A low cost localization algorithm for an autonomous lawnmower*

Alessio Levratti, Cristian Secchi and Cesare Fantuzzi1

Abstract This paper aims at implementing a localization

algorithm, based on two cascaded Kalman filters, in order
to localize an autonomous lawnmower which operates in an
outdoor environment using only low cost sensors. In particular
the position and the orientation of the robot are estimated
using a three axis Gyroscope, an RFID (Radio Frequency
IDentification) antenna and an RFID reader (which reads the
presence of RFID tags scattered on the border of the lawn to
be mowed) and an RF (Radio Frequency) antenna, on-board
the robot, which measures the RSSI (Received Signal Strength
Indicator) of the signal sent by other RF end devices positioned
in the working area in known positions. The efficiency of the
proposed algorithm is then tested first through simulations and
then experimentally on a prototype lawnmower.

I. INTRODUCTION
Commercial autonomous lawnmowers are very inefficient:
the operation of these autonomous lawnmowers requires the
installation of a current-carrying boundary wire buried in the
ground which delimits the perimeter of the working area of
the robot. This wire generates an electromagnetic field which
is sensed by the robot like a wall. The low efficiency, then, is
due to the random reflection navigation algorithm: this makes
the robot going straight until it encounters an obstacle or the
boundary wire, then the robot turns itself of a random angle
and then it goes straight again. This mowing strategy makes
the lawnmower move multiple times on the same portion of
the garden ruining the lawn while ignoring other areas. This
produces an aesthetically poor result and, in order to have the
lawn mowed almost entirely, it takes a lot of energy. This
behavior is necessary due to the lack of sensors on-board
the robot itself in order to keep low the cost of the product,
which makes the robot incapable of localizing itself and then
planning a good mowing strategy.
The problem of localizing a mobile robot in an outdoor
environment has long history in the literature. In [1] a
Kalman filtering approach to localize a robot operating in
an outside environment using DGPS (Differential Global
Positioning System) and INS (Inertial Navigation System)
is proposed. This method is quite expensive and becomes
inaccurate when the satellite signal is weak, such as when
the robot is under trees or near high walls. In [2] a laser
scanner is exploited for localizing a robot in dynamic outdoor
environment. The main drawback of this, and of most of
the mainstream localization strategies, is that they exploit
*This work was funded by Regione Emilia Romagna in the scope of the
national research project DiR`o (Distretto della Robotica Mobile)
1 Alessio Levratti, Cristian Secchi and Cesare Fantuzzi are with Department of Engineering Sciences and Methods (DISMI), University
of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Amendola 2, Morselli building, Reggio Emilia I-42122 Italy. Email: {alessio.levratti,

cristian.secchi, cesare.fantuzzi}@unimore.it

sensors that are too expensive to be used in a commercial

lawnmower. Moreover some artificial landmarks would need
to be installed in the garden and this intervention may be
unacceptable for aesthetic reasons. In [3] a novel autonomous
lawnmower has been proposed, able to mow with high efficiency the lawn of greens in golf course, but its application
requires the installation of infrared beacons, so it is limited
to that use.
New RFID [4] (Radio Frequency IDentification) based
localization methods have been proposed. Due to the highly
non-Gaussian noise which characterize these sensors, usually
PF (Particle Filter) based methods are used to estimate the
position of a mobile robot [5], [6] obtaining accurate position
estimation. These results, however, can only be obtained by
using a high number of particles and by significantly increasing the computational burden. For autonomous lawnmowers,
the available computational power is limited for cost reasons.
In [7] we proposed an Inertial/RFID based localization
system for an autonomous lawnmower working in a garden.
Furthermore the paper presented a Path Planning algorithm
in order to make the lawnmower cover the whole area of
the lawn to be mowed, minimizing the energy consumption
and without leaving some areas without care. To ensure
that the final product is affordable and competitive on the
market, we provided the robot only with low-cost sensors;
in particular the prototype has Hall sensors, a low cost three
axis gyroscope, an RFID reader and a circularly polarized
RFID antenna, able to sense the presence of RFID tags
placed on the border of the working area inside pegs.
However, if the garden to be mowed is too large, the robot
could be wandering in the middle of the lawn for too long
before it can detect some RFID tags and reset its localization
error. Even if the gyros can keep this error low by keeping on
correcting the orientation of the robot. This problem could
become crucial if the robot loses its position, due to an
impact or to the irregularities of the terrain, after a long
trip in the middle of the lawn and the energy level of the
batteries gets low. In this case the robot must recover its right
position and then return to the recharging station as soon as
possible.
Another kind of very inexpensive sensors are the wireless beacons [8]. These devices can send an RF (Radio
Frequency) signal which can be read by another RF sensor
that can return information about the distance of the beacon.
These measurements, even if very noisy, can be used to
localize the position of the source of the RF signal. In [9]
a statistical based method and a neural network method
are proposed for estimating the distance and the position
of nodes in a WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) using the

