUen as:
(x)
(15.7)
to lhe
'"
Defofmo/ion
fo Br!tdlng
[Par/ V
EJ;/;'=
d
J' ;\1(xdx+C
1jlx)dx+Cx+D
Thu5 we gel [hE' fo(lowing equalion [or the angle of rolalion:
rSM[x)dx+cl
05.8)
(1.'5.9)
below.
1cnglh af Ihe beam (Fig. 220): lel I be Ihe span 01 the b(>3111. We sh.. ll
dl'Signale point 11 as lhe centre of Cordinates, dir('("t lhe
upwanls aOlt Ihe x-axis !owards lhe right. lhe djlTerenlial eqnalion
01 Ihe dellec.led 3:< is is;
E/y = M (x)
Ch. 151
AM/gtlnll
"f
'"
M (x)-- P(l-x)-q-r-
(15.10,
(15.11,
'(
l
.... ) -"2
'(I"x'
/'<:" x'
Ix
EJy __ P ( "T-
Y-"i"+fi)+Cx+D
(
(15.121
(15.13)
,,
e='!!!--::A
d.t
4r:J
PI."
1
J[
r;t;J
'1/.,-\
',
+,..
4.. XI)
Y:OO-&'lT{3- T )-24l7 6- T
(15.14)
(15.15)
'"With Ihe help of lhese expressions \Ve can determine lhe maximum
[POli V
ql'
{l5.15}
rhe minus sign shows lhat lhe dellection is in Ihe downward direclion. Obviousl', lhe maximum angle 01 TaLaUoll will occur In lhe
saml' section; il will be
PI'
ql'
ea =-W-I5;"]
(15.17,
lhe minus sign indicales lhal Ihe sed ion lurns in lhe clockwise dired ion,
Bolh expressions (15.16) and (15.17) show Ihe separa1" "[ecl 01 P
and q on Ihe defleclion and angle 01 rolalion, respecUvt>l)-. Whl'n one
01 Ihe lorces is absenl, lhe corresponding parl 01 expression becpmes
'lero.
To have an idea abollt Ihe magnilude ol de!ormnlion lel us lllke
P=2 lf, q=0.5 lFim, 1=2 m, E=2xlO' kgl/cm', permissible stress
[,,\-1400 kgf/cm', and selccl an Ibeam Irom Ihe specification lable.
Tlie slrength conditon for lhe beam may be written as;
MIl',u
W -"lF'""'"
10'
1400
357 cm"
From the s\mdard lable lor beams (see Appendix) we find l-beam
No. 27 having IV""371 cm" J=50IO cm'. The angle ol rotallen and
dellection may be calculalcd as
2)12'
2')
lO'
l.
60 =- ( -,-+0.56' 2xlO'X.>OIO=2i5radlan
2X2'
2')
10=- ( -3-+
O.Sij
".
2x10">:::;010 =-0.63 cm
ol Ihe beam
Ch. SI
o/
Ana1!1/W1J Mnhild
DrformatitNU
,.
A
,1
'f
,"
1 - - 1..........,J
f. 221
M (x) =
EJ
qx
q
+ q/2x-2"+ z(lx-x
t
'Z .. t /lx+x')
(15.18)
(15.19)
D=O
Then applying it to secllon B,
Il."e
'('O ")
wtterelrom
300
LParl V
EJ '!.!!.""'!!.. (I.t.
q
/Ir
Q/' _ _ q/'
24
xl)
EJY-zt.G"-j2
qf.'
(1- ' , -
q"",'
2.<'
(15.20)
r) (15.21)
= -
\\"1'
find lhal
becomcs
5ql'
3a.iE7
,1'
Z is lhe
valuc 01 U corrcsponds lo
Fll!:_ 222
Ch. l5l
""
;;:
21
'
"W
dll
MI ( 1-1'
"')
=;tx=-m
(15.22)
M', ( -j"i
")
y= -6E7
=0, thererore
1-3';;'=0
rhe abscissa of this M:Clion is
(15.23)
MaximU111 deflcclion is
f=-ij
Mlxl
VJEJ
/')
1- 3[,
MI'
MI'
=- 9 V3-EJ =-l,GEJ
'"
(Par/ V
oH lhe partioos-at Ihe 1('(1 or righ! end of (he beam-and while wriling Ihe bending
expressioo consldC'r Ihal portion which indudes lh\' ori!in or coordinllles.
Let F be lhe orign 01 coordinates. We \IIrHe Ihe equation 01 (he
defieded beam axis in lhe finl portion 3nd integrale it twice:
EJY; __
P;+C,
(15,24)
EJy,
+D,.
(15.25)
which represents Ihe arl11 01 lhe force Ihal is absenl in lhe firsl por! ion,
is integrated wilh respe<:t lo d(x-a) or, in other wonJs. witholll
opening Ihe brackcls. Le! us poin! oul lhat x is Ihe abscissa 01 JI aro
bitrarr soclion of Ihe portion under consideralion: a is the ab.scissa
of lhe starling poin! 01 litis portion.
Lel us no\\' \,\,Tile Ihree equalons for Ihe second portion:
EJy;=- Px,
+A (x.-Il,1
q (x,
, (I,J"
'
P.<i+,4(.<.-a,'
EJ 11'=-2
2
.. (x,
EJ
,,(x,-<1,I'+C' +D
= _ Px: + A (.r,-a,}'
<1,)'+C
24'"
('"26)
.).
,'15 27 ,
Ch. /51
AM/yliro/ M.I!oOO 01
D'formaliOfls
'
P.... +A(.... -o,).
Y.=--,2
P...: +A(XI
El ! l l = - - ' - '
o,)'
;-0,). +
q (x,;-a,.
+ M (x._a.)O
q(.... -o,)
(15.28)
a,)'
"
q(...,-a,J'+M/"',-O,+C
24
X +D
(15.29)
-6
(15.30)
q(/-a,)'
(15.31)
DtforrrutliOll Dut lo
The \'lIues 01
tlons
[Parl V
ntl (15.31).
We c=onsidered al! Ihe ihree porliolls and wrole lhree eqU<lloru lor
eac:h ollhem lo sAow how lo rtduct lhe number 01 conslanls of nleg
ration lo tv."O: C and D. While solving olher prol"Jems il is 001 al al!
neressary lo again \\Tile all eqllations lor each portion, il is
lo \!oTile Ihree equalioos only 101" lhe portion which is larlhe$1 Irom
Ihe origin 01 coordina les. AlI summands of Ihe righl-hand sitk ol
lhe equ,lions \!o'i]I petlaln lo Ihis porlien. Al lh's sta,: il ll!I desirable
lo mark lhe summands "'"ttich ptflain lo the prevlOO5 porllOllS. One
of lh(' ways of marking is
in lhe neX! linl'S:
Elg
' --T
PEJ'
El
!I
__
ti
-,--
+ q(.r-;o.)' +
+A(X
-'
tll.r-II''J
2:
+C (15.:1'1)
11,)'
"
+q(,,";o.l'
_---l.
+Cx+ D (lli.33)
equations as
----.--
.nO
O.1Sl
'"
equations as
-,--
and
P(x-G)'
24
11
EJy' -EJIJ,
., (x_a)'
,...
(x-lIf'
115.34)
(x-nI'
mclhod of
Ihe displ3cetnel1t -equalions is knou.'T\ as
lhe melhod ot initia1 pararntlers, while fhe equalOflS are called Ihe
D/uofi005 of tf,
of initinl
This melhod "'as lirsl menUoned in 1he works 01 Prol. N. P. Pllz)',
and Academician A. N. K,ry.lov.
The appliealion ni lhis melhod will be iIluslraled in an aampfe in
the nex,t seclion.
Force
Let us wrile Ihe displacement equations (15.34) lnd (15.35) for lhe
be;m shown in Fig. 224 by the melhod al initial parameiers:
EJy'-EJ6.+A
(15.36)
rO
(X-<l)'
EJy=EJy,+EJ6.x+Ar;-P -,-.-
(15.37)
=0
tl_'UI
[Purl V
300
Alter subslituling A=
and (I--a)=b, we obtain Ihe lollowing
e)(pression fOf (he lnitial pllrameler, Ihe angtc 01 rotalian at supporl A:
0,,=
Knowing no\\' {he angle af rolalion and delledion at lhe origin 01
coordinales and keeping in Ininet {he above 11.\'0 substiluHons, lile rewrite equalions (15.36) and (15.37) in Ihe final [ono:
EJu' ""
Pbx
EJ ! I
--T
212
(15.38)
(15.39)
As il has been assumed in Fig. 224 that a>lI, lhe maximum dellecIhe middJe 01 beam and
lion will ocenr in Ihe Iirst portian
poio! 01 application 01 force P. WeshalJ lherelofe nol indude in ludher
,
,
.1
Fig. 224
cakulalions Ihe las! summands having Ihe factor (x-a) as Ihey pero
E/y' =-
Z' (I'-b')+
=0
whcrefrom
(15.40)
"=_
"'..
f..... z=-
Pb(I'-b') 'J'7i'='bt
61 V3
27EJI
+ P1>(lt_1>') yi'=P
613
=-
Y3
27EJ
(15.41)
Ch. 15J
o{ DtlermlnJIl(l DeformlJ/ionJ
/t1W/II/ia/
,,>7
If roree P S
to Ihe centre of Ihe beam, Le. il we lake o"",b=
-O.St. Ihe deflection in the sed ion or application oi lorce P becomes
{'it
P/'yfX3Y3
ME' XI!
PI'
=-4SIT
(15.42)
,/7;"
Thus. when force P is shifted from lhe middle 01 Ihe beam lo supporl 8, Ihe poinl o{ maximum defleclion changes ils abscissa merel)'
Irom 0.51 lo 0.5771 (Fig. 225) (see also formula (15.23)).
!f rorce P acts as shown in Fig. 224, the dellection al Ihe middle
01 span i.s
(15.43)
{III =
(3/ ' _4b")
4ftJ
pi
_a577/
-....l
Fig. 225
In Lhe preceding examples Ihe porlions inlo which Ihe bcain was
divided for wriling Ihe tiluation oi Ihe deflecled axis corresponded
lo si lOilar porlionsof Ihe bending moment diagr<lm. The conlinuily 01
Ihe beam axis is broken by Ihe hinge. Thercforc, while intcgralin.:
[he equalion or the
axis, he portion coniajning he hinp;e
should be dlvided into Iwo. 1l1lhOllgli Ihe bending mOlnlnt cqullHon
is Ihe sallle on bolh sidcs 01 the hinge. Only the dcflec!ions or Ihe el..',
".
'"
OUt
[Pllft
(o
tion C. To
Ihe! calculations simple we shaJl JO<ld tht' bearn onl)'
by a mamen! M ading in sedion B. The readian B can be fauod
I
'.
,t
I-l...-z
",
,
FIl:. 226
i.
menls of rorces
Let us seled point A as the origin of COQrdinates. The bendng moment in any section 01 the beam bdwcen A and B can be expressed
by (he forll1ulll:
M
M
.11 I
MI)
x =Tx-a=
x-a )
rirst Portien
rl'
Al
EJ -;r;}-=T(;(-a)
lb'
Edy,
A1("
)
J 7X =7 T - ax +C:i
M (.1""
EJ
. !}=7
ij-T
+C,;(+D,
AI("
dy, = T - ax )'e
EJ "'dX
T
I
M (-'"
<l-r-)
EJ Y.=
ij-T
+C,x+D.
Ch. 15)
=(J
al x.,.a
in
C: y,=y.
iu ,,eetioli B: y.=O
111 x=(l+l
{wo
gel:
D J ""0
." (tia7;-T)
ti", -
.\1 l''''
a') +C{I+D,
T,"-T
[CatO'
wherelrom
C, __
2al
AIbJ.
.
Q)
JJ
f'jl, 227
3LO
{Parl V
ZC'Ta
in thJ5
In Fig. 227 [he number of equalions iha! eaeh secUan givl!S has becn
eircumscribed.
M(x)=-P(I-x I -Q-y-
(15.10)
(x) = _ [P(l-x)+
q(I;.r)']
(15.11)
Therefore upon inlegralion w.r,L x we gel an expression lor y as a linear fundion of extl'rnal lorces:
p,-" [
y=- GEl
']
3- T
,1',' [ 6-+-;;
4. .,' ]
-'24131
q;.
Mol
qa'f
011 = ID ""'1lET
Ch. ISI
AM/ylicJ M,11wd
cf
Dtttr/llllll", Dt/M"'''/iMS
311
.
JI!=-.".,...,.--MJ"
.11""'1'11'1,-M;.J
GEJ
Under Ihe aclion oJ
orce q (he canlile"er dot:s nol remain slraighl; ji bends and acquires posilion Asa (InlhOllt.
changing lhe angle of rotation ea in .secUon B), and Ihe delicBon al
ro
.......
Cr
A
"
'
;
c-i=t
f'
__ - - - - _
"
A4J
JbJ
"'h
(,)
...... fZ
b..
IJh
")l
fia:. 22!
fl,. 229
t
"
[Par! ,y
ca
'
1
,
C(ll
I
-
I
I
I
I
Bending
lion y:
dM(x\= Q ()
x.
dx
I
I
I
I
" (x),
El d',
d;' = :.,
Fig.23O
d'
d'
d"
d"
dx' M (x)
= Q (x)
d
From the equatons il is'cv.dl'nt 'thal knowing f6rce q(x) llnd the
l)'pl'S of
\Ve can obtan Q(x),.M (xl, EJB and .EJy by suteesSi\'f intl'grJlion: oonversely, knowing 'the equation df (he deMec1ed
Orfl/lh-DfI(J/!/tic M,11Iod
CII. 161
as it is aeting duWnVJards).
CH",nER l '
or
rolalion
rOl a.
(x)
1{
Pt
,,
'" ,,
(16_1)
Fil. 231
'"menlione<!
DII'
lo Btrldil1fl
lPo" V
(16.2)
--jX2=q
Ir
we assume that
q"",M{x)
Le. il \Ve load lile fictilious beam wilh a Iklitious force, which cbanges
actording lo lhe bending momen! ar fhe real beam, then
r/'{EJYl
--;w- =
iPM,
""dX'
11 in integration we- can achieve equality 01 lhe constanls 01 IntegraBon on Ihe lelt- 3nd righlhand sldes of Ihe equalion, Le. GI-e,
and D=D,. we shall obtain
d{EJy)
(1M,
EJy=MJ
dM,
Y=ET
,
Q,
""'er
(16.3)
(16.4)
Thus, delledion in the secUon 01 {he real beam (due to Ihe given
load) is equallo Ihe bending moment in lhesameseclionofthe lidilous beam (frorn thl.' ficlitious load), divided by the rigidity 01 the real
bearn. Slllllarly. {he- angle 01 rolation 01 the real beam (due io lhe
given load) s equal to (he shearing lorce in the same seclon 01 the
flclitious
(Irom lhe fielilious load), divideo by Ihe rigidit)' 01
Ihe real m-am.
In {he analytrcal melhod of delermining deformations, lhe conslanls
of inlegralion were louml from boundary oonditions, Le. by equating
lo Zl.'ro Ihe delledions allhe supports and equaling the deforrnations in
sedions comlllon lo two adjoining porlions of Ihe bearn.
In lhe melhod under discussion lhe equalily of conslanls 01 ,ntegra.
Iion, while integrating equations (16.1) and (16.2), cllO be achieved
by fixing the enos (or intermediate sedions) 01 lhe fiellious beam in
Ch. 161
'"
Graph-analvtic \-lelhod
Type el Jllpporl
Condltions
lor !I and a
cendHions
lor M,.nd
Q,
(no
momenl; hlnge lron".
rnlu lrce)
y;tO
",0
[Parl
In lllllll ispan bea ms wjlh in!erlnediall' h inges the liclilious beaJ11 lllay
to Ihe ml,thod explnined 'ur the bl'arlJ in f'ig.
11 musl hl:' not('d thal th(' fictilious bealn
lo a Sl.l\!<:allv determina\(.' real bl'am mus! also be
slacallv d<,lerminate,
______- ,
Thus. "in arder to deleBuine defteciion y
and angle of rolallon O in a sec\lon of lhe
given (real)
wc must follow Ihl' procedurl;' explained below:
draw Ihe gh'en 01'11111 alongwi\h Ihe
}
orces;
(b) dralV Ihe bending molllent diugr3m
l
-A
>A.}
--------4"
>4}
(t) assuml' thl.' tero axis uf Ihe bl.'nding
'moment diagram as lhe axis 01 lhe fictitious
M (xJ;
Ji
r--_____-<.
:-
A.
AA
Fig
A.
;;
'"
;"
Ch.. 16"1
3"
r
,8
t,
"
,,
,
,
n-.:
J
.
"
Fi,. ".
r. '"
Af,. __
ffJ=-""jU
The lormuln Is exactly similar lo Ihe result oblained in 83.
The shearinll force in secUall Bof the IiclHious bcam is llumerical1y
equal lo the area 01 lhe triangle:
"
Q--yPIX/--T
".
(Pan V
PI'
O"-n--UT
Lel
find Ihe defleclion al he point of applkation 01 lhe fortt IOC" a
sirnply 5upported beam
In lhe mirldle oF lhe spao by lorce P
(Fig.235i.
lile- bending'lIIoment diagram of lhe real beam is a rtangle wilh lile
A=B=7j
PI
PI'
l' x T x/-16
Mc--Ax 1"+1"
PI'
"'-16
PI
x '2 x T x Lx
PI"
6'
PI"
x 2 +"if x "6--4&
WOOHrom
brcause lhe shearing force al Ihe supporl js eql.l31 lo lhe supporl reac
Iion (in Ihis eJlample wilh a minus sign because 11} is direcleu down
wards). At support B
Pe
O,,-+lW
It is evident hom lhe ahove examples lhl lar the ronvenllon of
signs of fictitious load, bcnding rnoment and shuring (Ofte dtcidtd
tarlier. lhe minus sign in Ihe formula for deflt<:lion tresponds, as
before, to del\eclion downwards and in the formula for the angle of
'"
Gtaph-alliJ/yfIG Mef!wd
Ch. /61
PI
(/)
j).,5
Pa
l '
__ -
,j,
(Af
i
,
,8 D
,"
P:fTTllTTT1
: "11
,
:
r--
--+-- l ---.,
1
'
A r'
fig.237
fil:o 23G
canHlevers supporting Ihe suspended beam A 8. Dellec{ion in lhe middIe or lhe span (polnl F) is equallo {he fictj{ious moment ai Ihis point
due lo Ihe distribuled load divided by Ihe rigidity of lhe bcam;
qr'
fF-BET= 8EJ
A,- P;I
Pa'f
Po.'
fc=
Mlc
7.T = -
e is
Po.'
6ET(31
+ 2a)
Dtfimllll/iim
Dllt
[P"r/ V
lo Btnding
MI'
fll=-m
93. lile Graph-analyllc Melhod Applied
lo Curvilinear Bendinll-momenl Diagralns
,
A,H fl } , {le
I
f--'--'
--i .r
I
I
I
I
I
I
A,
8,
.-!ti /0
J
E
rig. 2:r.l
Fil:. ZJ8
.t"-%x'
x-tX')dX= ;'
eh. 161
Graph.flll41ylic M,/Ilod
'"
Tb:is,area may also be foundl as two-thirds of Ihe area of lhe t]rcutllscribecl redangle:
,,,
S xM6.o;)dx
"o"'"
w
2
('
:J&i,o
5
""'-,-=yl
z;q....
The distance
Ibe cenlre. 01 gravily of hal! of Ihe parabola
area antl lhe I:entre of lhe whole parabola is
"I- ..,"'iti l
The conC3ve parabola represents lhe bending momenl diagralO of a
beam rgidl)' fixetl al one end lFig. 240). Tlle ordinale of IIn}' poinl
q ,
on Ihis parabola is found fmm
Ihe express ion M (x)-..._qxi2.
The area of the para bola is
A
found as
(6).
I
I
1 I
'
, --->01
Fig 24(1
ql'
['\="32/=(;
OrdinalC' ..o 01
f!..:
'.
..,tI
61
..!.. /'
fI q
1 l'
li q
Offorma1iQrl
lo 8Mdlng
[Por! V
Find lbe deftecliOIl al {be middle 01 lbe beam shol.:n in Fig. 238. lhe
area 01 the bendingmomeni diagram is laken as the ficlitious load.
The diagrarn is posilive, therelore lhe ficlilious load is direcled up
wards. The ficlilious support reactions are
'"
9/'
A,=8,="'2"""R"
11"--38477
Consider a beam rigidly tixe<! al one end and looded bya uniformly
dislribuled lorce q (Fig. 240('1)). Let us tind the deflection 01 the free
end. The bendlngmoment diagram 01 the real and the ticlitious bcarns
is shown in Fig. 240(b).
The- be-nding mOlnent al the xed end A of the ficlilious be:Jm is
equal lo (he produd 01 lhe area W 01 Ihecomplete diagram with the dis
tance belween A and its centre or gravitr. i.e.
qf' 3
q/'
M,-wx.=ij,l=-B
and Ihe dencclion in seclon A is
,1'
1""=-8fj"
Consider beam ABe wilh one canWever as sho\\'Tl in Fig. 24[(11).
Using he lHethud of breaking Ihe diagrams 3nd the method uf super
posilion of fofC{'S, tind [he defteclion anJ llngle 01 rotalicn in secl ion
lhe beam is loaded al! along its lenglh by a unilormly dis{ributed lorce.
e.
Cit. 161
Melhnd
323
21qll'
B="32-'- I-
IqJ>
zn
,,:
Tr, "
1 /l/l'
Q,c=-B,- aTa
=-
r;qa'{ +"'24-6
ql'
qa'
/l/l'
M,c=-B,a- 3-,-04"0
1
/l/ll"
.'
/l/l'
- - -;-qu'I+"""'24""---
Flg. 241
ec '"
Q,r
Al c
fc'" L0 = - 2SiJ (10'/-['+30')
'"
[Paf/ V
CH"PTER 17
Beams
AII preceding discussions Wtre 011 beams Dr unilorm section. 1n praclice, however, we olt'1l have lo deal with beams in which lhe cross
secUnnal dimensiol15 change either gradually or sharply.
We give belaw a rew examplt!S on selecling Ihe dimensions 01 Ihe
cro."s sl'Ction ami determinlng lhe deformalion 01 non,ulliform beams.
We know thal bending mOtn<'nt usually varies along (he lenglh of
Ih!" beam: lhererore, by determining lhe crosssectional dimensions
[ram lhe condition 01 maximum bending momen! \Ve provitle an extra
marg;n in al! seclions 01 lhe bealll excell\ lhe Dne which corresponds
to M . Beamsof wliform slrt'llglh. are used 10 achit've grealeor economy
al
and in
cases also lo nerease Ilexibilily. Under lhis term
eOllR"
in which lhe maxilllum normal stress is lhe same in al!
sections and equal lo tlle permissible stress (or less lhan il).
The dllllensions or Suth a beam are elllculalcd for lhe lollowing con
dition:
o", =
M(.<)
= J (1]
(17.1)
und
.t
11f t
(17.2)
Hl're M Ix) and 117 (x) are lhe b('nd ing momenl :md
modulus
in alij' arbitrar)" s Iion of lhe belln: in eaeh st'(tion 117 (x) must vary
in direcl proporlion lo lhe bending momen.l.
Condijjons (17.1) und (17.2) are true also lor the sectiol1 wilh fhe
maximullJ bending momenl: iI \\'e denote lhe secUon modulus in lhe
secUon of maximurn bending mOUlent M ..ax by W., Ihen
M ...'!..= .'1(.<) =101
(17.3)
W,
W(.r)
r;h.11I
modulus in
support section is W.= ' . ;Inri lhe muimurn
bending momllll al Ihesupporl isM -jPfI. OnI)l1e
\"3
lues of :U (.1') and Al are required lor computations. frolll formula
(17.3) we get
Plx6
------boh'
b(x) h'
wherefrom
(17.4)
lJ(x) .... IJ T
,L,! :=t
9
t, ---
'
,,-;a
,---),>0-
'
1"11. 243
flg. 242
3Q....
:.'h1>.1....
II
"1:
3P
b.,. - 2h Itl
lhe correded shape oF the! beam s shown in F'ig. 2013.
'"
lo BeNfing
[Pad V
slrenglh 01 constant height 1,. and variable widlh b(x); as lhe looding
is symmelric il is sulficil:n! lo studr jusi ane half af Ihe span.
The section rnoduli W(x) and W. can be expressed by he 33me foro
f.
p
P
mul1l5 as in he prlXeding example.
The maximum bending moment in
IJ)
I
Ihe middle 01 Ihe span i5:
it
Ji.,
lb}
A,
r--7
Itl
ti,
,
,
-+--l---.,:
;;:>\
I
(,)
-1,
mu
=!:..!..
4
1/
,,
1='-
"
M(x)=T
Solving, as in he prcceding exam
pie. we gel:
,I ,1, ,
b(x)-=b. 2:
,
It}
: : :
"
: :
: : : :
I I I I
I ' I
1 kCCDDSD:
I
1'1
lowing formula:
I I I
'
(17.5)
;,
mln =
'T
,
h. (T)
Ch. 17)
NOIIulllfnrm
'"
Beams
d',
M(,)=-Px,
12
J!...1
(17.6)
d',
EJ T"Tx7=-Px
!he di!ieren!ial cquation may be writlen as
EJ!!:J!..=- Pxl=_PI
'"
Integrating twice,
= - Plx+C,
El
(17.7)
.'
EJy=-Pl T+Cx+D
.jf
wherefrom
C=Pl'
y=-
PI
PI
2f1J
'"'
PI'
D=--,-
a may be writlen as
PI'
PI" x
x'+ET
-
Pl' (
foJlows:
')
I-T
PI'
PI'
2EJ = - 2EJ
"')
1-2+""'i'
1m.. =-'ii!7
:l
lllomenl' of inl>rtia J,
("1'
or two-thirds gn:a\cr.
Henc:e, non-umiQl'IlliK.>:llLlS are more flexible Ihan
ofllRiform
sectioo of the $.!Ime stre:ngth. It
of lhis properly ltnd not
due lo saving 01 melal Ihat n:>o-unilorm slrength bcams are used In Ihe
manufacture or e1ements sucll as sptings.
Equation (17.7) indicales Ibat in Inis ('unlp;le lhe curvaturt 0\ t/K!
beam is constant, Le. lhe bea.Ul axis dl:'llech along Ji cirele. Bul lIpon
intcgralion lbe equation obtained was Iba!
a para bola. U 15 sug
or
gested Ihat Ihe reader should Clplain lhe reason lar Ihis..
,\t ..l
qf""'""'""'FJ'
!"",:U r.
artd
e-Q
.\1
'''1
qf= EJC")
Then ""e load tlle fietilious beam by Ihis fOlce and oblain Ihe required
defleelloo and angle of rolallon
Ihe bending moment and shearlng
force in secllons 01 the ftclilious beam.
q; -- ffi.. . -fT,
In Ihe exa1l1ple
above
Le. Ihe
ficllliollS beam should be 1000ded nol by 11 triangular force bul by 11
unifoflnly dislribuled force (Fig. 245). lhe d",ntt:lion 01 seclion 8,
whkh is equal (o IhE' bcnding momenl in the Iixed end of the ftclitlous
be'.1I11, can be expu'Mt'd by lhe formulll
1_.\11,_
qjl'
2
PC'
--2FT
We could have oblalnt'd lhe salDe re'>ull by a.qoming thal lhe heam
has constanl ngidilr El antl lis bertdmg momenl diagram is oblaint'd
by llIulliplying elll:h ordinale by Ihe ralio
!lendmg momenl dlagr.m lhus oblained are
-Px-'-=P.x!..!=Pi
J .)
J..
Ch. l7j
329
NOII-WI;'orm BMI/IJ
PI"
MI =-Plxl"2=-T
ol lt1e graph-ana.
and
9= -
PI"
nI
1',
'.
1:.-..-,
'Fig.
rlg.
AF,6
.
,
"
PI
b:rnm:rrrrJl
rig. 246
F,g. 248
tion is J in lhe eH hlllf ami 0.51 in Ih<' right half. Lel liS obtain the
nc''''' bending momenl diagram by muJliplying {he ordinales of lhe
rigll! half 01 lhe real bending !nomenl
(Fig. 247(b)) with the
ralio JI0.5/=2; !he lictitious beam wilh Ihe new loading is shown
JJO
(Pa,! V
A -
.!:!..i.!+.!....!i
I
2 Z23
1-2423
e are:
12
"d
PI'
fc=-JUT
Le! liS determine lhe dent<:'lion 01 a beam rigidl}' fixed al one end
sod loaded al lhe other by a concentraled force (Fig. 248(a)}. The crosssecHonal area 01 one half 01 lhe beam is greater. and J.>J.. In arder
lo transrorm lhe bending moment diagram (Fig. 248(b)) iolo lhe ficHo
liaus load, we mus! mullip!)' Ihe ordinales oI !he Iell-hand portion
01 Ihe diagram by
(Fg. 248 (e.
DeOection under
I
3PI"
fp= - 8EI.
1 I 2 I
21 I
PART VI
Potenta) Energy.
Statically Indeterminate Beams
11
[Parl VI
varlous parts, and rcactions transferred from one parl lo anolhcr, a1l
rolJow he iocrease in load. r
Thus, Vr'e may say hal 101111 ronversion aF Qne form 01 potclltial
energy inlo anolher lakes place jj derormation occurs wilhout
Ihe equilibrllln 01 {he srstcm. Work done by lhe forces acting on lhe
slruclure serves as a measure 01 lhe energy lransformed ioto anolher
lorm.
0.. 1&1
enrrgy of slrain. ,\s a rull', lhis is the potrntial en('fg}' oI the
lorces. Work done by lhe l'xtlo'rlUll force; durinll thls conver.sloo i$
enly a numedcal mras.lIre 01 the converled energ}.
98. Potentlal
of
Energy
Loading
in
lhe Simplesl
Cases
01 S,rai" 1"
CISf.
Ton'OlI
Pun bmdln;:
Let liS have a look at Ihe contenls 01 lhe right haH uf {he IlIble.
Tite polenlial energ}' or strain s equal to hall 01 Ihe product oi force
oc moment of fQ(cl' couple wilh lhe displacement of thlo' secUon in
whlch Ihe force or rorce cOllple is applied, Lelus IIse lhe tcrmgellefu/.
ill'll fOfa for l'very load lhal
displacement, Le. il mllybe a con
ccnlrated force or Ihe momenl of a force coupll'. The displacerneul
cQ(res}Ondi'lg lo Ihe gentraliz.td force will
known as genlfolllC(l
displONmenf. lhe wf)fd "correspondin!t implies Ihal we are taJking
or displacement of the sedlon In which lhe f(l"ce uncler considerali<m
is actlng. Elaboraling furlher, \lo'' ate lalking of
which
wIM.-n multiplled by the forcl'::ives us lhe ....ork done. Far a OOIlcentral
ed rorce this displocemenl will he linear in (he direclion 01 lhe fOl\:e
(defleclion, or E'longalion). For the mamenl af a force rouple il will be
Ihe angle of rotation of the section in Ihe dlredioo 01 Ihe moltltnl.
Thf' formulas in IhE' firsl column may be slaled in a general mannef lI5
101l0'.l0'$; Ihe- polmlial eoe'"gy 01 slra!n is numerically tqual lo haU
or Ihl' prodUCI of he ReneraliU'd force v.'ith Ihe gelll'flllized
IPan VI
The w:::ond column in lbese formulas shows {hM the poltntial encrgy
of slrain is a second order function ollhc jndependenl exlerna! 'orces.
Polential eflergy is always posilive.
The third column shows lhal lhe po1<'nlial energy 01 sira in is a second arder lunclion of the finile values 01 generalized displacemenlselongations. angles af ratation. defteclions-and is complelely determ(ne<! br Ihe latler.
Consequenlly, allhough lhese formulas have been derive-d on lhe
assumplion lhal lhe load ncreases slalically withoul vio!ating the equi.
libriurn 01 (he slruclure during the process oi loading. they are vatid
lor aJl lypes 01 rorces provided lhe force and displacement <lre 'ine<lrly
related and are considered al all instanl when the struclure has altai!leld equiJibrium.
6, =1l"P, +a"P.+a"P,+ . . }
6, =a..P, +a..p, +a"P, + ...
1l.""'a,.,P,+a..
......
(IBA)
335
CA. 181
tP, tA
t6
lPIf
.
f:C.
2$1
forces. We have used lhese formulas on more Ihan ene oceasion ror
deriying design equations (lor ex.mple, equations (6.18) in 33).
When a number 01 lorees are acting, lhe potentlal energ)' should
be calculated by ClapeyrOlj's theorem:
...
(IS.S)
U=W-2'(Pf.+ M6 J1)
(IS.6)
The
Irom a handbook:
.
flrnm$
IParf .vI
lfl-3ET-
(18.7)
'lEJ '
liS
does nol
slIbstilule
'(PI'
MI')'
PI')
U-W=2'P
.3'EJ-'ii!T
+"2:\1 (MI
7T-!!.u
P'r>
M'I
P.I!!'-
(IB.8)
fua
Iftl!
I'f(z)
i \j,
L
-t4,
II
Jii
, , t
_1
1- tiz-1'
'Fil:. 'lS'l
flg. '1;.3
Ch. 181
(18.9)
dU_ M "(r1 tU
or
(18.10)
>El
U-S,
.. = 2:J
S, M'(x)dx
(18.11)
Thc limit of integrtltion indicates that integral ion should cover the
whole lenglh 01 the beam: tf Hiere are a number 01 zones for M (x),
lhen integral (18.11) mus! be divided into a SU 111 01 integrals.
\Ve end Ihis secUon b)' ca1culating Ihe patenttal energy ar a slmply
supported beam loaded by force P
(Fig. 255) . The bending momenl di
agram has t",'O :rones; therefore
r M,tU +f
-i 2EJ i
lo,
Al ....
2EJ
(18.12)
+Ax,_ +-,-x"
"
M._
M,dA'
-m-U(P,')'
I
P.
+ -,-x,
.1
lo
xl'"
.,"'] -"Gl7T
P'.'h'
fI. 255
.l.
y,.
12-511'
or
Poltnliol
IPorl VI
Let us shift Ihe bum from position 1 into an adjacenl portion 11,
shown in Fig. 256 by a doltetlline, wilhout disturbing ils equilibrium.
by adding a ne\\' force, by
This ma}' be achieve<! by various
increasing the existing forces, elc.
Let us assume Ihat an infinilesimal increment dP, (Fig. 256) is
applied, in addition to lorce P" lo shilt Ihe beam rom position I
to deformed state 11. In order to relain Ihe equilibrium 01 the beam
''<
Fig. 251
during jhis slift we assume tha! fhe increment is applied slaticalJy,
i.e. ncreases from zero to the final value slo\\'ly and gradually.
As lhe beam shifls from posilion I to position 11 aJl forces falt In
leveJ. meaning Ihereby that lhe potential energy decreases. Since Ihe
equilibrium 01 Ihe beam remains undislurbed, lhe dt'Crease in potential
energy dUp of Ihe forces may beconsidered to be completely transformed
into the polential enery' of slrain dU 01 lhe beam; dU pis measured
by the work of the external forces in shifting Ihe beam from position
I to posilion 11:
dU =dW p
(18.13)
lhe ehange in the poteolial energy of sIra in, 1he energy being a
funeUon 01 rorces P" p., P" ... , occufttd due to an infinitesimal
incremenl in one 01 the indept'ndenlly applied forces, P,. Therelore,
Ihe differential 01 this composite [(melion ""ill be
au
dU=dJldP,
,
(18.14)
CA,/II
Suppose \loe finl load lhe be.m by forcedP.: lhe beam bends slighUy
(Fi, 257, posilion 111) .nd ils de8tctions in sedions 1, 2,3 are dy"
dy., dl/., respeclivrly. The \l..o rk accomplished by lhe sl.lit rorce
dP, is ..;. dP,dg. Wr now slart loading the beam graduaUy and :r.imul
tanoously by increasing rorces P" Po. P",.
De8eclions 1/" Y., y. witl be added lo Ihe original delledions dy,.
dy" and d!# (Fig. 257). In Ihls shlge 01 loading, lorces Po. PI' p. will le'
complish "...o rk
Pg,+ P.y:+ {P"Y.-W,. In additlon, lorce
dP" whieh Is a1ready acling on Ihe beam, wi1l .Iso accomplish work
(it Irallerses a dislanee g,: slnce il rem.'os constanl during lhe SEcono
slage 01 loading, Ihe work done is dP,y,). rile beam occupies posilion
11 shown in Fig. 257 by a dolted IIne.
Hence, Ihe tolal work done b)' Ihe external forces in shifUllg lhe
beam Irom the undeformed slale inlo position /l is (Fig. 257):
.r
-t
W.="2dP,dl/,+ W1 +dP,xy
Now
we can calcula le
the
get
dW,.-dP,xy,
(18.15)
"
,JU
9,- i)P,
(18.16)
,,.
'"
(Parl VI
i*:
the form
O'=""if.if;"
(18.17)
As y, is Ihe displacement corresponding lo force PI and 0 1 lhe displacement corcrsponding lo moment M" theconc!usions arrived al can
(l (!!. ('.........
l. __ ....
f"je:. 258
1875.
2EJ
(18.11)
!!!...
....
ilP,
-'-[S,
OP,
M'(XldX]
?El
""
Ch. 181
force
(18.18)
and lhe angle 01 roblion in {he secUon under lnomenl M .....ill be:
(l
J
ilM 1
C .ti (x)dx
,H.f (x)
1----r--
(18.19)
(1M,
The limil of inlegralion, 1, sho\\"S tha! integral ion is OYer Ihe whole
length of Ihe beam.
\02. Examples of Applicdlon uf
Casllgllano's Theorcm
Lel us cakulate (Fig. 259) Ihe deflecHon 01 the free eod Bol a beam
which is rigidly lixed at lis olher end A. The beam is loaded by a con
centraled force acling lIl. poiol B. In Ihis cast' we can direclly apply
5"'"
,\"""'"
e
I
16
Fi. 259
'" 5
YII""'"JP=
(18.18)
The origin for abscissa x may be selecled arbitraril)", Ihe 0111y consid
eralioo to be kepl in mind being Ihat Ihe formula for M (x) should
be as simple as
J\\easuring x from poiol 8. IVe gel the lollow
ing expression [or (he bending moment in an arbitrary section:
..) ""'-x
r (_P..)d..
f' 5.
f'l"
El
(-x)="'l'T X dX=+3ET
JlIl"".l
Par/ VI
We have oblained lhe same formula as be/ore, wilh the. only dilferenee lhal YD is posilive. WC have delermined {he displaeemenl corre
sponding lolhe loreewilh respecl lo which Ihe equalion was dIfIeren
lIaled. By Ihe {erm corresponding" we mean lhal lhe produet or lhe
roree
corresponding displacemenl gh-es us lhe work done by lhe
above rorce. If Ihe displaeemenl is posilive, Ihe '.vork will also be po
silive, which implies lhal the displacement is in lhe direction 01 lhe
force. Ir. howevc"f. lhe denection or angle d rolation is negative, {hen
displaeemenl occurs in a direclion opposile to Ihal 01 lhe force. Thus,
in !his problem poinl B dellecls dewnwards.