RSSI (Returned Signal Strength Indicator) provided by the

wireless devices. In [10] an accurate PF method, based on
the trilateration of the RSSI measurement given by three
Bluetooth nodes, is proposed. A PF method is proposed as
well in [11] with also a method to reduce the influence
of multi-path and of the radio irregularities, in order to
obtained a more reliable RSSI reading. These two methods,
despite the reliable results in localizing the robot, are very
computationally demanding.
The contribution of this work is to show that the integration of a low cost RSSI device in the algorithm proposed in
[7] can actually help to improve the localization performance
of an autonomous lawnmower. The improvement is done by
using two cascaded Kalman Filter: the first one estimates the
movements of the robot intended as the linear and the angular
speed of the robot. The first filter performs also an estimation
of the drift of the gyro which is used to correct the angular
speed measurement of the gyro itself. The second Kalman
Filter estimates the position of the robot and its orientation
by merging the velocities estimated by the first filter with
measurements returned by the RFID system and the RF
device. In [12] and [13] it is shown that by splitting the
Kalman Filter algorithm when estimating bias can improve
the filter performance.
II. PROBLEM STATEMENT
In this research we consider a differential drive lawnmower
robot which moves in an outdoor environment. The robot
is equipped with Hall sensors which provide odometric
information, a three degrees of freedom gyroscope (which
provides the angular velocities measurement about three
axis), an RFID reader and a linearly polarized RFID antenna.
The lawnmower moves in an outdoor environment where
we put equally spaced RFID tags in known position on the
border of the working area.
We propose to introduce a WSN comprising one gateway
(on-board the robot) and one (placed on the recharging
station of the robot) or more (according to the dimensions
and the shape of the lawn) end devices placed in known
positions. We use them to track the position of the robot
when it is in the middle of the lawn where the RFID
measurements are negligible, by measuring the RSSI of
the signal and by obtaining from it the distance between
the robot and the beacon which RF signal has been read
from. These information are then used in two cascaded
Extended Kalman Filters which merge all the data given by
the sensors in order to estimate the position of the robot. In
order to make the method as robust as possible, if the RSSI
measurements are unavailable for some reason (i.e. the RF
beacons are broken or their power supplies are too low), the
robot can keep on localizing itself by merging the odometric
information with the gyro measurements and, if the robot is
near to the border of the lawn, with the RFID tags.
III. THE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION MODEL
The model of the communication channel that we used in
the proposed algorithm is reported in Eq. 1, obtained from

the Friis transmission equation [8]:

Pr,i [dBm] = Pt [dBm] + K [dB] 10 log10

di
d0

+ i

(1)
where Pr,i [dBm] is the power received by the on-board
antenna, Pt [dBm] the power transmitted by the beacon and
K [dB] is a constant that depends on the frequency of the
transmission devices and on the environment. The constant
is the path loss coefficient. Both K [dB] and can be
obtained experimentally [8]. The constant d0 is the reference
distance at which we calculated the constant K and di is
the distance between the fixed and the mobile antennas. The
zero mean gaussian noise i is used to approximate the
disturbance (like multi-path and shadowing effects) in the
transmission.
During the characterization experiments we noticed that
the variance of the model changes according to the relative
orientation of the on-board antenna with respect to the
orientation of the antenna of the RF beacon, as also remarked
in [9]. In order to take into account this behavior, we stored
the experimentally obtained variance of the model with the
two antennas in different relative positions and orientations
in a hash-table structure and then in the algorithm, explained
in Sec. IV-B, we change the considered variance according
to the orientation of the robot.
In addition, to further reduce the noise associated to
the RSSI measurement we apply the pre-filtering method
illustrated in [14]. This method exploits odometry to reduce
the multi-path effect: if the robot moves a short distance
between two consecutive points, the RSSI measured in the
second position cannot be too much different than the RSSI
measured in the first position. So, according to the robot is
approaching or moving away from the RSSI landmark, we
compute the two extreme estimation for the RSSI reading,
and then we saturate the RSSI measurement between these
two extremes.
IV. THE LOCALIZATION ALGORITHM
The localization algorithm is composed by two Kalman filters: the first one is a linear Kalman Filter which provides the
instantaneous angular velocity and the instantaneous linear
velocity of the robot by merging the odometric information
given by the Hall sensors with the angular rate returned by
the gyros. The second one uses the estimated movements of
the first filter to predict the position of the robot and merging
it with the RFID algorithm described in [7] and with the
range information extracted from the RSSI measurement of
the RF signal. The overall structure of the algorithm can be
evinced in Fig. 1.
From now on we will refer to the first Kalman Filter as the
Movement Kalman Filter (MKF) and to the second Kalman
Filter as the Position Kalman Filter (PKF).
A. Movement Kalman Filter - MKF
As we said above, the first part of the algorithm is a
Kalman Filter used to merge the information coming from


~k

~k

u
~k

~k

MKF

Sk

~
zRSSI
k

~k

~k
q
Rk

The Kalman Filter algorithm [16] has been defined in its

classical way and is not reported in this paper for space
limitation.

PKF

B. Position Kalman Filter - PKF

Fig. 1: Scheme for the proposed algorithm. The gear box

rapresents the data manipulation.

the Hall sensors with the data returned by the gyro in order
to estimate the movements of the robot.
The considered time propagation and measurement functions are respectively:

+
vk = R,k 2 L,k + k,1

R,k L,k
=
+ k,2
d
k

k
k1
k,2

gyro,k = k + k + k

(2)

Here v and are respectively the linear speed and the

angular velocity of the robot. R,k and L,k are the linear
instantaneous velocity of the right and left wheel, while d is
the length of the axle. The variable k is the angular velocity
drift variation which the gyros are characterized by and that
is used to correct the gyroscopes readings (gyro,k ) in the
measurement function. The angular velocity reading gyro,k
is required to be projected on a fixed planar frame: in fact
since the robot is moving on a harsh ground with hills, holes,
irregularities, etc., we need to project the angular velocities
reading on a fixed frame, tangent to the working arena in the
initial position of the robot, through a proper transformation
matrix, which Euler angles are computed with the angular
velocities provided by the gyro.
T
Let ~k
=
[vk , k , k ] be the state vector and
T
~uk = [R,k , L,k ] be the input vector. This system can be
represented with matrices as indicated in Eq: 3

~k = A ~k1 + B ~uk + ~k
(3)

~k = C ~
k + ~k
where ~k and ~k are white gaussian noises, with zero mean
2
and covariance respectively Pk and gyro
. The matrix Pk is
defined as follows:

K | R |
0
0

Pk =
0
K | L |
0
(4)
2
0
0
DRIF
T
Here K is an experimentally obtained constant which
describes the slippery of the wheel of the robot according
2
the movement of the wheel itself [15] and DRIF
T is the
variance describing the evolution of the drift bias of the
measurement of the angular speed gyro,k read by the gyro.
Let
~ k = [gyro,k ] be the instantaneous angular velocity
2
read by the gyro and gyro
be its variance.

This Extended Kalman Filter is used to predict the position

of the robot by using the estimated movements returned
by the MKF and its covariance matrix as input. Before
using the movement estimation returned by the MKF in the
position estimation algorithm, we need to integrate on the
sampling time T the velocities received as inputs in order
to obtain the instantaneous linear displacement Sk and the
instantaneous angular rotation k .
The considered system is the following:


~ k = f (~k1 , ~qk ) + ~
(5)
~zk = g (~k ) + ~
The function f (~k1 , ~qk ) is the time propagation function
defined as:

k
xk = xk1 + Sk cos(k1 +
) + k,1
2
k
f (~
k1 , ~
qk ) =
yk = yk1 + Sk sin(k1 +
)
+ k,2
2

k = k1 + k + k,3
(6)



k
is due to the discretization of
The term k1 +
2
the numerical integration via a second-order Runge-Kutta
T
method [17]. Here ~k = [x, y, ]k is the state vector which
represents the position of the robot and its orientation at step
T
k; ~qk = [S, ]k is the input vector.
The vector ~ represents the noise associated to the model
time propagation due to the noisy input vector ~qk ; this
noise can be approximated with a Gaussian white noise
with covariance Rk extracted from the covariance matrix
Sk estimated by the MKF as explained in equation 7:

s1,3
Rk
s2,3
Sk =
(7)
s3,1 s3,2
s3,3
By doing so we can keep track of how the covariance
associated to the input of the MKF influences the input of
the PKF, and then the estimate of its state.
The output function gj (~k ) is divided into two parts
(j = 1, 2). The first part exploits the Constrained Kalman
Filter described in [7] and in [18] using the RFID measurement, while the second part uses the RSSI measurement
provided by the RF antenna. Here the noise vector ~j
represents the Gaussian white noise associated to the RFID
and the RSSI readings. The first one is characterized by
a covariance computed accordingly the estimated pose and
the positions from where the RFID tag can be read, while
2
the second is modeled with the variance RSSI
obtained
experimentally (see Sec. III).
The algorithm 1 is recursive and the k th step is
discussed. Lines 1 and 2 are the first two step of the classical
Extended Kalman Filter. Given the time propagation function
for a differential drive WMR in Eq. 6, let and be

Algorithm 1 Position Kalman Filter: predicts the robot pose

Position Kalman Filter (~
k1 , k1 , ~
qk , ~zk )
1:
k = f (~
k1 , ~
qk )
k = k1 T + Rk T
2:
3:
~k = setRho()
4:
k = ExpSmooth(~
k )
5:
k = getRho(
k , )
6: if (
6= ~0) & (
6= ) then
7:
for all ~i  s.t.~i = k do

k
8:
P rob ~i = p ~i |
k ,
 
9:
pi = P rob ~i
10:
end for
P
11:

k = ~i s.t. ~i =k ~i pi
iT
i h
h
~
~i
k = P~

pi

12:
Q
i
k
k
i s.t.
~ =
 i k 1
k
k + Q
k
13:
Kk =
14:

15:
16:
17:
18:
19:
20:
21:
22:
23:
24:

k =
k + Kk [
k
k ]
k = (I Kk )
k

else

k =
k
k =
k

end if
~zk = getRSSI()
if ~zk 6= then
for i = 1 size (~zhk ) do

i1
k T
k T + 2

Kk =
RSSI k
g (
k ) = P t [dBm] + K [dB] 10
log10

25:
26:
27:
28:
29:
30:
31:
32:
33:

(
xxB,i )2 +(
y yB,i )2
d0

k =
k + Kk [~zk,i g (
k )]
k = (I Kk )
k

end for
else

k =
k
k =
k

end if
~k =
k
k
k =

respectively the jacobians of this function with respect to

k1 and ~qk . k1 is the covariance matrix computed at
~
the previous step of the algorithm.
Let
~k be a NT AG binary vector, where NT AG is the
number of RFID tags in the environment. The RFID antenna
searches for neighboring RFID tags, and the scan result is
stored in
~k . An element of the vector
~k is set to 0 if the
corresponding RFID has not been read and to 1 otherwise.
In order to avoid false positive readings, an exponential
smoothing is performed in line 4, as explained in [18] and
in [7]. If some RFIDs are read and if the filtered string of
the read RFIDs k and the expected string of RFIDs k (the
one that should be read by the robot in the actual estimated
position, computed at line 5) are different, it means that
k
is inconsistent with the read tags and that it can be updated

using the detected RFIDs and the corresponding reading

regions. If the conditions at line 6 are satisfied, all the poses
~i from which the tags corresponding to can be read are
fetched from the data structure (line 7). The data structure
is built exploiting the fact that the positions and the reading
areas of the RFIDs are known (see [7] for the characterization
experiments). Let Ar be the discretized reading area of the
r th RFID and let A = nr=1 Ar . Let C be the configuration
space of the robot. We indicate with = A C the set of all
the generated cells and with ~i = [xi , yi , i ] the i th cell.
Each cell represents a pose from which the robot can read
at least one RFID. For each ~i , we build i , namely
the binary vector representing the RFIDs that are detected
by the robot when it stands at the pose ~i . The poses ~i and
the vectors ~i are stored in a hash-table structure. For more
information the reader is referred to [7].
If the conditions at line 6 are not satisfied it means
that either no RFIDs are detected or that the predicted
position is consistent with the detected tags. In both cases the
information coming from RFIDs is not useful for improving
the estimate of the pose. Thus, the prediction obtained using
odometry is used (lines 17 and 18).
In line 20 a scan of the available RF beacon is performed.
If at least one beacon is visible by the on-board antenna,
then we further refine the estimation by repeating the Kalman
filter measurement update with the new data.