Le! liS oonsder an example in whieh il is essential lo ealculale Ihe
reael ians prior lo calculating lhe bending moment M (,1").
Let liS calcula!e lhe angle 01 rolalion al supporl Bol a simply supported beam 01 span I (fig. 260) loaded with a momenl M acting allhe.
aboye supporl and a uniformly dslributed forceq over ils whole lenglh.
The required angle of rotalion is:
eR =.!!:!....
<1M =
S M (%)d%
EJ
<1M (%)
ilM
(18.19)
,,'
M(x)_+Ax __,_
, ,
Thereiore
q/
q%"
M ()
x =Tx-T
_+
-m--
+ -Al.,
i)U
DS="TIf -
J (ql
<1%' 111%)"
qJ3
MI
i CT
,T x --,-+-,- dx= "'24IT+3IT
Ch. J81
'"
by difIerrnt lunclions o x
::
z-l
<--c.......,j
,
:
AC. 261
iJU
-S
c"'"""'()iij"-
M,dx 1M,
+S l!T-rnM.dr !JAl.
M,=-Px
and
M.=-Px+M
Ind
M.=-P (x+l-o)+M
the Iimts al inlegralion being O and
and
ti.
'M + I
d'i\f-
POlen/io/
LPor} \'/
aM
JfJ"dM
Oc"'"
;J Sr-p(x+l-a)+M]d.f=-
+{:T
The required angle of rotation is Ihe sum of l\Vo t<'rms: one dlle lo
lorce P in the cloclrn'ise diredion (againsl the direction 01 M) and Ihe
other due to moment M in Ihe anliclock\\'ise diredion.
I=,--=t
- ( _ _ ti.
262
We have a concenlrated force ac!ing in seclion B inslead of a mamen!.
To salve the problem we apply an additional momen! at point B
(Fig.262) in an arbiltary direciion, say, for exampJe, in the anticJock
wise direction. For a beam loaded in this manner Ihe angle 01 rolation
of sed ion B can noll' be found by appl yingCasligl iano's Iheorem.
The angle 01 rolal ion can be expressed by a iormula consistng of 1\\"0
lerms: one dependlng on P a'nd lhe other on M . This formula is Irue
for all numerical values of P and M .. ineluding M.=O. Therefore, by
3SSuming that
in Ihe final express ion, we obtain the expression
for angle 01 rotation llue onl}" to loree P. The calculations are as folJows:
Mdx ,).11
EJ
M=+M.. -Px
and
if.fr;
<lM =+1
"JM;
'"
(18.20)
(M.-Pxl (+ I)tit
Wr may pul M.-O altN inlegraling Ihe aboye expression. Bul lhe
result .....ill be lhe same il \W! pul M.-O in equalion (18.20) and Iheo
inlegrate. We require he addllonal force onl)' lo Clkulall' the partial
derivall\'e or Ihe bending rnomoo! w.r.t. Ihis .ddiBorllll force. Having
found Ihe partal derivalh'r. v,-e can salely !'quate
addiUonal force
lo zero.
PI'
e.. ""U.Jr (-Px) dx.., -Tff
The minus sign indkalts Ihat rotatlan occun gajns! lhe direclioo of
momcnt M . i.e. in Ihe dockwise direclion.
If il is requirfil lo calClJlale lhe delledion in a stclion 01 the beam
where no com:enlralw locee 15 aeting. "''e mus! similarl)' apply In addi
Iional force p. in 1M above M:Ction .nd after obiaining
expUSSIOll
fOf delleclloo
Ihe: force lo 'lero.
Ld us de:1e:rmiM the: de:lle:ctlon oi Iree e:nd B of the canlileve:r shown
In Fig 263. The: beam is tOlde<! by a unirormly dislribule:d Ior. We:
apply an additional rOlU p. in secUon B in de.. lo calcula le il! def1e:clion. The: beam has lwo di5tintl porlions: Be and CA. The: de:fte:ction 01 B will be a sum of ,....-0 inlegrllls:
dU
M,dl iJM,
Ya-7P;'- ...
iJP.
+S ---U-U;;
M.dl d.'f.
A=-P
B=P
-
2.+ q(I'I-,,)(I-,,)
ZI
,,+1 + q(I-: al'
I
I
""
_p n
-T
+ q(l'_a l )
ZI
----,,-
M,--P,.x-T'
the: limits of
- __ x
'M,
'P.
{Parl VI
.'
M _
,
__ p
x+
<(J'
21
a')
X--,_
QX'
aM,
a
"'7iF,; = -7 x
lhe limits of inlegration being x=O and x-l. Hence
,
' r[_p
+ l!T1I
.
;J f.s...
+Q(l2
2J
g/X
-.yx)dx
0)1)
lit-
</Il"
QaJ
-+8ET-NEJ
L [
(/'
Q(ll :u,al)a
x'-
dx
- ".....' )
lhe first faclor represenls lhe delleclion due to the load on lhe a1nti
lev<'r and Ihe
Lhe defleclon due lo Ihe load belween ihe supporls.
104. Theorem of
01 Works
With Ihe help oflhe concepl of potential energy we may derive the
following relalion between deformaliolls in various seclions of a beam.
[[ we apply a slalic lorce p. in section 2 of a beam already loaded
by lorce P,. then lo dellection U" 01 Ihe poinl of application of force
P, due lo Ihis force wil1 be added a deflection Un due to force
PI (Fig. 264). lhe first number In lhe subscript 01 y indica tes Ihe poin!
Ihe defleclion of which is required lo be delermined; lhesecondnumber indicales lhe Force causing Ihis delledion.
lhe lotal work done by lhe exlernalforces will conss! of Ihree lerms;
work done by force P, in causing deflectlon YII' Le.
P1YIl; work
done by force p. in dencding Lhe poio! 01 ils appJication by Y." i.e.
P,y,,: ando
work done by force P, over defleclion YIl caused
by lhe force P" Le. P,y".
Therefore, Ihe lolal accumulated energy dile lo Ihe two forCl'S is;
,
(18.21)
Ch. 18\
3<,
(the polential energy of strain depends only upon Ihe final values 01
forces and delledions and not upon lhe order 01 applying lhe external
forces).
Now, if we apply force P, lo a beam already loaded by force p.,
Ihen reasoning in Ihe same way we obta]n
(IB.22)
(18.23)
Le. Ihe work done by force P, (or Ihe first group of rorces) over dis
placements caused by force P, ({he se<:ond group or forces) is equal to
lhe work done by force P, over displacements caused by force PI'
..
.......
1;
I
1;'
f"r;
t
ir
. . .':.: . . . . +l
>zf--:t.:."::.t....
..........
1"
-YIt
Fl:. 264
!/"""
(IB.IB)
Polrnlia/
(Par/ VI
q., ... , then momen! M Ixl in any sedion 01 lhe beam is a linear
fundion 01 all lhese laclors:
M(x)=u,P+a.p.+ ... +I.>,M,+I.>,M.+
+c,q, +t.q.
(18.24)
Coefficients 0" a., .. " b" b., ... , e" e,o
. are funclions af Ihe
beam span, Ihe dislances 01 (he points of appBcajioll of tiJe various
forces and moments lrom Ihe supporls, and Ihe abscissa x uf {he sed ion
in whieh the bending nloment is required lo be calculated. Suppose
(a)
r
1
I
t:
p
Pig, 265
.. , 1/" q.,
'0 a" a. ' .. , /.tI, b" ... , eh e. o are all constant
quantities. However, a, may he- laken as Ihe numerical value of moment
M in 3n arbitrary St'Clion due lo a unit force, Le. P,= 1: it is evidenl
Ihat by putting P,= I 3nd equaling aH other forces lo zero in equation
(J8.24) we gel M=a,.
Fa... example, lor Ihe beam shown in Fig. 255(a) lhe bendin mamen!
js:
,<'
M t) ... -Px-T
The derivalive
--x, whidi lS also
of the bend
ing momenl for Ihe beal\1, il we load it by a un! force acting al poin
S-Ihe point of appl ication of force P (Fig. 255 (b)-in Ihe same dir('(;:
tion,
Similarly, the derivaUve of M Ix) w.r.1. force eouple M, is numeri
call}" equal lo Ihe bcnding moment due lo a unil force couplc acting
in lhe same sed ion as M,.
Hence lhe calculalion 01 derivatives of a bending moment may be
replaced by the ealculalion o/ lhe b('nding moment due lo a unit force.
\Ve shall denote such Illoments by M'.
TlIUS, lo determine displacemenl {) (deftection or angle 01 rolalion)
01 nn arhitrary section, irrt'spedi\Oe 01 wl1ether Ihe eorresponding force
acts in lhis socHon or nol, we I"USt wrile down lhe expressions lor Ihe
bending momenl M (x) due to tiJe given load (lI'e shall denote it simply
eh /81
'"
(18.25)
"
qx'
M--Px-T
\f'", -1 xx __ x
(Fig. 265(a))
(Fig. 265(b
[Parl VT
Xc
01 its
)
But Xc tan o; is lhe ordinate
of the A-1diagram uuder Ihe centre
01 gravily of lhe benLling momenl diagram. Therelore
)
and Ihe required displacemenl is
-
(1826)
eJ
"'l
Ae
A
(tJ)r-C
"i
I
........ f ...............
I -J-"-z
t
tz1.,
,
1//
,
+-----t
,
1
,
I
rr;:H1
I
..
Id
I .. r
, "I "
"1
I
'
I
A'
:f
I
\1'
fig. 2tI6
l '
rTfTlTiji]f1
"l,
fig, 267
N,'
".
CI,. /61
( . ) =+1IT]'
M"
D=EJ(+MI)
lile plus sign indicates lhal rot3tion Is in Ihe dlre<:lion of Ihe unil
moment, i.e. in !he clockwise direction.
107. Displaeemenls in Fralllu
let liS cakulate the angle of rolation O 01 secUon e aIld horizontal
displacement h. of poinl D of lhe lram(l shown in Fig. 268(a) with Ihe
help 01 Mohr's theorem.
........-- ZQ
'.
.r,
___l.
r - - 23
f-----l="'..i.
.,
r-i
-2t-
'
(,
lel us calculate Ihe reaetions and bending momenls (or aH !he three
states in Fig. 268(a). (b), ami (e), rcspectively;
(a) due to lhe given load:
H=O,
D=2<j=A,
Al
M,=+z.;x"
M,=+M,
M,=O
H = 1,
D=.!.=A
2a
Mt=
A-r.=a+x"
Jl.n= +x.
H"_O
m
:i-,
;J[f
.[r 2<jxi
='f:l
dx +
f M(a+x,)dx ] =rE
17 M,,-
PoaMliol fnergr.
8(01115
IPort VI
) ti,rIza
,\.1
2Mo
X=3EI
"
",-....;'.:r......l
, , f1.l-J:-
fl
! ________ J,
:--------1"',
,,
'
,,
"1
'"
,,
,,--<
le)
Fig. 269
Fig, 268, The diagrams. which are showo lo Fig. 269(a), (6), and (e),
enable us lo determine Ihe fo!1owiog quanlitics:
1Il,=O
(o},,,,,,Ma,
'!.
4
,,1<;1="3a,
".
,l1 1,=;r ,
(.)
(b)
(e)
6=
The required displacements are:
'(
4
17 Ma'
a ='6
Ma 7' )
6.=7!J
Ma3"a+
r:J
I
2 Ml1.
e=17 Ma '3=;r El
'"
Le! us consider a beam rigidly hed al olle end and loaded al lhe
,.
"
ir
,.
"J
,. ,
,.
Fil. 270
eG al lhe lop .nd bollom surfacts of lhe beam will not warp.
Thf. planes wil! occupy cerlain inlerme(hate positions
c,O,d, ano clJ.1J makmg en .ngle \'. wilh Ihe original (fig. 27O(b).
As in Ihls ClIS! Ihl" shearmg slressn are lhe same In all sections, lhey
will alllurn by lh(' same ane:le Yo ami due lo exclusive e!fed 01 shearing
slres.ses OCClIPY lhe posilion shown in Fig, 270(b); end B will 10wer
w.r.t. supporl A. The delor11lation due lo bending moment, which b
in the form 01 robtion 01 IIdjacenl secllons, is nol shown in Ihe ligurt.
Absolllte d<>neclion 01 Ihe second section W.f.lo Ihe first \\'iIl be equal
lo seg....enl 0,0;, i.e.
(18.27)
In Ihe general case. when he shearing force Q(x) is nol constanl bul
varies long lhe lenll.th 01 lhe beam. angle)lo wi1l aiso vary. However,
Ihe overall piclure oF delormalion wllI relnain unalfeded: only dVq
will be diITerenl for dilferent c1emenls ollenglh dx.
Absolutc del!ection 01 the second seclion w.r.\. Ihe lirst, lduol,
TIlay be ealculaled rom Ihe condilion lhat polential energy of strain
accumul.:ated in thl' elemenl o lenglh dx during shearing is equal lo
Ihe work of eKlernal rorces ading en he e!emen!: JUQ-dW,..
For lhe beam under con.\id<'ratlon Ihe ellernal lorces will be lhe
sheartng slra.ses (lho: shearing
Q(x. If Ihe increasc in load and
delormalion ;$ gra.dual, lhtn (he \\'Ofk done by lhes.e lotces O\"ff a reta-
IPQtI Vi
1'--fQ (.t>!dYol
(18_28)
As Ihe sbeating slresses are no! uniformly dislribuled o\er the sec:.
llon. we ha\'e lo take r:ourse lo Ihe melhod of difttrl"ntialion in ord
lo determine the potenlial energy accumulated by the beam due to
these
Lel us cut a smllll elemenl 01 dimensions d.t, dI, b(z) at a distante
x [rom lhe origin of roordinales and al a dislante z from Ihe neutral
beam (or a !ream made 01 rec"
axis (Fig. 27OCo) oul 01 a
tangular beams). In addHion lo the normal slrE'S$(!s. the sides olthls
e1emcnt will also be subjteled lo shearing stress!:s
Q/x)s(.)
by
Ib(JJtdJI_-.!...."t'b( )d.[dz
:Ili{Z)CJi
2(;
dU
Q-
1 Q'ZlllxSS'(')d'
b"jZ)
Inlegraton is cartil!d out w.r.t. z. and the Iimi\.s of integral ion are
selecled so as lo caver Ihe \\.'hole section.
TIle above exprcssion may be roodified by multiplying anl! dlvidjng
il with lhe crossscclional area A:
A rS/z)d.
dU
O-
Ji J
C<2(')";I
(18.29)
7'
lI8.JO)
blzJ
\\l'
gel
dx ... { Q (xl/ligo
Il>herelrom
01. 181
ItQ(z)
dyo = -u;rdx
{I 83
. [)
Tolal deileclion 01 aJlY secUon having abscissa x is oblained by inlegraling exprasion (18.31):
(18.32)
al constraints.
(18.33)
l.e. the detlecllon of Ihe beam due lo Ihe shearing rorce rsdiredly proporlional to Ihe ordinRle 01 the benc.llng momenl diagram wilh Ihe
opposite sign; Ihe ordinales are measured from a definite axis of abscisSlS.
...
J-12'
Therefore
k_A
J1 -
A"j
[3
S'(Z)d1=9 C(I_41
D(ll
fIi.Jo
A ... bh
b(z)=-b.
1
""
)d_'!
l
p>
M (x}--P{l-x)
and
Deftedlon Yo
As
,.
A - i2 for
Assuming
pp (
",. ' )
f- -m
I +iliiJe
G equal to
\\'t-
oblain:
PI' ( 1 +"47'
"')
-m
(lor met:lls)
pp (
",)
f--w
J+6'jT
(for \\'ood)
f-
Thll$ we set Ihat aditionaJ denecllon due lo Ihe shearin leJ't;e depends
upon (';')'. Thererore in comparaliveJy sherl bealllS, l'SpeCially in
beams, il may .cquire a higt v.lue. For exampJt, i!
then ror a ....'OOden beam
j.t. dellection dIlE' lo IIw!
shearin loru is
01 Iht' delledion due lO the bending momen!.
JI should
note<! Ihal in a number el coursesk is taken lIS 1.5 and
nol as 1.2 (Ior a rectangular stttion). This result is obtained by as
.sumi" lhat thlO deOl'ttion or thl! beam due lo. shearing force depends
upon lhe shearing slrain al lhe neutrdJ surface, but this assumplion
15 erroneous.
11 shoold be further noled hat the dispJacements described above
will nol occur Ol/U sorne length near thlO fixetl end (Flg. 2iO), bul lhis
reduces Ihe cakulated dcneclion of (he bellm by a ver)" small amoun!.
CHAI'TER "
Concepb
a..
1'1
JO'
(Fig. 271(b)); lo reduce (he dtnectioll DI tht beam rigidly fixtd al ene
end (Fig. Z72(a)). we ma)' prop ils rree end (Fil. 272lb.
The crC/S5-section.1 dimensions 01 Ihese beall1$. as 01 the beallls dis
CllUl'd earUer. are oblained by plolting lhe shearin rorce amI bmdin
moment t1iagnms (obvioull)' arter delermining the support reaclions)
,,
,
;;
,
;;
,,;;
")
F,:.
:m
A
A
8
(')
'1
(1)
:;t.
Fill 272
the
Indeterminacy Vla
Dlnerenllill Equlllon 01 the Oeflecled
Beam Altis
lf one
support Is added lo a slatically delerminale bearn, il
mllkes the
single.degree statically indelerrnJnale and simulla.
neollslv creates Olle new condilion foc dtlermining Ihe unknowns:
Ihe dehection uf Ihe beam at Ihe Sllpport is equal lo zero. Therf'fore,
when Ihe dilferential equation of the defletft'd beam axis is mlegraled
Iwice. lhe oVNall number of equations and unknowns is found lo be
equal.
Le:! us consider the beam shoYo'n in Fig. 273. Tlle slatic equations lar
ltw! beam are: HA=O (1). A+8=qf (2): and BI-q"7+MA-O (3).
Onc reatfion is immedialel)' knoo'll. We .are leH wilh 1v.'1) equalions,
(21 and (3). and Ihree unknO\m supporl reaclions: A, 8, Ind M A
!he beam is thus singledegree statically lndelerminate.
"
353
&tvnr
[Part VI
\JI now IloTile Ihe dilftrenlial equllion of Ihe deflected bEoam Ixis
aJ1d ntevale iI Iwlce;
"
EJy
E/U
(19.1)
x'
xt
(19.2)
.x
8x"
E JY""T-7r+
Cx
+D
(19.3)
x-l.
11 fflSues rrom (1) thlt D-o. Condillons (2) and (3) when !ubslituled
into equalioos (19.2) and (19.3), respecli\ely. givt
" '"
T-T+C = O
(19.4)
(19.5)
Dividing (19.5) by 1 and subtracling (19.5) from (19.4)
B"
qt'
81'
+'"
T-"5-T 'N-
B ""'8QI
(19.6)
From Ihe equation d silllks (2) \\'t find A=-}q/. Next we determine
froro equalion (3) the momen! in the rigidly lixed eod,
The fael that' Ihe support reactions are posij[ve indicates Ihat their
direcllons shown in FJg. 273 are eorrect.
Substiluting B in expre:s.sion (19.4). \Ve tibIa in
3
(t
(1
qlI
C-- 8 QI2'+Qi"""'-48
'"
CII. 19}
'iI.'e
gel the
"-q6"-q
"p
EJ !J"
""j'&qx
(19.7)
3
r qJl..
EJII-aqx'l-q :24-4ij"
(19.8)
Beam
Alter comidef"ing Ihe beam sholl,'n in Fig. 273 11,'( eslablished Ihat
(he number of equations of statics was one les! than the number ollhe
unkJ\Ol\'(I support readioll5. One. or the M'actions is a supedlool1S or,
as it ls sometimes called, a
unknown. lhis term has takm
deep rools in lechnicallileralure allhougillt can be applied only wlth
cert.in rescrvations. Obviously, lhe extra reaction and Ihe corresponding supporl conslralnl are redundanl only from Ihe poinl 01 view
of lheir necessit)' in Ihe equllibrium or lhc beam as one rigid body.
From lhe enginetr's poinl or view in 3 numbl!r of Clses Ihl'extr3 supo
porl s nol redundant bul is actually a helplul tool in designing
slruclures.
In a number oi methods employed ror removing slat ie indeterminacy
01 beams, we write down conditions expressing Ihe compatibility of
displacements in lhal seclion, whcre Ihe
readion]s acting.
These conditions along wilh lhe usual equalions 01 slatks enable lIS
lo determine al! lhe unknown supporl reaclions.
In 110 lor lhe beam shO'\llTl in Fig. 273 wt had 1....'0 equalions of
statks 101' detesmining Ihree unknown support reaclions A, B. and M".
Any 01 lhe three can be lakm as the redundant readion. Lel lIS choose
!he reaclion Di supporl 8 as redundan!. In ihis case .....e can arglM!' Ihat
lhe iven beam is oblained 110m the slatically ddumjnale beam AS
wilh end A rigidly lixed (FiC. 274); end 8 is I,er propped up by an
additiorlal support.
lhe statically determinate beam oblained Irom lhe stalk.ally indeterminale beam by removing the
constr.int is known 3j lhe
VI
,If.------,
Fi,. 274
However, Ihis is not sullic:itJIt. In the btam shown in Fig. 275, poinl
8 may mo\'t verlic:ally under lhe adion 01 rorces q and 8. 9<lIereas
in the actual slalkall)' lmktermin.ate beam (Fig. 273) point B dotsnol
hay! Ihis Irtedom: il mus! remain altachtd lo lhe supporlil'.g hllie.
Therclore, to nl.ke figs. 273 and m Idenlkal, \\'t musi add lhe condition th.t the delleclion al poinl 8 due to forccsq ;'Jnd 8 musi bt- lelO:
f,.-O
(19.9)
This is Ihe additional cquation which enables us lo determine reacllon B. Il represents lhe conllitlon of jolnl lIeformation as appJied
to lhis case: end 8 does nol ddach from (he supporl. This 1:IddillonaJ
t<juation can be salved by a number of me!hods.
1,.-1,.,+11111=0
(l9.10)
,1'
let us load Ihe base be.1lm
The de8cclion al poinl B in this case wi1l
la.- +m
'"
'"
-W
m= O
whefefrom B=
. I.t'. Ihe sanM! as ob!all\ed urlier in 110 (19.6).
In lhis IDl!lhod I...e 6rst allow lhe base beam lO delorm under lotte
q. antl Ihen 5elecl a lof'C'e B whkh relUrns poinl B lo its original poIii.
lion. ThIU \lIe Sl'lect Ihe
reaclion B $\leh Ihal the defteclions
1o
o
i"'lllll:;\jJ..
,,,
: '"
-""";'.t
{----...I
.. -1"-'
1,.
"
"
l.
.-.l.....
, ,
wL:=--=*_1
........
1:
;nn.....
11111II 116.
o
r
{I)
'1
rf
1
1
-,J' I
I
I
."/
l-lr--:.
FOl. Z17
ot comparlson
of disp/aamellfs.
A-S T
qll
MA,""s
Q- -B+qx=-q
lbe bending moment and shearing force diagrams are 500110'11 In
\P4V1 VI
absdssa
7,f=O.
x.-
Le.
Jql
T-qx.... O
whertrrom
ment diagram
3q131
ett
+mql'
rhe
reaclion 8 (Fig. 278(0) is replaced by a redundant
unkl10wn force 8, which aels on the statically delerminale beam A8
(Fig. m(b)) along with lhe gi\'ef!
force q.
By dilferenliating !he expression
for polential
!lA
(4}
t'I
Flg. 278
w.r.l. 8 and
M Au)A!
(19.11)
afler dividing
,
/(8X-';')x""-0
(19.13)
whererrom
8 .. 31ft
(19.6)
Afltr Ihis Ihe solution is the same as in lhe method of displacellltnt com-
parisOn.
Ch. 191
Fig. 280
"
M=Bx-qz.
MO=x
(19.14)
'54
The arNS 01 the bending mornenl diagrams are:
for
I q/'
q:
lar force 8:
qt*
B/'
r,)'='fB1Xf=T
force are:
(IR:
whereirom
B=t;ql
Alter Ihis Ihe solution is the same M l'lplaint'd in 110 nd 112.
,i
I
';Pc+-+---'
e,
Ch. /9J
'"
au
f,""y=O
polenlial energy U is lhe 5um oflhe en<'rgies of Ihe first portion, C8.
and lhe second portlon, BA. Conse(juenll)". equalion f,=O can be
a_ _
wriUen as
:
...!...\'M liJC
+--h5
aM,
AI1"",,+Cx,.
ae;=x,
M.= +Ca-Px"
Q,'./,
.,,-_
I==='J
.Pa
+a
f'g_ 283
"
C,c'+
3
(Ca-Px,) adx=O
eti'_ T
Pa' -o c- 3 P
-'
-"8
portion
M,= {Px,
and in
C<1'
{,);=+Caxa=Ca'
and
I
Po'
ro:=-2"Paxa=-T
(P<lr/ YI
,.
--
{#}
(bJ
-i--_ __
"
p,
(cJ
Fl( 284
(e)
Ml:i.=+a.
TTc+C/l"a-T D - O
or
From a praclkal point 01 view a ver)' importanl category indelerv..hich lie on a number
inmina!e bealTlS are the cortlruwus
lermediate supporb to which they are hinged. The ends of such b(>ams
may be l'ither hinged or rigidly fixed. Lel us lirst diSoCuss a case when
or
lhe beam has hinged suppor\s. In conlim:ous beams one 01 Ihe end supo
moving. The
poris is usually lixed whereas aH olhers are capable
numbering 01 supporls and spans will be lrom leH to riht, the eJllremt
leh supporl wil1 be denoted by O and lhe extreme lel! span by J.
Lengths o the spans .....i!I be denoled by leller 1 wHh lhe numbel' 01 lhe
corresponding span as a subscript. We shall assuU\t Ihal Ihe beanr is
or uniform section 3nd COIUHIuently ils rigidily Ei is comlaot. Fig'
ure 285 shows 3 oonlinuous beam wilh appropriate oolalions. and
,Iso lhe support r{'aclions. 11 can be easily seen lhal the number or
or
c/. 19J
'"
Sla/icallll "delermiflak
c-__
-----l
IjImIlJ'nmmi,'
'"
IP",t VI
beam jusi above the inlermediale support. poio! B, i.e. jf \\1.' consJder
lhe momen!;tl support 8 as he redundant unkoov,n. Now {he base beam
syslem will consist of two simpl)' supporle<l beams hinged u polnts
A, B. and"C .ml h3ving;l conllOOr'l support at poin! B.
This precise!y is 110\1.' the base
s)"s!em is selec:led in c:onlinuous
beams. The bMding momen!! M .. M ..... , M._" Al", M"", .1
lhe intermedlale sllpporls are laken as lhe redundanl unknowns.
5uth a
ollhe redundan! unknowns simplilits he equalions
from which lhe rormer are cRlclIlated. The equalions rnay be written
in general form wilh Ihe help 01 the theorem of lhree momen!!.
f .
elc., and
CII. 191
S/Q/iMlJII
1ham&
beam bolh aedlGM coineide and limply repreenl lila liiidts of the seme
sedion. Thereiore, the condition 01 joint deiormation rnsy be wrillen
"
... o
(19.15)
IP.v' VI
"
ti!
-1,
I,
,l'
,, - - - - - ;"
",:
/,
t ,'.
.;
11
FI,.
2Bl:I
""IIIIIIIIIIII$
-.-1..,
11",:-1""1
1""--;"'111.1'
t1./
.<;
-:--i .
'6f
11
>:
"< ,.,
(b) he triangular bending mommt diaram from posiUve support
momeol Al._ , ;
mamen!
CI,.
Q;
9',,= EJ
7;
7; +yM"r,,+
e;,
=
M"_,l,,
q. is equal
is:
ij;J
.. +
R",,-(0)"+;1,,+1
b".,
M._,I,.)
R; lar
11le- shearing lorce in Ihis case is equal lo lhe sUJlport reacUon taken
wilrJ a negaUve sign:
lile angle or rotal ion
... _
D'
is:
W(6W".,
+ 2Mi,.+I+ M,,+,f,.+l)
8eDm5
(6w,'7;+2M"/,,+M H
/,,
and
)+(
"M"_,t,,+2M,, {I,,+
VI
.., =-6
(w:" +
(19.16)
(19.17)
Here
represents the ficiilious readion or supporl (1'1) due lo bending momenl diagrams M (x) of Ihe glven load on Ihe two atljoining
spans.
117. An bample on Application al Ihe Theorem
of Three Momenls
Lel us eonsider a lhreespan continuous beam of uni[orm sed ion
which is loaded as shown in Fig. 291(a). 513rt numbering lhl' supports
Irom Iclt to rigil!. "fhe equalion of lhrce momcnts &hould be wrilten
lwice: lar supporls / and 2.
''+!LjP
ji
"!
Ai'
ro--- /, -1-- lz--:;;:::-P,
lb) l i T
I
II
CIt. J91
.\I ,=JI.""O,
Ill".,-WJ The t"quation can
Co>.-=Ill,_O
IPI"
+,r,
+ "2T'=
8'
, ,- ,.-'2
"
\\Titlen
3
(19.18)
01,,=01,_+
M =M._O,
21, ,1:
P;
,t:
01,_61._ + TT""'+jj
l.,....,= ,'o
a._a._,!,
.-y
M,l,+2M,(I.+/,.... -jPI:-!f
(19.19)
and
"
MJ""-noPt
Knowing the supporl momenls, ....: " can easily plol lhe bending mo-
Jr.ent diagram oI lhe oonlinuous beam ....' thout any addilional calcula
Ponlial
''4
Ip",1 VI
(6)
,
I
Fil. 292
+ 8l-PxO.51 = M, = -
"
i2QPI
span:
"
DI-O.5P/= M'=-I2OPI,
e afler considering
7
D2l-"2Pl+CI-TPI-M,=-mP,
C"'T2fiP
0.. 191
Let
U$
A+B+C+D=2P
7
1I7
IH
P +mP == 2P
-,'10 P +rw P + 12ll
We
Ihat lhey are. With alllhe readions ca!cu1ated Ihe shearing
force diagrams for aH Ihe spans can be plotled without an)' t1ifficulty
(Fig. m (d).
118. Colltinuous Beams wltn Cantlleven.
Beams wllh Rie1dly Fixed Ends
Tbe theorem of Ihree moments can be easily
lo silualions
wben Ihe beam has cantlevers or when lhe entls (ooe ot both) of Ihe
beam ate rlgld1)' lixed.
Let us considcr a twospan beam with a canlilever (Fig. 293(4)).
whJch works under the loJlowing oontlitions:
I,-Gm.
1,_Sm,
a-2m,
q_4i1/m
The mommt Me ma)' be considrred as known and equallo lhe bend
lng mament in section e due lo the load acting on Ihe cantilever.
f--.I/
I
(b)
(4
1I II
. i1lilll[iSf.UI
':
..
r-
."
10
&
IJ
..J
..
Q.8
Fil"_ 29J
M._-M.=O,
11=1,
lhe tquation
trIO-
M._M,_?,
1,=0,
js:
(19.20)
'"
"(1+1)
I "
t'"
BtilJrlJ
Pafi VI
qa'I,_qf,
2
'
whererrom
M, = -3.86 ti m
When de!ermlning Ihe support re:lctions, it is rec:ommended lo
stud}' beam AB and llie beam with cantilever BCD separalely. rhe
bending momen! amI shearing force
diagrams are shown in Fig.293(b)
Qnd (e).
'
In arder lo explarn ho\\' lo solve
lhe probleOl when one end 01 lhe
beam IS rigidly Iixed, \\le mus! lirst
FiJ. 294
of lhe wall can lurn as a const'quence. The smaller the leglh l, and lhe grealer fhe momen! 01
tia 01 fhe portion and the lower the pllabilty 01 the wall, Ihe more rigid is the constraint. We shall gel ao absolulely rigid fixalion by as
suming that in the Iirnill,-O (or J.=oo). While analY1.ing continuou;
Ibeams wilh fixed ends, we musl replaee ltle fixalion by ao addilional
'Span, ""rile Ihe equalion of {hree moments and Ihen oblain Ihe condi
tions lar lhe aclual beam by subsUluling
Ij=O
or
J,=oo
Let ti! consider a beam rigidly fixed al bolh ends and loaded b}' a
force P acting at dislances a and b from Ihe lel! and right supports
respectively (Fig. 295(a)). We assume !hat supporls A and 8 do nol
impede longilut1inal de!ormation of Ihe beam. We remove Ihe consl
rain!s and add a span on eaeh side Ihus reducing OUT problem to the
analysis oi a three.span continuous beam (Fig. 295(b)).
We have Ihe following (Jata for wriling the equation 01 three momenls al supporl J:
lIl"""'lIl,=O,
Cit.
(1
(19.21)
. ';Tri
i
j i '
MH,=M,=O,
e:
_1
Thenlore
Ml, +2M, (t, + t,) = -6
P:!' (1 +t)
(ti'
M I I+2M,l
'.
."',
(19.22)
i
'
. -7i: ttV
(! +T )
J +7)
fig.
1
I
I
!,
!l':1
__
!
'....
: M-.l
.....fl\("
:m
M,=-""""i"
o,+",,'+M,1I
T
2Pa'b"
T----r-
PART VII
Resistance
Under Compound Loading
CHAPTER 20
Unsymmetrlc Bendlng
119. Fundamental Concepts
Until M0\1I we have studled problems in whlch he clements 01 a
slrudure are subjected lo oMly one 01 lhe fundamental deformalions:
simple eosion or compression, lorslon, oc planar bending. In actual
practice a rnajority of {he eJements al structures and machines are
acled upon by lorces which give rise to t\\'o or more types 01 deforma
tions simuJtaneously.
Shafts in machines are slIbjected lo lorsion as well as bending. Besides teosion oc oompression baTs af trusses (rafttrs. bridges and
tranes) also experirnce bending, beca use 01 welded and riveted joio/s
al corners ostead of hinges lor which lhe trusses are ael uall y designed.
All such cases in which we have a cornbination 01 fundamental defor
mations are cases of rompoulld loading.
Analysis of cornpound loading is usually based on the principIe of
superposition of forees. Le. it is assurnod lhat Ihe e1Ted of delormatiori
caused by Dne of the forces on Ihe deformation caused by lhe resl of
lhe forces is negligible. Experiments confrm thal Ihis principIe can be
applied when deformations are small (excepllonal situations when it is
nol applicable al aH will be discussed later). Hence the prIncipIe
of superposilion 01 lorces may be applied to determine lolal slres.'!es
and deforrnalions in an elastic syslem subjecled lo compound loading
of an arbitrary n:llure. Le. slresses and slrains corresponding lo Ihe
various Iypes oi fundamental deformations may be added gecmelrically.
Let us lirsl study the particular cases 01 compound loading and Ihen
Ihe case when Ihe elaslic syslem is subjecled lo the mosl general como
pound loading.
ell. 101
lJ,uymmlfrk lUnd/ll'
;; f
,;
'
ft-j-
.. \
'
;- !7"-
1'4
Fit 296
-'"Y
-K \
"
In actual praclice we olteo come across cases when Ihe plane or .p.
plication of the (orces does nol coincide ""ilh any ollhe t ....o principal
axes of inerlla or the seclion. Experimenls show Ihat under such load
log Ihe axis el the bent beam does not lie in lhe
of application
of lhe forces; Ibis is knov<1l as
btndjllg.
P ../
Flg.
apr'ica.
tlon el ""hich makes a considerably large angle wilh the princlpa axa
[purl VII
(Fig. 296). We also orten come across cases when Ihe plane of appllca
lion 01 forces is on!}' slightly inclincd to lhe principal axes 01 inerlia.
We shall explaln Ihe melhod af checking the stl'ength aod calculllling lhe deformalioo io case 01 unsyrnmelric bending wilh Ihe help 01
lhe lollowiog example.
Consider a beam rigidl}' lixed al one end aod loaded al lhe olber by
n force P which aels 00 lhe lace of Ihe bearn and makes ao anlZle lJ'
wilh lhe principal axis 8z (Fig. 297). The sel:ond principal axis By
is pt'rpendicular lo lht' firsl; lelus seled lhe diredioo 01 the coordinate
axes such Ihat rorce p lies lo lhe firsl
quadrant.
For chccking the strenglh of the
beam we must firsl (im] lhe point
which experiences Ihe maximum nOfmal stress. Lel us derive an expreso
sion for lhe normal stress al 3ny poi nt
01 ao arbitr:uy secUon al a dislance
x Irom the free eml of lhe bellm.
Le! us divide force Pinto componenls, P, and P y , which are direcled
along lhe principal axes 8l and By,
The values of these components may
be calculaled by Ihe followlog formulas:
"
Fig. 298
Pz=PCOS!fi
amI
Pu""Psin(jl
(20.1)
'"
lying in lhe lirsl qUMdranl (Fig. 297). \Ve can separaltly calculale lhe
and M, \\'hlch
an<l xy respecIiVl'ly. lhe formu-
Xl
las dcrlved lor plllnar bending are valid in Ihis case too.
The normal
at poln! dile lo bending momen! M r is compressve (negaUve) sod ma)' be upres.sed by lhe formula
Al"r
M:
_ .........
=--COS'l'
J,
J,
\\llere J, is lhe momtnt 01 inertil 01 Ihe seclioo aboul the Y-al is which
is aiso Ihe neutral 8IlslO( bendll1l due lo momenl M,o Mamenl M,
, ..111 libo give tise 10 oompressive slresses al poinl
lo
M,.
Al...
_--'J..<.=--Slnlp
Jk
J
......here J. s Ihe Rlon1enl o( inertia 01 Ihe seclion aboul Ihe l-axis. Tolal
strl'SS al poinl is obhined as Ihe alebraic sum or lhe stresses calculaled above:
Al,;'
M (rroS'l'+'lln,,)
0--7;-7;=T
-;-
(20.2)
1he al)(we formula may be used lar calculatine lhe slrts5eS at any
polnl in an)' stion r:! lhe beam. As Ihe formula has beet1 Qerived ror
a pomt with posilive coordmalu!l and 1, we shallllways gel lhe slrl!:Ses ...... ith Mir proper signs il we wbstitule!l and 1 with proper sieos in
formula (20.2).
al poinl D \Fig.29n
is posilive bul 1 b negative. Conseqtwnlly. the lirsl lerm in (ormu a (20.2) will become positivc u-hereas
lhe secand wi1l remaln negatlve as before.