In line 23 the
2
Kalman gain is computed; here RSSI
k is the variance
of the RSSI measurement, which is chosen according to the
estimated orientation of the robot, as already said in Sec.
III. Then the Kalman gain is used to perform the update of
the position estimation (line 25) and of the covariance (line
26). Here g (
k ) corresponds to Eq. 1 applied for an RF
source located in (xB , yB ) and the matrix is its jacobian
computed with respect to
k . This correction is repeated as
many times as many are the visible RF beacons. If no RF
beacons are visible, i.e. no RSSI measurements are available,
no further corrections are done on the estimation (lines 29
and 30).
Lets now analyze how the split of the Kalman filter
into two smaller cascaded Kalman filters can reduce the
overall computational complexity. Consider the system defined previously in Eq. 5. We defined the state vector
~k Rn , n > 0, input vector ~qk Rm , m > 0 and
measurement vector ~zk Rl , l > 0. As reported in [16],
each update
of the Extended Kalman Filter requires time
O l2.4 + n2 . Lets now consider two systems with state
vectors ~1,k Rn1 , n1 > 0 and ~2,k Rn2 , n2 > 0, such
that n = n1 + n2 and with measurement vectors z~1,k
Rl1 , l1 > 0 and z~2,k Rl2 , l2 > 0, such that l = l1 + l2 . The
Kalman Filters algorithms for these
two systems will have


+ O2 l2 + n22 .
computational burden O1 l1 + n21
It can be easily proven that the second system has always
a computational burden lower than the first by solving the
following inequality:






l2.4 + n2 > l12.4 + n21 + l22.4 + n22

(8)

Simulation
name

Duration
[s]

A
B
C

2159
2348
2857

RMS
error
[mm]
140
76
137

Final
error
[mm]
49
42
77

Maximum
error
[mm]
453
212
407

Average
time step
duration [s]
0.0112
0.0160
0.044

Experiment name
A
B
C

RMS error [mm]

126
455
109

Final error [mm]

113
678
81

TABLE II: Table summarizing the experimental results.

TABLE I: Table summarizing the simulation results.

V. SIMULATIONS
In order to validate the proposed algorithm a simulation campaign took place. The used computer is a laptop
with an Intel Core i3 350M processor with a clock speed
of 2.27 GHz and 4 GB of RAM. We used MATLAB
2010b(64bit) for the simulation.
We simulated a lawnmower robot moving in a rectangular
working area of dimension 10 6 m, with 32 RFID tags
positioned on its border, one spaced one meter from the
next. The working area is discretized in an occupancy grid
map, whose cells cost are set to high value if the cells has
been occupied by the robot and to zero if the robot hasnt
passed by those cells yet. By doing this we can keep track
of the effective coverage of the mowing task of the robot.
The occupancy grid map is also used by the Path Planning
algorithm, as explained in [7]. The noises associated to the
inputs and to the measurements were simulated by adding
a random Gaussian variables generated by MATLAB to the
true values.
Three simulations took place. Simulation A represents the
robot when it is moving localizing itself with the proposed
algorithm but without using the RSSI measurement. Simulation B represents the robot while it is moving in the
garden and localizing itself using all the available sensors.
Simulation C took place in order to verify if the separation of
the two Kalman filters can actually improve the performance
of the filter, and represents the robot when it is moving with
a monolithic version of the algorithm. Simulated paths are
presented in Fig. 2a, Fig. 2b and in Fig. 2c while results are
in Table I.
VI. EXPERIMENTS
The proposed algorithm was then verified experimentally
on a differential drive autonomous lawnmower. The highlevel control of the robot is performed by the Real-Time
controller NI cRIO, programmed with LabVIEW 2010 (SP1).
The robot is provided with CAEN WANTENNAX004 RFID
antenna, put on the front of the robot, and with the A528
OEM RFID reader. The model and the reading region of this
set-up was obtained experimentally [7]. On the robot is also
mounted an eZ430-RF2500 RF antenna, which provides the
RSSI measurement of the signals sent by the RF beacons
(also consist of eZ430-RF2500) put in known positions in
the working area. The ground truth of the robot is obtained
through a Leica Viva RTK (Real Time Kinematics) antenna
mounted on the robot.
Experiments took place outdoor in a rectangle shaped
arena with dimensions 10 6 m side. On the border of the