Atthough formula 120.2) has bun oblamed by
a particular cose of a beam rigid!y fixed al one end and loalled al lhe olher, it
Is nol difrlcult lo notice Ihal il is a general formula lor calculating
in unsymmetric bending. Only lhe rules lar linding Ihe pro01 lhe slresses will be dilTerenl fOl" beans whlch are Joadetl Of
ler
oonslrained in a different manoer. 11 he posilive direclion 01 lhe
rlno::ipal axes of nerti. passing through the centrold s .1ways se
ecle<! in such a way thal Ihe planeof applicatlon of !orces always pas
ses tbrough lhe Iirsl quadranl, Ihen lhe sign bdatt the rllht-hand slde
of formula 120.2) should be in accordlnce wi!h the nature o deforma
I ion lI.'hich takes place tlue lo tM: bending reament (or its wml>Ol1f'nls)
at Iny point in tht liut quadrant (1 positive siln in Clse of teosion Ind
r.
r.
382
two un.planar
bendjngs, here
J,
+ s;n'i'XYo =0
J.
(20.3)
CA. ID)
to IlJOI:K'J1t M" whereM the signs lo the right and leH d the secliOl1
are ror moment M,. Fot a beaRl which 15 loaded and conslrained in.
dilfercnl way (Fig. 3(0), Ihe signs 01 lhe slresses will also change ac
cordingly.
fl(.
o:
tanct=I;:1
From equalion (20.3) v'"e oblain
tano:_I"I=bn, '"
Y.
J.
(20.4)
o:
(Po,! VII
where y, and 1, (orJ' and l j art' Ihe coordinalf'S 01 Ihe poinl (in Ihe
coordinale system
rrinclpal axes passing Ihl'Ough lIJe centroid) lar
IIlesl frOfil lhe neutra u is.
fy.I-ly.I-Iy... 1
aud
11,1-lz,I""'ll...,1
formula (2O.S) ma}' be simplilied and the expression for cr,,, l' ma)'
be wriHen as (ollo\\'1:
'1n,)
"(
,11",.)
.,(....lSt,
cr",.,=I>
-Y;-'""Il";"" .... W; coslpTiV;smlp
1'06)
,
is as Jol\owl:
+;;
in ..),.;;;: [aj
i.
(20.7)
CII. MI
UI1smlMlrlt BtI1dil1f
'"
lion of neuiral llxis and Ihe coordinales 01 the rarlhest poinl (PI' ll)
musL be delermil1ed cVl'ry
bdorehand. For a rectangular seclion,
-F
(20.8)
bul ,hen aH alies become the principal axes, and unsymmelric bending
becomes impossible;
o[ Ihe plane of Joading we shall have
uniplanar bending. lhis will be Irue for square, circular and aH
otber sedions whlch satisry cquation (20.8).
lhe shearing
may also be calculated by a melhod similar lo
the 0111' Bdopted ror determining lhe normal slresses: Ihe total shearing
stress wi11 be equal lo lhe geometric sum of the stressti due lo benrling
in eaeh 01 tht' principal
Usually the value 01 the shearing
slresses has no praclical importance.
Pi"
y=3CJ....
Tolal deRedion f of {he Iree end or Ihe beam is equal lo the geomel
ric sum 01 Ihe l\\'o deAedions:
(20.9)
(20.10)
Par/ VII
'"'
f
It lollows Itom ihis relation Ihat Ihe angle belween tolal defledion
and lhe zaxis is equal lo (l, l.e. dellection f is perpend.icular lo Ihe
momenl 01 inerlia, lhen plane XOz wlll be {he plant 01 meuimum rigi-
di/y, because Ihe deflection or lhe beam is mnima! in Ihis plane. !f,
,,
plane
or
01 ex/ernal
for-
,lO
,
I
,"
2/Pxr,
OOcm,
6' xXi
J '=-rr---36Dcm'
4000
J;-"360:::::; 11
'"
CI. 2tl1
a;:::::;
( co,q:+WSIn'l'
"".)
Al'
2(1
-(I+ll(antp)costp;::;;:(I+ao.0875 )1=,.29
"
fig. 303 shows Ihe relative lacalion of lhe neutral surlace, he plane
or bending and lhe plane 01 lo<lding.
Beams in which (he principal momenls 01 inertia 01 seclions dilfer
considerabJ>' from
anolher, work satisfaC!orily if bending occurs
304
[1'(lfl VII
consisting 01 S pIste. and two angles (Fig. 304(a, ......o rking under s lolld
acting in plane xOz was reinlorced by welding lo il an e.:drll angle
(Fig.304(b)). This resutted in
of {he principal axes from Ihe
plane 01 londlng and gave rise lo de-Iermallan in Ihe lale-ral cliredion,
which was comp!elely unforeseen.
bample. Selecl Ihe secUon lor a wooden 18th 01 heighl h andll'ldlh
b and dele-rmine the denection of its midd!epeint. AS5ume Ihal -} =2;
Ihe lenglh 01 Ihe beaO! (dislance between fhe Iwo supporUng lrusses)
is 1=4 m and the rool is inclined at 23" te lhe horironlal; Ihe load due
lo lhe letll's weight and Ihe weight of snowon Ihe roo Ola)" beconsid
ered as unilorrnly dislribuled and ha.... ing the inlensity q=400 kgr1m.
rhe lath is simply supporled. Permissble stress is 100 kglcm", and
Ih(' modlllus of elasticily ls [=10j\\aximum bending momenl will OCCllr al lhe middle 01 Ihe span;
ii will be
'11'
41l1.1xJ6
M u ,n=g=-g-=800kgl.m
As angle lJ' is ('qual lo Ihe angl" o slant d lhe roof, Le. 25", H 101
lo\\'s rom formula (20.7) and condilion
-2 t11at
blr1h'M(
h)
Coscp+-sinq>
00000
= 1402 cm'
wherefrom
12x 1402....25.6::::::26 cm and b= 13 cm.
Maximurn del1eclion 01 Ihe bearn occurs al the rniddle of Ihe span.
Moments of inerlia of the 5ecllon are:
bIP'
13x'!h'
Ir"
Iv =T2 ""---r= 19050cm',
J. =12- ---z- ... 4760cm'
The angle ol inclinalion, a, of the neutral axis can be determined as
follows;
lana =tan
1.865
3::s4xJ!}59xl)( - . cm
'"
_.1L._
<os 11
1.35
cm
15:
Hcnce, in
and
15
CHAPTn 21
beam is
lo
Fi,. 305
lile first 01 hese cases is shown in Fig. 305. Beam AB is aeted upon
b\' a unilorml}' distributed force q and an axial compressive force P.
I( u'e assume Ihat Ihc deftcclion 01 the beam is negligiblc as compared
lO ils c:ross-sedional dimenslons, \\'e can also assume with sufficienl
a<:cllraey lhlt alter defOlmalion fau P will gve rise lo uial compres
sion only,.
Appl)'ing
melhod or superposition al forces. \\'t can find lhe nor
mal slresses al any poin! of an arbitrar)' seclion as Ihc algebraic sum
of slresses caused by fort1!::5 P and q.
Coopressive slrm al' due lO
P
unnonol)' distributed over
Ihe crosssl!'l.'tional arta, S, aod is equal in aH scctions:
rorct
a..
[Ptorl VII
too
=Af{.r)l
(J
J.
""'"+ M(J:)f
__
1,
0""'0".. +0 _ _ P
9
Figure 306 shows Ihe diagrams of slre-ss dis!ribulion in the given seco
tlon due to forees P and '/ and also lhe resullal'lt diagram. Maximum
slress oe<:urs in lhe uppermost libres, where bolh deformalions are
6:
compressive; the libres btlow the nrulra! axis experie!k:e eilher tenop and
In order lo write Ihe slrenglh condition let us del<'Tmine lhe maxi
murn normal stress.
> Ihe slresses due to forces Pare equal in al1 sections Ilnd uniformIy dlstribuled, Ihe critical libres are lhose which experient:e Ihe max!
murn bending slrcsses.
libres are lhe ou!er nbres of (he secUon
in which lhe maximum bending momen! occurs; ror them
, .. -_ M...
IV
Thu5. slresses in the outero libres J and 2 (Fig. 306) of tlle middle
setlion of Ihe bearn ma}' be upressed
(21.1 )
llnd he de:sign stress
10.,I-IOII-lt + Mi,"1
(21.2)
Ch. 111
'"
(J..
In wrlting equation (21.3) \\'t" have assumed Ihat the section Is symmel
rie aboul lhe neutral uS alld Ihe beam material has equal resislance
to teruion and comprmion.
lhe above melhod can 3150 be appliecl to beams subjected to in
clinel1loading (Fig. :YJ7). lhe incllned loree can be decomposed into
P-Utf
, , 1,
,:
r--t--ol
1
'
)--r,:
Fil. 308
fil- 301
., -=
"m..
PCOS3O"(
=!J.
18751'. m
IGx3O'
PCTI VJ!
39'
, ,
P'
r;)4'
P
Fi: 309
F,C. 310
,,
,A
,,
-"-------.,A'",
"
"
01
FJ. 311
Fie
'"
ell. !II
In arder lo lind Ihe ma:r.imullI
point of lhe stl:tion, \\"t ll'fHe
the expression lor normllllress a .lit an ubltrary poinl B having COCl[dinales Ylnd l. The .stresses in section C-e art mide up ofaxial como
due 10 foroe P.1IM bending stress dut lo pure unsYll'Imelric bending by moment Pt. \\-Me t=OA. The compressive .stress due
to rorce P is equal to al t:\'ery poinl, whl'ft' S is Ihe CTOM-seclional
area of the bar; unsymmelric bending may be replKed by hending rooments in lhe principal planes. ,\\onI('111 pyP bentls the bar in plllne
xO, about lhe neutral llJCis Oz and gves rise lo normal compressive
stress
at poin! B. Similarly. Ihe normal stress al poinl B dile lo
bending tn plane xOz c.1used by momen! PZ p is :'lIso compressive and
""
is equal lo -,-.
Summing th: slressC!S due lo axial compreuion and bending in IlIJo
planes and considering Ihe etllllpressive stre.ss/!S to be negalive. u'e get
Ihe rollowi", formula lar Ihe sIras at poinl B:
s
Ja
J.
J.
J.
(21.4)
sion
p ( 'J
1
+'"+'-")
J.
-r;
and In
compre.s.slon a negative signo
The above formula may be modified soll'lewhal. Ltt lIS fac!orou! ;;
"'e obtain
O" -
+,. +,..
''')
-'$
P ( 1 '"
'.
"
(21.5)
He'fe i. and ir are Ihe rldi of g)'ulion al lhl! sec:lion aboul the priado
p.11Xl!S (recalllJlal J.-i'S and l,=I;sJ.
To lind Ihe mu:imum
'Il"t musl self"C1 Ihe y- and 1M
Z-Ul.s In .such a way that (J altairu the maximum v.lue. The varylng
terms in formulas (21.4) and (21.5) are lhe last two, which reJlec:t Ihe
jParl VII
r.
s
1+
"
(21.6)
1.",,0,
and obtain
1+
",
-O,
y._a,
",""
a,=-_
""'
(21.7)
!l. =0,
we oblain
(21.8)
P (\
+1 ; - +---;Z":(I.I) )
(21.9)
1f Iht bar's malerial has equal resistance to lensLn and compress.ion, then Ihe slrenlh condilion mil)" be \\'rilten as
..
p(
zf,' ) ,(a)
(21.10)
'"
CI. 2/J
For sections wilh comers in which both principal axes oF inertia are
also Ihe axes oF s)'mmelry (rectangle. [beam, etc.), Y'=Yn... and z,=
=zm..' Therefore formula (21.10) may be simplified and wriiten as
lollows:
IOmul=P(:r+
+::J
[a]
(21.11)
H lhe material oF lhe bar has unequal resistance lo tension amJ compression, lhen Hs slrenglh must be checked in lhe slrelched as well as
compressed zone.
However, in sorne cases one check may sulnce for Ihese malerials
a15O. lt is eviden! from lormulas (21.7) and (21.8) Ihal Ihe localion 01
poinl A 01 appliclllion oF Force and thalof Ihe neulral axis ar{' inlerrelaled; lhe ncarer poinl A is to Ihe
cenlre 01 gravily lhe smaller Ihe
coordinates YP and Zp and Ihe grealer Ihe segments 0v and O,. Thus,
as polnl A approaches Ihe cenlre 01
gravily 01 Ihe secUon, the neutral
fIlOves away rom il, and vice
nrS3. Therefore, in certain positions
of poinl A the neulral axis \ViII
pass outside Ihe secl ion and Ihe
whole secUon will experhmce eilhe.r
tensile or compressive slress. Ob
viously, in such cases il is always
sufncient lo check the slrength oF
Ihe malerial at poinl DI only.
fij!. 313
Let us analyz.e a case of practica]
imporlance, when a bar of recian
guiar secUon (Fig. 313) is eecenlrically loaded by force P al point A
on lhe principal axis Dy. The eccenlricily DA is l.'qu<ll lo e, and lhe
dimensions 01 Ihe sed ion are b and d. Applying Ihe Formulas oblained
aboye, we gel
Yp_ +e,
lp=O
The slress al point 8 Is
S ) - P l'I+Iz"y)
rJ-!:....l'I+'1P!l
- s
--;;
"""'P'""
because
12M
(21.12)
12
J; = -;;; = F
The stresses are equal at al! polnts on a line parallel lo axil 01. Location 01 the neutral axis is determined b)' the segmenls
(21.J3)
IPMI Vil
Tite neulral axis 15 paraJlello lhe z-axis; lhe poinls which experience
maximum tensile and compressive stresses llre localcd on Ihe sides 1-1
llnd 3-3.
The values of 0.." and O"'ft mal' be oblained by subslituling
= in formula (21.12):
.... / -bl
..
111
(21.14)
yp=---+,
"g
fl
(21.15)
"e
ell. 111
""
dTawing Ihe neulral axis coinciding wilh the slde$ <i lhe pol)"gOO and
calculating lhe sements a, and a. lar lhe corresponding sides.
In lbe lralUitlon rom one side ollhe tonlour lO another the neulral
axis u'iII rolalt aboul the apu btlween the Iwo sides; the point of
ilpplkalion uf force will move 0J1 he core's boundary betu1!Ul lhe
Fig
Fil. 315
+"',
IpZ,,_O
,...- + -r
,
Yo"f see Ihat coordinales YP and z,. 01 poinl A. UK' point of application
allorce P, are related lo eat"h olher tinearty. Thus. jf lhe neutra! uis
rolales aboul a fixtd poinl 8, he po;nl 01 applicatioo of lorce moves
along a slTllighl line. ConverseIy, lhe llIOtion of lorce P along a slraight
fine is consislent wilh lhe rol8lion 01 the neutral axis aboul I lile<!
pomL
IPQtI Vf
wherelrom
"
(21.16)
N,
y;
iNt
,
O,
'1
--O;
L rt,
N, I
.y
I--O;
0, ' e:
f,g. 316
lO!
fjg. 317
To draw the core's boundary completely, let us plot the neutral axis
in positions H,O, and ti.O. corresponrting lo lhe extreme points I
amI 2.
As the force moves from point 110 point 2 along he core's boundary,
Irom position ti,O, to H,O, alt thl" time
Ihe neutral axis must
touching the seclion, .e, rotating abaul poinl D. For this lo occur, Ihe
force musl move along he straight line /2. lt can be similarly proved
that lnes 23, 34, and 4/ wil1 form the other boundary Jines of the
core.
Thus, for a reclangular seetion he core is a rhombus with diagonllls
ellual lo onethird 01 the corresponding sides 01 lhe secl ion. I-Ienee. if
the lon;e is applied on lhe principal
lhe whole seclion experi
ences strrssl'S of n particular sigo, provided the poinl of application of
Ihe force rloes nol tie beyolld one-Ihird al Ihe
01 Ihe corres
ponding sirle lrom Ihe centre of gravity.
399
CIl. 711
FiiUre 318 shc:w."S the dislribution or normal slrtsSeS along lhe hcigbt
of 11 rectangular seclion when lile ecct'Jllric'ity is equal lo uro, leu
lhun, tqual to and more lhan OM-sixth 01 Ihe width of Ihe section. 11
.
p
'
Fil. 318
shnuld be noled tha! for al! localions of lorce P Ihe stres.s al the lWltre
of gravity of thl" secUon (point O) is the sanie and equallo
ami force
P does nol have any e<:eenlrieily along Ihe S'Ond principal axis.
f,
, ,
8
Fit(. 319
,I,
-1
,I
, ,,
Fil 320
;,
_a
?/_L._
"
FIl[.
'"
FrOIll syrnmetry eonsidcrallons the core o 8 circular !e<:lion 01 r;ld;r will also be a cirde 01 radlus r. Lel usconsidcr an arbilrary posi
tion 01 !he neutral a;o;is t.ngenl to the rontour. We Wiall dire<:1 axi.s Oy
perpendicular to lhis langt'flt. Then
U5
Htnee. the core is a circle of radlus four limes less \han the radius
of lhe sec:tion.
.00
YJ1
In an ]beal1l the neutral nis will nol inltrSed {he soclion "..h ile
moving round ji, il iI remains langtnlial lo reclangle ABCD dtsCribed
around Ihe IOOm (fi. 319). Thtrefore. in an
the cort is
rhombus, as in a redanul;Jr stion, bu! onl}'
dilf('fffit dimen
sions.
in oliO )bum, points J. 2, J. 4 or lhe cort'S
In 1 channel bar,
boundary (Fig. 320)
lo posilions of lhe neutral axis \\ilen
it coincides wilh lhe
of rec.tangle A,8CD. The dilitances may be
foun rmm formulas (21.15).
Eumple l. A culoul element Di a chain (Fil' 321) s madI:! of slte!
wire
diameler d-SO mm; 0_60 mm. Find Ihe muimum permiso
sible value 01 rom P ir (he permissibJe tensHe stress in mlion A s
or
101-1200 kgffcm l .
4.
y.. =t_D:+y
1,_0.
o-+$'+
Sululituling lhe \imiling valucs
minimum
O' ..
";jj'i
2rrd'
rrd'
[1!!]_
" [1 8(.. dI-f)]
d""'iiifi"
"+[ +;.i2]
8
J.
y= {. we find
p(ll+f),
"'Tillen as
=
wherefrom
."
Ch. 221
\IIe isolale a portion one melre long from Ihe wall (Fig. 322), we
can consider il asa bar lixed at one end and subjected to bending duc lo
('srth pr(!S5ure and compression due lo ils own weight. Asthe mllximum
slrcsses occur at Ihe lixed cnd, il is surlicienl lo check Ihe slrength 01
lhe cutoll" portion in !lis section on\)'. The problem ofdetermining
stresses in lhis section is equivalenj lo analyzing a bar subjected to simullanooU5 compression and bending.
The lorces transl1Iitted Ihrough his seco
tion are theweighl
(he culolf porlion
t
I
N=lx2x3X2=12 tf ami earlh pressure H-3 ti. Thc bending momenl in
.
his seclioll due lo lorce H is equa] lo
I
M=H-}=3 Um. \Ve shall employ
11
formula (21.3) lor caJculaling [he max
imum normal slresses at he edge 01
lhe foundlllion. The seclion \\'hich is
being checked ;s a rectangle with dimensions b==2 m ilnd d= 1 m; Iherefore lhe maximum compressive stress
on side 11 01 this seclion is
or
__L_
12
6X3
=-6-4.5
= - iO.5tr/m' = - 1.05 kgf/cm'
2
Fi. 3-"2
o"ln=-S+W=-6+4.5
= - 1.511tm l =-- 0.15 kgf/cm"
CHAPTER 22
[Pur VII
1,
N
8
,
I
IP
c..!..
,
I
V
-p7'fN%
'
,L
.Le pJ
Fig. 323
Fig. 324
and a horizontal force P ads at the erank pin al Ihe right end oS Ihe
shaft. Lel us eonsider Ihe inslanl when Ihe crank is vertical. AH tlj
mensions are given on Ihe diagrams.
.
We have to calcula le the bending and Iwisling mpments lor shalt
AD. Forees T and t (pull 01 Ihe bel!) act ing 00 the ulley may be replaced br a forceT+t acting at Ihe centre ollhe pu ley and a momenl
(T-(R., where R. is the radius 01 the pulley. Force T+I along wilh
the weight 01 pulle)", Q, bends the shaft; momenl (T-f)R., whieh
twists lhe shalt, is balanced by Ihe moment applied lo ils right eod.
Lel us replace lorce P ading al the crank pin by an idcnlical force
P acting on Ihe shalt at poiol N 01 Is exlension and a moment Pilo.
Thus, Ihe eods al lhe shalt are acted upon by rnoments PIl. :md
(T-(R. lo equilibrium, when Ihe machioe runs unilorrnly, these
two rnornents are equal lo Ihe twisting momen! M ,=Ph.=(T-f)R.
If we know lhe number of revoluUons ol Ihe shafl per unil time. n,
and lhe Iransmitle<! power, N, lhen Ihe twisting moment can be lound
from formula (9.3) 01 46:
MI
=1
716}N,
T--'-"- R.(I-I1I)'
hence
,
where
,
m=r
...
ed al the bwings B and Cooe o the burings pcrmits horiwntal dis
placement).
Having ploUe<! the bendlng.momenl diagrams lar the vertical and
horizontal rorces, \\-"e can Iind the total bending momenl Mil in a seclion as lhe geometrk sum o the two! The geomelric addition of Ihe
veclors representing lhe bending moinenls in secllon B is shown in
Fig. 326. The 100al bending rnomenf In secUon B ma)' be wrilten as
Q'+(T+f)'
Eaeh .seclion will have lis own plane
or
#."
A
1
1
,1:
I
t
--:....,-tP
'
,
I
:rNJ6
l/;
1H
NI: '
r..6+-f
\lit
ilhl
,
I
I
I
(Ttt)J
I
I
1
Fil
planes of all5eClloll5 in lhe plane ollhe diagram and [hen plol the resultant bending-moment dlagram, wilhout In an)' way aftecling lhe
final results. This precise! y has been done in Fig. 325(c). We wish lo
poin! out withoul a formal proof Iha! belween settlons 8 and
the
resultanl bendingmoment diagram does not have a mv:imum.
Il is eviden! from lhe shape or lhe dlagram thal critical loadin
occurs eilher in bearing 8 or in bearing e, depending on lhe numeri-
...
al values.
(PUl YII
"
I
I
I
I ,
"
'"
"
'.
bending momenl acts in the horizontal pl3ne'. lhe neutral axis
be vtflkal, and Ihe maximum normal slreMCS (JI> will occur at
POll1ts c, and el al lhe endpoints 01 the horilOl1tal diameler. Torsion
wiJlglYI:' ri.se lo shearing slres.ses only, whkh will b<! IR3ximal al
pomts on lhe conlour,
Thus, poinlsc, and e. in lhe seclional plane \ViiI eXpE"rience nHu:irnum
normal as well as maxinlUm shearing slresses. At poinis c. and c. 011
Ihe vertical dmeter Ihe she.'lring slre.sscs due lo torsion wilt be suh
stanUale<! by s]carin slres.ses due lo bending, However, lhese' slres
are snlOlIl in magnitllde IInd experimenlal sludies show thal poinfs
e, nd c. MI' the critically loodM poinls, Lel u.s ;;ola le cuhic elemenls
01 Ihe shalt's material around thesc ponls (Fig. 327). Four faces of
these elements will be subjeded lo shearing slresses TI (t\\'O al Ihese
four races will experience normal stresses too) and lhe olher two races
01" lhe cube
be complctcly free of
(Fig. 328). HJCE', Ihe
elelflMt is In a lwodimensional slressed slale. It is Imown ( 39 ami
Ihat in ortler to check lhe slrefW"lh d a material in lwo-dimensional
stre:ssed sta le, we musl find lhe principal slresses 6, and
and sub
slitule Iheir vallK'S in Ihe strenglh contlilion .....ritlen on Ibe basis al
one al lhe lheodes 01 faHure,
An e!cnK'lli ola bent ht'am cut al a dislance: hom the oculral axis
is al!lO in /l slIllilllr
slale of slr('U. We discuSSNlltO\\,
lo cheek lhe slr('llglll of Mlt'h 3n l'r,'ll1cnl l 77J while stud}'ing lile
10\'111
Ch. 111
slrenglh 01 beams thal experience both a bending momenl and a shearng force. The only dilference was Ihal bolh lhe normal slress (J and fhe
shearing slress T were cause<l by bending in Ihal case.
from Ihe shafl, we can
For checkin::: the slrenglh al an el('menl
direcll) afpl; he formulas derived in 71 by subslituting
and TI
in
a, o and Y, respectively. Then we obrain the following strel'lglh
cond1ions according lo !our diITerent theuries 01 failure:
Ihe Ihieory 01 ma:dmum normal slresses:
ra]
(0.3.So. -1-0.65l
(22.1)
\Ve IIlusl calculale O"b and t, lo correlsle lhe slrenglh check wllh
Ih" nurn"rical value of moments
and MI and Ihe dirnensions of Ihe
shaft. Sln.'SS 0". whicb is the maximum normal stress due lo bending
momenl M b , is
11:' ,
M,
llr'
AII
=---;;T=W
2-,-
.!..(
2 \ W
W'
4\17'1-
2W
=r
Md..-
1
W,"","O
(22.2)
[Puf VII
"llere M" is {he desin moment whose nlue depends nol enl)' upon
lhe moments M. lnd M, bul liso upon (he tMorr al railure applied.
According to
(22.3)
M....... V
lo
bending slresseso.:
where A is Ihe crwseclional area ollhe
haft.
FroOl formula (22.2) we ob!.in
d",,2r
('l2.')
Ch.
nI
Comblrwl
Sa/llt-Venall/'s formula:
Tt was used lIespile Ihe lael Ihallhe hypothesis unllerlying il is definileIy nollrue lor duclile malerials. For sorne lime now
are designed
by formulas whieh are based either on lhe third Iheory (lheory 01
maxmum shearing slresses) or on the lourlh Iheory (dislorfion energy
theory):
and
Table 15 compares Ihe values 01 shaft diamelers lor differenl ralios
01
and M" using Ihe same permissible stress in all lhe Iheories
01 lailure. The dameler oblained by Ihe theory 01 maximum strain
(Sainl-Vemml's formula) is laken as unily.
Table 1'5
Comparlson 01 Ihe SlIalt Olamelel1
111 '1>00."
IV th"'Y
M.... O
1.15
1.10
MI - 2
1.07
Lro
,ro
1.01
11 lh"ry
, M,
It is evident Irom Ihe table thal, firstly, Ihe differenee in lhe dimensions 01 Ihe shaft is not large regardless of the lheory used and, second
Iy. Ihe diameler by SainlYenanl's lormula is in al! cases less Ihan the
diameler oblained by the olher lwo Iheories, This helps lo explain
the lad Ihat SainlVenanl's rormula is sliJl used scimetimes in engi.
neering practice, allhough it is based on a hypothesis which has been
proved inapplicable to duetile malerials.
A designer musl remember that Iransllion lo Ihe new design rormulas basel! on more aeeurale Ihoories would have been practically impossible il the old values 01 permissible slresses had beeo relained.
This would have led lo Ihe use 01 shafts or bigger dlameters, where
old shafls 01 smaJler size designed according lo S,alnt-Venant's lor.
mula I'r'ere working salislaclorily.
The idea is lhat when we change over lo a new formula we cannol retaio the previous lactor 01 58fely and the previous permissible slress.
'"
IPnrl VIf
along
,.,
(P"rl VIl
and
"_1
Mu ,
M,-1::
M,= Y M...
tf:l
(FIg. 329 (d). Forccs N, Q,. and Q. wiU beconsldutd posilive if they
coin<:ide with fue positi\'e dire::tions 01 lhe eo<rdinale ues. wbile
momenls M., M" and M, will be considere<! positive illhe}' ad in
the anticlock\\'Jse direclion abOlJl Ihe cormponding axtS (a1l the force
and momen! cnmponentt shown in FIg. 329(d) art posiUvt).
Frem the earlfer discussion \\'t know Ihe simple forms of deformalion
which resull from Ihe aclion of each of Ihese componenls. It should be
borne in mind lhal lhese lor<:es Iransrerr!'d from Ih!' righl cutoul part
lo the leH reflect Ihe Iction of lhe righ! part on Ihe leH and Iherelore
In section mn are manifesled as slresses. Thus, N is the sum 01 normal
slresses distribute<t over the secUan, M" is Ihe sum of moments about
Ihe x.axis 01 all shearin
actlng
SKtion mIl. and SO Orl.
11 is evideot Ihal N gives rise to lerision OC compresslon, Q, and Q. to
$hear In the direction of Ihe y. and Ihe zaxis. respectively. Ai" lo lar
slon, and M, and M. to pure uni.planar bending abaut lhe!/. and lhe
zaxis, respectively. Thus. in Ihe IllO.SI general case of loading 01 Ihe
bar, Ihe laUer uperieoces fOllr simple delormalic:ns: lensioo or como
pression (N), Imian (M,,) and uni'planar bending about N.O nes,
(tU, and Q.) and (M, and Q..). Three lorce Iac:lort. N, M,. and M"
ive rise to normal
111 Iion mn \\'hile Ihe remaining Ihree.
Q" Q.. and M". loshearing slresses (Fig. 33:>(0) and (e).
Lel os lirst sludy lhe case when enly normal
appear in the
bar Iion. 1I can be mily seen Ihat his is a particular case el como
pound loading-lension or compressian wllh pure bending In 1\\011
princlpal inerlja planes paSlling !hrough lhe cenlroid.
J,
(23.1)
CA, DI
'"
For ca1culating
total normal stres.s at any olher point of he
bar's cross :slion, il is suflicienl lo subslilule in formula (23.1) the
and M, and coordlnates !I and 2 wilb lhe proper
values of N,
signs; IbIs Ives us tbe total normal stress witb lhe proper signo
It is obvious from formula (23.1) Ihat lhe normal stresses are linear
lunctions 01 coordinales II and 2: lbey mus! attain maximum al lhose
points of tbe section which are lartbut Irom tbe neutral axis (at lbe
M,.
'f
'
,.
r,)
(1)
Fi,. 330
neulral axis tlle normal slresses lre uro). Figure 331 (a) depicts a 5.
tion ollbe bar; in all lbe quadrants lhesigns 01 normal stresses, (t) (J',
(2) (J" and (3)
are shown in Ibe assumplion Ihat N, M, and M. are
positive. It is ob\'k!us Ihat lbe neutral axis will intersed Ibe qUlId
rants witb normal slresses of diflerent signs and in the given case will
nol pass Ihrough Ihe centre of gravlty and the top leH quadran!.
Assuming that in formula (23.1) stress (J is eqllal to lera and dcnoting
we get Ihe
the coordinates of a poin! on lhe neutral nis by !In and
lollo\\,jng equalioo of the neutral axis:
N
M,
M
11.",,0
5+7'.-7
'
Equating lo UfO first 2. and then /l., we find Ihe intercepls cul by
lhe neutral axis on lhe axes of !I and '. respectively (Fig. 331 (&)):
NI,
a,_ SM,
,"d
NI
a,=--iit:
(23.2)
M.
7; 1.-7';11. =
IPOfl VII
By
ion mil in planes
'J. M,
lanu'""--r""""
,.
"'r
(23.3)
(23.4)
Angle
(23.5)
(236)
Angles lX and 'JI wlll be considere<! positive ir they are a id in Ihe anlic:Iockwi$t' direction Irom lhe cOrTesponding axes (lX Irom lhe yaxi.s and
fmm he 1JJ[is).
It is citar rrom (23.3) Ihal in
neutral axis in lhe.sUon
js nol petpendictJlar lo he trail el tM resullan! beflding r.KInll'nt
(Figs. 3JJ
332) acting in the salOl' section. The neutral asis \\'jlJ be
pt'rpendicu!ar only when angles lX and " are equal. This, in lum. ls
possible only under lhe rol!owing condiliom: (1) rp-O. Le. M.-O;
(2) .. =
el. 23J
41J
'
INI
1M,!!,]
(23.8)
,1<
[Parl VlI
formula
(23.9)
For a bar of any other cross seclion Ihe ma... imum shearing slresses
mal' be delermined by Ihe formula
&.
(23.10)
maXT/= Wf
using the data for W/ give.n in (he seclion on Iwisting of bars f noncircular
In al! lhe cases 'the maximum shearing stresses (tor
sion) oc;ur atlhe contour of lhe section and ad along lile tangen\ lo il.
The shearing slresses due lo Sorces
and Q. are, as a rule, 01 secondary importante; (hey are determined by Zhuravskii's formula
anel
Q.St
1:'=J,IJ(l)
(23.11)
T....
T....... maXT,+maxT.
Since the normal slresses dile lo bending and Ihe tolal shearing stres
ses dlle lo shear and lorsioll are bolh maxirnlllll at the conlour of the
secUon, it i5 logical lo search for the maxirnally stressed points and
also to check Ihe slrength 01 the bar's material on the conlour. The
poinls experiencing maxirnum shearing stresses do no! always coincide
wilh lhe poinls subjecled lo maximum normal stresses. In such cases
the slrenglh of the bar's material should be checked at those points on
the contour where lhe combine<! elTect ol normal and shearing stresses is
most unfavourable.
__ M.
P"M
EJ.
(23.12)
."
Ch. 13J
ami in plane
Xl
lis
x.,
__'
P".
.!!L
(23.13)
EJ,
If lhe curvalure
x. and x . are laid on Ihe COITesponding
CDOl'din.le nfS. veclor x of !he tolafcurvature 01 lhe dellecled lIis,
which
lhe geometric.al sum
x=Vx;+x:
(23.14)
makl!S In angJe ., wilh the loaxis. Ind the llnenl of Ihis angle (set
Fig. 331(c) is lound from the Icrmula
..
M. J,
(23.IS)
."
(Pal/ VII
f-V"f.+fi
(23.16)
d,,,
N'th
and
dU(N)-UA"
M.:.u
dU(M")-"lGh
...... t
(ffi
2GJ l
We have lhe following e;(pres.sians for lhe energy due lo nanual stres
$t'5 in uni.planar bending (5 100):
Al"
U (M,I'" Jr -7ftT
.:u
U(MJ=- r 2EJ.
and
U as lollaws:
U-
\\"t
h' 2C;1
M' +iif;+
Al'
Al') dx
tr( m+
n';,
(23.17)
where sub.>cripll shows (hal (he express ion is inlegratcd over lJ length
J nf he bar lor wfich jhe lunclions al Ihe xcoortlinale. Le. N. M...,
and M ,. are conlinuous. rr lhe bar conlains a nmuber of such seg.
ments, then st'parate integrals should be cakulaled fOl eaeh or lh!!.m
and {hen summed up.
Applying Castlgliano's theonm. we can find (he displacemenl in fhe
diredion al an)' o Ihe forces P ftom Ihe follO\\'ing epression:
6
='<"'Jli
""'J EAV
'.'"
GJIIW
Al z cMl z )dr(2318)
EJ,7 T "U;iiP
.
Ch. 231
["",di'' '?,
IParl VII
Le! us check he strength of the rod in section 1/. The forces acting
on
seclion may be reduced to !he force N-P, = 1200 kgl, twlsting
momenl M,,=M.=-BOOOO kgf.cm, Bnd two bending moments:
111.
-- .-...-..,.----+
PIs:. 334
Ch. 23)
'"
1200 X &40
=120X
1200x22S0
IJ'=-SM;=I2XI20000
3
m=0.1875cm
x 7.5 + 75 x 4=710kgf{cm'
< [oJ
=800kgl{cm'
Hence, the rod's malerial at point 1 is suffieiently strong. We musl now
check the slrenglh of Ihe rod's material at points 2 and 8, which experiente torsional shearing stresses in addilion to lhe normal stresses.
The normal slre.sses at Ihese points are
y.= 10+ 75 x
01,) -..;.N
Mu
=310 kgf{cm'
160
80000
=343 kgltem
and at poinl 3
TI"
We wiJ( check Ihe strengh 01 the. rod at {hese points by the lhird
slrcngth Ihoory:
X 277'
IPar{ VII
JM =J.=J.=7
Ilr'
J,=J"=2-2J,
and
bending momenfs
and M, can be geomelrically slIlllmN up inlo
lhe resultanl benulng moment
M.
and
o ,
q=592
The crllicar point oI the secUon is poinl 0, which Jies al Ihe inler
scdion 01 Ihe projecllon of Ihe M,,-plane wilh lhe CQnlour. Al lhis
poi ni Ihe normal stress is
N
0",0)
= 0 .... = S
M
N
4M.
+-w;
""';vr+;:i'"
=
6400
4x93280
2037
llsno
rr +-,,-
76300
r"
To delermine thl' radius 01 he section lor (his par! of Ihe crank rol!
shall gain use Ihe lhird slrenglh theory:
-V0;0, +41";0.
_/ 7(
:il!""")
X JO',I
<2,
Ch. 131
<TI = r'-6.485r'-756.lr-58516
Whilc solving equation ({J=O by Irial ami error we neJ!lecl lhe laelors conlaining r' 3nd , in ihe lirst approximalion (Le. we n{gLd Ihe
relatively smaJl norm31 stress N/S). This gives
;158 516=6.24 cm
=-IOI3kgl.cm'
We Ihus see that lhe selocted value 01 , is not sullicient for salisfying
Ihe inequaJity (.): let liS Iry r=6.4 cm. In this case lD=+5099 kgfx
Xcm", By interpol3!ion \Ve iind Iha! r=6.32 cm. This corresponds lo
S ... or t = 3.14 X6,32' "" 125.5 cm'
!Ir'
J r =1 p=
1253
cm
'
2x 1253 =2506cm'
Force
Formulas for
a;iJP,
iJjiJP.
iJiiJP.
u/iJM.
N
P,
1
-,
-P,I,
-1,
-,
PI,_P,r:
-,
1,
Plr:-Ip.... -M.
-,
Parl VJ/
."
1.=
iW
_r{ES.
(he
A',
lP,
table
"aM.,d-f
EJ ro
7P7
Cuf'Jtd 8(1f.
I
-2X 10'
(T,.,ooo/
f0Jl:J(b:
1 o.4x1104 +r
800(0){ I)dx)
1253
=0.00794 =0.455
CHAJ'TER 24
Curved Bars
132. General Conupts
Besides slraight-axis bars in struclures we oBen come IlCJOSS bars
In which Ihe ax.is, Le. Ihe line passing lhrough he centres of gravity of
sUlX:essive cross ,secUans, is a curved line. Chain Iinks, lugr, hooks,
arthes, vaulls, hoisting crane Ira mes,
aH belong to (his group 01
elemenls (Fig.335). Slricl1y speaking, no bar has an absolulely
slraight uis. AII ban, whiclJ we design as stralghl ban, have a sllght
curv.alure. Theref01e, a study 01 the efTec:1 01 curvalure of Ihe bar's axis
on the distribution of slresses will, on Ihe one hand, enable us tocheck
Ihe slrenglh of ban having appre
ciable eurvature and, on the olher
hand, judge the inRuence of a slight
de:viation al the axis from a slralght
Jine 011 lhe strenglh of a straighl bar.
We introduce Ihe lollowirtg reslricUons lar cbecking {he slrength of
curve<! balS:
(a) seclions al lhe bar haYe an
axis of s)'mmetr)';
(b) lhe axis al lhe bar is a 11.1
curve which Hes in Ihe plane of s)'ll'lmelr)';
(e) .11 extmal forces also lie in
the s.ame plane.
On accounl of s)'mmetry, defor
malion 01 the bar wi1l al.so occur in
in the plane
the s.ame plane, Ihe bar's axis wi1l remain a ftal curve
al ulema! forca and {he pldure will be ldenlic.l lo Ihat of un'-pla.
nar bending of beam.s.
(Pllrl VII
P,
Ch. 24)
"
1"
(i,
Fig. 337
Fig. 338
FIl:. 339
equilibrlum 01 either Ihe leH or the righl portion of Ihe bar, lnlo which
II is divided by lile particular section; the selection is arbitrMY and
depends upon the convenience of etlmpulations.
.,6
[Por' VII
Tite 1ign
mal force and
dided ahoYe for Ihe bending moment, norforce aff independent el whelher the Idl or Ihe
I'J
('1
FIle. 440
lermined by angle 'P \\ilich iI makes ""Hit the vertica1. We <:'OIUider the
'Ighl portion el the bar lo determine M, N, and Q. This spares UlIlhe
t'ouble ol delermining lhe reaclions in seclion C.
Tite btnding momenl is equal lo the n10ment oI force P about
polnl O:
M_+PXOD=+PR.sin'l'
(24.1)
Projeding force P Ofl lhe normal lo lhe section and on the plane ot
Q=+PCOSljl
(24.2)
..,
curved bars,by Zhuravskii's formula, which was derived fOl' straiht
be3ms:
Qs'
--=
(13.3)
'-Jr!'
The strength condilion ror shearing stresses in curved baTS may con
sequently be written as
"""'l
(13.7)
Let lIS now determine the normal stresses due lo the two nsullanl
inlernal !orces: bendin mamenl M and normal force N. lei lIS Iirst
consider lhe normal fom.
Considering an..element of lnith cb al ihe curved bar which is acted
upon by orces N (Fig. $41), ....-e nollte lha! lhese for<:es acting al lbe
F1e- MI
sponding stresses must be normal to tlle sedi0n5 and unilormly distrihuled Dver lhe crossseellonal area, A:
N
a-A
(24.3)
lo 8ending
The task of finding lhe law al' dislrihulion oi normal slresses due lo
lhe bending moment over the
and deriving appropriate formu
las for computing them is stalically ndelerminate and, as in slraight
beam.s, require3 that beslde.s-wriling and solvlng the static equatiom
we mus! conslder the corre.sponding detormations and wrile down ad
ditional equalions. While determining stresses due lo Q and N \lIe
could manage wilhout similar oompulations, because
made use or
known solulion.s; lo delermine the normal stresses due lo Ihe bending
moment M \I:e propase lo carry out 111 the computations, which. lnej
denlally, 1Iro-e have already given "'hile deriving lhe Jormula f na'mal
stm.ses in straighl beam.s.
'"
Par{ VI{
Undt'J' Ihe aelion 01 external momen! M lhe curved bar A 8 (Fjg. 342)
expcriencJ;s pure bending over ils whale lenglh.
Figure 343 depkls (he part DC oi lhe bar which is acled upan by internallorces transmtted [ram lhe removed parts AD and CB. Bending
momen! M is shown on lhe lert and Ihe elementary normal lorce (1' dA
on Ihe right.
The locatiOIl of lhe neutral layer along Ihe height
lhe sed ion is
not knowll and has lo be delermined; we shall assume that il does not
pass through lhe centres 01 gravlty ot lhe seclions. Let Ihe orign of
or
Fig, 342
Fig. 343
adA =0
(24.4)
"
Equations that r('presenl Ihe projcelions of all lhe fOfCes on Ihe y'
and the z-ax is,
and
bocome idenli ties, because {he a's are perpendicular to 1he!J' and the
-axis. We similarl}' gel an idenlil}' from Ihe equalion 01 momcnls
about the xaxis:
because nellher lorce (J dA, which is parallel to Ihe x'axis, nor bending
momen! M, which !ies in plane ACz, give a momenl aboullhc x-axis.
Ch.
241
Curotd Bars
By similar loglc Ihe moment M abolll lhe za"ls musl also be zero;
as lor elementar)' orces a dA, their moment aboul lhe above /IX is is
glven by Ihe integral a dA y.
S,
(24.6)
Henee we get lhe (ollowing lwo equalions b)' eonsidering lhe slalie
equiHbrium o[ Ihe portion:
,SodA
, adA Z=O
(24.4)
(24.6)
,'-'e,
t.}
(; ,
\ ./ J..'------':I ../
11 '/
Plg. 344
11
Pig 345
applicable for curved bars also. We shall assume that, under lhe in
fluence 01 bending momenl, sections perpendicular lo the axis of lhe
bar remain 1Ia! ami simply turo w.r.t. one another (Fi2. 344). rhe
libres 01 lhe neutral layer C,C.C;C; relan their originnl Icngth, DlId
libres IOCllted at elJual distances lrom the neutral axis C!ong!lte and
[Pan VII
e= A,D,
A,A,
A,O.=z6dq,
e=.!.6d'f
p
A,A,=pdq
P d'J'
(24.7)
Or.
241
<3,
mm positive lo negalive.
Hencein a curve<! bar lhe normal stresses at Ihe -nside- oultr libre
are greater. and al Ihe "outside- ouler libre are 1m lhan lhe slresses
for the same libres 01 a straighl bar. This is quile underslandable since
Ihe initial lenglh of lhe inslde libre
01 a curved bar is much 1m lhan
that ollheoutside tibre; in aslraighl
bar Ihese lengths are equal. This
explains the difference in rdaUve
derormation and hlmCe lhe dilference in slress rOl these libres.
Lel us
wth the soluUon
or equations 01 statcs '(24.4) amI
(24.6) wj(h lhe help of relation
(24.7) obtained by considt'ring Ihe
deformation of the bar. SubsUMe
expressi()(J (24.7) in equation (24.4):
Fil. 347
\\"e
obtain
(2-1.8)
d<p
=0
(24.10)
where M is lhe bending momen!; integration is over lhe whole efQS.'!st'Ctional aTea. The inlegral in lhe above' eqllatan may hl! modified
as lollo\\'s:
\\Tilll.'11
5=0
M-E
(N.12)
wherelrom
(24.13)
a=Sr
(24.14)
Equation (24.12) confirms Ihal {he slatic moment S of the crosssectional area aboul the neutral axis is nol u'ro, Le. in bending of
curved bars Ihe neulral axis does noi pass Ihrough Ihe cenlre of gravity
but is slightly (by z.) displaced. In Fig. 347 we !.!epicted this displacement lowards Ihe centre 01 curvature 01 {he bar. After actually delermining r from equatlon (24.91 for a number 01 secUons we lin!.! that th('
Mutral axis reaHy gets disp aced lowards lhe centre 01 curvature.
This displacemenl occurs on accoun! of the equalily Df Ihe total compressive and tensile forces acling in lhe section. Since the stresses
due to bending mamenl are less al the "autside flbre 2nd grealer al
lhe
libre, as compare<! lo slresses in lIJe corresponding librl!S
01 an idenlical seclion 01 a slraight bar (Fig. 3(7), lhe neutra! axis
musl get displaced tQ\';ards the inside libres in order lo main!ain an
equalit}, Df Ihe total tensile and compressive forces.
CA '"
'A"e
obllil'll.'tf
Al 1
a="A+Sp
The maJCimum ensile and compressive
(2".15)
\Io'ill ott'ur al 1M, outtt
r:
A
r ..
Le! U5 solve 1his equlItion lor a bar o redangular cross section. le!
h be lhe: height and b the widlh 01 Ihe seo::lion. R.llie radius of curva
QuiN
libres,
R. lhe
t.
flg. 318
I'lr. 349
..
.
'-Fb
A
\\1lCf'efrom
(24.16)
lnR,'
I
(24.17)
IS-UIO
434
lIS
JPatl VII
caled.
expression
(24.18,
CifCU-
lar secUan 01 diameler d, we cut thE' disc lnto C'1E'mentary slrips ol area
dA by ]nes ]rawn parallel lo the neutral axis Fig. 350).
Fig. 350
dA=b1>
cutl
Bol
b.=dr051p llnd
dj:!=2'"COS9dtp
.".
S
..-:t(2RI-V4R: d')
-"12
r=
(24.20)
FO! a lrapezoid (Fig. 351) we agaln use equalion (24.9). lhe area 01
the Irapezoid is
b(pl-b,+(b.-b,){l-RP ,
The integral
f':
,- o
dA_b(p)dp
operalions):
id: -( b1+ R
Now irom equation (24.9)
r=
v,'e
In
ha)
gel
l.)
R,
( H R' - , - In'l;_(6'._b,>
(24.21)
When b,=-b" l.e. when lhe frapez.old beoome I rectangle. lbe above
formula becomes ldenlical to formula (24.16).
,,.
IP<lrt V/f
When b,--O.
oblain lhe formula h.. ell.'t'mining 11M.' nculral
<Ji Iriangulr
f=
(24.2'1)
R
2R,-ln...,.!- -211
It
"
With Ihe reasoning uf 136 and 137 for reclangular, circular and
trillWzoiiJal seclions, wp can ca1culale f and l. for an arbitrary sed ion,
lile resulls lor a fpw shapes are given in Table 11. In Ihis lable lhe
valucs 01 l. arel given as IracUons al the radius R. epcnding upon lhe
ratio
whete e is Ihe I!islanct' or Ihe tnner librt'S from lhe cenlre 01
gravilyor lhe section. In lhe exlreme leH oolumru are gh'ffi values or
R.t. '\1 lhe lop or alllhe olher rolunms isgiven lheshape of lhe parli.
cular curve<! bar. The quanlit, l. is oblaincd by Plulljpl)'ing Ihe corlabulated valu!', It, wilh R.. 1.1'.
z.=kR.
11 is !'videnl from lhis !able lhat ""hm lhe ralio
ineceases. Ihe
in
o. 141
Ol/Vtd Safl
."
Table 11
,.
].2
t."
I.G
,.....
'.8
'.0
0.229
O.lr..s
11.128
0.102
0.116
0.000
0.082
0.0
0.052
10.0
O.Ola
0._
0._
0._
'.0010
'.-1
w. . '.
,,....
,.,
L8
2.0 .
2.8
3.0
3.5
.0
6.0
'.0
10.0
0.418
O.'"
0.285
fl.l83
0.149
0.125
0.106
0.091
O.IGO
O.'"
O."'"
0._
O.,.,
0.0<0
0.018
0.010
O."'"
0.110
0.078
0.0<3
O..,.
o...
o....
O....
0.012
O.....
0._
'.0010
0.0031
O....
0.0081
Al flJ
".
I:=_.J
L'
,L'
..
0.1.14
0.104
O."
O.OC..s
0.051
0.049
O....
O...,
O.:'!l!)
'
-1
11
0 ..'\99
O.,.,
0.236
0.205
O.IW
0.088
0.183
0.147
0.122
O.IIM
0.067
0.0<8
O.'"
O....
0.127
0.104
.....
0.077
0.041
O....
0.013
0.0076
O.....
0.269
0.138
.....
1-.
O.I,\'l
0.179
0.067
O....
O....
O. . .
0.024
0.011
0.029
0.352
0.243
O.'"
0.003
o....
1-....
O.'"
0.071
0.061
0.070
'.6
2.8
3.0
3.6
'.0
'.0
8.0
!!<.
,
0.336
0.361
0.251
0.186
0.144
L'
'1
'-'<
'1
;. -
.1
.1
.! 1.
0.121
O.1IN
O....
0.000
0.017
O.'"
O.""
O....
0.042
......
0.016
0.0057
0.001
0.014
0.007l"l
O.....
<J,
\\1!
[Parl VII
""fa})
z,_[]
,\f
a.-r--S
R. """
(24.23)
11
i (1i; oc
EV!
!tI1
!tI1
(I+-=-)
r
(24.24)
1+",
TI we negled
M.
a=y
R,=Sh
The radius 01 curvalure el lhe neuttallayer I.s
r -=
In
oco
CIt. M
CuRll'd 8an
wd consequenlly
or
I.f'. Ihe IYUlra\ uis passes !rom Ihe centre 01 gravity at a disbnce
which is 001)'
el Ihe height of Ihe section.
Thp normal stresscs duc ta hcnding, \\:hen clllculated from lhe lar
mulas lar cun-ed bars. are lound to be
__ M..!.!..._
a.- s
,1!;<llSI67h
R,
O.;,sllbh l
.
W
Al '.
O.41133xMx6 1071 Al
a'=SR;-JxO.0I671x4.51'- 045l$ttlli ....
;
(24.23)
Prldkal eumples 01 this group 01 baTS afe machine parts like hooks,
chain links and rngs. To Ihe second groop belong bars w;tl1 a small
curvalure, in Il.'hich Ih{' radius al curvalurl' ollhl" aiis is largl.' as como
pared lo the dirntnsions ollhe croo seclion
In soch baTS
norm"l str5e$ del' ta bending ftla)' be ('alculated according lo
thl.' formula far stralght baTS:
(J.,. =
This group
arr.:hes, domes, ele,
140. Additlonal
"
M
17 ,;;;; (a)
J.
(2US)
1,'
Remarh on Ihe
Normal Stressc:s
Formula lor
...
,Purl VII
a deforllM"d curv<'d bar. We notice ro\\'s 01 dark and Iighl sirips in lhe
motJcl; lhe shllrper lhe change of slressn lhe nurower and IIIOft' rre.
quenl are hese strips. Figure 352 slJoo.l'5 lhe distribuliOll of strips un-
lzr
,
Fh:.
del'" puno bending lor a model .\..hich has a straighl as well as a curvetf
portian. The sirips are spaced uniformly In lhe slraighl portion because thutressachange Iioearly. I.e. unifonnly. In lhe cut\'td portlO1l
\\-e notice a concenlration al lhe slrips on lhe concave sidl' and an op
posite picture on lhe convex side. which correspOIlds to sharp Ind nonUnlform increase al stresses in Ihe former tone and a ronsiderably
change In lhe laller.
While studying the dislribulion of normal slrrsses in t"Ur\'ed bus
we ignored lhe radial normal stresses \\lIic-h occur due lo mutual romo
presslon 01 libres of the bar materiaL These stresses have much
importance for rnrvtd bars Ihan fo.. stralght bars. as is sem from exper
iments on IH'psum (britllr) models. These siresses are pllrlicularly high
in sedions in IlIhich lhe width chllnges suddenly (lbeslllS).
",
C""oai Btlfl
CI'.NJ
Fig. 353
As ;,'<5, \Ve mllsl use the formula applicable lo bars wilh l.1rge
curvalure. Lel us determine raulus , of the neutral
, R,
"
In our example 11=80 mm, R,=l20 mm, anu R,=40 mm; lherefore
r=
80
so
-rw
= TiiE'i9"" 72.8 mm
ln
=% +
h
2'-"2-z,=4-0.72=3.28 cm
Bending mamen! a!>out the centre 01 gravily el Ihe Sl'Ctien [s
M =-SOOx25=-20 000 kgfcm
N"ormal force N=+800 kgf. lhe crosssectional area
normal stresscs at point A (ero) and 8 (a,) are
cm'. Thc
o,'"
fatI VII
Had wt' ignored Ihe curvalul't' of the bar and wmputect Ihe stres.ses
by Ihe rormula
W'e
O,}
_,
__
+658 kgfcm'
c9J
still 11"$5,
Now all we
to do is lo ealculale N and M. If \\"C' neglecl Iht'
curvalure el lhe bar, Ihen Ihis is equivalent lo assumlng Ihat 11M:
Os. UJ
N'"
(24.26)
, 'fU , 2"E'A
According lo Castigliaoo's theorem, lhe Iirsl derlvatiye 01 !his expres.sion ""'.r.1. concentrated force P gives us lhe linear displacemenl of
Ihecenlre 01 gravily 01 !he seclioll in whkh [orce P is appHt'd. SimilarI)', Ihe fint derh's!ive o U u'.f.1. M, 'ves us Ihe angle of rolalion of
!he corresponding secnon:
-=arr- ETW
t!AfW
SMdJIMI+SNt&iJN
(24.27)
7:T iJM,
(24.28)
6=
iHJ
au
aN
n;m;
,
.-S M (x),If'dl +S
, EJ
,
N (.r
li'd5
EJ
(24.29)
Let U5 aply
formula for cakulalin 1he verlkal displacernent
al end Bol the CUrlled bar whose axis Is descrJbe<! by radius R. The
bar mus! be dr/lwn in lwo
(a) when Jt loaded by the gven rorce, P (Fig. 355(0;
IParl VII
t\f.... R.sio",
M=+PR.sin
N=-Psin!f,
f=-} ) Psin
lJ1R:dlf+
1
E ,4
.... '
Psin'o,pR.d,p
PR'
PR.)
..
d
(
PR.) T"
+
co (er
n . SIO T lJI- 7T +rr
PR'
_"PR: (I
-4ET
ni}
J) -'"4ET
""Rl ( 1
" )
Ri
,
' "''\ ,PI.,
'<1.
i'J
lf 1I<'t'
lo lind {lit horizontal displacement el poiot B ...."e
should applya unil
P-I al lhe aboye poiot. We can
similarly find lhe anglt ol rolalion of Ihis section by applying M"".
11 it h I't'iluired to brtak fhe bu ioto a number ol porlions lor cal
culating M Ind N, then eath of lhe cOlTt'Sponding 10tt'J;!rals in formula
(24.29) bccomes a sum of inttgrllls wilh approprialt limils.
Ol Uj
Cututd B..,
fil_ 357
Q... -O.5Pslnlll
(24.30)
(24.31)
(24.32)
mo;
.u
cJM ...
'S .....
-Er M"lM;l$
...
P"'" VII
M..
- O
I- )_-O,I82PR.
Hence, momeo! Mol aclJ in lhe opposile direction lo the one shown in
the figure.
With he help of formulas (24.:1l}(24.32) we can determine he Internal (orces in any sed ion of lhe ringo The sec!ion Iha! evokes n13xi
ruum nteres! is scclion B. In this seelion al 'Il-nf2 we have
M8
.,
01. 2S1
al tht innec and outec faces of elemtnl A 8; a/so suppose 01 is lht slress
al ils side laces. lt is obvious (rom Ihe symll1tlry 01 Ihe slion and
1M load Ihateltmml A8 will no( warp and Ihlt no shtaring
aet on its f:C'l'S. Faces el lhe fiemenl ,...hich lit' in (ht pJaoe 01 lhe
. .m
Fig. 358
figure will experienct' lhe Ihird pril\CipaJ stress. 0"1' causcd by Iht prcssure on 11)(' cylinder Inse. This stress may be considere<! cons!.ant over
the cylindtrs cross scclion.
In lhe plane 01 the figure. elemml A8 is acled upoo by l\llD forces
(J, dr X 1, making In angle dO betwel'll
Ind a radial (orce
(o,+da,){r+dr)d8x l_o,rdOx J
This force is .Jirecled lowards Ihe oulee surface. In equilibrjum lhe
lhr('l'. forces collStilute a dosed Iriangle abe. II is tvident then lhallhe
radial force reprcsmled by .segmenl ah is connectcd wilh force (Jir
(stglTlent ca) by he fol1owing
ab=rodO
[(a, +dlJ,) (r
+ dr)-a,r] dO = a, dr dA
a,dr+da,r=(J, dr
wheeefrom
(25.1)
...
IPtlr/ VII
of radius r, t,,,,,.!!.,
, From Hooke's
I(lw (formulas (6.21), 34),
...
t, =
F'lg. 300
e'=7 (o,-.I!J"-WI)
=,
(25.2)
As bolh @, and F., are !undions 01 u. lhey must be comp!ible. Dj[
ferenlialing ll, w.r.L r, we get
"
(;'=7'
de,
'"d,
-'-/1
6r
..,..,.- /1)'
l(dU
"
(6r,
(e
(25.3)
"
values
, l' (o,-f
"';i; T
1=,--y-(o,-a,)
1 1'; 1"
llJ,-'I1,)
d"l
d"r
1+"
If(-I
IIF""'-,-o,-a,
d(l,
dr
(.(
0,-11,
+JI )",
Iif
(25 A)
lrom (25.1), Wl' gd
da, =0
/Ir
'*
(25.[,)
For sillluJ(aneous solulion 01 equations (25.1) ami (25.5) we difierentia le Ihe hs[ IV.r.1.
r md
from lhe
Ch. 25)
'"
+ d",_O
ti'-
-;;r
(25.6)
/ tir
(25.7)
(25.8)
lile neg3tive sign in {he righlhand sides 01 these expressions signi fies
lhal Ihc positive direclion 01 a,eorresponds lo
slresses tFig. 359).
From lile expression (25.8) we gel
p,', p,r,
- ", " '
A_
B .... -
,r,-p,)r","
, "
!he values uf Ihe eonslanls and equalion (25.7) give us Ihe final
lormulas lor a, and a,:
,
,
C1 - P.',-P,',
,
'i ti
(J
= Po'.
(25.9)
p,r,
't /;
It is obvious [rOlfl Ihese formulas Iha{ (he SUIll (1"/+0, does no! ,Jepcnd upon r, Le. lhe slrain along {he axis d lhe cylin,Jer is 11lc sallle
ill all poinls 01 Ihe seclion (as 0, is Ihe same for all poinls), and the
seclion remains aplane.
A situation in whieh only inlernal pressure p, aels un lhe eylinder is
of considerable practical imporlance. Here
,!, (1(J,=
(1 + :!)
(25.10)
""
[P<lT/ VII
slres.ses,
(25.11)
occurs al points 01 Ihe nternal surrare of lhe cylinder nd is alwa>'s
consil.lerabl)' greater in magnitude Ihan Ihe inlernal pressure.
Thus. permancnt dc!ormalion begins Jlt Ihe internal sUTface o] Ihe
cyllnder when (o,-----a,l",.. becomes equal to Ihe yield stress 01 ils material; aoy attempt to curb the appearance 01 perlllanen! delormation
'.
';
Flg. 361
FiR. 362
O. Ul
(J""ro=T'+
"
'"
,'('O
, .rO)
. ..
P."
p",r,
'i)
,,_11.50 cm,
CUf\'es
'._8.25 cm.
'0.:5.70 cm.
r,-=280 kgflcm'
21-:
CJI,_+p.-;::-;_+61J
kgl/cm'
"
'1
111, -
+ p,
,'-r'
r.
'i
- + 895 k:fcm'
FOl" lhe inner cylinder slresses 111 Ihe inlernal surlllce are
01,--
2':
P1 ti="i3'"
, , - - lOBO kgfjcm'
r:;+r:
" "
o',=-Po""""i=-r--BOO kgi/cm'
Le! us now 3.'lsume that the cylinfier is subjeded to an internar pressure of p,=3400 kgl/cm-. The dlstribution of (J/ without c:onsidcring
lhe inilial stresses p, wll! bt' given by formula (25.10):
. (1+ )
o 1 =....!L:.....
"
rr
<52
[Pnrl Vil
1+0;;
Ihe curve
S1
,:=::t:
16';1+16';I""lI."
Relative angenUal elongation al Ihe material al Ihe inlerna! sur
,'('
') -E
el-E
+1" )
l =---p:
p," ('i+';
6r.=elf
, ,
p, (
'H'
')
CIr. 25J
)
",_,I-'
,
,,n -tv.
Hd1Ce. in ordn' lo create the desired initial stress p v:e must provide a difference 01 diametEn
4"-"
",-",
.. - -"-'
-,;c:=;f;7,';'=c;;
E ('1 r:)
':,
J -
"
t:t,r.!'_j".
wherefrom
'r-r;
t' _ 2p,,
J;-tll
(rt
(r:
/SI
li6 OC
':)
8
D'1-A-;7
(25.12)
'='1'
IPvl VIJ
O',-A+-:T--p.
"
H
O'r","A+,=-p,
at
,
wherdrom
B--(p.-P,.
.,
,'e
A=+ Po',-P,"
";-1
(25.13)
O'-lf
whkh is lhe same as oblained earlier ( 29).
A genC!rallOfmula can be derivcd lor calculalng stresses in Ihin
wallrd vessels wtich represenl surraces or rolaUon ond are subjecled lo
inlernal pressurc p symmelrk:al abou! the axis al rolaUon .
Fig. 365
Let us cul from Ihe vesse! (Fig. 365) an elernen! by lwo rneridlan sec
tions and 1\\'0 se::tions perpendcular lo Ihe merldan. Leol d.<w, and ds
be the dinleflSions oS Ihe e1em('nl along lhe mcridian and perpendk:uP.. and /1. the radii of
al the
lar lo 11, and lel us dcnol('
meridian and 01 tlJe se::lion perpendicular to it; let 1 be lhe wllIlhlck-
0=.
<55
Ch. 25)
From syrnmelry, Ihe laces of Ihe clcment will be aeted upon by nornlal slrcsses 0", in the direction of meridian and o, in Ihe perpendicular direction. The eorrcsponding rorees aeting on Ihe laces 01 the clement will be o".ds,t and 0.1s.. 1.
Sinee a Ihin shell, jus1 tikc a flexible
slrlng, has re:.istance only agains!
tensile 1000ding, Ihes!' rorees ac1
along Ihe tangenls to Ihe meridian
and lo a section normal lo Ihe
meridiano
Along the normal lo Ihe surface
d9t
........
of the cIernen! forces /Jds..t=ac=oc
iSldSr,t
(Fig. 366) give resultanl ab, which
is equal lo
-
PidJ
--
,-
PI
wherefrom
(25.14)
This basic equation, correlaling 0m and 0, in IhinwalJed \"e5SC'[S
having a surlace 01 rolalion, was derived by Laplace.
As we had assumed tha! thc slrcsses are dislributed (unilorrnly)
over lhe sed ion. Ihe problem is s!atically determina te; Ihe s<xond
equilibriulll eqllalon can be oblaint'd by considering the {'quilibriurn
of lhe lower portion or Ihe vessel cul by a paralJel circular seclion.
Let
consider a vessel subjecled lo hydroslalic loading (Fil!". 367).
L{'t us
Ihe rneridian curve in the syslern o x and y coordinale
axes wilh Ihe origin at lhe apex of lhe curve. Assume Ihatlhe 5eclion
ing plane passes al a heighl y from point O, Radius 01 Ihe correspondo
ing parallel circle is x.
Each lorce oouple o..,ds1 acting on diarnetrkaJly opposile C'lel1lents
ds, 01 Ihe scclion will give resultant Ix equal lo
'"
IPn,1 VII
wherdrom
(25.15)
,
v"':r
r .. ""'oo,
x=yiana;
p_y(h_y),
9=0.:
, _ _'__ tanll
1t \
Therefore
lJ = '1'(10
\8 ,/ .
''l,
la
.OH' -
y)yt3111l+
21 COS a
'1 (h_y}ylan<l
..
21 (05a
1'11 hna (
CO,O:
"'1elanla
+ 61rosIl
')
h-3"Y
., __,_=-_
PI),
ril!. 367
20=!!!..
'.
'
or
DUl!1l
/ot
457
CHArTflt l '
Oesign for
Loads.
Olesign for Limlllng States
147. Drsign lor Pmniuible Loads.
Appliu.lion lo SlllIcIUy Determinlte Systcms
P_.<[P]
!he permissible load is Ihe klh
parl al the load at ".. hieh
stnlt
ture
to function properly Ind
no lonlZCf serves the purpo&e far
which il has bt'lm desilZ'1ed. The
F'Il. 368
llller isgroerallycalled lhe ultimate
load .nd solllelimes lhe break/ng load in the broader!renst of lhe "'ord
(delllruclion 01 Ihe slruclure means Ihat il stop, lunctionlng properly).
Let us conslder a s)'slem consisling 01 1\\'0 sleel rOOs AB ami AC
(Fig. 368) loaded with a force P. By lhe conventional melhod or desigo \\le determine (orces N, snd N, acmrding to Ihe formula
N,-N .....
(Irom lhe equilibrium or poinl A). Henct the eross-st<:!ional arta 01'
t:leh rod musl be
N
P
S;;ot.ToT= 210lean
By the metbod of permissiblt loads ,,t have
P<;[P]
Taking foc" lhe \\bole struclull! the same fatlor of safdy k \\'hich
bad assumed in Ihe melhod oi permissiblt stresses, y,-e get
[Parl
.'-
'
P <;
!(eeping. in mind lhat
?- =!u),
2S<.IuC03a
we havI!
PO:;;;;2S(aJccsa
wherefrom
s.,
.2 [<.1] cOJsa
Hence, design for permissible lcads gives lhe same results as the
design lor permissible slresses. This is a!ways rue or slaUcally deter
minate slructures with uniform stress dls!tibulion, when the malerial
is ulilized full]" over lhe whole secUon.
148. Dcsign of StaUcally Indelerminale Syslems
UlIder Tenslon or lmpression by Ihe Melhod
01 Permissible Loads
. We gel enlirel)" dilferenl resull,.; i we apply Ihe melhod of prrmisslble loads for designing slali<:<llly indetennillate s}'slems in which
Ihe rods 3Te made 01 a
Olpable 01 laTge plastic <!t>farrnations,
for
mild sll'Cl.
Lelns cunsider as 3n example a s)'stem consisling 01 thrre rods loaded \\'ilh force Q (Fig. 369). The rods are all assumed lo be made af mild
sleel having yield stfl':.'>S
Lel liS denote lhe
01 lhe sid<> bars
by 1" <1ml thal 01 the miadl<> bar by l . The permissible stress [01=
in lhe previous case, we aSSUffle the ratio of Ihe rross-seclionji aTeas 01 alllhe bars lo be known; lel all the rods be of equal crosssecliollal areas S. Solving the problem in the same wa)' as in 18. we
g,'
N,
Dtsip
lor
Ptrm;Ai1/u JtJb
As Ni>N" the middle rod is stressed more Ihan Ihe side rods;
lherefore S should be
from lhe larmula
A',
The sitie rods have lhe same tross-seclional area: lhey will have a
slightly grealer reserve.
Let 115 apply {he melhod of permissible loads; Ihe slrenglh condilion
mal' be written as
Q"[Q]
Q;
Fil. 369
cr,.
IPul VU
r{la -
1"J.
,
Fi:. 371
Fil. 370
In ils lum
N,l,
. / I-"""ES
'
IQ-SG,)/.
(Q-Sn,lll
',.- 2EScos'(1
<=
...
CII, 1'61
(Q-So_). =
whencdrom
_50_ (1 + 2 COSo.)
.; = ral
[Q)=S(oJ(J
+ 2 cos 11)
Finally
+2cO!o.)
and
S;;'OJ(I +Ql1roul
This vatue is less lhan lhe value oblained by the convenlional method,
Lc. les.s Ihan
"""
S=IIIQO(I+2ms-"oo
we gel:
l.14cm '
"""
fmm a mal('filll
having a yicltl plaleau, Ihe methoo al permissible loads i$ more ccono-
[PGrl VII
.re
Ch. 261
'P, ""''Tp =
""Tv!
'"
(b)
('1
Fl. 372
edge of the secUon will stop (rielding), and at a cer1ain value M>M
the dlstribution 01 stresses wlll correspond to Ihe diagrarn shown in
Fig. 372(b). The material inside the nonhatched cln'le 01 radius 08
will contlnue to be in an eIastic slate as before.
The limi(ing state correspomling lo complele
of Ihe ]ft
ing capadly of the rod will be Ihe slate In whieh Ihe elastJc 'lone wilhln
lhe shaft is eomplelely abseni; (n such 11 slale Ihe
all over Ihe
!;l'('tion will be equal lo tite yield stress 'l"v (Fig. 37210).The 1ilnJtin lwisling moment MI may In Ihls case be calcula\ed as
the sum 01 1l1omenls of aH internal forces about lht' centre 01 ltw cirele.
For \his we divide lhe arca 01 Ihe iven sed ion by col1ccn\ric circles
inlo a mlnlbcr 01 infinilesimal rings.
In the Hmiling slale Ihe slressl"S aclil1( al each poinl al lhe secUon
have
va1ue equa! lo '1:. (Fig. :J72'c)). The Inlerno1 forre aet
ing on an elellll'tltary area 01 radius l will b:: eqllal to iFlg. 373) 1:.115.
and thc momen! ollhe inlernallorce \ViII be
By
the
(>1clnentary moments 01 Ihe inll;1"nal lorces over Ihe area 01 lhe whole
eircle, we gel
IPllrt
11 we /lOW \\'rile he
mOIllfflI. \\1.' flOd th31
vrr
M'''''T:u"'t,
(26.1)
fMIJ""T=T"-r-T"fT]
(26.2)
ThcrerOl'e
,." V
Silllultanl'Ollsly, from ronventional analysis ....'11' have ( 50)
,;;, V
;olll
Vm-
O9!
"'l.
('J.
261
We have seen in lorsion 01 shalts Ihal, ir Ihe slrcsses are not distribuled unilormly over lhe sectioo, Ihen lhe dimensions 01 Ihe sedions
obtaioed lor permissible stresses and p('rmissible loads are difierent.
A similar phenomenon Is observed in Ihe bending 01 beams.
In lhe analysis baed on the method 01 permissible slresses we deler11l ille Ihe size or lhe section from ihe condition
0".... -
M"'''--r
--7"" ...., J
C}
"
H
(11)
(d
lb)
PIg. 374
Lel us denote the bendiog momenl glving rise to this stale by M,: il
corresponds lo Ihe ailaiomen! 01 rnaximum carrl'ing capacily 01 Ihe
mato?rial in the maxilOurn stressed layers of lhe crilical sedion. How
e\'cr. lhis staledoes nol mean lhal lhe lllllximum cllrrying capacity 01
Ihe whole beam, as a slructure, has been exhausted.
Lel liS consider a slcel b...m of syrnmclrical (ror exarnple, reclangu1M or lsecHon) seclion (Fig. 374[a) and (b)). lhe dislribujion 01 slresse;; n the critica! sectioo for a mOlllenl M is shown in Fig. 374(t);
tlle yleld stress is reached 001)' in Ihe boundary layers, llnd aJl lhe rellI11ining portion 01 the beam remains n an elastic sta le. Thetefore,
(POf/
va
fo.- turlher defo.-mation 01 the beam ....'e musl jncrease Ihe l()3d and lhe
bending momeol: lhe lifliog capacUyal Iht' bt'am remains lo be ex
ploi!t'd fulty.
As ate jJlCte3.S!' the momenl lhe yield rol}{' sprtads lowards Ihe inside
01 the bum, the stress diaram appears as in Fig. 374(d) and in lhe Jimil. when
material begins to ftow along thecomplt'tt' heigblol Ihe
SoeCtion and the lifting capacily of the btam is exhausted, iI lakes lile
lorm of 1.....0 reclangles {Ftg. 374(e. The bending momenl in Ihis siete
al lhe beam will be Ihe IimUing one lar il as a 1I.,00Ie. Furlher deforma
tion or the bt'am will occur wHhout <Iny increase in the momen!; a
socalled ductile hiflge will be forme<! in Ihe critical se<:tion.
Let us delermine lhis limiling [nomen!
II is t'qualla the sum
01 momenls 01 forct'll Ilbout Ihe neutral axis. as Is evident from Fig.
374(e). A force>
dA acls on lhe elementary afea dA al a dis1ance z
from the neutral axis: Ihe momeot 01 thi5 force about Ihe neutral axis
i,s zo, dA. As Ihe secUon ls s)'1I1metric, it is ,sufficienl to calculale lhe
sum ot momenls 01 these forces far lhe upper DI" lower hall of the Sf'(.
tion and double the resulto Thus
M;=2
o,zdA
'"
\\ilere A Is the area el lhe wnole sediOll. As a, Is constant lar a11 polnts
01 the section. \\'e nave
'"
zdA=2a,S...
zdA =S",u
'"
ral
:lXlS.
liS
M_.<;;[MJ
For a salely factor
al t.
rM J
\l.'e
,Ito:
gel
2S""""".
M .......... [J
o
..... M...
or 2S.... -lO!"
(26.3)
C/I. 261
Design
le,
Pumi$$lbl'
LcaiU
'"
Therefore, when analyzing a beam 01 symmelrical secUon for permissible load, its dimensions should be calculaled nollrom \he seclion
modulus W bul lrom lhe slalic moment ol Hs half-seclion multiplied
by two. For a rectangular secUon 01 height h and wdlh b
h h
bh'
bh'
*"
Mm"
1.5101
Thus, \Vhen designed lor pcrmlssiblt' load Ihe required secUon mociulus 01 a rectangular beam is 1.5 times lcss than when il is designed lor
permissible slresses.
For any symmelrical section the quantily 2S..... mal' be laken as a
produd 01 Ihe secUon modulus and a constant tl which depends upon
the shape 01 Ihe secUon:
2S.... =nW
Therefore lormula (26.3) takes Ihe form
W
*"
Mm..
nol
(26.4)
For a rectangular sed ion n=I.5, for seclions 01 the type which we
are conside.ring ti varies belween 1.15 2nd 1.17; Ihe mean value 01 ti
mal' be taken as 1.16. Thus, il we slari designlng steel beams of Ihe
commonly used stclions by Ihe melhocl of permissible loads, we may
increase IlIeir carrl'ing capadly by 16%, which is eQuivalenl lo
incrwsing ther pennissible slress. Such an increase in the permissible stress musl be Ihoroughly invesligaten (during strenglh check) in
conjunclion wilh olner possible fadors which may cause lailure of
Ihe bearn.
lt has been ell:perimenlally eslabllshed lhal I.section sleel beams
never fail solely as a result 01 the yield stress appearing over Ihe whole
secUon. More commonly Ihe failure is due lo Ihe loss 01 slablill' 01 the
flange (Fig. 375) or the web. Therefore, special a!tenUon should be paid
lo checking Ihe slablily of the elements ollhe beam when higher permissible stress is used upon analY'Ling by Ihe method or permissible
loads.
lf a repealed load acls on Ihe beam, Ihe possibilily 01 failure due lo
Ihe appearance 01 faligue cracks should be laken inlo collsideration.