working area we put RFID tags, each one spaced 1 m to

the other. We placed the RF beacon with a height of 45 cm
(the same height of the receiver antenna on-board the robot)
in position (50, 50) cm with the normal to the antenna
oriented in the same direction of the x axis of the map.
The robot performs a blaustrophedon path, in order make
a uniform coverage of the assigned area (the lawn to be
mowed).
Three experiments took place. In Experiment A we tested
the robot moving and localizing itself with the gyroscope
and the RFID measurements. The RFID tags help the robot
to recover its true position, but in the middle of the lawn,
where the RFID tags are negligible, the robot drifts because
of the very slippery ground and accumulates error (see
Fig. 2d). The robot accomplishes its mowing task without
leaving relevant portion of the lawn careless. In order to
test the quality and the robustness of the RF localization,
we performed an experiment (Experiment B) with the robot
localizing itself exploiting only the RSSI measurement and
the gyro correction as well. Even if the trajectory of the robot
is corrected by the gyroscope, the robot accumulates error
and leaves the assigned arena of several centimeters (see
Fig. 2e). This is unacceptable because regulations require
that the robot is allowed to leave the assigned working area
of a maximum distance equal to its own length. Finally
the proposed method has been tested (Experiment C). Here
the robot localizes itself with all the equipped sensors: the
odometric data, the angular rates, the RFID readings and
the RSSI measurements. Results are shown in Fig. 2f. The
performance of the robot are improved. The accumulated
localization error during the path in the middle of the garden
is reduced of 13.5% with respect to experiment A, thanks to
the RSSI readings, while with the RFID tags that the robot
reads when it reaches the border of the lawn, the localization
error is further reduced and the robot does not leave the
assigned area. Like in the first experiment, even this case
the robots does its mowing task accurately without ignoring
any area of the lawn. Results are summarized in Table II.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a localization algorithm based on Kalman
Filter sensor fusion has been proposed. The proposed method
merges data coming from odometry, the gyroscopes, the
RFID system (reader, antenna and tags scattered in the
working area) and the RSSI extracted by the RF signal
provided by the RF antenna mounted on the robot and the
beacons scattered in the environment. Simulations first and
then experiments showed us that the proposed method can
improve the RFID localization algorithm proposed in [7]
reducing the accumulated localization error and also reducing

Estimated path VS Ground truth

Estimated path VS Ground truth

6

y [m]

y [m]

y [m]

Estimated path VS Ground truth

6

0
0

5
6
x [m]

10

(a) Simulation A

5
6
x [m]

10

(b) Simulation B

5
6
x [m]

10

(c) Simulation C

6
5
4
y [m]

y [m]

y [m]

0
0

5
6
x [m]

(d) Experiment A

10

0
0

5
6
x [m]

(e) Experiment B

10

5
6
x [m]

10

(f) Experiment C

Fig. 2: Simulation and experimental results. The black thick line, the blue dashed line and red solid line are, respectively,
the border of the area, the path estimated by the robot and the ground truth obtained by the RTK. The yellow, blue, red and
purple stars are, respectively, the starting position, the estimated final position, the real final position of the robot and the
position of the RFID tags.

the computational burden associated to the algorithm.

Future works aim to improve the robot with an obstacle
avoidance system, based on ultrasonic sensors, in order to
improve safety. A Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
(SLAM) algorithm will be also developed in order to map
autonomously the position of the RFID tags and the position
of the RF landmarks. Furthermore the boundary wire system
will be also implemented, in order to avoid the robot to leave
the assigned working area.
R EFERENCES
[1] H. Chae, Christiand, S. Choi, W. Yu, and J. Cho, Autonomous
navigation of mobile robot based on DGPS/INS sensor fusion by
EKF in semi-outdoor structured environment, in Intelligent Robots
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