This requires an additional check againsl a ailure 01 Ihis nature occurrlng in lhe structure.
Th", analysis based on permisslble loads is somewhal more complicaled in lile case 01 bealI15 having one axis 01 syrnmetry, for example in
T-section beams.
...
".
[Parl Vl1
FIgure 376 shows suen a sedion and lhe diagram 01 normal stress
distribulion when lhe carrying capacity 01 {he beam is reached. In
such beams we mus! lirsl determine Ihe location 01 (he neutral axis;
C!ven al Ihis slage of working 01 Ihe beam iI does nol pass through lhe
centre 01 gravity 01 Ihe secUan.
Fig. 375
Fie:. 376
A=A,
The neulral axis divides Ihe area af {he section into wa equal por
tions. In bemling wilhin lhe e[astie Iimils he same candil ion
liS to lhe condusion tha! (he slatic momenl:; 01 Ihe compre&Sed aod
slrelched portions of lhe seclion should be equal and, IhereroTe, ihe
neulral axis should pass tl1rough the centre 01 gravity 01 lhe section.
Here il divides lhe aTea of the section nto lwo equal parts.
Having determined lhe local Ion of Ihe neulral /lis, we see l!lal
"
where SI
S, are the slalic momenls of lhe upp('r 3nd lower hah-('S
01 Ihe area ollhe s('Clon about lhe neulral axis. The strenglh condition
takes Ihe form
-.,.M....
(S 1 +S)
1 po 1l1J
('65)
W
ODI',,, lar
C/I 161
Pt,mlJJilllt LoGdJ
..,
"
'_
-,f.c'__---j"1l.
;1.Q.
I 1
Iti
!!J.
'N
-: l"'i>:,
,
1
l'!,
In
i-i"i'i:,...,(1111'
/1
.".,
r..
1.1.
*1,
"
'I 1.\Fl
,-,-;...--;...:
1
Ir
,,
Fil1.. 371
Lel
coosidrr a I....n-span ronlinuous beam or unifNm '<l"(:lion
(flg 377to).
Iwnding 1II(lIIl('nl dia:!ram IN wor\.; .... ilhin eh!' elaslic
hmil5 (Fil;. 377,bll
Ihe t1iftrr..nt'e of 11M' hendinj.! roonM'Tl1 diagnllm
lPIlJ"/ VII
.... =lVtW
However, undel such a load the beam does nol cJ(hausl its maxilnum
lifling capacity. 1t Iransforms into a slalkally determinalc beam with
a hinge at point D Ihrough which momenl M; is Iransmitted
1',' I /'l.'
O
.;;;;,
)'('
'j)
Jh
Fig. 378
(Fig. 378)-this beam is s\i11 capable of laking more load. When lhe
looel is further increaseel, the momeol al poiol D remains consl<ml
whereas the mamen! at the support
until il also becomes equa!
to M" another duclile hioge is lormed al the supporl, Ihe left span
lransrorms iolo a movable syslem and lulllilting capacity of Ihe beam
is utilized as Ihe load iocreases \0
lhe bending moment diagram of
the beam far this slate olloadiog, wnlch is shown in Fig. 3n(c), is the
diagram far breaking momenls. It Is lhe clilJerence oflhe ordinales 01
must also be
equal to
wherelrom
11-
(26.6)
'lit'
oblain
,1"1
whcrelrom
(26.9)
stress 111fT!.
M,-!T
a,
r"",.Fxl31
P, "" IxlJ.olil
Assuming th.11 11=1 16 (for I-beams. 1501, \\'t 6nd lhat lhe lining eapacily 01 the beam increascs hy
il 1I is desigoed acrordir.g
lIS the
o/
f1IOOittli,,
1f'1Ir1 VU
If anolher
P .....ere octing allhe milhlle 01 1114: S('\;()nc.l span,
the diagram of reduet'd momenls ""'{luld remain unalJeded (Fig. 3i9).
te. no uinforcemmt ol the Mam \\'lluld bfevm if an addi
M'
q",J'
8 ""'16
W ..... -"1,
q(O
,
11 lo! = J6If I"J
Thus,
ductile hingo must be forme<! befn lhe middle Splln
fails. and 1M moOIefl!s in all the Ihree hinges will be equai. 11 311 the
spans al tlJe beam W@fe loaded, it ....-ould be essenliallo check Ihe possibility 01 railure 101' ('3ch span by ploUitlg the correspooding diagrams
d reduced momenls (by equating tlteir value:s In tite critica! .seclions)
C1t. 261
.73
and seled W lor lhe maximum value of M, Ihus oblained. As a conerele example let us load Ihe three-span beam (Fjg. 381) by 11 uniformly jistributed force q in Ihe middle span and coneenlraled forces P=2q/
.,
ading at the centre of eaeh side span. The reduced moments M, fO'
alllhree spans are sholl'n in the diagram wilh dotled lines; their vaJues
are as folloll's:
",
M'=ij
",
Ihe secUon
!f'/lf! 1///
,,-f-
appliN
al
1
Fi,. 381
25J
der normal funcUoning of the strueture or reduce ils Sl'rvice life due
mainly lo impermissibly lafge displacements (d..lIeclions, angles of
rotalion, e.lc.).
The raled slrellglh, R,', whieh is specilied by design slandards on Ihe
basis 01 control conditions and slalistical varialion of slrength, is
the main parametcr eharaclerizing lhe resislanee of materials to Ihe
adion 01 external forc{$. We may choase as raled slrenglh he yield
stress, ultimale slrenglh, faligue sttE'nglh, criticlIl slress ami olher
similar eharaetetisties al Ihe malerial, which in Ihe cOllrse al slrenglh
01 materials are eal1ed crilical and are denoled by ff.
The possible harmful devialion 01 slrE'nglh characterislics Irom Ihe
raled strength is taken into acoounl by Ihe SIlfely factor uf material, k,
py whieh Ihe raled slrenglh is dhided.
The numerieal valuc of k depends on the properlies 01 materials and
their slalisUcal variatton. WhE'll ca1culating Ihe load carrying capaelly 01 struclures, lhe value 01 k is nol lake-n less Ihan 1.l.
By the design s/rellgth of material, R, we mean lhe strenglh which is
while designing a strllclure and is oblained by dividing
R' by k:
(26.10)
The roefficic/lt 01 optra/ing ccnditiOIlS, m, lakts care of Ihe speeial
leatllr('s of a syslemalie nature Ihal arise during actual functioning
01 D1alerials, elements and joinls and structures, bul which are nol
diredly reflected in the design procedurl.'.
Coelficienl m lakes inlo account he eftect of lemperature, humidlty
and corroding efreel of Ihe almosphere, englh of time during which
orces ad and sorne other faetors.
The reliabilily and capital inveslmenl laclors in design 01 buildings
and slruelures are ac.::ounled for in a number 01 caSl'S by Ihe coefficient
01 reliability, k,. The numerical values 01 eoefflcienls k, m. and k r lIre
eslablished by slandards.
Thus, formula (26.10) fer design slrength R with suitable coeffi
cie!lls m and k r when necessary may be written as follows:
R'
R=m-
"O
(26.11)
'"
VII
The probable harmlul ueviation of Ioads from lhe raled values due
lo varialion of load5 01
in conditions of normallundionina: is
lakm accounl d by lhe
ct t;(lf'noadillg. /l. CoeHitienl f1 ls
Ihe salety factor against overloading. 1lle ovrrloading c:oeilkients m3;t1
be diJferenl lor dilferenl loads even ir Ihe laUtr IIrt applied lo lhe
structure simullaneously. 101" instance,
permanent aOO lemporar)'
loads. This is lile' dilference betwterJ Ihis design melhod and Ihe ooe in
slrengtll of materials in which lhe ufely laelor againsl overloading is
Ihe same (ex allloads simulttlnoously actina: on a slruelure and is taken
inlo acrount by a comlllon safety factor.
The loads used in actual design are oblained by nlultiplying Ihe
raltd valul'S wilh Ihe corresponding overloadin coefficienls 11, llnd
IItt known as dl'sign 10000s.
Ir Ihe difTeren! vulues 01 lhe overloading coellicient for permanenl
and te111JlOfary loalls lIfe taken into accounl. then. fOf inslance, the
bending !IIomen! M due lo simullaneous oc!lon 01 permanent
and lemporary lorces GIl a beam may be delined as
ror
(26.12)
;'<R
If.'l'
gel
PART VIII
Stability
01 Elements 01 Structures
CH,y>TEIl 17
In all pre\'ious discussions lI,'e delerll\irltd Ihe croSHedional dimensions 01 baTS IraID Iheir slrenglh conditiofl. Howt'ver, a bar may {ai[
nol be<:ause 01 insuflicient strenglh but
il <locs nol relajn ils
dcsigned shaH". This ehanges the nature or slressed sial!' o Ihe bar.
rile rnost
eX31npll' \5 Ihat 01 a bar eompressed by axial rorces
P. UnlJl now \\'e have chccked Ihe strenglh 01 bars by lhe following
condition:
where
fol '""
or
ro}-
Thls rondition ls based on Ihe aumption l/lal lhe bar works umler
"xial comprtssioll righl up to lhe momenl of lis lailun' du\' lo o, or
. t'VeJl Ihe simples! 01 l'xperin:en!s sho..., s thal il is 1101 always
possible lo load Ihe bar up lo its ridd slres.s or ultimate strwgth.
If
subject a thin \\"OOdm seale to axial compression. I{ may lail
due to bending. Al Ihe lime o la_Iure the compressive force acline on
ilie seale "".ilI be oonsiderably
Ihan Ihe foro! whieh tbe seale can
wHhsland befare ils ultimate slrength is reached. lhe seale fails be
cause lt dOes not retain ils designcd shapt' of. reclangle bul bmds, e'
in rise lo bending lOOlIlenls due lo fOf\.'eS P and, oonsequentlr. lo ad
ditiooal bending stress: 1M scako loses Ils stllbility.
Therelorr. 101" sale \l;orking al a slructure il is nol enough lor ji lo
have sulfieie:nl slrenglh; it is t'SSef\lial lhat all ils elemenls art' slable
and lheir deformatioo under lhe a<:liofl 01 external (orces is .....ilhin such
limits Ihal the nature 01 Iheir work relPains unaffected. Htttce, in a
number of cases, in particular in bars under compression, the slrenglh
check musl be subslantiated by a check al slabilily. Berore we carry
out sl.lCh a check iI is neces.sary to eel closely acquainled wilh Ihe
conditions whid lead lo the bar losin its stability.
0._
IAI
,,
,,,
,,
,
'" i
Po
f. 382
F. Sd3
en
Ch.l'7I
$Iabi/itll
01
!f.
(27.1)
[Parl VIII
'"'
\\tlere [0'.1 15 he IJermissible $tress far stabil il}' equal lo critica! .stress
dividl.'d by a factor of slability:
Before Ilr'l! explain how stabil Iy is lo be chteked, ....-e IDust .!tia..... how
lo dl.'tl'rmine Oc and how to seled k,.
'1
i
Fil:'. 384
are known. QUT problern i$ jusi Ihe opposile: \\:e assume a certain de
f1edion or lhe bar's axis and lhen determine {he 3.lial
force P at which the assumed de8eclion ott:urs.
Consider a unifOl'm straight bar hingtd al bolh ends. One of Ihe supports permits axial displacernent of Iht conesponding tnd or Ihe bar
(Fi. 3&1). The dud 1!reighl oI Ihe bar is negligible. Lel lIS load the
bar wilh an axial compressive force
and impar! lo ji a sJight
deReclion in Ihe plane el minimum rigidily; lhe bar rl'mains in equilibrium in the benl sute because P-P <.
1ht imparttd dellecHon is assumed lo be vtry smalL Therelore. !he
probJ(!m may bE' solved by using lhe approximatc diD"erl!nlial tquation
of Iht- delltcll'd axis of Ihe bar ( 82). Seltcling lhe origin el coordinales
al poinl A and directing 1he coordina le axt5 as shown in Fig. 384, \\'e
(15.7)
gel (rom
El
M (x)
ordinate ollhe dl!Reded axis in this sed ion is!J and lhe fxllding mo-
Ch. 27]
...
menl is:
M(x)=-Py
When c011lpared with Fig. 384 lhe! be!nding morne!nl is found lo be
negalive- allhough Ihe ordinales are posltlve lor lhe selecled diredion
01 Ihe yax is *. (!-Iad the- bar bee-n bent wilh ils convexity downwards,
Ihe momenl would have been positive, the yordinale would have
been negative and M (X)=-PlI.)
Consequentl)', differ'nlial equalion (15.7) ma)' be writ!en as fol
lo\\"s:
EJ
;Er=-py
(27.2)
10110\\"5:
;r+k'y=O
(27.3)
(;:-,
(27.'1)
01
intcgraliOll a
It ensiles frorn Ihe lirsl condition (since sin kx=O alld coskx=l) Iha!
Q=b
ThllS, lhe bent axis is a sine curve having equalion
y=-aslnkx
(27.5)
aud
x=1
we obt;in
(27.6)
10110\\IS lha! either a or kl must be zero.
If 11 i5 equal !o zero, then lrom equation (27.5) we see 1I1al lhe deftecton of {he bar is zero in all secUons. i.r. Iht" bar remains 5lraight.
lt
H lhe v-axis
di...",I." "<J... nward<, "
bl'l1dillJ: monte"t rI1 (r) w,1I
\0 a pl\Sitll'e d.OtctiOl1 '/, lio",.".r. 1" lhls case Ihe cu""l,,,,;U be
nq"8tl\. "nd d',/ldO<JJ. liencc, the $igns ,n equlltion (27.2) Il.'JIl remailJ lile ame.
'"
Tl1is
[Par/ Vlfl
o/
P ""'
n'CJ
---r n
(27.8)
in determiniog Ihe
,,1EJ
... ------p-
(27.9)
(27.10)
Higher valu<:'S of
crilical force correspond to bending Ihe bar
along a sine curve wilh two, Ihree, etc. hMlf'\\"avC5 (Fig. 385):
.... 4Tf.I:E,
p _9....EJ
y=usin
k= 3"
l'
;;c}
3;[",
(27.11)
y=asrn-,-
Ch. 27]
SfrlbUII!I
o/
.83
=---'i'"""
"
.
y=asm
The conslanl of integral ion, 0, has remained undelermined; ils physkal nature will become clear ir we substituie
in Ihe equalion of
Ihe sine curve. The contlition
(dellection al the middle or the.
bar) yie!ds
u.... =f=a
This means tha! a is lhe deneclion of the bar al ils middle point.
Dellection f remllins undelermined. because thl' dellecled bar can remaJn in equilibriul1l in various delll!Cled positions from lh", straighl
lineshape for a single value 01 critical force P, pro.... ided fhe denections
are small.
Delledion f should be smal!
lo enable us lo use Ihe approximale
equation 01 Ihe defiected axis, Le.
shou!d be
npgligib!e as compared lo unity ( 82).
Havlng lound the critical rorce,
can immediately determine
critica! stress (Ja by dividing p. by lhe crosssectonal arca, A. Asthe
critica! force \Vas delermine(] by considering lhe derormation 01 Ihe
bar which is not much alfected by [ocal weakenings in lhll seclion, Ihe
moment of inllrUa lIse(] in the epression lor Pe is JI ""i'A /. Thus
or wrilillg the condifion of slabilily
whiJe ca1cuJating critical
we
nol the -veakened but the total area A 1 01 unweakened
sedon. Then
(27.12)
We find Ihal crilica[ stress in a bar 01 a given material Is inl'erscly
proportional lo the square 01 the ratio 01 ils lenglh to lhe mnimum
radiusol gyralion of its section. This ratio,
is calied Ihe {lexibilityollhe bar and plays an imporlant par! in a[1 slabililychecksol
compressed bars.
It i5 evident from formula (27.12) Ihat he critJcal stress may be e;..
treme!y small in long and tiln bars; il may be less than the permissi.
),=+'
ble strl'$ lo!. Fot sl..el wilh llltiulalutl'l.'fIgth 014000 kgf!cm' lhe prrmissiblr Slress lIIay be as,sUIlIe(\'
lo 10'1-1600 kgf'cm. rOl' a bar
!laving ftulhilily '-=-150 and modlllus oIelaslicil}' or lile malerial
[;o2XIO'kgf'cllI t lhe crilical slrW will be
"",871 kgfcm' < 16Mkgl:cm'
Ha\\
cross-secliOOil\ arell oS lhe compresstd b.9r al given
lily been deten!\ined from the slrength tondition, lhe bar "'"QUId ha"e
failw due lo
Io!;s
p,
p
,
r-
1 "
Jj-
j",,/'
I .""..
'L7
"
,I
" 1
I}_jI
\J
,.-
'"
"
ano changes when lhe llltlhod of conslrainl
JeG
P
Fi:: 388
is dilJerenl. 11 tM mUs or
tbe bar are hinged this t)'peof fixalion will be relme\! lo as lhebasic
rnelhod 01 oorlStm/llt. Al! other iIletOOds o constrilint wil1 be discussed
by oomllaring {tlem {o Itll! basic. 1I1elhod.
Ir 1\'1' repeal Ihe. derivation for a bar rigid\y thed III one entl llnd
loaded ill Iheoll1er by :In u.fal
p (fig. 386), we shall
obtain 11 diIJerent cxpression lot the criUc.alloroe amI. c.onsequently,
such an trpre5'
lar lbe criticar stress. Lt'aving llo lbe reader lo
lo explarn how
exprC$Si:>n tar the Cflicat
sion hilJlS@lf, we
force eln be oblained in this case wilh lhe help oi the lellowing simple
CtN1Sidenllions.
Ch. 27]
SUppD'>e lhe bar relains ils equilibriulTl under critical lorce P when
il bulges slightly along lhe curve AB. Comparing Figs. 382 and 38G.
we observe thal
t1eRected axis 01 Ihe bar rigidly fixed al one end is
in lhe S<lme conditions as the upper haH 01 a bar al double )englh
hinged al bolh ends.
1 which is fixed
Th,s mcans Ihat lhe critica! force in a bar 01
at one ene! and lree al lhe olher is Ihe same as in- a bar of lenglh 21
hinged at boll1 ends:
(27.13)
H \W consider a bar in which bolh ends are rigidly fixed and are incapable 01 rotal ion (pig. 387), we observe that Ihe middle portian of
lenglh {al Ihe deRl'ded bar works under Ihe same conditions as a bar
which is hlnged al bolh ends (poinls 01 inlledion e and D Illay be considered as hinges. because lhe bending moment al Ihese poinls is zcro).
Thus, Ihe criUcal force in a bar 01 length 1 which is fixed al both
ends is equal to the critical force in a bar 01 length { in whieh lh('
emls are fixed by lhe basic mf'lhod 01 constrainl:
n'J
4n"tJ
=---r-
(27.14)
p.="'/;J,
,,'l
p. - (Il l)'
(27.15)
= I
For lhe bar shown in Fig. 388 which is rigidly fied al one end and
hnged al (he other. coefficient I! is approximalely found to be equal to
and the crilical force is:
(27.16)
Strlblli/II 01 Elt_/$
o/
Par! Vflt
produe1 11/ is called Ihe reduad artt) (rrlgth: with lhe help 01
the coellicienl ollength a bar wilh arbilrarily conslrained ends can be
rffiuced lo a bar In wheh Ihe
are roostrllioed by Ihe basie melhod:
whl!e cakulating neJllbiJity lhe adual lenglh or lhe bar musl bt replactd by Ihe reduetd Jength 11/. Thetonct'(ll of reduce<! Jength was Iirs!
r'
p-Z
r JS
='T,,/
and
.,'E
(1'-7
(27.12')
af R,,t;w, Eflf1U't'T,
o.
271
"
.;
"..
e
o
"
.,
<
,,
i
o
"
1
<
"
"
eo
"
,
e
:; l
;S
...
."
-,'1,:-
,
.,- '1.
<:: ..:
,
,
re
o,
o
"
m
,;
.
+ g
"-
r.-e
,I
.:
.58
SllIbilitlJ
"1
Elrmmls
ti' Slructll'ts
[PIlI/ VIII
dation, soch bus may be considere<! rigidl)' he<! al lhe end. This
es
lhis is almosl Iwice Ihe uUimate strength of sleel; Ihl' bar \VIII
ccase to \\'Otk even belare the critical stress is achie\ed. We Ihus set
Ihat ter 10\\' lIexibility baTS Euler's IOfmula ives exaggeralt."d
of critica! slresscs and fOtt'e$. Whal are lhe reasons roc ihis? Figure
390 shov.s lhe relalion belweetl
and l. lhe curve is 2 hypt'toolll.
whkh is known as -Eul"'s hypubola-, While using this curvt. it
shouht be ktpl In mina
lormula (27.12), which il reprcsenls ..,,as
oblain<.'il by inlegr:lling Ihl' dilfl.'rrnUal cqualion oI 111,' fl1'8cclt1l axis,
Le. il WIlS d<>ri\'ed 011 1/1{> a'!.'\.IJnlfllion lhnl Ihe <;1f'f:'SSCS in Ihe bar al\'
1eM. Ihan Ihe Il!llll o prulJorlloolflil), when lt loses ils stllbilil)'.
..,
c'-'"
(27.17)
If
J.
tqulllion (27.11), he mil 01 applicability
al Euler's formula will changc:
,, .. /"."
"
(27.17')
-- -
.-1
l'
I '
T,
\
WJ
::--
80 OlfllJ fj{J
Fg. 390
on1y when
k,;'
-: :
100
00
IPDrt VIII
.
Illeorelical sululion obt&ine<i by Eult'r can be applied lo a ver)'
limita! calegar)' el bars, namely Ihin and long bllf"$ hl\'ing high llexl
bUi/y. In struclures wt oittn nd haes having low lItxibilily. Altempl5
IOllpply Euler"s formula lar ca!culating uHlcal slresses in $och bars
1('(J to cataslrophic reulls. and txpedments on rollJpreMion ol bars
limil 01 proporlionaalso!bow tha!, ( lhe crUica' stresses I'xcroed
IlIy. lhe aclual critical fon:e is roruidcrably 1m than the value ob-
(27,18)
X'-
Ei
."
0.211
{Ioc bars having !Iexibillt)
may be rewriUen as
(27.18')
E'
E,J,+f/.
-
00
the basis of
(27.19)
E"
U:E,
=(YE+ Vif,1"
(27.19')
1I ls evilllmt rrom equations (:27.19) Hnd 121.19') lha! when lhe (rilislrw docs nol exceed [he limil 01 proporlionalily 01 the malerial
(Le. when Ih' delorrnalion is within lhe l'lasUe limils and E,-E),
the redocM modulus 01 elll5ticily EzE.
For nk11iats having Bv..eJI define<! yield
E, and P l<md lo
zero as thecrilical stress approaches Ihe yield slres,.\. This imtl1ies that
in such cases ttlc critical
caono! exCffd lhe yield stress 01 lhe
material.
1e Engesser-Karman formula did 001 find applicalion in practical
design since lhe deterrninaion 01 E". whkh depends upoo UIC critical
ralses serious dilficulties in compulalion and also because it
[al results.
lhe applicatlon al Euler's !)Tl11ula to the inelaslic region 01 delorl11jtion became possible onl)' arter F. Shenly pubJished his 'oVark in
which he
a new approoch lo the 31lalysis of slabilily af compressed ban (19-15) subjccled lO elaslico-plulic deformaUon. Looking
upon lhe loss 01 slabllity as a dynamic process under the aclion al 3
oonlinuously increaslng compres:sive Ion:e. Shenly, in lacl. I1'lumed
lo lhe original formula 01 Engesser (27.18) wilh langenlia! modulus of
dorslicity E" which had l'arlierbun rejf'Cled (if lhe curllalure small
at Ihe IOOmCllI when Ihe bar loses ils slabilily. an mcrcase oi Ion:e P
by tJ.P bi.lances lhe load rclaxation on lhe oonvex side due lo addi
tional oompression).
lo generalizl'd formula (27.18) cOllsiderably slmpliThe
fieJ the calculatiOll of critital slrl!:-<SeS for bars in which loss of slabil ily
ls acoompnnil'd by plastlc deformalion. i\t prcscnl. theorelic;l1 Y/llues
af critical slresses rO( lowand medium !1e;tlbility or dilJ..,.mt male"'als
been cakulaled 011 lh(' basis af experimenlal dala on E, corr1'.5ponding lo diffffi.'nt
01 critical
(J, gri'at<'f than op,
ami with lhe h('lp oi lnodefn computaliooal tf'Chniques. These valua
ue in good agreem('nl with lhe results obtained Iraln expnimenlal
research.
B. The lirst experimental invesUgalions on slabilily of
h:m \Vt'f(' conrlllc\ed with lhe Mm of cllecking Euler's formula. It
W:'ls found perlcdl)' vatid lor long (nexiblt')1J<lrs bul W:lS observed to
givc ti lnrge discrepancy wilh experil\\('nlal results lar shorl bars (as
is lOvidl!nl from lheoretkal consiLleralions). On the- basis o
upeafien 001 OOllducled wilh due carl!", v.Ilrious empiricallormulu
Wl'ft' propOS/!(I far detl!fllllning critical
Ihollgh wl1holll sufficienl jUllllkation m JOO!Iit oi thlO cases.
Ihl! qll:lllty 01 ex
perimental investigatiom improved as new apparatus \Vas de\'doped.
'Io.2n
Slohl/dy
of
..,
are practically equal lo Ihe riele! stress IJ u and ror brittle maleriats ID
.-'
2fJJO
,
\
"
- --- ' [\,
I
I
I
r---
...
o,
Slabl/lfll 01
SI"'e/u.es
IParl VII/
(joining poinls
f/l
and
nI,
In
"="11,"'
!IJ' tal
f!IJ
whcre
}.
Fig.393
where
fO',]=i;
Having plotted lhe lotal crlical stress diagram lar bars of any flexi
bi1ity I 157), we can also plol lhe permissible slress diagrarn lor sta
bilily lor Ihe given malerial by redudng the ue-ordinaltS k. times:
(u,l
=:
\Ve only have lo rhoose a proper vallle for coeflidenl k,. Bearing in
mind a number of errors, which are unavoidable in axial compresslon
(inilial cllrvatllre, eccenlricily, etc.) and seriollsly nfluence the load
carrying capacily of the bar, Ihe lactar of safely for slability is taken
greater lhan the safely faclor lar strenglh, k. Far sleel lhis roeffident
vares between 1.8 and 3.5, lar iron belween 5.0 and 5.5 and lor timber
between 2.8 and 3.2.
Figure 393 shows lhe diagram of pl'rmisslble stresses lar stabilily
'"
Ilnd the safety faclor [or stabilily for Jowcarbon sleeJ haviog )'il'ld
al Ilar$ Vmkr CamprtSiM
" ,
Denoliog
(27.21)
we gel
(27.2:2)
where tp is Ihe rl!duclloll coeffitiell/ 01 Ihe perrnissible stress lor compressed bars.
11 we have Ihe 0< versus}. curve lar 11 given materlal, know o.=or
or O.=Ou and :;elect Ihe salet)' laclors for strength. k and 5labillly,
h.. we can pul togethet atable for ffl as a funcHon of fiexibiJity.
Tibie 19
Coelfident Il'
51<",,'"nl .,...1.
/.
,
O
'"'""
"
"'
r.
70
""
lOO
..'''',
"O
1301
150
'00
'70
''''
190
200
w,
(H/li
0.988
0.970
0.%1
0.005
0.M7
0.820
0.170
0.i15
0.';55
0.582
0.512
0.448
, .00
0.987
0.%8
0935
O. ll'lZ
0.843
0.192
O. no
0.61'.0
0.592
0.(;15
0.440
0.:183
0.:H8
0.305
0.285
0250
LOO
0.3.11\
LOO
0.986
0.965
O.'"
0.986
0.837
0.780
0.710
0.637
0.5(,3
0.482
0.413
(1.350,
0.302
O.25G
0.22G
5'..1
("U
w_
, .00
0.97
0.95
0.91
0.87
O."
0.79
J.()O
0.97
(1.91
0.81
O"
0.57
0.99
0.97
0.00
087
on
0.G5
055
0.43
0.35
0.30
0.26
O"
0.2!
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.13
'M"
0.3<
O."
O.'"
0.16
LOO
O.'"
0.71
0.00
0.48
0.38
0.31
0.25
0.22
0.18
0.1(,
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.10
0,1)9
0.08
fE'..tJ
VIII
ir ftt'xibilily
if I\exibilily l.
> 75,
lhen
'1"'"
lhl"n
"00
tr="'J.T
The valut'S 01 q oblained from lhese formulas are quile clO!e lo the
labulate(] values.
lhis lable helps us lo selecl Ihe crosssectional area of the como
pressed bar. lhe crOS!sectional area depcnds upon [0-,1, whkh in ils
lurn depl"nds upon '" and
ily ,. i.1!. upon Iht' lIrea and shape 01
Ihe croo;s
lherelore, lhe cros.YSeCtion:Jl Mca is dele!"mined by
auceessi\"e approxillllllions in Ibe following order.
We select the sbap<> of tht'
and deline iis di!lleO:Sions. Nut,
'M! cakulate lhe minlmulQ radius al
and Ibe lIe:tibility. We
lind corflicien11fl (rom 111<' table and ea!culate the pt'I"nlissible stress
f slabilit), 10,1=",101. We oow compare lhe actual strt'SS a- \\ith
la,l, if the rondilion
(27.23)
is nol salisfied, or h salisfied with a big IrnIrgin, 9.'1' change tht' dimen,
sloos .nd repeal the cakulalioll.'\. ObviousJy, the seclion finally
lected musl also satisfy Iht' slrength tondilion
as folln\\'S:
(27.23')
In liJe Icllhand sidl' o, represents the de:sign (rwuced) slrt'SS.
The order 01 calC\lI.lions will be elaboralW on in lhe lollo\\'ing
ex'D1ple.
Tt..
Xft1lled In lbe lilaOOmlli
chatxlfflU'Cl b,. ultimale s1ratt1/l,
f1lUmetalor} and plOlol $lnss (dtll<>""Nlor) in
Stand:udli do llOI pumit
lbe _ nl s....11ws ......"1
l>ISD in SllUtlurtS ali io;Id
mrotll\s
loUbif<ltd lo
In del1cn by tbe meiOOd 01 Umltrlll:' s1alts (_ Chaplel' 26)
rotfk*,l 'i' IS coosldered 1 totlfcltnl by 'l'hld> lbe raled load sIlould be ltduud.
01.171
Find the
dimensioo$ of :m ron pipe coJumn
111 bolh ends and subjecll."d 10 a compressi\e fort'l." P...85 If, ir lhe ratio
ol internal diameler lo Il'te exlernal is diD-0.6. The oolumn is {-4.8 ni long. The mllin
slress under comprt'Ssion
iron
ror
IS 101=1200
Y A
-/
,,(O'
"')
&-I.:!.(D'-d")
.. /o'+d'
r----w-
_0.2910
(a)
(b)
55"
a,
55"
P = 0.1>54><:314 -= 41 O
a, - lI'A
1200 kgf/cm'
0,=
o{ St,</ctures
[p<lrt Vfll
'"
These secllons are disadvantageous when used as compreS5e'd bars
Slability 01 SO" Undtr COl1IprtsslM
0f1
account 01
large dierence in Ihe
of
principal Plomenls
of inerlia. This drawback may be overcome by n10ving aparllhfo channd sections, as shown in fig. 395(c). To tnsure Ihat Ihe sections ....v rk
logelber as a single unit. lbey are
joined by means of a netv.'Ork (fi.
395) 01 fixin plates.
\l.'Orking of such como
positt sections can be g\laranttt'd
only by providmg a suflicienUy
$otrong fixalion (by network 01 plales
and angles), wtllcb ensUTe$ lhat
al! load earrying elemtnls function
Thus, If we join
two slrong ehannel seclions ....'E'akly.
(,)
lhey will not work as a single unit...
(11/
Each hall 01 the sections witl work
independentlyand lis stablHly will
be eonsiderably less than thal 01 11
secUon in whkh bolh halves operale
as a single unit.
fixatlon of eom
lnsufficienl allenlion paid 10 lhe design 01
posite sec.tlons has been Ihe cause of serious catastrophes in the past.
8r
,
"
,,-+
+,
-"
+:
'+
1-1+,
-,
l-.J
}tf
----+-..,-,1 '.
"'-
1+
,
1+
+1
JI
IJ,
---_1- __'-_
"1
n'
Sfabim!l
01
Ellmttlfs
St,,,,,,,,ts
[P",f HU
equa!. Usuall}', however, Ihe momerll or inertia ahout Ihe axis perpendicular lo lhe nelwork plane is laken a litlle highrr, bccause the
nelwork cannol ensure simullaneous \\'OrkiJlg uflhe 1',1,'0 halves as well
as of a section ',1,'hich is Olll! rigid unil.
\Ve will show below how Ihe stabilily oi a composite bar subjeded
lo compression can be improved b}' rational1y pl<lcing Ihe elements 01
z..
1t lo
rd:z=
"1
seclion, SUEPose we have lo desi;n a seclIon from 111'0 chanm.>1 SI.'Ctions
(steel C38J23) ror a 4m long eolumn Ihat is hingecl al bolh !::nds and
is subjected lo compression.
\Ve shall compnre Ihe maximum permissibll' (rrom IhC' point ar "iew
of stabIlity) comprcssive force aelIng 011 Ihe l'oluml1 mluJe up 01 two
chann('1 sectiOIlS
30 (sC'e AppC'ndix). Le! us eOl1siclcr h\'o vl'rsions:
in Ihe rsl Ihe t\\'o channcl seclions are altached alun;: heir heighl
baek to baek so aS lo !orm an Isectiotl (Fig. 396(u)); in Lhl' second version lhe Iwo channel sedions are attached br 11 ne! .....ork and placecl in
sllch a way lhallhe section h:tS Idenlieal motllenls 01 inerlia aboul Ihe
lwo principal axes or inertia (fill. 396(11)1' The Illain pl'rmissible
under compression is assum<.'ll to he [O" =1600
Por lhe! rtrst version
scetions n\lachl.'d wilholl! any gap)
the minimum moment or inl'rtl(l 01 Ihe scction is.
J"'ln"'" J.= 2 (327
+40.5x2.52: -
IIG8em'
c!I.m
."
For Ihe seoontl version (when lhe channt"1 .slIons are apart) lhe
ment of in!'ftia of lhe composHe .seclion (Fig. 396(b is:
"
RJOo
a:
is ......
This means Iha! Ih{' distance belween lhe securing plales shoold not
be more lhan 94.6cm.
DistaJa b
channtl sections (Fig. 396(b) may be determinro Irom Ih{' condilion '.-"" ""here
',=- 2(J: A.c");;;'
J:
2):
H.. re J; and
are moments of inertia of one channel seclion
Ihe axes passing through Hs cenlre el gravily. and A. is lhe eross-:stional area ol one channcl section. Tht-rdore
c_ y
A,
50'
[Par' VIlI
limil of proporlionality, Ihe resislanceof 3 bar to buckling is detecmined by only ane meehanraJ properly, Ihe modulus 01 elasticily. E.
In bars 01 medlum and particular!y 10\\' f1exibility he critical stress
C:".fi
, -J8
,
, ,
'
21J1J.
r--
8U
pa)'
allenlion. io seemingly unimpotlani bul adually ver)'
imporlant 35pPCIs In lhe \\-"Ol"king al compressed b3rs.
Loss 01 slabllJl y js 311 thr more dangerous because il OCturs suddenl)'. OelormalloTl
no! nollceable ami laiJs lo arouse suspicion
rghl up to lit<! momenl wheo Ihe compressive force beoomcs uilltal.
In acldition. as mrntioned ear1irr. a number 01 raclon-eccenlncilr
of
initial cllrvalurc, loenl overslrr:ssing 01 lhe mal<.>rialcan further considerllb1r frUUCIl the rt"Sislance 01 compresSC'd bars
lo buclding, allhough Ihe same f.1clon have almost no eITl'Ct 00 Ihe
working of other elements 01 lhe slrucltlre.
Specia\ llenllOn should be pajd lo the reliabilily of jomts of parls
in compll.'5WtI baTs made 01
seclinm. Nl!gJect al Ihis
factor was tht- cause al 'fllgie accillents in Ihe pasl, e5pl'('lally in
ol large
fO,)-lf[oj
l(JI should implr Ihe permissible slress lor slnongth under dynarnle
S/ubilily
of
Ehmnrfl uf Slflldul'tr
slructore is slalkally
and lhe load 01 eleDll'nls lhus
ovenlressed is lakm up by OIMr elelJ'.enls.
We shall discuss below a few lJ)(ln' tODlplicaled problems en stablty chk.
CHAHEI 2a
Ch. 281
Complica/M
Quu{ms
01 Slabiltl!l
'J5
rig. 399
well as the seclion in Fig. 399; only ends A anrl B remain in the
original posilions due lo Ihe conslrainls applied lo Ihem.
Wilh buckling Ihe poleotial energy 01 lhe deformed bealO should
increa5\: dlle lo bending 00 one side and lorsion (Iheenergy 01 bending
in lhe vertical plane remaining conslan!). The potenlial energy 01
Ihe external force should decrease, because 01 lhe lowering 01 ils
poinl of applicalion.
Let us denote the polential energy of side bending by U" oi lorsion
by VI, and lhe work done by Ihe load in Jowering by V". As al the
l'rllical force lhe lransilion from plane shape to budletl shape is
accornpanied by Iransformation of energy or Ihe load into potential
I!nergy 01 ddonnalion of Ihe beilm, we rnay assume Iha1.
U,+U,=U,
(28.1)
2EJ,
..
jParl 'III
5ubstiluting Ihe
U_
;,
x'q>"dx-
4f:.l'"
\\'e
gel
x.,"dx
(28.2)
Tht: poltntial energy al" lsien may aiso be uprtSSed through 'r.
1e Yi'Ol"k done by Ihe twisling nJO.
ment over a length dx is;
dU
M,d.
-,-.
,"h".>
.\1,4
and
d<p
dq =;dx
.....'t' obtain
GI,d!Jdl
OJt(J'l',t
dU'-,..i1Zlu ... z
;} d.'
Fla:. 400
(28.')
Ler liS lirst d..lermine lhe \'erlical
of Ihe polol of
applicalioll oi !orce P Fig. 400) in urde!" lo CalCllltlle Ihe work done
b)' force P in
I-Iere, il [s relevant to rooJ/l1 out lhal {here IITt
!wo reasuns rOl' Ihe displacenl('nl of point
lo
TlItalion 01 Ihe
o,:
."l' .._
x" . . .
,.
(28.4/
""ork dolK' by
P (which s tqual lo critical lorce P,
\'ohen buckJing
in eausing displacenM:n1 6 is:
po
" x.... dx
CA. 281
wherelrom
or V"
//.
x'.,'dx+ GJ,
m;5
ItI
",
x"lp'/
1/.
;llj,ldx_GJ,
",
....
P:-4C,C ".
(28.5)
\ '"
Under the integral sign ",-e have two variables, , and x. which are
inlt'ff'l'lated because '1' chanlfe5 along Imgth x, i.e. ,-('(xl. Thl! law
of v.riaUon 01 ., as a (unctien al x is not known. Using Ihe melhod
al approximate solulion, \\'e assume a value of '" which relales il (o %
in 50th a way that lhe condltioos of ronslrainl al the I!flds are satis
fied. Lel us assUm<! Ihat
.
.
(28.6)
, - smT
."
lt"ft
,,",$tl"
(287)
..
P
TIM'
(ql).""--i-
C,C,
(28.8)
.= ro
,.
(28.10)
TIM' fornlulas 101' critlcal fort'e in an 'bt'am are Iht sarnt as lor a
rt"l:langulilf. TIlt' dill"t'mJCe is Ihat Ih.. loolkienl bel'Ofe
is
bul depend5 upon (he resishmce or fIallgl"$
llol .1 constan!
lO bu<:klmg ami IS determine<! by 1M fstlo
vc;c;-
C,(,),
et_/:'; h
Ve,e.
(28.11)
Ch. 181
T.MO'
lM:fklenl
""ro
in 1'01....1. (28.11)
'. Ca,i'
l.
"-l';
..,
l.,
2.0
'.0
(,.0
8.0
12.0
,
31.6
9.7li
8.03
6.73
6.HJ
5.:J6
C.olumn 2 , lo<
Col""", 3 15 1 ..
of ib
(,,'umll 4 is fo<
lit....
...
"
143.0
8G.'
31.9
53.'
2.... 6
42.tl
21.8
2(1 ..1
19.0
18.8
ii
'Cl'
'"""
'"
..
JIl.J
33.8
32.6
31.5
r'llllle"er lo..d"d .1
5Ilppo<Ied
70
,'O
1,
......."
5.'"
<.J5
.. '"
4.10
18.3
:fUI
JO.'
'"
..
11); "
".,
11.4 28.8
17.9
1; 2
17.2
2M
28.6
11ft md
K,nowing lhe critical rorce for each Iype of load on lhe bcam, we
un easily determine the critical stress:
o ",. \f....
<
w,
'lISt
when 0..>0,,_
".
SlbJl//1I
of ElunmlJ of Slruct..rn
IP..rl VIII
disttibuted force of inlensity q=-9 U/m. Check Ihe strength and sta
bilHy ol plane
01 lhe beam ir the permissible stress 101_
-1600 kgf/cm' and lile safely factor ro.. slrenglh and stability aTe
both
to 11-1.7.
The dimensions of Ihe sedion (Fig. 401) and ils gmetrical charaeterisUcs, as obUinM from the sp"ilicalioos. 1ft': h-60 cm, b= 19 cm.
6,=1.2cm, 6.=1=17.8 mlD",=,I.8cm, h l -60--2x 1.8-56'" cm, 1.-76 S(X) cm', J,-1725011', U7 -2560 cm'.
Tlle torsionar momen! 01 ine!"tia has been
calculalt'd from formula (9.38'): J
wherC' '1-1.2 for an bcam. 5ubstituting he
numerkal values. we obtain
-, h,
- 1&
'<'=='1
i -l'*'F'
" :\
J 1-:1
!.1(h"+2b/l')
l I
,.
f!: 9x6'
M....
(J. . . .
'0"'
,atm
40Sx lll'
-405X10' kgfcm
(28,11):
Q,=
where C,-E), is lhe rigidity undl'f bending, cl-a) t is lhe torsional
riidll)". ami is a coefficienl lhal depends upon
ratio of rigidi.
Ucs and litl.
Assuming thallhl' motIulus el elaslicily lor steel E=2x 10" kgf/cm"
Q,=(ql)'-i' 1 (.,C'=7
l' 84
=.
I'i7'EXffi
1610/,>
v.1!
get
Cit. 28]
COIl,pliC<lltd Qt'fulO1lf
As toefl1eltul
01 Sfabilily
,,,
e ( I .J" =U;.h
GJ, ( I ')' -n;x'ffl
'"
(''''.J'
-i,.7i
lO "",2.84
b)' using
=4 ""'e 6nd
IQJ=
.t
l.'
Hence, reliable functloning of the bealll can !le ensured on1y if the
ven inlensily 01 9 111m is r('(]uecd by abaul onc and a hall er by
providing side supports which prevenl bu.:kling 01 Ihe btllm (ir Ihe
beam I1csign permils Ihis).
Le! us see haw he vlllue of erHital lorce
when side oonstraints are 2pplietl. Applying side eonstrainls is equivalent lo
redudng lhe
length of the beam b)' Iwo and using other values
01 c()(!lficienls (lo ami
Q: _
el
(!!'!!J" =
e'; h
From Table 20
-0.1 lInd
\\IC
GJ,
EJ,
0.25
(1.)"
_ 2,6xli2S
rZ7xo.2S (""J" _0.71
1t.
'm'
ohlain
by graphic inlerpolalion belween
TIIe critical load is;
E (T;T; O 7
O"X290
'"- O.57if.2Sii
1 Tij= .5 o.25Xm
... 3 57000 kgt
2XI
E Ir=
J(i7000X/lOO IOJOOkgf
I
8x2560 ,cm
Thc value d (1'. is considerahl '1 grealer Ihan the Ii mil d proportionalil'l 01 lhe material; therefore, lormula (28.11) canllOt be applied,
The "alue of critica! stress obtainfil abo\'e acluall)' eOlTesponds lo
)'ield slress al the material. Thereforc, in Ihis case it is sufficienl
lo carry oul Ihe strength check only.
."
Stob/llty
of
of
S/rlldllm
[p.,, VIII
N.M""_I)
O'-ST--;-'"
(J
(21.1)
:'-t
-----lO
'"
.,
(J........
..1
lf+M;..
(2812)
'"
(28.13)
q..'
"""k',
Il.'e
oblain
'('1l'x-T
.....)
y., + k'Y-uThl!' general solution 01 Ihis equatioo may be txpteMed
y=C, .!'inkx+C.oosb+y
(}.+lx-r))
11 CM be easil)' seen that lhis equalion lor lhe elastic CUfV\, SlI.Ii5lies
Ihe boundary condiUons: d bolh supports, at x=O and x=l. deflec
tion V.-O. Al Ihe sUPpof!s lhe bending momenis al\' also ZefO IM.=
sin
becomes uro lar x-O and x=l); l. is lhe
maximum deflection of (he beam due lo lateral lon:es acting at righl
lo its axis.
Let US rN'I'i1e equation (28.13) by subsliluling EJy; lar M.:
EJ y6_EJy;_Py
'"
,,.
Stablfily
oJ
EWIIIOlls of :""ut:IUflJ
[Purl
get
n..
(28.15;
T,
11 ",,II
to Iook for (he solulion in he rorro y=f !ill
ssume 11\21 under the culllbined atlon 01 axial and teral
p:PJ
wherefrom
ISubstiluting
l.
(28.16)
--;l
1-1iT
n:;J
Coeflici('fll
e acrounts
(28.17)
'
l_;;
P,
(28.18)
Ch, 281
515
Sq/&
f.= 3/:IolEJ
(28.19)
s,I'
qll
ql' (
SP/')
=i//I(I+l.02tlPC)
---p;-
"'''"'ir
-=
!!:.C
8
'
(28.20)
(28.20')
For (he
approximation (1.028::::d) coefficienl C,=aC is
fOllnd lo be eCjual to C, Le. lhe same as in deReclion. Sorne authors
suggest Ihal we can always assume thal C,-.-C on the basis 01 lhe
assumplion lhat bending momenls art' proportlonal to deOectlons.
Formula (28.12) for normal strcsscs acquires Ihe lorm
P+.M o 1
P+M.
w--P =5 W Ci
0""'''=$
,--Po
(28.21)
",
[Par/VIlI
rorces applied: ir all lhe lorces are increased, S3Y, n times, lhe strt'SSCS
11 limes due lo lhe ncreaS(' In lIJe value of coerfkien! e,. This means tha! lhe strenglh concltioo
ceases
lo be valid.
Therelore. in arder lo l'nsure surficient slrenglh lhe compresscdbenl hllrs should be designed for permissible loads. Le! liS derive lhe
strength condiUon for the bealll discussed aboye.
Let us asSurne tha! in OUT beam lhe rnaximulIJ stresses become equal
to yield stress when al! fhe forces are raised k. times. Formula (28.21)
may be rewfillen as [011011'5:
k"P
k,I/l'
+W
,-P,
----;;p -= ov
where k.P and k./ are limiting load5. To go ayer to p!'rmissibJe Joads
,-P,
(28.22)
lhe elfed 01 axial for<:es on stress in the given bar is t3ken into atcount by coelti(>nl
P,.
(28.23)
P,
We no\\' impose a reslriction on defledion by writing lhe rigidity
condilion:
1m..
1- f
'"
(28.24)
<
517
Ch. 1.51
f-f;,
f_ PtP
or
I
4m7"""P
-1';
(28.25)
(28.2G)
12EJ
II'''J
p ..
Wl'
get
_.!:.+p.lP,
".,,_ S
4lf'
O.17SP
JS.. P
(28.28)
p +"C
a"=5
lF '
He
e.
example.
Stability 01
[Parl VIII
el S/fuclufa
f.
M,i'
PeI'
t ... w"""W
and coeHicienl e hal accounls lar the e!red 01 axial lorces on tiene<:tion (28.18) is:
'
P,
1--
P,
ConsequenlIy
Pe/'
(28.29)
,--P,
f=8U-:-P
PI
p,
m.,=s+j't+W
Substilullng Ihe value 01
1,
(28.29), wc oblatO
PP,PPd'[
PF-I)
8ET--p
= s+w(J +w--p
1-1-Pe
(28.30)
P<
M'
a.... =S+W
l'
were
e,= Pr +0235P
Pr-P
(28.31)
f=f.C, or
,
,--p-
P,
CII. 281
---
A:p
.,
--
:o
[Po, 1'11/
Tllus, lor a SQJid sec1ion \Ve llIay IlSSUlHe the loJlowing: mnimum
values oi e and yo:
I
1,
t'=150+'
and
I
h
Y.=]{Ul+:j
N. M. Belyaov_
uf
. Nauk . 1\16S O"
213.
,. The
uf
sl,,',IIIY el prlsmatlc bar sIIUJtC/I lu
kJ.dnll ...s first 501I'cd n 1924. St.'C N.M. Belyae.... S,I'IJ.'i Works un [lIgifll'tfUlg
PART IX
, CH"PTER 29
stalic.
pa,1 IX
Ch. 29)
523
Ratio
Iherefore
'gS
(J.
(1
Ir
.0<
Jlcl101l 01 afea
[Parl IX
'
wherdrolll
[a]
[al
a.m,.';;;---r
+::...,
,0
12' .3)
lel S be! Ihe cross-scclional 3re3 of Ihe ringo '\' Ihe- spccilic welghl
o[
(ll.1tcrial, !/ il.<; mllnber of re\-olutions per unil liOll', '" ils
guiar velocity u[ rotation and D the mean dianwter of lhe rlng.
Fercts el
Ch. 291
Lel llS i$Olale an element 01 lengtl1 ds Irom the ringo When Ihe
ring rola les, Ihis element moves along a circular palo wilh constant
angular velocity w.
acceleralion E is zero. Therdore tangenlial acceleration of the ciernen! is
normal (cenlripetal)
dirccted lowanl
acceleration 01 the ell.'nlen! is w,,=,,)tDf2 and
lhe cenlre 01 the ringo In order to delermine I1 D, lhe force of inertia
IllUS! be appl ietl lo eaeh and every elemen! of the ringo This force is
dirccled aw,jy from Ihe cenlre and is equal lo
S'd Sy",,'D
W'g
s=T2ds=qds
wherl' q is the int.ensity al Ihe inertial force per unil lenglh of the
rilO. Thus, Ihe ring experiences stresses as il il u-ere loaded by a radial
force 01 'inlensily q per unt lenglh (Fig. 406 (b)). Force P slrelching
Ihe rilO is ( 19):
Stress 11 n is:
DI/
DSyoo'O
ylJl'D'
yv'
on=-S=E=2gs T=-g=-g
whcre v_(cD.'2 is the linear velocily of poinls on Ihe surface of Ih<'
ringo Thus, slressl'.S in Ihe rim depend only upon the sp'c'Cific weight
of the rim material and lhe linMT velocity 01 points on Ihe rim surlace. Lel llS salve lhe fol1owing problem lo gl'1 an idea about Ihe
approximate value 01 these stresses:
n = 360 rpm,
D=4m,
v=7.5gr,cm
2nx.lOO 12
_
w=-;:=-ro-=
:sec'
The
is:
(/)-
411
4xl(iiX\ltl1
I1
g cm
vclociiy
".
Dyfl4ltllc Ac/iOll
o/
Ftma
IPor! IX
q_....,-Ul.. _,1ll r
IXSl'
Sy.
CJI. 291
'"
/o Vlbnl/jOllI
_qrJl ...
.oa-T
yl' (1 +"")
t
ll..,;=r-""rT
:f( I+ "';')-
(1 +
S_JOx4 ..5=45cm' ,
s " O. 6 cm -, ,
Y-7'5-
OD", .. -0.6;<
S=lOx4.S-2x6x [.5=27em', W_ 4
v-ro-0,42cm-',
S
"
(ID ....
64.2 cm'
+,
p
,s" ( 1 "') "'fa]
a =-s+W
Dy,wl1Iic Acli""
528
IPUlI IX
Jt
plane of bending caused by qr, ami as a bar lix...d rigidly al one end
in a perpelllJiclIlar planeo While caklllating lIe;o;ibitily the maximum
value 01 lhe radillS 01 gyraUon snoultl be uSl:d in lile flrst case and Ihe
minimum in the second.
We Illay
design connecting roo AB hinged al",ntl A with
(he cf3nk 0.'1 Ihat is rolating abolll poiol O wilh angular vl'locily ID
(Fig. 409). lf he crank rolates \\'ith t"nslanl angular velocity, poinl
A 01 the conneding rod l';o;periences onl)' cenlripl'tal acceletatioo,
Fig. 409
"'m..... 9 13
Since
q.=SV; 1,)',
llnd
OD",..=M;.",
On m.. = \1
q./t
IV\!
gE't
Syl'OJ"r
V3"W= 9 Y3Wg
'"
dj=-ro'r y,XIXd,ofO
which acls from the centre 01 Ihe disc towards lis periphery. Equa.
tion (25.1) derived in 144 may be replaced by the followin relaton:
do
yw'"
a , -.,+,-'+--_0
dI
I
(29.4)
-0', )
(29.5)
l29.5). we fet
(29.G)
1"'1111
D!lnamic ACIlOll o{
{Pa,j IX
Differenliating equalion
wilh resped to , and substiluting
frum equalion (29.6), Wt get Ihe lollowing linear dilferenlial
equaUon:
f, [+i,; (,to,l} +
Upon integration we obtain
o,_A + ,
3,+"'yw'"
(29.1)
"'+YJ'"
0,"'0, + 'liT
(29.8)
In formulas (29.7) and (29.8). A and 8 are conslants 01 integration, which musl be determined from Ihe canditiaflS al Ihe disc sur
lacto In determinlng Ihe conslanls we shall sludy lhe lollowing two
cases: (a) dis<: with a central hole, and (2) soliti disco Let us assume
Ihat ends of the disc are Iree af external forces.
For Ihe disc wilh a central hole, stress o, mus! be zero at
3, weU as al
(Fig. 410). When Ihe condHions al the disc suriace
are applied lo formula (29.7) we gel the fol1owing equations:
,=r,
'-T,
A+ B,_3;;}YW"l=0
"
'"'
A+ 3t:
"
wherefrom
A=
'" O
8= -
3tl
,,
(1 ,
'"'
=3tr,,,,,,
'''')
g ,- (,'+,'_,'_
,.
--;r-
Assuming
",
+,
m
"-'.-.
_m
aboye as follov.-s:
.-pl 1
(29.9)
. -_[, +.'(1
(29.10)
Let liS polnt out lhal CI, becomes zetO al p_1 and P""I%, Le. al Ihe
Internal and external peripheries al lhe disco 11 is posltive lor values
01 p belween I and a and, ILS Is nol dlrticult lo prove, becomes
ffiulmum al
Al lhis value
(O'r1. =p(l-a)'
(29.1I)
Stress 0', i$ also positive 101" all vatues of p and becomes maximum
(29.12)
(29.13)
o,.
(a,).,., = - , -
".
(29 15)
'32
{Port IX
"1
'='"
A=
f,2!1.8),
"
..d
(29.17)
G,=p(I-n1p')
shO\\'ing \'arialion of
and
G1_:J
along lhe disc radlus are giveIl m Fig 411 ICUt\'es fh amI jal). 80th
slresses are positivt rer al! values of [' and increase towards !.he
Al p=O
(o,)", .. _ (o,)m.. = P_
.. yw'r:
(29.18)
ThU5. in a disc with a verr small cenlral hole, stress a, at lhe edge
of lhe hole is 1\\'0
grealer than al Ihe centre 01 a solid disc on
Cl'OUnt 01 stress ooncentralion (see (ormula (29.14)).
The above discllssion was based on lhe assumplion Iha! Ihe l.'dgl!$
or lile disc are [ret> of external loading. This assumptioo generally
does no! correspond lo realit)'. Usually Ihe dlsc is mouElted on Ihe
shalt in Ihe ho! slde OC' by a hydraulic press wilh an interfererlCe
fit, which emures tha! deformation of Ihe disc ho\e dile lo C1.'I1triprlal
(orces is always less Ihan Ihe deformalion 01 the opposlie sign incurred during mounling, Le. lhe dise sits Iighll)' over Ihe sh.ft in
norOlal \\uking. The exlernal periphery o lhe c1isc is usually fittftl
wHh "rim lor mounUng lurbilll! blades; durio rotatioo Ihe rirn eh'es
rise lo additional eenlnpdlllorees which re transmilled lo the disco
Thus Ihe internal and ntPmal pet"ipheries of Ihe disc
subjt'Ctl'd
io unilormly e1islributed tensile or compressive forces. The slres.ses
elused br lhese for;es ma)' be compuled by Ihe formulas derived in
lhe anal)"sis 01 Ihiek-wal1td qlinders i10rmulas 125.9). 144). Upon
adding lhe stresses obtalned (rom formulas (25.9), (29.9) anel (29.10)
wt' ean draw a cumplele diagram depicting dislribution of slresses In
8 rolaling disco
169. Dlse ()f Unilorlll Slrength
The formulas clerived in lhe prl!(eding se<'liCll\ And he curves drawn
in Fig. 411 sIlow lhal Ihere is eonsiderable vuialion in lhe \tlllues
al" o, and 01 along Ihe rldii of discs al unirorm lhiekness. The Ulost
nonunilorm disi.ribulion al slresses ocrurs in di$C$ or uniform thick
ness wllh a cenlral hole. The design 01 such discs is
on Ihe
m.aximum stress 01 at lhe inner edge of lhe disc, whieh imposes re
slriclions 00 lIJe. limiting value or maximum velocil)'. For achi",ing
high veloc:ily Di rolation the
have lo be mide of vlriable Ihickness whkh
from Ihe cenlre lowards 1M
The mosl
economkal shape of lhe disc is ORe in whic:h lhe sarnt stress acls 00
al! poinb of Ihe disco Sucll d.iscs are knowTl as discsl!{ ulli!,nm slrmgth.
While designing sueh discs i( is
Iha! Ihe slresses remain
(f....t IX
constant O\'l'f lhe thickness 01 lhe disc; this gentrally gives a small
error in Ihe calculaled stress \'alue.
The buic formulas 101 designing discs 01 variable Ihickness can
.
be derivtd as belare by consid
ering lhe
01 In tlel'l'o/l,.
menl abcd (Figs. 410 and 412) 01
r. ,. L - the disco Lel us denote by z the
1fIl,; ::.Pi e
variablt Ihickness. \Iollich is I cero
lain lunclion 01 lhe radius, l.
...
,....
Faces ad and be 01 Ihe element
!ir
I
eul by meridian seclions are acl
C/lil'
d
clulr
ed upon by rorces a,l dI mak
\
(J_lr(1
ing an angle da wilh eaeh other.
r \ tJJ I
face de of the elemen! is acted
'<r',1
upon by a radial 'orce a,zrdB di
recle<! towards Ihe centre and
faee ab is :H:led upon b)' a radial
Fil m
lorct tl,u dO+d(o,zt da) directed
Irom lhe
towards {Ilt out
surlace oIlht disco To these lorttS
must Idd lhe larce 01 inertia
due lo Ihe mass 01 the demenl,
-,;........::f
zdt , dll
,,;t
'1:1'
get
d(o,ud6)-o,zdlde+ldtdB
e1
do
;;(rzo,)-lOI+t
-o
""0
JI z=const, Ihe above i!qualion Iranslorms into equalion (29.4) derived in Ihe prtding seclion.
In a disc o( unilorm slrenglh slresses lJ, and o, are conslant al 111
po:ints and are equat. Equlling their "alue to lbe ptrmissible stress
101, f t can wrile Ihe rollowing equalion or equilibrium;
d
fO"r t -O
-{zr)-z+z-101 r
.r
t:I: lo VlltnlUOflI
FllraJ 01 /lIUlill.
...
'"
n ""'[IJlt
Upon integratlng the aboye equalion, \l'e gel
l_Ce-'
\\'here C is a conslanl or integration. tr the llisc does not have a ceno
Iral hale then rom Ihe condition 1-1, al ,-0, il ensues tllat
.
The Ihlckness 01 he disc at Ihe centre (l.) is delermined from con
dilions al ils ouler sur/aee.
A soIid disc of uniform slrength can be used even al very high
peripOeral velocHies. Hov.-ever. (rom Ihe poinl al" v[ew al" convenienct
al" manufaciurioe, discs of variable thickocss wilb central holes are
generally used. These discs. which in shape are d(R lo di.scs of uni
Jorm slrenglh, provide Ihe masl advanlageous dislribulion el slrases
Ilong lhe radius. The methods el analysis of such discs are discuss.ed
in speciai rourses.
110. Effttt 01 Resonanee on lhe MagnHude
"' Sfresses
In lhe first Iwo problems discussed in 165 lInd 161, (he accerer
alion ",as assume<! lo be fixed in direclion w.r.t. Ihe ..Iemenl on
which il was actins; in Ihe lasl example Ibe accele:ration \Vas conlinuously changing i1s direclion lhrough 3fU during one rolation of Ihe
wheel. In Ihis
Ihe srtesses and deformallons
changetl
lheir sign rl'!ulting in vibrations or Ihe body.
A similar siluation will arise if he beam is
'4'ith a maehine
which has a rolaling load having ecce:nlricily w.r.L lhe axis oi rolatlon lFig. 413).
forct of Ine:rtia 01 lhe rol.tin load will gin
rise lo slresses and deformalions in Ihe beam which periodically
lhelr signo Tile beam will begln lo vibrale wilh 11 Jlt'riod whkh is
equal to the period 01 rotal ion of Ihe load. These vibralions are known
as 'orad vibraJiolls. If the perlod of lorced vibralions is Ihe same as
lhe period or natural vibralions of ihe beam, Ihen resonance occurs
llnd {he amplilude or vibrations lncreases sharply wilh Ihe passage
01 time. The ampllude 01 vibrations is in fael reslricted by fr!cliollal
rorces and rl'!;SlllnCe of Ibe atmospheric medium. Howcver. despile
these reslrictions Ihe amplitude may assurne large: values. which rar
exceed lhe deformations the beam would have uperienced under the
same acceleralion al" conslant direclion.
Th('l"e was a case when due lo resonanee the angle of twisl 01 a shaH
lncreased six-fold as rompared to lhe angle belore resonaoce. This
happened wilh the crankshall of a motor oi Ihe airship Cita' kpxlirt
in ils w:ry firsl ftight acroo the Allanlic ocean.
IPur IX
.;;.
(2
F"ig. 413
M<'f'hn"ir.<
C1l. 291
F{Jr(v.
/lIu/lo.
tIsut lo VUII'o/iIl<fU
."
be carrled out for lhe section whcre the total dclormallon i! mul
mum.ln the !implesl ca.se! lhe total delocmalion is oblained by add
111(' rnllximum stlltiC deformation
IIml lhe maximum amphtude A o lhe vibralions:
6 D=05.... +A
(1 +
(29.19)
A5 long as thl" syslenl delOfIJ\! wilhin lhe elaslic limits, the stresses
are directly proporliona\ to slrain. ThertlOfe
(29.20)
(29.21)
DJ{namk AtliM
cf
Foras
[Par IX
(29.23)
00.= y%=
JI f
/
In Ihe case 01 a simply supported beam Joaded by a lorce Q acling
at Ihe rniddle 01 ils span,
oo.
/fmu, _
(JI'
"
g
(29.24)
In a sulficienlly large number of cases lhe resislance 01 lhe almospheric medium, R, may be considered directly proportional lo the
01. 291
FOf(tS
01
F=Hsinwt
whtrt H-Frs>. and (1) is lhe lrequeney el tht exciling foree. Uttn
tqualion (29.24) ma)' be writlen as foUows:
- QV
,N
+ <In"'"
-7"F=,.""";'-=r"",,,,,,,,,...
1- (
'.
H,,,
iH
IN
"Q
(29.'6)
(29.27)
KD - l
A
+-,-=
1
.....
'.
"'O
(29.28)
IPar IX
".
l. 11 1M
(29.26)
wil! ])(.. v/,ry smal1 and Ihe am-
.!!...-.f)
.,
JII
aD15
o
l.
"
la.
al
,I
r-- f-.-
f.Q
01. 191
djlions
-.
,.,
D!lMmic Aclion
01
IPorr IX
F01m
,,
.iI
,
+,
l'
'---r'--'-,
416). 11 Ihe
load is dls
turbed (rom lhe stale of equilibrium and leH lo itself, il starls per-
q,
,
.------<
forroiog
longitudinal vibrations
about Ihe posillon 01 equilibriurn,
Le! us wrile down u:pressions [or U
FI. 416
and T ror Ihe vibrating load-bar
syslem.
Polential energy 01 Ihe syslem changes by U-U,-U, w.r.l. the
polential energy in equilibrium; here U. Is lhe potential energy 01
the syslem at the nitial momenl (in equilibrium) and VI is lhe potenlial enerey al instanl t.
Let u.s denole Ihe poienlial energy 01 load Q al Ihe nHial moment
by V Q : polenlial energy of lhe bar al Ihe s,ame momen! is equal lo
where Al, is lhe stali<: deformalion oi lhe bar due lo load Q.
...
""'"
U. - U Q +
Od/,
At inslanl t \llnen the load has IO\\-ertd by a distance :c and Ihe bar
has rKeived addiiional deformation :c.
polenlial merey of the
load decreases by Qx. ....'bereas Ihe farte of elastic: resislance and slatic
delormalioo el the. bar increase by
times. Consequently,
I
QfJ.1
/1/.+..-
A/,+..Qx'
QiI
+2tr,I.
'"00' '"
Furcts
Vjb,allClll$
V_U,_U._jEJ,
(29.30)
end follow5 lhe same law 8S In slatic le115ion. I.e. 1I Is directly proportional lo he distante 01 the secUon Irom the raed end. Thu!
(Fg. 416), jf the lower race geb displaced bY)l, hen lhe secUan al a
t.
x-}.
and the
X.(})".
}(iMlic: energy or lhe \l/hole bar will be lhe
over \he bat's length:
SUD!
of quantiliel dT,
Thus, Ihe kinetic energy 01 the bar is equal to (he kinetic enery
01 I concentrated load 01 mass
Le, it is equal lo the
energy of a load whose mass is '/, 01 he bar and whkh moves wilh
lhe same ve10dty as the bar. The tolal kinellc energy oi the load-bar
system is:
W,
T -T"+T
" !_i '
1.
(Q +l'Al).(' + X>03..!. (Q
, 3 1 ,
...
+..!Lx=O
AlQ
M'
61, is Ihe stalic deformalion duc lo load
The diffe-r
Mlial eqLlalion oblalntd aboye by laking into COIlSidl'l'alion lhe
lIlass of Ihe vibraling bar dilJers 'ram eqUlltiOll (29,23) only in Ihe
faclor befen x aOO both equallons bec:ome idenllca! once the lllU5
or !he bu is igrJ<Jl"td. Thtrefore, tite correclion due to mass 01 bar,
whkh mus(
introduced in the cakulalions 01 the preceding seetion.
,----1
..........._
.....
--_ - - -
1--1---1
!
filo
1-3!D,
y=
QP 31'.l-4st
, (31"
04")
x
(29.31)
supporl 1l"11I be
CII. 291
MS
Vwralion!
yA
2i'"" 1
1 -
1"
4"')'
'" (31Ix_4X')'d:c=!Z'lAI
T =2 YA z"J.
2[
z"
1',
(29.32)
Since polential
,j
",
M'dt
we gel
"(d'Y)'d
T
;:;
'" (24U)'d
7
x- 2"
T.
24eJ.
X =---a 1
'+48EJ(
--r-
,JI
. QT3'5 'lAI
) 1=1'+'11 1 =
1';1
T'
bul
[p/lrl IX
The
mass lhus delermioed has been oblained on the assumption Ihat the mass ollhe beam is small as compared lo Q, because we
have negle<:ted the elfecl o/ mass of lhe beam 00 its deflection. Equa
tion (29.31) 01 Ihe deflecled beam axis corresponds to a situation
when il is looded by a single C(lncenlraled lorce acting at Ihe middle
of ils span.
D. Let us now consider Ihe other extreme case,
he mass o/ Ihe
beam is very large in comparison with Q or when Ihe vibraling beam
is loaded by a conlinuous unilormly dislributed rorce 01 n[ensity q
(which ineludes Ihe weighl of Ihe beam). The equation 01 the defleded
beam is as lollows (see 86):
q
IW
y= - Z4EJ (l'x-2lx' +x')= - 5/' (l'x-2lx' x')
=1;
rJ
(f'x-2lx'+x)'dx ....
,
,
EJ r ("')dx _ EJ r
( '_1x1]' dx -]25
_ son
.spx
1"
(J
Q.29J
Foun
of
IflUtl4. SUeun
/Q
Vib,..t,""
,,,
lA:
--t-----
.; I
1--, --t
1
' .
'--=FC"g.
lorte acUng on lhe system: Ihe "redudion" method holds well even
in such cases 01 loading wlien Q=O.
Eumple. A non-unilorm bar of \enth I carrying load Q at ene end
(Pi. 418) rolales wilh angular veior:ily III aboul an axis lo wlilcn lts
otilet" end is filtd. Tbe distance bel....'ee't lhe centre of gravity 01 load
Q and the axis of rotaUoo i.s r. Find a relalion between the CJ'QSSsecUonal area A. and distante x of Ihe sedion from the rree end If
stre5ses in all lhe sedioos are equal to 10-1. SpJl\c weighl of the
material is l.
Each point of lhe bar wHh abscissa xexperiences centripe!al aeeel
erallon ()I(I-x). Thererorc. lo lleterminc lhe stresses aH elements
01 lhe bar mus! be loaded by lorces 01 inertia acting awa)' Irom fhe
centre and equal to the ll'I3S5 oi e1emenl mulliplied by (,)1(1 - x).
An elemenl of lenglh dx cut by Iwo IIdjacenl seclions with absc.issas
!C and x+dx IInd crosssectkJnal areas "'.. and A ..+dA... i.s acted upon
faldA.. -
(/-.-:)w
r-frar(l-X)dx. or InA..
\\'e gel
(Parl IX
,IoJ
InA .. -
(21-x)+
In A,.
'iI,"l'
gel
or
lO
plllCfil.
(7)
dislributiOl1 of
.1o.1
[jJ
01 the
IPllrl IX
type 01 defonnaIiOfl).
fi. 420
U.="'fQ15.
(JO.3)
6'-7'
Ol
Q-"'i
gp.;
u,-+ Q6._';-6:
'"
rlas.licily in
CA. JO)
(30.4)
{M:re, as befoce, we consider c=Q/6J_ Substiluling the values of T
and UD in equation (JO,I), we get
Q(H+6 D )=-}bh
(30,5)
6h-26,6 D -2H6.=O
(30.6)
"
whereFrom
60 -6, V 6:+ZH6,
or, keeping Ihe KISilive sien belore tiJe square roo! lo delermine Ihe
muimum deformalion in the diredion 01 impacto ...:e oblain
60 -6, (1 +
(30.7)
'"
Aclfort ef
[Pnr/ IX
"d
(30.9)
It is ('videnl [rom ihese formulas (hat imparl sira in, stress and lorce
depend upon static deiormation, Le. upon the rigidity aod longitudinal dimensions 01 Ihe body under impacto This statement \Vil! be
proved bclow wilh Ihe ht>lp 01 individual examples. Constan!
KD = 1 +
--,,;Y +-;r:-,
1
(JO. 10)
Besides, sinee
ZiI
-o'
Y
QH
I+ g ,
(JO.II)
T.
o;- -=---Q6 = U;
;:
where T.=QH is Ihe energy ofihe body under roract allhe beginning
01 illlpa<.:\, Ihe expresson lor Ihe dynamk coc fideo! may also be
writhm as rolllm'$:
/(D=
-V
(30.12)
8. JI in formulas (30.7) and (30.8) \\'1' pul H=O, Le. if wr apply force
Q instantaneously, tiTen 6,,=-26, and PD=2p.: I force Q is applied
suddenly. liTen Ihe. ddormlllion and slress are two tImes the delor
malion and slress dIJe lo a slalically applled load 01 lhe same mago
ilude.
On the other hand, f hejghl H (or velocily v) from whieh Ihe load
la1ls is large as compared lo
Ihen I mar be negleded as C011lpared
10
in Ihe radicand in formulas (30.7) to (30.11). Thl' l'xprl'SSions
/l.,
po,..p,(I+Y-;)
ratio
(3 0.13)
Y!:, is
"0=6,
Ym
6; .
Po=P. 1/w
'1;"7
(30.14)
<>. ...,
vwr.. ti.;;
or fuel,
ele. On this basis lhese formulas may be considertd as general formulas lor impact anal)'!is.
Generalizing what has been said aboYe. we can suggesl Ihe r01l0w
ng melhod 01 delermning stresstS under impact. Applying Ihe 101'.'
of cOI\Si,.'l'vation of energy, we mus! (1) calculale kinelic mergy T
or the body under impacl; (2) calculate polenlial energy UD of lhe
bodies experiencing impact, when lhey are loada! by Ihe inerUal
[orces (Ihe potenlial energy IDaY
epreswd through stress (a Do Tn)
in a prticular section, through delornJallon (elongalion. deRec.tion)
or ihrough the
01 inerlia P" al the body under impacl; and 13)
tquale U lJ and T and (rom Ihis C<IU.lion determine eilher the
dynamic strtss direcll)', or first determine deformalion and the!n
applying Hooke's law find stress or force PJ and fioally calculale lhe!
correspoodlng dynomic slress .nd deforrnation,
Tite melhod oUllined above is based 00 Ihe assumplion Ihat Ihe
kinelic energy o Ihe bod)' undC!f impad b fully transformC!d inlo
polenli.1 enet'gy 01 dlormallon al Ih.. elastic s)"stem. This assumption
is not very accurate. Kinetic enel'i)' al lhe lalling body is p.rtially
transrormed into heat and parti.lly iota lhe energy spent 00 ioellSlic
deformatiOll o[ he louodalion 00 v.hich. Ihe elaslic s)'stem
In addition, if impacl occut's al a hlgh velocity, then Ihe! defarmalioo of the body sulfering Ihis impncl does nol get enough time
to spread over Ihe whole body, and local slresses 01 considerable
magnitude, which sometimes exceed ht yield stress 01 the malerial,
appear in lhe region 01 impact. For example, il a steel beam is hit by
alead hammer. Ihen a !rge portion 01 the kinelic ('fl('fgy is Irans
inlo the enery of local deformation. A similar phenornenon
ji
b":
6,-K06,.
In
Po-KoP.,
PD ... KoQ
p,-OO'-T'
ll.ljEA
QII
U,-nA-U-----rr--
y I+i;--=l + -(1 +W
",'
-1 + / 1+ "OE
oiAI "'" J + V 1+ MlA
KD-I+
0"0
(30.16)
$trtWS
Ch. 301
fmpaa Loodinll
KD =
1 .. /
a; r
2T.,E
--:::i'f'
(30.17)
where lovl is the permisslhle normal stress under impact, which lor
a ductile material is equal to [oDI=1';' The salety facior kv may
be considered equal to the primary salely factor k. under slalic load
ing (Le. 1.51.6; 16), because tlle dynamic nature 01 loading has
[Parl IX,
or
or
,"
Q/'
6,-f, ... -46U
P,
'"'
In a anlilever
\\-eighl Q (Flg.422(b)
....
_ Q/
4W
Ql....
QIP
. --r-<A"ll:}
b. ""f....
'"'
-u
OP
-m.
O'
p._a.... ""7
Ql, ...,
0'/'
U ,--y-- (il,)
O'
.'A '"" KtP = -:r
Slrentlh condiHon
(1 'V' +---:r!iJt.tJ)
T'
(30,19)
'57
In cast 01 impacl on a simply SUPJlOfted beanl
are as 10110\10'$:
-=..d
,/T;i""
, j H6T.1.J
QI'
Ql Y 9T,l!.J
"o ,-KrP =Wqrr-
=o
(30.21)
.. /6T.EJ
y --n- (JO.22)
J_i'A,
W __J _
'
....
... .. )'+
",le
,_, .. /6'fr
00."""-,- V --;41
(3tI.23)
'7")
'''"'_
i
1/
bh"
ffiii
l/liT
=1''3
12bJl
...
IX
permissiblc stress; Ihis me;lRS lha! uniform slrel12lh beams can abo
sorb
amounl of impact energy. Precisel)' 'or Ihis reason, springs
IR' made in lhe shape of unilarm strenth be.lIIS.
C. Ll't us now sludy lltt problem of delermining stressts under a
l\\'islin:: imp.cl. If I rolating shaH is sudd!nly slopped by applying
hr.ka al one of ils ends and Ihe olher end is aclM upon by orce T.
ni lhe
which twisu the shalt. lhen slresses in such a shaft
can
dell.'l'mined by Ihe mel1Jod explained above. The shaft is l..... is
led by two fOl' cooples (the lorce of inerlia 01 Ihe
and
lhe Irklional force ol the brakes) each of momen! M.
In this uample
,,'
6,=<r,
u_
-ar:'
,
M'I
.--;g-;-
,1,,..,11';'
EJ,
lf,<IJ p
21
Therefore
(30.24)
'"'
PD-TD ...
..... =1:.....
VrI;:
/ -r;7f.U,
ll;'"
... 2 VIK
-(30.25)
T.=-!t
IJJ
III
ils anlfUlar
(30.26)
..
It should be note<! lhal even under twisling impad the maximum
Ihis is trueonly when Ihe cros.ssectional area 01 {he bar does nol mange
long i1s lenglh-the slresses are equal in all sections. The situat:on
r,
Tr
I
.;
'r,
,,
1
1
:
,,
,,
,,
,
,>
Id
IPlI'! IX
These ronclusklns un be easily ehecked analy1ically. Lef UlI delermine Ihe maximum dynamic slri!SS in each of the Ihree bars shown in
Fig, 423 lo), lb). and te). c.ausn.l in ell('h case by a longiludinal impacl
of merey T.=QH. ForUJe bar shown in Fi. 423(0) let A, be 1tM.>
croM-seclional area 01 the thick portian and As Ihe cross-seclional
A
,
area of lhe neck; let ,,: =q and
p. We shaJl cakulate 1M stres
Ipprolimale formulas (X1.I4) Ind (;Jll7). According lo
lormu a (JO.14) Ihe maximum drnamic stress in Ihe bar shown in
Fic:. 423 (o) is:
T. -
'" '1'
PD-o.- a ,
A/,>c
"Ii; =a.
.VlE!:
lE!:
tU, --::r.- y -;..
we find Ihat
0,_
.V
Ip+q(l-pll =
.V
(p+q(l-p))
2T0l
A,I,q[p+q(1
p)]
(30.27)
Stresses in Ihe uniforro bars sho\\11 in Fig. 423(b) and le) may be
calculated Irom formula (30.17):
0.-
F'ii';E
Y A;'T,"""
/ rr;E
o.", y
1401;
/ ZT .e
A,ql,
(30 28
.)
b<!r resulls in a 50% increase in stresses; iI lhe bar is malle or a unifO/'lD seclion correspondilli to Ihe minjmum diameter, the stresses
redUCf! by 20'.
Althouc:h UJese calculalions have been done on t1Je basis or
imale formulas. lhe relalion established belwem 0., abo and
is qulle clase lo lhe relalion \\ilicll we would hne obtained b)' usin,:
Ihe Iccurllle formula (30.8) fQf a nol Vtty low ",lue of impact tntt&)'
r._
R,eslllts
'"
Ch. 301
111
1<)
Fie_ 424
lhe
shol1ld be lo redllet' lhe slresses by increasing lhe
pliabilily 01 Ihe bar by
its length, addmg a
using anolher material of lower moduh.ls al elasticily <lnd using a
uniform crosssecfional ar.:a aiong Ihe bar lenglh. Generally, lhe
most eITective way is \0 reduce lhe bar lo a uniform diameter equal to
lhe mlnlmum.
Therefare, while designlng bars worklng under Impaet loading,
iI is essentiaJ lo llave a unform secUO" all along Ihe bar ltngth;
(1:.'
Pic. 425
cticn 01 ForQl!f
[porl fX
lenglh and l'qual lo Ihe mJnimum dlameter of Ihe lhread. For thls
.may. eHher machlne Ibe boll shank (Flg. 424 (11)) or drJll a hole
III 1I (flg.424(c)).
an example of increasing impact resislance 01 bolts by increasing
lhelr
we may sludy the design shown in Fig. 42.')(a) and (11).
!be cylmder cOver
a boring 1001 is sometimes subjected lo slrong
Impad from Ihe borlOg too!. Smal1 bolts seeuring lhe cover to Ihe
cy1inder accordng to Fig. 425 (a) fail easily. FaiJure can be prevente<!
by inereasing their lenglh as shown in Fig. 425(11).
178. Tire Effed of Mass 01 lhe Elaslfr. Syslem
on Impacl
Le! liS sllldy how fhe mass al Ihe body subjedl'd jo impact af!l"('ts
Ihl' Impact slresSl's. As an I'xampll' we shall consltler impad in bend
lng (Fig. 42Z). Welghl Q dl'<lps on beam AB and at Ihe momenl of
impacl has a \'clocity v... -VZgH. al lhe sorne Inslan! Ihe bcam has
a "cloeily Vb-O (h Is stalionary). On accounl of impacl all elemenls
01 1111.' bcam will acquire a cerlain \'elo<:ity (dilferenl for each elemenl)
in a shorl lime while Ihe weighl will correspontlingly slow down.
Al lhe poinl 01 Impad the weighl and the b<'am material in Imme
diale vicinity have idenlica1 veloclli!'S equa1 lo v.... /t\t:>dium vl'locll)'
v.. may be rOl.md rolO
lheorem:
Q
O+aQ. v",
(30.29)
Here Q and
are Ihe weight and mass 01 Ihe striking body, Q.
and .'11. are Iheweigbl and massollhe body subjecled lo Impact (beam),
and I"J. is Ihe 1I1ass reduction coerliciellt (Iess Ihan unily) which has
to be inlroduced to accOl.llll for Ihe lacl Ihal nol aH parls of Ihe bod)'
su!It'ring Impad move alter impact wHh {ht' same velocily, v... (see,
lar example, Fig. 422). For lenslon llnd compre.ssion I"J.""+: ir Ihe
beam is slIbjected lo bending as shown in Fig. 422{a), th<'IlI"J.=1713S,::,;:
;:;+
L'jg.
Iloill
of lile
i$
in 231 ol N. M.
(In R.ussl,n).
fa
a for
bMm shown in
Slrtllglh 01 M17/rtials, I\'iuk., Ed,
(30.30)
l.e.
llmes less lhan lhe kinetic energy of the weight ir Ihe la l
ltr slrikes a weightless bUm. Hente, if Ihe mass 01 the botIy sulTer
ng 1Illpa<:t is taken inloconsideralion.lhe dynamic
should
be (alculated nol by formulas (:JUO), (JO.II) and
bu! by Ihe
formula
Ko-I+
-1
VI +
+y
_1
,;f+ lll
+ VI +
+t: 6
(30.31)
l.e. ir Ihe maM 01 the body sufferlng Impnct is laken i"lo aerount,
ihe design stresses due lo mpacl are reduced.
As a" ex.mple of anal)'sis el a complkaletl struclure \Joder 1m
p'tl, lel U$ sludy Ihe impatl load Q al lhe middJe 01 a beao. whlCh
Al
/:--,
JUUr
.'
."d
01 the middle sections 01 the beams (fir$! il$ well 3$ second). Our alm
is \0 determine !he$e streSSe5.
\Ve shall 501ve this problem by multiplying the s!atic stresst5 due
lo load Q in the lirst (A8) Ilnd SKond (CO) beams wllh Ihe dynamic
roefficient
OO'
Parl IX
,,'
and
gel
1+
l' + TI;
J,
( T,"
")']
IJ6LJ,1l
(ll! 11+
J 1 (.
..!. )'
"lT,
1,
vQ/,
Ou,=-"rP"-"D"iir.
, ,
As lhe potl'nlial
vQI,
aod
due lo impacl
by lhe finl
(U D -
'"
UD
u",
""
=r;--"7T;-
,,'
ul!
Vv ,
-,u/,
/
'f
'+-v t
J I ,
Q /'+TQ/
, Qf
"4
/1,
I
1Ql,+.QI.
..
2"
"+2"
_..!!.
f.
_l.,
l.
,.)
(b)
UD._r,
',7
C'-'01
SI,.,;su
utr&,
fmpacl Jildin
UP,=UD.-'r.
5811..<'"
Flg. 427
[PlUt IX
a-rkgf'OJ/em'
To tevea! lhe properl1es of the
material during an Impacl
test, (he
is glven a particular shape-a eul is madf' in lhe
01 impael. Cut, of various sh:aptS shown In Flg. 428 Can be
made; !he one shown In Fig. 428(b) i.s generally used al presenl.
The idea bdJind making lhe cut is lo subjecl lhe specimen materil lo dynamk loading under the masl unfavourable circunutances.
Tlle cut en:ales considerable weakenlng of lhe secUons In lhe midj[e
of Ih... span, eausing a sharp Inerease in bending sttesses over a smal!
Io:nglh al the specimen.
We have already K'6I ( 176) the strong ellect which any kxal weak
enlng 01 the seclioo can have en the s!rases. AIlllOSt all the energy
01 impact isabsorbed by a small volume of material around th" Il.eaksecUon, causlng a sharp incre3Sl! in lhe dynamic slrf'SSf'S. In
adduiol1, lhe mi abo gives rbe 10 a local Increase d streMeS al lis
b..
whicb are simillr In nalure lo loc:al stres.ses al lbe edges d
hales l 15).
Figure 429 sOOws dislributlon of slresses in lhe sed ion of a belm
by a cut. Curve u shows lhe dlagram or
0, in a seco
tion wllhoul a cut; curve b shows lhe dislribulion 01 norma! strl.'sses
In lh!.! $L"Ction wilh a cul withoul laking inlo attounj lhe local slres
ses, rJnalJy, turve e -.hows Ihe complete pielure oC variatlon 01 normal
stl't'SSl'S o, unckr bending.
We see thal jusI lOe decrease in Ihe heigttl or lhe .section increaSt'S
lht $tresses 2.25 tilUd; Ihe local slresses are a'$O lakl!1l mto ae
-. --
,., ""
r;,
"
NI}
/Il() 1.,/"1
",A
''\
\\.
,JI
Filo al
'u,
curve IOf
straws ls .bo $hoIm In F. '129. Beside, inside lhe
spteimen ac!5 Iilt' third principal stress, o" also lenslle. Thu.s, the
material near the base 01 the cul is sub}eclt'd lo thlftdi mensional
tension, under which plastlc ddormation b Vtfy diffieult. 11 Ihe
yield stress 01 lhe material under lension, o" and siresses o, and o.
are less Ihan Oh 10l'" uample 0.20" the beginnlng 01 ylelding in a
tt."te-dimensional stresKd stale is determined by lhe Ihird thtofy
01 strength according lo the followin equallon:
-o"
19"
'"
[Ptlrf IX
ubor,-
drawbacks.
l.Dc>dltlf
.......
(urben wDlenlJ
Cubon
--- ..
_ _f .
".
365(1
45-65
5575
8095
>"
>"
>'"
>"
>"
>'0
>8
>8
...58
28'"
7<)."
N. 2.053.0, o 0.5-0.$
Ch.ome.nldol
molIs.bcltrlU.lIl
NI
1:1:
e 0.2$-0.
2.5-8.5,0 O.S.l .2, Mo o.3.0.6
".1\1
13
".SO
SO60
6(170
0.200.30
0.30-0.40
0.400.r.o
O-f,O-O.OO
06(10.70
> 0.7
7<) . . ,
"00
85-95
AJlor
l!tel:
0.<
>"
>7
7<)."
9O.lllS
> ""
>'"
75,90
>"
>'"
>"
>"
>
>.
>3
"
24,18
>'"
20.18
.ro
IX
fKted by residual
whlch appear in the
alter QUMclilng, rold rol!in/.l,
or rolling at 1011' temperatures
N'Sulting In slrain-hardening
1
ollhemalerial.arule,lh\'5t
'e---:<-'-c;-::i:f
,terMeS c,nno! be as.sessed
by simple tension test. Resid
-11)
'Id
I
ti
40 t"l' tlat stres.ses generally occur in
f,c. 431
a thrt'edimensiooal strf$.Std
,llIte DI lhe material; thb may
rtliult in
lracture. Situatiorls like thlS
00m
in
manuraeturing
'btalllS having thin hnif'S. In {he COUI"$e of
our experimenl.s an lobearn No. 50 failtd
lo
fracture when
U 'A'as dropped on tarth on a rrosly day. Tests under stalic loadlng
and the ehemical IIld metallurgical analysi$ revealed {hat the material or the beam wu 01 goad quality. Only under dynamic loading
al differenl temperatures was oold brilileness olJserved in specimens
cul near the lIange
lhe mnimum hardened regian. Al; lor
lhe effed of chemlcal compOllllion 01 sleel on brittleness, the impacf
slrength decreues. as can be seen lrom Table 21, wllh an inerea<e in
carbon content, i.e. wllh In inerease in ultlmale strength and decrease
in plastk propertles DI stetll. Phosphorus has an extremely adverse
f'ffecl on impact strength, espocial/y alioli,' temperatUTe5. Therelore
the percenlage of phosphorus in stef'1 should be reslrided in every
possible way il lhe 51ftl i.s lo be used in lht manufacture elemenis
working undu in.pael.
"
<-
CJa. JI)
'"
OiAl'TU )1
Acl101l
FOfas
[Pat/ IX
ThC'
01 ailure under variable loading was diSl:overed al Ihe
l>egirming 01 lhis cenlury. Numerous experiments revealed thal under
the ;lction of variable stresses, a crack appeared in the' melal and
gradually pl'nclraled into its interior. Under variable deformation
lhe edges 01 lhe crack approach cach olher at Ol1e instanl ami n1'Jve
away al anothl'r; t!lis l'xplains Ihl' ground, sl1100th surlace in Ihe
rorle' nf !ailure. As Ihe lalil!UC' crack develops, lhe cros' sec1ion \\'eak
amI finaliy
ens more and
a chanee irnpacl is l'uough lo
cau5<' COlllfllctl' failure, which U(;curs \\'hen the strenglh of lhe
wl'ak('l1l'd eros. ".'cUon b('Cllm,'S
insulficiell1
lhe fatiJo!Il' crack is a sh.tr!!
cut 011 tlw surl;lce of (To;;s S,'\:lion, similar lu Illl,'cul madeon
spl'Ciml'ns uSld in impac1 teslin\!
1"h(' base 01 1tll" crack firhb
itself in a (hr.'t'-dimensiolml
slr,'ssed slate, which is conduciv('
lO 1JritllE' [ilure Ilnder illlpal'l
ISl,(, 179)_
t'.\JlI;tins th(' pres...... elln.. 01 coac.l.C-grainrd s(ructnre
r 12
in lhe ZOlle of lai1un', cau<,'d by
brlllie Iradllre
TIIII,;, britllt- lailure Illlrler variable loarling is causcd 1101 b"l:<lIl'P
tht, Illaterlll changl's ils microstruclurc and becollles briltle, huI
bl'ClllSl' of Ihe appearance of a faligue crack in Ih.' Ihree-dimensional
stresst'd slale, which is conducive to brittle fadure without any pl.IS
tic ddormation.
The failure under variable loadlng is 01 a localized nalure and du('S
not involve Ihe material of Ihe whole slruclure. Therelore, ir a crack
is
lo tlevelop under varIable loading, in many cases it is nol
l1('Ccs,,1ry to ehange Ihe whole slruclure: il suffices to replace the
dallwged
and remetly Ihe faclors which caused lhe crack.
Tlll' lheory 01 laHure discussed above Is now accepted br l'ngine..rs
IhwughUllt Ihe world. Consequenlly, lhe term "fatigue o
h.1S losl lIs physical meaning: while describing lh!;' process 01 failure
ulHll'r dYllalllic loading we musl talk not ab-oot [ailure due lo faligue
but aboul [ailure due to gradual growlh of crack.
Howc\'('r, on accounl 01 ils br<'vily and widesprearl use in l<'chnical
of materials" is 51ill in vague, allhough
literatun:, Ihe term
it HpresS\'s a differenl meaning: from now on whenever we spe,k
aooul
01 material", it wili mean lailure flue to gradual litvdoplllent 01 a crack.
Our aim no\\' is to exp05<: the laclors which cause lhe crack, ntl
'"
Ch. "11
lay do\1.'O such rules lar design 01. machine e1emenls and slructures
and slrenalh check that guarantee safe workin lindel" variable Ioads.
This problem ts very illlporlant. e:specially in rnachine building.
where mosl oflen we have lo deal with
sltesses It can salely
be a.uumed that approximately 90% or lbe lolal faHures 01 machine
parts OCCllr due lo developmenl 01 tbe f.ligue crack.
'olIilures
1ft ver! dangerous and ollen result in serious Iccidents. becausc lt
Is nol I Wlys posslble lo no!ice lhe developing hairlhin fatigue
in lime. Fai1ures waon and engine nle:s are chiefty c.used by these
cracks and inVlriably resuU in derailmenl, at'COmpanied by Iragic
con.sequences. Similar failures have beffl
in .ircrafls as wt'll
IS in olher branches el maclJine building.
or
or
'"lule
Ot'namlc Acti"" o{
- -r -r
,
...
"',
Tt,
P.az,-I'rM-P"
,-,
"(.,
('1
('1
:r T--"-
-f-(l-
.;.,
,
LV_L
--.0;,-', r1
'"
Flg. ol33
o/ cyde. or mml'l
$lff!!iS:
(31.1 )
TM hall 01 lM
.,....P....
(31.2)
P;....-P,.I.=P.
183. Strength Condition Under Variable Slruscs
EJlperimenlS show that gradualJy developin crarks
ooly
unde! variable slres.ses, osdllaling sysltmalical1y
('Ireme:
values.
It 15 also kno\vn Ihat a large nUmDer 01 elellll'nls 01 machines .nd
slruclures
good resisl.nce lo variable loads over a long du
ralion, provided Ihe slresses remain within certain limils. Hence.
jllst lhe facl thal lhe stresses are yarlable is not enou-h lo cause a
crack-for lhe crack to appear It is essenlial that Ihe ll1aximum yalue
the variable stresses should exceed a particular ...alue. whlch Is
known as tnduratJCt! slrtnglh, or enduranat limil. Endurance Ii mit
p, represenls lhe muimum value 01 a perlodlcally changing stress
whlCh lhe matenal can lVilhsland ior a practlcally nfinHr periad
tlrnt wilhoul fatigue crack.s appearing in it.
Tlle endurance limil lor a variable slfe$S cycle wi1t.b<- denoled by
p,. o" or 1", wilh a subscripl repre:senting Ih\' cyde characterislic:
p_. is Ihr endurance Iimil 01 an asymmetrical cycle 01 characterishc
,--1; P is Ihe endurance Ilmil al an uymmetrk.l cyde 01 charlc,
lerlst ic r O.2:. etc.
Thus, Ihe posslbilily 01 failure due lo radual developmenl al
IlItlgue crack is subjecl lo lhe lollowing hll'O condilions: (1) periodic
oscillation of lhe varh.ble stre:sses between hvo ulreme v.lues, and
(2) Ihe mulmum v.lue of lIM.- .clwl slres5es in the elemenl 01
struclure
Ihe endurance IImit of lhe material.
The slrength condltlon [n lhis case musleprl'SS the facl that the
Qlaximnm actu.1 slress pI?,.. musl be less Ihan Ihe enduran;e linllt P.
and ensure .. cerlllin margin 01 salety:
or
or
/J,
P"'...........
whtre R, Is lhe safety [lIClor.
Al presenl Ihe enduran<:e lImlt can be delermlntil only t':\:pe1'imen
IlIlIy. It depends m.inly upon lhe (a) materIal (sleel, iron. oon-fl'l"
rous OIet.is); (b) nalure 01 defarmalion (bendln. torsion. elc.); .nd
(e) degree of asymmetry of !he cyele. Le. lhe Inlerrelalion belwffn
lhe ulreme values of (he variable stress.
A 1_ addilional factors Ilfecting lbe endurance limll lCOlT05I011,
dimensions al elemeflts) wllI
discussed separalely ( 156 and lan,
A! lor lhe ma.imum dynamic stres.s P...., experlll'll'nts .show lhal
conlrary lo I.ilure under slalc loading lhe Illigue cracks in briUle
as weH u ductile prisIDltic bars appc.r 1101 due to the maximum
."
design stress, P.... (lor cumple, In bending o....
bul
lo
(he local stresses ( 15) which occur al plaees 01 devlation [ram lhe
prismatic shupe (culs, scralches. holes, Iransition lrom a thin parUoo
lo a lhlck porton, ele.)
These local stresses P, are considerably grealer Ihan lhe maxhnum
stress and may be expressed by lhe lollowlng formula:
here /:te 15 lile coeflicient 01 stress concenlratlon; lIs value depends
upon lhe nature 01 devlation rom Ihe prismatic shape.
In lhe nexl sections we wlll explain how lo delermlrle lhe
durance limil and Ihe coefficient al stress concenlration.
01. JII
- 1e.--IJ rfItl
. !,-18Jrl!-, VJ-56V-lJ. \
,,
Q
,*--widl/ _
",fl5.1.V/n
01!,- [)5f.1I.. 1
1Q
, ,
FI. 434
'r
"'-'n.,/-8"I.
I I
Fig. t3S
'"
[PIII"/ IX
lhe rl.'!;u!ls 01
thl'St: expeTlmenls sllo\\l thal for alJ grades 01 slet'1 !he eodurance
Iimil is rt'llled by a deOn!te law lo Ihe ultimate lenslle strf"nglh 0".
Far rolled nd forged sleels [he b,:-ndlng endunmce limit lInder a
lor casI steel Iht' l'nsymmetrlcaJ cre1e comprise5
duranct" Imil varies btlween
Thus, with sulficien( practical acruracy, we may Wrll., the 101lowUlg
relat ion lor aJl grades 01 slet"J.
"" 0.40.
fl.o.
0'_, ... O
_0.280.
= 0.220.
(31 3}
'"
Ch. .tll
mula b
While usin
(31.31, tl VIollld be borne in mind Ihal !he
endllrance Ilmit of 11 material dt'penlh upon a largl: nllmbef o, larlors
I
Ih", rel.lions given In I:Jlprl"UIOO (31.3) ....ere oblair\ed on
:spcdrnens 01 s,",1I diarnetcr (7-10 mm) having 11 pohIDed surlJM.:t'
and no sharp changcs of 5hape .Iont lhe lenglh
r,
0"',,
L... t IlS remind Ihe reader abaIJl the nalallons used here: Pv renrl:'
S'.'llts (lit ulJlmlte strength of the material,
the yleld
p,
lhe endurance limil correspondlng lo a cyde 01 ch3!aclenstl(' r,
p_, Ihl' endurance limil in a syrnmetrical cycle, P.... aod P..,. Ihe
IlPpL'f Ilnd 10lller exlreme \'aIIJes 01 lhe tyde, P.. -P",.;P'''' the
mean stress in lhe cyele,
P.=O...,.P,.l.
tion! ol Ihe c)'Cle, 2p. the double IImplilude of the C)'cle. aod
"p,,;./p_ (he charllderistic of Ihe cyele.
The value:s al P_., P.l..., P. IInd P. which rorrespond lo
r_
p, .-
Uh.. oluimum abSO!ute valued Pr ... or p{Il!' musl coincide wilh p,l.
Tite re:sull.s 01 upedments ror
endUrJOL'l: 1Ir.l11 under
dtllerent cyeJes ..re coO\'enierltly represenled 10 Ihe larm of dlagrlllll.
The ,Implest InlOng these diagrlllll'> is Ihe diagram in lhe P.- and
II.-coorctinates IHay's dlagram) shown ;n F'1t "36. On Ihis diagram
Ihe "alul'S al P.. are laid off on lhe x-axis lO a cerlalO seale llnd Ihe
"afues of P. are laid 01( 00 Ihe y-axis in lhe .sIHIo! scale. Curve AOCO
has bn plotlC'd on lhe ba:sis 01 experlmenls ror dl'll'rJmning the endurance limil under dUJerent c)'des 01 variable slresses. Foc deld"-
IPMI IX
rnining wllh Ihe help 01 lhis diagram Ihe endurance limil p, far a
cycle having coeJfklent 01 asymmetry f lile draw Irom the cenlre of
coordlnales O a straight llne OS al 3n angle P. so that (see (31.1)
ami 131.3))
lan/l=&=
o,.
(31.4)
1-'
1+'
and
it until il inlersecls curve ABCD al polnl C; lrom this
poinl IVe lhen drop a normal CE on lhe absdssa. The sum of segmenls
CE and EO, whieh are resptdively equal lo pe(; and PmC. gives Ihe
enduranee limil
(31.5)
"
"
-"
"''l/lt t
"-
/f--':' .'
-<
2IJ
,9os'!'!/iII!!
Fig. 437
"
6IJ
-b/J
lO
Fig. 438
'.
'"
,
,'"
o/
'"
ami lile cy<:le's characleristic. Thase
DyMmJC ACItM
farOl:f.
(Parl IX
altention are:
2q,
p, .... 1 t+('+r)q, P.
p, -
vel
r)'+4(1+ll'qt-(1
(1
+f)' q,
(31.6)
t
P.
(31.7)
nd
(31.8)
et Vrtiabl, Lcadinll
Slrt1llllh
Ch. JI]
vI stress
(31.9)
Even in a
PI
lO
R1d
.,
"$
--
n,J:
""
"'r-Io
,
EU1P/i(Q1
lIf!l
,
I
,
1
'/
M
440
IPul IX
VaTlOOS
ol !ht modtl \\1'
can Iind Iht- dlft('f"{'l1n- bellou,"'ll
princ,pal
poinls anfl
.dultional
,.
,,
,
1
al
\llflOIl$
,.":
."
lorsome malerials (chrome-Iiickel, high str.englh carbon
skell 8nd considerably 1!'.S5 for olho.'r materials (mlld sleel). It ,was
IOlln1 [hal Ihe coefticient 01 stress
depends no! only
upon Iheshape 01 {he spec.imen. bul also upon ils materia!. The great
er Ihe duclilily 01 material. Ihe lower 15 ils codfldent 01 stress con
central ion. The reasons lor Ihis have a'lreactr been explained in \6;
lhe plasticily o a material creale!; a sorl 01 buffer, which to a certain
ex!enl miligates lhe elfect 01 local stresses.
Thus, we have two coefficienls 01 stress :oncentralion: Jirsl, Ihe
joto aeeounl cnly Ihe shape 01 Ihe sper
theoretical one, cte .. ',
men and is maio!y delermined by aoy 01 lile first t'.VD methods;
Ihe St'Cond, lhe adual one, (1; 0 is determined by Ihe test on enduranee and \ak('5 inlo account nol only lhe shape but also the malerial
nI the speclmen.
As (his consideralioo alreets only Ihe amollnl by which Ihe local
stnesses exceed the general, i.e. Ihe quantities (a, ,-1) and au-I),
the sensHivity 01 a malerial'to local slresses may be delermined by
lhe ralio 01 'lhe two, known as (h(' 5ellSilivity factor 01 Ihe material:
(31.10)
20
IPar' IX
",
" " " ""
"
l/
mi
.:;,.rgl'Awz
1
1
OZ
fil!. 442
" "
D.4
tU
Fig. 443
"
.1
..'
:...L
uMB W::ri,
1r
i\-: 1--.
,1\
,a,
1-,.1
"
Fig. 444
The curves in Figs. 443 and 444 sholl'ing Ihe variaUon 01 cte., a
may be used lor detcrmining the theorelical stress
lunction 01
C<lncenlralion coelficienl in more cornmon situalions of slrl'SS con
Ch. 3/1
0'
meter 01 shall
O.,
O.,
LO
2.0
LO
2.0
2. Fiflel, rallo 01 ,adius lo lldgh! 01 occHon ldiamelu 01
shaft)
0.0625
0.125
0.25
O.,
0.2
LO
1.75
LOO
LOO
f. 10
2.0
3.0
2.0
2.'
2.0
1.21.4
..,
0.'
LO
1.{j2.0
It should be emphasizC'd Ihat the curves in Figs. .0143 and 444 and
Table 22 help determine Ihe theoretical, Le. the maximum possible.
values of the concentration codficient. Knowing the Iheorelical stress
toncentration cocflicienl, IX . " Ihe actual stress eoncentralion eodf1eient, a ...., can be compuled by the fol1owing formula:
17.......
20'
1+q(a. ,-l)
(31.11)
[Port IX
_12+0'1,,-40
a<.d .
._ -,,-,-
(31.12)
' 15,,-40
a . -- I .5 T ' -"-0-
(31.13)
These lormulas are valid lor sleel with ultimatc slrenglh belwcen
40 and 130 kgf/mm> and are suffidently occurale for prilctical app1i.
cal ion;
is expressed in kgfimm'.
While talking o[ local stresses, it is necessary to emphaslze Ihe
effecl 01 surface damages on the endurance IImi!. Experimen\s show
thallhe endurance limil of lorged parts w)(ch eto not undergo subse
quenl hui Ireatmenl is less Ihan Ihal of parls of Ihe same materillls
(n which Ihe outer layer Is lnilchlned and polished: in mild slcels Ihe
dillerenc(' may be 1520%, and in hlgh gradl! sll'els H nmr be as tllgh
as 50%.
A Sllllllar pht'nomenon is obserye-d in springs madI' Irom high grade
lloy
if lhe spring wire is nol machined afler heal Ire(llment
(hardening anl! annealing). Such a surface can sometimes reduce lhe
endurancl' limil t\\'o-fold. Evcn nolches ilnd scratchcs reduce Ihe en
durance limil by 10-20%.
A very imporl;ml cause 01 considerable stress cnneenlration is th('.
Inler[{'rcnce lit belween t\\'o pllrls, for example, the Iil betwet'n (jjsc
or pullc)' hub and shall or axlc. NUlllerous cxperimenls revcal thal in
interlerence nts Ihe aclual stress concentralion coellicient mar reaeh
1.8-2. It ma}' be reduced by proper designing 01 the 111"0 pllrls ( 191).
COllCl'11Poor surrace linish can be Ihe sourcc 01 considcrllhle
Iration in machine parls mmle 01 high slrenglh sll'l'ls. For lxample
l'< l. Prig.".Mskii.
1!)15 (1" li=i"n).
...
o. J/J
'"
is
Pul IX
foond lo be les.s .lInd .sometim6 much less Ihan lhe endurance Iimil
determine<! on snall specillK'fls. This
in endUT3ftCt IImll is
pronoull'd In allored 1Iee1s: the ,ifed 01 absolule dirntnsions
on .."durante limil IS less in CMe of carbon steels.
lile experitnenlally eslablished Ix! Ihal {he mdurance I1mll 01
parts is leM Ihan Ihe endurartce Iimil 01 sma1J specimens leste<! in
the laboratory Is al utroost importanc:e, particularly so,
Ihis
factor is nol accounte.:1 for while determining he slrenglh rador.
Unforluna\ely, Ihe rl'duction has llnll now elulled a sound seicn
{Hie explanation; obvlousJy, il is due to a number of radars, which
include lhe fol1owlng:
known. Since
y,-"
"
(31 14)
CII. 311
'"
"
I'r
"
lZ
"
KJ
t5 29
JO t(j50$01JIJ
fU{}
l5D lOO;' ..
Fjg. 44S
mining Ihe scale factor lar carhon stC'CI elemenls in absence al slress
eoneenlration, curve 2 is used lar carbon steel elemenls with mild
slress concenlration (Ct e.,,<2) and al10y sleel elemenls wilh no stress
concenlration, curve 3 is use<! lar alloy steel eiemenls wilh
concentration. The curves in Fig. 445 can be used foc srnoolh spec
mens only in bending and torsion, bu! can be used lar specimens
wilh stress eoneenlration in all stales al stress.
lhe produclion processes employed in manufaduring al parls (heat
treatment and chemical heat Irealment, metal cutling, rolling, drop
forging, press lits, welding 01 joints, ele.) al50 creale laetoes Iha!
Ihe strenglh 01 ffinterials lo variable londing.
Sorne of lhese processes can lead to a reduclion 01 Ihe endurance
slrenglh: on lhe other hand, there are mclhods of surfaee Irealmenl
which improve Ihe enduranee slrength 01 material. These melhods
are: (a) work hardening of Ihe surlace layer of linished par! by burni5hing wilh roJls or by &hol pr;ening; (b) chemical heal trealmenl
of Ihe surface: nilriding, casehardening. cyaniding; (e) hardening
01 Ihe surface layer by high Irequency current linducHon hllrdening)
or by gas flameo lhe slrengthening e!Jetl 01 these processes lies in the
fad thal residual compressive slresses are set up in Ihe surlace layer:
when the lalter add up wllh Ihe alternaling stresses due lo extllrnal
'"
load.
IPar/ IX
\l,'e
wilh
lt
compressh'f: muo
eh
.111
...
iP"r/ IX
Fig 44A
lrom lhe ouler libres IO\l!ards !hc interior are cltarly visible in lhe
region 01 loharp \ramilion.
file rolle 01 faligue cracles and the zone of ultimate failure are
bolh cJearl)' visible in Fig. 448. Par altenlioo to Ihe series of curvtd
slrips and lines on Ihe surface of lhe faligue cracks. These are lile
Fig. 1.50
,acts oi gradual dM'dopmenl el lhe cracks; Ihe lailure orcUT:!i approximall'lr along lhe OOTmal lo lhese linu. Hrnce, by stud)'ing 1'lirll"S. \\:e can aJways poinl oul Ihe origin of Ihe crack; as a Tull'. Ihis
i5 Ihe poin! where lhe source of stress concenlration is tIlOSt e!fI'Clive,
Ch. 3/1
59'
..... ",
Fig. 452
Fil!. 453
Pon IX
eh .fII
'"
lheendurance limit. On IhI:! 0111 hand, il Ihe slressa noach the bruk
ng point, a crack appears. The process ;s repeated al tho.> bottom el
the crack and resulls in gradual de\'elopment el Ihe crack: lhe element
'fo'Ol'"ks under slresses ll,hich f'xceed lhe ertdurance 11Init.
In general the phy'Siul process 01 (aHure undef variable Ioading
dots nol dilJer much (rom lailtlre unde! simple lensile loading lhlS
>ncluslon is supporled by lhe latesl experimental sludies of failuft'
in bolh uses wilh the help or X rays.
'"
IX
fieienlly large }'ield zone. Hence, lar ductile malerials lhe permis
,ble stress under static loading may be found as (Fig. 455)
(31.15)
or
[p }=P-l".....E..;,L
(31.17)
(3J.18)
- 1
-;
It,p..
.a,
OA,
im;""'tm
'"
Ch.. Jll
'"
wherefrom
P. (M) [P ...]
Sinee
md
,1 [P. ,]
'-'[p,J
=-,-
.+' (MI
p.IM) = -,-P.u
l+'[p]
=-,-,
(31.20)
(31.21)
(31.22)
(2) Find
_P.... P",ln
P. 2
.....
P_I
(4)
upon
(5)
(6)
+ (a.. ,-I) ti
...
DIJII",,/c AcliQn
o/
0'-40
+ 02. l'iO"
or
IPnrt IX
Ftnm
.(1'.-40
ir
[p -,1<= *0'1-
--'-"-"'_
(9) Find lhe yield stress
.
(10) Determine (he pennissible stress under slatic loading
[p]
r -(1
r/tp-.,I+(J+rjlp_d
.,
01.tll
slrcsstS
w="'
Is
antl
(B)
'"'
oc in lhe general form
.../
JI
'
applied. and
COlllloon equalioll
(31.23)
5ince the latigue crack is rallSf.'d by lhe same physiral pr0cess6
ol l!eformalion of lhe material \\ilith result in lallure und('f sllltic
loading, equation (31.23) nlal' also be. empfoyed for clWcking Ihe
strength 01 materials under variable loading. Stresses a and' 1 may
be broken inlu the components 1)'""
ami T",.
Here 101 and Irl represent lhe permissible slresst$ under bendinR
IInd orsion.
ami h:1. res.p:tivell', oblained lr"OUl Ihe sirnplilietl
Ip.I./p.1 diagram (Fig. 455) by laking inlo ronsideration lhe
stres,s concenlrallon roefcienl 01 lne plIrUcular Iype d dtionnation
and lhe cyde rharacleri5Ilt.',
or
(I. .
I..
",2
Dgnam/c ilclilJJl of
[Pon IX
OOJ
Imil lhe curve depicling lhe rl'lation bl'tween blUkine: stres.s and
number 01 crcles is alDOSl horizonlallFig. 434). Therefcn. i lhe actual stress e"en slightly uCfftis lhe mdurante Iimit, I,ilure is inevitable, because a ma}orily of the parls undergo cydie changes whic:h
lb)
Fill
ir.
(pQ" IX
OJOJ
W
(r1
F- 457
Fie, 458
prolile. Any .!iClalches 01" culs lelt by Ihe cultlng 1001 can play an mporlan! role in subsequtnl l.ailure 01 tite part. We knO'\\' 01 th<o fllilur.:
of I lrgt number of pistoN 01 sttam engine cylindn's. whm tapt'rM
hub.s \\'efe litled 0lI lhe wom I.pcred ends 01 lhe plungers lo incrcast
r:r
'.
-F""i;:-__
ll'_
Ol_p - . J
1..
6
1 P,.
'1'
'l'
--'-.
l P.
their thickne5$. Before fitting the hub thr \l-om out surfate al the
plunger was subjec:led lo coarse iurning \l'thoul anr sub.wqUf!flt
finishing. The Iilligue craeks appeared under lhe hubo bqlnniilg
from (he .!lOtUU' 01 stress ooncentratioo in lhe form of a .scralch Itrl
b)' ihe cuUing 1001. Therf'iore, fine finishing. nkkel plating arlu
v.rnisbing, ji lhe p.rl \\'Otks in a oorroding medjum, IIre nol super-
""
Ch. 321
Lines AMN, which are shaded on Ihe diagrams, represeni lhe curves
01 breaking slrcsses (in Ihe wider se-nse 01 lhe word), It is
Ihat Ihe "hanees or lailure dlle lo developnlent 01 faligue crack are
rar grealer in case 01 alloyrd steel Ihan in mild stee!. lhe chances
01 reduct'on 01 local slresses due lo plastic delormation are considero
bly 11'55 in Ihe firsl case as compared lo Ihe second. lhis lo a large
('xlenl \!xplains Ihl' higher sensilivily or alloyed sleels lo slress con
centration.
Sumnling 11, v..-e may concludc tha! Ihe hlghcr Ihe grade 01 stccl
Ihe higher is lhe qualily 01 linishing whil.'h il reqllires so Ihal alJ ils
properties may be fully explolled.
12
IP",( IX
l,!!
11.;:;
)l
U:f\X
1500Q 0.5 50
100
'.
_a'
,
,
""" "
.-
"
10
..:J
I
I
,,
,
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
,ca
""
I
I
I
tJ
I
I
I
XKJO Qtm
I
I
I
I
I
T,'t
'JO
'"
!;1J
OC,
': C
rjl/. 461
,
1
Ch. JJI
607
soo"C.
e,
or
or
'"
IParl IX
as a/Jer-elttcl.
Due lo- aHu-flfKI a mild interierence lit between two parts may
alure (cacbon steels amI iron above 30035<tC. alloyelJ slrels .hove
350-400"C, Jighl allo)'s ahove.
ele.). Cree" is nol
in U:e.se metals il Ihc)' are healed bt'lo..... the spe<:i6etl
Btslde:s. even at temperalutes equaJ lo or higher than the specllied.
creep does 001 begin as Ion( as
slresses renlllin less than II parlic
ular. specific rer tach metal. ",alue. Aiter-ef(ed begillS al lIpproxi
mOltel)' Ihe same values of lemperaiure and slress as cre;;op.
Creep is espedally ptominent m Hlelllls. However. it occurs m a
numbef of olher matenals also. Fot txa-mple..
room ter.1perature.
cr"\J can be. observed In various pl4stks (Cf'lIulold. bakelile.. pol)'""ni chloride plastil;. ele.). concrele nd cemenl nlOflar. In re.inlom..d
concre.h:: slruclures, creep. with tlle
01 Un.e, luds lo redis
ltibuhon of, slresses bdween COIlCf("Ie- and re.inlc:Jlmenl; lhe alter
gets slighy oves:loaded whereas the- stresses in concrete decrease.
HO\Uever. the cn:ep 01 concrete ami tbl' ensuing .edislribuj,iQfl of
slre:s.ses naYe' alrnosl no ell'C'Cl on Ihe lood carrying capadly af Ihe
rl'mforced roncrele slruelure. Cr.eep al room le.mPt!flllure a'lso. oceurs
in timber under eompression. an
bending.
Experimenta'l slutly or lhe phenomenon 01 creep began qUite re
cenlly (in 1910). These studies aroused
nterest in the
enly lwenties, when the firsl imporlant re.suLb were published.
Cteep
presenl.s a
of djflicuHies even in simple ten
sioo. These tests can be: Condllcted onl)' 00 a .sp:ial apparalu.s COl'
pable 01 mainlaining a constanl load and lemperature and ml'a.surin
lhe .sp;imens deformalion. The crttp tesis mu.sl
conueled wilh
a higb dtgRe of. accuracy if rehable resulls are- dcsil'ed. the duratiorl
01 the tesis shoold no' diller much from lhe servlCe life of Ihe eh:rnent.
and thil invohe.s le.slirll: over ten.s 01 Ihousands 01 hour.s.. Al! hese
faclOl'!i make creep testin a complicare<!, Iime<onsuruing am!
allalf. Qr 3OIlnt of all these- diUiculties Ihe phffiomenon o{ cn'eP
has unlil now nol been studied experimenl:llly SlJliicientl)' ....1"11 even
lor .smple lensile loading.
Te:sling f(N" creep is .slitl mote oornllhcated and eUlIIbefsome in oom
..
Cl. J21
. i....
"
h, ,
"
L'
6
F'I:' 462
'"This i.s
(P"'I IX
by gradual increa-w in
of lhe loaded
an (he material bea:ins to creep. The growth of creep delormalion is depicted by curve ABCD; tbe ordinales 01 poinu on this
tUTVe (far l'13mple. lhe ordlnaie 01 point JO represent he sI/m 01 elll5-
speciltlell,
tic slr.in
"
v ..,_lancr;
C1l. J21
'"
O,
D.
O,
1
,
period of unslable creep, whkh will stop when the rale 01 creep becomes zero. Al a stiH higher value 01 stress (0=0.) Ihe velocity of
creep will nol be ero bul will be so small that ailure due lo creep
will occur afler a very long period, whkh lar exceeds 111(' service
lile 01 Ihe element.
Al stress o-o, ,,"'e get Ih(' creep curve shown in Fig.462. If the
slress or lemperalure is furlher In<:reased. lhe creep curves Iso underoes a lurlher change: creep progresse:s at a lasler rale, and lhe
straight line portion of lhe curve-Ihe tone 01 stable creep--oes
on geUing shorter liII 11 reduces lo a point (curve 5 in Fig. 463), I.e.
lhe zone 01 unslable creep directly changes inlo lhe tone of filuTe.
In Ihis case lhe zoill! of stable creep is represented by an infll!c:tion
poinl on curve! ABCD, point B.. which coincides wilh poinl el_
The nature al ailure dile lo creep depemJs mainly upon lhe proper
Ies of lhe malerial at lhe given lemperalure. Carbon sleels al
atufes less litan 55ifC, copper, lead Hilel same olher ighl alloys
generally leil arter large plastic t1efonnatioil and na-k fOl'malion.
$pl.'cial hl.'al
steel$ h3\'ing good CrL'l'p $!renglh fail alter
comparaUvely $mall deform:ltlon, IhI!
is brlttle in nalure
and usually bcgins al lhe local ion 01 stress concenlralion.
'"
D!lm1.l'l1c
01 Forres
[Pllr/ IX
in a IO:loJecl e\cllll'nt
total Ut'IOTllwtion is
and
eCllivalent ncrease: in
formula:
(32.1)
ell.....:! m3\' bl' dividcd into \1'"0 slages: in 1I1t' nrst stagt' (seglll\'nl AB
on Ihe a(ta-elTect curve) the stresse; lll'fease vl'ry fllsl, arH( Ihis is
3ccolHpanied by II sharply d('CTcasing after-eliecl Tale; in he second
sruge (scgment BCon he curve) Ihe redllclion al slresses is considcrabl}' $Iower :lntl is acromJlanied by slowly dt'<:rl'aslog llfter-elTt't:t
rate.
l){:pending upon he material. inilial slress and tcmlleralure, lhl.'
duratioll of lhe firsl slage varies (ron! several lens of hours loa few
huodrcd hours. The ph)"sical proc!'!>S
, A
accompaoying nller-eifecl in the firsl
nnd second stages has not yel !let.lJ
slll(lied io sullkient deLails. There
sti!1 very fe\\' good experimental
sct-ups for studyio,l! aftcr-{'iTect, antl
this rnakes il dilfleult lo compare
Ihe resulls of experin1t'nls 00 aflerefree! wlh lhose on creep. lo majority 01 Ihe machines which have
beeo used unlil now lor invesligaliog aiter-eifecl it has been impossible
lo achieve pure aller-eifecl.
"L
--"
lt is generally assumed thal
growlh or p!astic deformalion in
Flg. 464
after-efrect is similar lo ils growlh in
creep and therefore Ihe rale 01 alter
eifecl may be calculated Irom lhe creep velocily. fr Ihis assurnplion
were Irue, there would be no need for sludying ailereffecl.separalely_
'owever, lhere is anollll.'r view which holds fhat creep rate caonot
be taken as Ihe Tale 01 after.elfecl, because Ihese processe.s 3re
eally differ('n!. the mechanism 01 origln and growfh of prasUc delormation in alter-elfecl is somewhal differen! from that in crC(!p.
In aitereffecl {he reduction of stressc.' in lhe eremen!
eaused by
delormalion,
the growlh of plastie deformaUon allhe rosl 01
and lhe lenglh 01 Ihe eremenl remalns const:l1lt. In
the gro\\'lh
01 plasLie deforrnalion is exc1usively due lo e-Iongalion 01 Ihe elemen\.
The tolal deformation in rreep i5
grea!er than in afterelft'<:l; Ihis is an important diifcrence, becau$t' lhe magnilude of
----e
'13
dtformation al higher lempmltures mi)" considerably alJtd creep.
giving rise lo aflef-i'lfed, diftusioll and other proce5StS \\'hich call
of a maltfial lo plll!tit dtformalion.
lltroogly inihlt'nCe tlw
is to
OC'
cretp velocily
, e
rT ----------- I f
l! \-----------r
ti
__f3,
_J01
lun
t,
i'<
I!
.:
Fil_ .f65
6,...- e.+
=-I!:j
+t ,v,
+1, lana
(32.2)
Part IX
(Z)lI<_aSiuhf
(32.3)
TI'PO'''
,,<ti
C::l.bon .tl'i:l
Ca.boo stl'(!l
Molybdmum sled
Chron"molyMenum
slcel
0.11
O.SIl
'.08
(1.$2
I .'"
0.49
Chfl.fllC'-lIicltl stC'd
t1 8-8)
O."
0.50 0.61
Steel611
0.52
SI....l NI>
0.19
0.72 0.11.1
11.75
1.11
o."
O."
NI
.."
'-',
0.77
11
'"
for sorne
U,
1=01 ......'
Annc.Jlill': 844"C
AnnnUlIt; tl"c
Annullne &14"C
J\nne.liru: 8ol4"C
Annulln: 8U"C
Hardt-nint 1093"C
Hlldl'rlll1t
Norm.1I1l1110ll 8.'iO"C
.'>
.'"'",
....'",
m
'"
'"
'",
'"
''''
..
'427"
'"'"..,
..""..
'"
'"
"6
In ',",nf.
"'l .... , . . .
4.
q1 ... ')
110-251)
....,."
211)-g)
6.0
3.'
l410-mO
"".""
:11-90
1(lf,O. 1&90
1W).1llO
910_l4l0
:;('o.HIGO
210.420
00-120
970014(0
28Q....'O
3.IU
2."
, .7
,.'"
4.r.o
3."
3.10
8.35
.. "
r..90
140280
1410.2110
;no. 1060
6."
8M-I340
51;0.1000
3508)
110.2m
'.3
,.,
'.7
ro.'"
......
10-1500
1500-2500
:?ol).5(lO
3.25
3."
2.95
3.16
...
2.9
3.'
.(,...
O.17XIO"
O.12xIO-l>
O.2t.xl()-U
O.2xIO- U
O.I4Xlo-"
0.12xI0-1.2xI0-'
0.6xI0- 1O
O.23xlO-"
0.2><.10- 12
1I.5Sx 10-"
0.14><'10-"
O.IOxlll-"
O.ITx]()-"
O.I{Sx!O-"
O.lnixIO-"
O.3f.Sx 10-"
0.2IXIO-"
0.J7xlO-
O.14Xlo-O.2IxI0-"
0.65><.10- 10
O.29xlO- IO
0.41 xlO-1lI
O.S9XIO- u
."
IPjI,t IX
missible strain (tI '9:hich depends upon the funclion of lhe parlo lts
(32.4)
e....
where
t ..
t,+S,"""t,+'"d
(32.5)
13:2.6)
is ihe uniform (slable) creep slrain c.Iuring lhe !leTVtc(' liIe t, of lhe
par!. Vsing formulas (32.5) and (32.6). equalion (3:2.4) may be modilied 85 follows:
(32.7)
e,+f,Jm-"'(e]
wherefrom
(1
'" )--;-
Siras
{,tl-t
(32.8)
l }'/-
i5 $Ometimes caUed lhe virtual crup limil 1& permis..ible tO/(ll t:ri'tp
and is denolt'd by O". Thus. the desie:n equation lor wrmissible creep slrain 1mB)' be lI'rilten as
Slra!I,
0 ..... 0
_llpl-l,\I/-
....... )-;;-
(32.9)
If Ihe elastic and .unslable creep slrains al the elernent are ne:li.
gible as compared to Ihe dable creepstrain. then creep atl3lysl$
ma)' be based on !he maxlmum permissibJe slable {minimum) cteep
rale..Obviously. Ihe ptrmissible creep rate shoold be determined
from the condilion lhal creep deformaUon iocreasing wilh Ihis con
stan! rllt' shoold nol exceed, during lhe ....llole M'Tvice lile el lhe elemenl. a ceriain ptrmissible value 01 deformalion whk:h does not
disrupl the normal functioning
lhe slructure or machint'. The
corresponding maximum stress. which does nol h'e rise lo a tteep
rate greater ihan the Pffmissible al lhe particular lemperature,
may be cansidered as Ihe limitin stress. OHm Ibis stress is relerred
or
."
to as
crHp limil
01
of
/fU! mnimum
Tlblt 24
Cre"", Vtlodly
10-'
la-O
\n-'
10- 0 .10-'
as
10110\\"5:
(3'2.10)
.ince
(32.11 )
10Il0'5:
I/a
(32.12)
B. It is implicit that in creep analysis from considerations 01 permiMible delormation and permissible creep rate il is not enough lo
ensure thal the creep deformalion does not exceed a permissible value
al 11 partIcular temperalure during the whole service lile al lhe elemen\. Jt s also essential lo provide a cerlain safely faclor againsl
Ihe oc<:urrence 01 such a failufC. Hence, poinls 1(,K. and K1 (Fig. 466)
en creep curves 1, 2. and 3 corresponding lo abscissas (/lh t ro and 1,
and ordinales Id" Id and Id, musl Be on lhe segmenls correspondlllg
to lhe lirst and serond slaees 01 creep.
21 -UII
special invesligation. A3. aIread)' explainfil. creep anal}"sis Itom roTIsideraUons 01 prrmissible deformalion and permissible creep tate may
be replact'd b)' an analysis bascd 011 p..:rmissrhle slresscs. Ihe Cfet'p
limils Ora oc 0'..... Howe'ler, it s essential lo check beforehan(\ lhat
a, (o,. oc 0"',) lIoes nol exceed a perrnissible "al Uf. whic:h s a certain
!tacUon or lhe ul\lnate slrenglh al lhe given lemperature.
!,tJ
"' ..
"'"
1000
lIJO/)
JIJfJ
",
f.!l"
!XI
"-
r--
r--
-".
f!XI
"-
",
'"
Fla:. 4&7
or
'lO
spedal heatresistant stetels, wllich have poor tendency to creep; genero
ally SlICh parts (ail
undergolng 5m31l dtfornlalion and the lai!
ure i5 britlle in natufe. Consfiuently, in a majority of practical
cases
of lllt stresses d()('$ not occur and it is es:sential
lO accounl fOl" stress tonrentralion in creep d!sign.
Thf:refore. whlle delerm1ning Ihe long-term slrenglh 01 heat resistanl sleels. the possibility el stress coocrolratlon should be laken
iolo 8ccounl, Le. lhe uperh:ll!nls lor d("lermining o.. should be
condueled on spedmens 01 corresponding shar.
lf Ihe elemenls al machines are subjecte lo Ihe simu1taneous
liclian 01 fatigue and creep. Ihen lhe longlerm strmglh should be
tletermined from fatigue lesl al Ihe appropriale lemperature. Thus,
lhe following importan! cases may
bE' disllnguished while calculaling
Ihe strcngth 01 elements of ma- "",.[GOI)
chines and slruclures worklng under
high !e01peralures.
II Ihe lemperalure Is nol high
to cause creep ( 193), Ihe
crilical slate is determlned by lhe
yield slrt5S or ultima!e strength
of lhe malerial al !he iven tempero
ature, oblained by lbe usual lests.
The slrength condiHon is:
lJ";';;[lJ]""!;
(32.13)
"
(32.14)
(Port IX
Acftoll 01 Fof'0t8
T_425'C,
and
+ e"=Er+e,,=e.=Er
G
G.
('11
1<11"
l. M. (,,,,JIMI'W.
,, Crl!<.'p, fltmnli, 1%0 n" Rus
N. N. M.li""', I1pi'Ii.'J ,:"wII"f rt,,.<iiWII,,"d Cm.'I. o\bslti'lStr'>Clllc, 1975
RU$S'"Il).
e...",
62'
of
material al lhe given lemperalure T. Upon dilIerenlialing the
above equalion IIo'.r.L t, \\."e obtain
Ido
4"
Ido
Ido.
O
SO>
ing unst.1bJe crrep and 1ubsliluting ko" rar 1/<. we gel lIJe lollll'lll-
'"
"
;;;--E.,kdl
'"
Upon infl'gTaling lhis equalion
oblain
,1)"O_I-E,JrJ+C
;+Erktt'-O
\\.'e
(.)
(It
whcre
e 1$ he constan! oi
C---+:'
-=
; I)Q:-'
e
------".'--,...
1
11+(..
""3
"--
a_<
:.,_ =
1000
[1 I
'"
Ad/oll.
01 orca
[PDrt IX
column 8) obtained for lhe case when Ihe elas!ic deformation or the
llanges 15 ,-3X IO-'P h and
creep rale is v. 1 =5x
(....flete P, kf is lhe pulJ on each bolt al instanl t).
Table 25
V.I.... ol f
'-'
lICl/all'1
,O<
,<7o
..
.",
100
''''
24;5
...
''-'
....
...
..
.."'"'" "" ....".. ..
"
31100
Hence, ; ....-e follow [be resulls el lhe more aceUTale 5Qlution, rt-
T=54O"C.
and also ils angle of twid alter IODO hours 01 \1:orklng under load.
SoiutiOll. Le! us assume that the hypothesls of plane sections under
Icmion remailu in lorce during creep loo (this
agrees
surftciently \\'ell wilh experimental dal!!). Then lwo cross sectiOIl$
al a dislance d.x wi11 remain planes and onl)' luro w.r.t. each olher
b)' an angle dlp. 5ince the radi! of lile: secllon!; do nol warp, we ma)'
use lhe usual ( 47) formula loe delermining relative shea.- al a dislance (mm the slJaft nlre:
01
Ch. 321
623
AnaJys
wherelrorn
"
(..!..k dxdl
<1'1' ) " en = d-..p"
,
where
!D=(i:l)"
(bl
M_ M, =
STpdA =
"
we may wrile
101
and laking into account expression (a)
T=.!!.!.p
'"
J P' _2X3.14X"
1 2U -3. 52 cm H
l Xj 1 . 2---r- -1964
X.
The sheariog stresses a\ a distance p from the shaft are:
M....!...2000(
....!...
T=:""'!"P"=_pS =568p S
/p<
3.62
."
Oytw2mk AcliOll
..., ,
VlhlUIlI'l:
"",
DI
26
'"
'"
'"
'lO
'"
'"
IX
.-,
..."
...
"
qu_'l
Fotr:u
qti...,
.'"
'"
'" o
1:
"
0<#1/"')
or (l. The lable Iso conlains values oll" lrom consideration 01 pure
(atsioo or Ihe shaft calculated by the formula
M,,, 2M,e 2x2000
614
T.=J;- nr- =3.I.XI.Z' p- P
Crte) helps in <'quali:ting the sttesses OVe" lhe shaH's cross section;
lhe slre:ses al Ihe surract regbter a small decrease, whereas lhe
...
lile axis
cOlUide-ably (Fig. 469).
le! us delKmine the anle of twist ptr unit Jengtb al lhe shait.
On he basis or (b) and (;) .. roay wrile
!'9 __
dii1i
JU
.. _k
Since
(.!!L)'
gel:
(.&)t+C
J,c
...
and
dx
M. +kl ( ... ).
-u,
10-"
_0.001 02+0.01480=0.0158 radjan
9.'e
get
IOCIO
'"
rt can be easlly seen lha! on aeeou"t 01 creep the angle el lwisl inCh. 311
r,lp!aw z
:.;dfO
'L.
"
,
,
U+
fig. 469
Fil. 410
=400 kgl (Fig. 470) works at T=500"C. lhe beam Is madI' 01 mild
slcel having modulus 01 elaslicity E=1.6x 10' ki(l/cm' (al T=500oq.
The slable creep rale is v,""'ka n, and al T-=5OO"C
Ncgltoding Ihe zone 01 unstable creep, find Ihe distribulion 01 norin the critical section and delermine Ihe maximum demal
f1ection 01 Ihe beam after 10 000 hours 01 10adinR.
So/u/ion. While solving Ihis problem we shall neglect Ihe effed
01 shearing strl!SSes and assume Ihal Ihe hypothesis of plane sections
under bending remains valid in creep too (this assumplion agrees
quite well wilh lhe elperimenlal results). Assuming lha! Ihe deloTmation 01 lhe beam's libres 10110ws the same law in lhe slretched and
compressed rones. \\'1'. mal' express Ihe sira in 01 a fibre at a dislance y
by lhe rdalion ( 63)
where p is lhe radios of curvalure 01 the
neutral surlace 01 the beam.
In lhe loaded slate lhe ]elormalion of Ihe beam libres increases
graduall}" on accoull! of creep or Ihe beam's material; lhe radius
01 curvature 01 Ihe neutral surrace also il1creases. The lotal relntive
deformlltion of an arbilrary fibre may be represenled as Ihe sum 01
clastic an] creep strains, Le.
The rate or challge 01 tot31
(Pul IX
di')
p
df
di
wherclrom
(.)
where
"'-
Al di
(b)
r'
y""dA
A'/I
we get
1,._2
S !I
A,/.
T,
1
'"
:!II+I
!!.:.!2ii+1
bh-.-
Subslituting
numeral values al the problem in lhe vepression
ror J w \\-e g!t
tIC).l
=3X2X4.
,.,
-.,.,,''---2X''-'-
1X2T
'-'-(2X3+1}
cm'
10
_8.64
400Xro
M",u =- =-,-=&OOOkgf cm
The normal slresses in the reclangular beam may be calculaled
from the formula
The: normal slresses oompuled from lhis formula for ...arioos values
of !I are given in Table 27. For compari.son, lhe values of normal sires
S@$ under elaslic doeformalion are given in lhe ssme lable.
T,bl" 27
..
<1
, (""'1
1l1..11<:
dd"",,otlOll
ro
938
""
""
'"
'"
"'"
no
,n
'"
'"
, (1I1111)
I!.I.. tI.
deI_oU""
,,
....
'""'
,ro
330
Due lo creep Ihe slresses over Ihe beam's cross seclion level oul.
decrea5t' in Ihe fibres farlhesl from the neulral layer. where
as Ihe slresses near Ihe neulrlll laye.- incre.'lst' (Fig.47I). The de
crease In maximum slress is more pronollnced in Ihe
beam as compared lo Ihe [beam. because lhe IllllC'r is comparsllvely
thinner near Ihe neuiral ayer.
Let us determine Ihe beam's dellection. Expressing Ih!: curvaluTe
01 lIJe beam b}' Ihe approxima[e relation
\\'e ruay wrile
i:{ )- :;.
'(1)
iU ji' -
/(l)II =
ro.
k 'l'
PaTI IX
.....
.!:.
('!) _k!!.:
ti.,' tll.
J:'
In lhe case 01
ti
where
>p"
t-J;'
('1<) =....!i...
lI+J x... +C
'., dI
;
where
#1J
,
61!0
,
tlKJ
'
j l!
11_--, ,
I
1. I''''-:r_
I
I
I
'--;--'"<-1-.1
Fil. 4i2
at x=O
".
0..311
\\'1'
get
obtain
kP"" +1
y", .. _ -
t+H
".
".
--48FT
have
11 - (y.... ),
IrPI.....
1" H)2'lh'JJ=.,
2x-4'
..d
.aox5O"
1.&Xlf'l-"'J(4OO'xSO''''
!Y.ml-d'XI.6xl()ixiu6i+ l.tW(3,2Jx2".'"
-0.0611 +0.3G3"_O.4.2Scm
10000
1I,"e
[fI
ge-I
15Xl0- lI xr.oo
5X8.64IX21 IOOOOPI'.l>;O.\
Appendix
Rolled Steel Proflles
(GOST 8239-72. 8240-72, 8509-72)
.....
....""
....". ,
"
"
"".
'"
"',
2"
2..
."
".
33
36
00
''''
'10
"O
,ao
''''
'00
.."
73
"
00
lOO
<ro
'00
""""''''
.'"
,
'"
125
125
200
..
..
..
"0
270
'"
..,
360
500
500
..
110
110
..".'",
"O
'"
"5
'60
110
'01
'00
._.-. -"",-.
,-,
'.5
<.8
'.9
5.0
5.'
5.'
5.2
5.2
5.'
5.,
5.6
5.6
'.0
6.0
'.5
'.5
7.0
7.'
9.0
10.0
JI.O
12.0
7.'
7.3
7.5
12.0
,... ,
10.'
'.3
10.'
8.6
289
30.6
..,
'.7
'.9
9.5
9.'
9.8
10.2
10.2
10.7
11.2
12.3
13.0
14.1
16.2
&.5
17.8
14.7
17.4
23.'
26.8
32.8
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3<.8
37.5
,3.2
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49.9
53.'
61.9
7"
8'.1
100.0
118.0
138.0
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11.50
13.70
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18.40
19.90
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22.70
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25.00
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42.20
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111.7
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317.0
371.0
10.10
11.20
11.30
18-1.0
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518.0
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1231.0
1589.0
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9.13
9.Z1
12.50
13.SO
14.70
16.2il
18.10
19.iQ
21.80
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81.3
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89.8
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17.9
27.9
41.9
58.6
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114.0
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11.50
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18.40
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15i.0
198.0
337.0
292.0
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423.0
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101.00
123.00
151.00
182.00
2.12
2.01
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2.03
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2.69
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3.09
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27.70
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10
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140
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14.20
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13.30
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7.51
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52."
16.JO
17.40
18.40
19.80
21.00
24.00
25.80
41.90
T,ble ,1
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1<..'1 1
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34.8
3.99
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4.78
22.8
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174.0
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491.0
0515.0
741.0
82J.0
1000.0
1190.0
15.."0.0
1670.0
21l0.0
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31l.lO.0
9.1
15.0
10.2
77.8
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103.0
121.0
132.0
15.2.0
161.0
19'2.0
212.0
242.0
265.0
4111.0
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7980.0
10820.0
1S220.0
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001.6
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76.10
105.00
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113.00
121.00
139.00
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178.00
224.00
281_00
13J.00
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181.00
208.00
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262.00
321.00
410.00
613.00
642.00
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8.15
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9.73
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13.10
14.20
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6.42
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350.00
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78.80
3.68
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11.00
13.30
13.80
1Ci.<fQ
17.00
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".50
24.20
25.10
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1.190
1.:170
l.""
1.700
0.""
0.870
2.010
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2.180
'.200
'.350
2.310
JO.OO
2.550
31.1iO
37.20
31.30
4300
51.80
61.70
73.40
2.f,oo
:!.780
2.730
2.840
2.!l70
3.100
3.2.10
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1.16
1.74
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1.44
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2.65
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5.13
6.63
8.03
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7.11
9.21
11.20
5.41
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7.28
18.90
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1.74
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1.(7
2.'.15
0.98
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6.35
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10.73
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1.09
l.13
1,11
12.10
15.30
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2.73
3.37
12.40
16.60
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1.42
2.32
3.05
3.71
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14.60
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0.98
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25.40
20.80
2.18
2.16
5.41
0.59
1.11
1.10
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1.52
1.57
3.44
4.25
29.90
2.45
2.H
7.81
!1.52
11.20
1.25
1.25
33.10
41.50
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1.74
1.18
2.12
12.0
13.2
15.5
17.8
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51.0
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1.95
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2.16
2.15
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119.0
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169.0
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219.0
194.0
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10.90
12.20
:214.0
'.68
2.71
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205.0
333.0
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15.20
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160
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198.0
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3.31,
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24.7
21.3
32.5
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519
3.87
3."'
3.85
3.82
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3.78
4.34
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00'
4.31
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315.0
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4.9'1
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4,87
4.85
20Iil
2248
913
37.4
43.3
49.1
1046
1175
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"18 ,,.,
16
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lc",',
19.7
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24.3
28.9
33.4
37.8
31.4
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4.95
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1662
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.r,Z,
lz.mn
m)
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4.28
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4.87
ir. mln
m')
72.7
81.8
,.,'"
'35
i/l' ",in
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2.19
2.18
2.4G
2.45
2.44
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2<,
2.79
2.78
2.76
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,."
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3.19
3.1il
3.17
3.16
3.(4
3.13
3.12
5.41
5.46
5:43
fi.25
6.24
6.17
6.13
1).10
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3"
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589
...
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(cm')
"" .0
353.0
2.49
,."
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2.41
0<,
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'.82
4.78
4.75
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916
1051
8"
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1494
'013
1911
2191
2472
2756
2 .9(i
3.00
11.00
13.50
3.Y,
3.40
3.45
15.5
17.3
19.1
22.7
3.5l
3.m
3.08
3.78
3."
3.90
'.30
4.as
4 ..
4.47
'.55
4.63
4.70
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29.6
19.4
21.5
25.1)
24.7
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3M
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43_0
47 _4
;;':":"':"0:":'-
"
;:;:
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"
i_ ..
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ltiSiS
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S8
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u.
3:-:
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11
a
...
Name Index
Casllgliano. A. :140
B. P. E. 33.S
Clcbsch, R. F. A. 3114
Coulomb. 01. A. 140
N. N. 148
D,ulhinln, S. l. 144
Engesse<. F. 490
Eulef. 1.., 480
Heny. H. I'!S
Huber, P. 145
lvanovl, V. S. 5'Y7
Kachanov. 1...
136. li20
Kachurin, V. K. 7
Kormlu, Th. 49(1
Kipnis, Ya. L 8. 100
Krylov, A, N. 305
Kurkln, S. A. 163
Kushtlev. N. YII. 8
O<!ing. 1. A. 597
G. 163
PavlllV, A. P. 163
Pirlel, 3<19
J. Y. 138
Prjgorovskll. N. J. 588
Puzyrevsldi. N. P. 305
'"
1 Ya. 96
Sin'I"'''. A. K
Sl...
N G ISll
Sm;,tlO\'AI)..... O ,\ 5St
Tddb...".. 1 N. 568
Timos!ltnlco. S P. 5. 1M, 508
Tmea. H. 140
lhbiJ. G. V. 591
A N. 34!l
,"",,,b.,,,.,. \". A. 1(.J
\'1asoY. V. Z. 188
Vol'nm. A. S. S20
1',.n, Ya.!. fU
V...Ul1, f. 4!lO
zmu...skli,
D. /. :mi
Subject Index
tor>tlnuou. 366
crltlul $telion o! 200
dtltdlOll ,,1 292
f<luat<ll'1 01 dtl\eded. uls 01 293
Ikt!t1ous 314
r1vdtd 2t9
slmply supporttd 201
dallc:ally dttmlnalt 1119
slIlially 111dtlecmlnalt 199, 3S6
01 "nilonn ricldily 329
el unifonn drl!l1ftll 324. 55S
_Idf'd 290
bum Stlon. a"llle al tot.llon ol 293
bum "'FJIClrls. uxhOll 01 197
ulI'\)'mmtltk: m
kndmg moml'tIl 203, J48
01 zo.
hinl.l IlrlM 102
breakinlf ....Iy, falture bl' 101
b't.ki"g
457
brltllt
lheory oC 138
b,itllf maltml 41, 52
hulk rnodulll5 123
butl Jol"1 159
uble. luiblt
anlllt"l' bum 213
eapaelly, l,fhne. 4n
c.stictl.no' lhIortm 340
C't'!lTt, It.lutal 387
d!ataeterislle eytloe 574
drde, MDIIr's 110
mommt of nrrlta 01 2.K1
Clapt')'rm's Ibt'Ottm 335
tol'llidtTlt. dlmplllf: S39
dyn.mle 624
01 dylllmk re:lpomc 60
01 IfllSth 485
01 Qptullng eonditiOll$
01 ovf:rlNodIn 476
101' produtllon pICeliS 5!l3
01 ,dlab,liIy 475
o( stras eonc:enlrallOl'l 676
rompnison 01 d,splar;tmtllls 3161
romp'-I&I'y shtarllle strtSRI 100
eornp!u rowt. IlICImtrlt 01 inerll.a 01
'"
OCponalt
,.,
Subjtd Inda
01 bars SS9
comprelSIOll, axial Zl
=I!fltnc 392
slress \0\
19
cwd.IJOIl. 01 jOl1l1
cono::tnlra!N
67, 80,
'""
01 s\ll'lq,:lh 30
c:ondllional slres:; 1
1:....:11<.1 sp<ln 186
connllnc rod
l.'lIfMfVIlklft 01 et:.. y 331
CtntancJ 01 yolulM 5tI
sl.ble 610
lInolablt 610
(QflSlanl ol 514
cOIISla"l '!U' $7;,
co:mslall1 Ilr_ 673
:>13
meln slrlss Clr 514
c(
ZNO
nlialion 573
573
"""'i"
momeol 406
'"
di!.ITlfJtJttd forct 19
di!.trbutiOll. unllOlm 29
ol 60
tkmtnllry loIu 23
elongation. absolute 33
,tl,l,ve J3
rtlot,ve residual 44
tndunnt.t Jimil 51. 62, 575
mOle' of ddocltllllOfl, lolll 126
onnlopc 142
eq..... 1 lD(lrDfJIts. mtlbod oC 471
tqlllhoo. of
axis 293
01 IMlhod <J mit.. 1 puamelon 3Oi>
of Une mOllltllls 372
equllorlll mornclll 23J
Eule1'J lormull 482
ulelnll force 19
rntlhod of 344
'"
1l
Hooi<.'. law 33
gl'l1er.llud 33S
hydf05I.lk .... d
b.-t 1e-d 20
Impact ttd S65
inilia1 pau.melers, rncthod of 305
lnteer1tion.
'''e 312
inll:f\Slly 01 COIlllnltOUl Jo.ad 20Ei
lnter.."on, force of 19
1-511Oll 2llS
isotropic: I!LIilcrlll 37
JollIl. bul! 159
I.ppcd 151
nvcted 159
wclded 100
with sld. 1I11et .... eld 162
Joint ddormation, c;ondllion 01 67, SO,
"'"
pasa"'.
335
al complttnmtary lhuril'' stres.-
.Idee 203
suP""J"lllitioo 01 83
voIume 19
'"
SubJ:1 Inda
Imn1l1g
drde 139
impact 20
perma",,"l 19
<.peatoe<J varjable 20
,I,le 20
wddonly
!l'l1Iporary 19
(,lIlmalo 457
20
01 M:lernal
344
grapllanaly\lc 3lJ
of nlllal parameltrs JO.5
01 superpasllion of orces 223
Vel:fthchagin's 349
modulus. bulk 123
01 elasticlty 34
reduced 490
langential 490
Sl'l:UOO 2JIi
Mohr's
110
MoIIr', ,Iren"l'" IlIeOTY 141
moment, bendin; 2t.I3
400
equalorial 23J
01 secti<>l!, slali", 232
aboul nfulra ah 267
momenl 01 IDem, axial 233
"f d_ele NO
of
figure 245
of p...
240
polor 173. '150
prinripal 255
mulllple.sllear ri\'e! 154
mQteria1.
21
aniSQtropic 35. 56
brlltle 41, 52
critIca! .lale 01 63
crys!alllne 21
ducllle 41
SO!"'pic 3i
"el arca 31
n""lral axls 227
"..,d,al lay" 227
01 cnrvalure 01 231
of lrapelo;d 435
normal f",ee 2!l
normal slrllSll 100
slreTIglh 01 18
muimum rlgidity. plane of 386
max;mum .haring .I,ese, thro:y 01
",
'"
pa!>Slve force
p",manenllo.ad lO
Sub/Id 11ldu
SlTo'SS :14
o
tot.1 564
Poisson', ratIo 37
momenl QI lMrll. 173, 250
pot."tial energy 01 disiotIO!l, Itleory ol
'"
'"
645
"
relative
elQngalion
relative rillidlly 36
relative shear 129
reliab,l;ty. coemdenl 01 475
releated \'anable lood Zll
rl'!>Cl'Volr. thin''''alled lO.)
r<'Sidual eloflgatiOl1, relallve H
resslance, lo rupture 134
lo shur
resOllanoe 535
rigldlty, 01 bar 34
maximum, planc 01 386
relatlve 36
01
55Q
lorsJonal 1;7
rlgidly liud supporl 198
rvel(s), crusl!ing 01 lSol
doubtes!lear 153
mulliplc.she:lr 154
rivele<! beBm 289
riveted jo;n! 159
rod, oormectillg 525
Ihinwalled 194
rupture. lailure thrQugh 132
r.,.lslance lo 134
ltleory 0\ 138
ruplur., stum. tolal lrue !jL
ule!y, {adar of 24. 30
man lactor 01 63, &4
Slint.verlllnt's lormula 407
:.cole factor 590
",-ocUvn. of beam
critical 200
c<>re 01 396
crltical 86
produd 01 incrtla 01 232, 247
sl.tic moment ,,1 732
secVon
174. 236
seffiitivUy f.ctor 01 malerial 585
shur, angle 01 129
..,
SlilJ/rd lflux
pUle 117
129
re,lance lO 1M
IhecI'y el 140
"""" ",
140
.u_.tblrdbluia!
102
6ue lo 101
IIlDdulus of tlaMkilf b
at-'inc fort'f(5) 201
compusslVt 101
condilional"J
cmtl 105
etll\c.al 4N
la(
d. 21M
Ilre:s(.) 100
compltmml.-y 109
1lI....rmum, tbtay of 140
e)'cllc: S73
dynunle 555
Ioc.tl 58. 61. 151. 516, 582. 583
m.ulmum lburine 140
maxlmum tcRuJo:: 1311
norm.1 100
prlllCipll
siml"ly IUpporled bum 2fJ1
!pan
92
..
tol.l 46
sr"erlaol lMll 117
.prinll. (onk.l 186
hellc.1 181
st"bjlily check
arable
GlO
slale(.). eQmp<llille sir!:SStd 10\
limilllli 414
stallnll)'
bnm 100
11.t1ully
bam 199. 356
'lMIti..ml .... lc
ploblem
66
ulllm.te 23,
.lrC'lJltb meSuraool! 575
In Ilns)'lIIIMlTlc o;yclc 5nl
01483
po::rmiMiblo:: 24
principal lOS!
141
"'pturo::, true 51
Murin, 100
oo:lIhedral 121
prlDc;Ip.a) 120
tenJlle 100
u,ulal 103
unladal 102
575
stress cirele 111
limlting 139
ItrtSl wlCtlltr.Uon, coefkio::nl of 5i6
lacio.. 01 S8J
!:ud 191
6.,
Subjfd Itrdex
monble 197
r;ii:ldly li)td 198
Ill/i"lIy of !ISO
slahully INkll/tmlnale 66
bnecntl,l modllh. nf ri.oshdly 4Ql)
Irmp<lfU)' kDd 19
kmoik I4renlh, ullinule 30
392
leot, hnrlCl 56:i
Iho:Ottm, c.uUa:It.n<l'. 340
C1apt),nn's 33.'i
of '\u"'ell
Mohr 347
of rrclpfodly of c"lJ,lKeTlfflts 341
of
01 .. orks :>47
01 bnttle fallun: 138
01 duclile
140
01 ",umum lenslle sire= 138
uf l11ulmum
str=es 140
tll polenli.l tnerll:Y o( dl1lor\lon l46
01 fllrtllfC 138
01 sllur 140
01 strellllth lJG
lllln",;lltd rtkl'voir 103
.n"
rod 194
.r=-le
4:>1
uW""le SUtllfllh 23, 43
l1\Ie SI
IIIUrrull lemile slrenelh 30
1,U\luial str_ 102
....,bm
29
"' ,,.,
lor<:M S35
'rllural :13:1
lorce 19
tll,"'ulleJ vfI$I!l
mClan"llls. tqllBlIOll of 372
IOO'qu.. 166
tonlVll. frl't 187
pUle 187
tonion,1
1i7
lobl "n,blhly al stnw:lnre 564
lotal splfte "ork -16
IrljIOf)' <JI pllndp.ll stlt",e; 21i2
IUJK'lO'd. no'Ulul b)'ff of 435
trb"1I1 str..,ss 103
trile ruplure si"'", tol,1 SI