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SUGAR LAND
LEARNING CENTER
Wellbore Stability
SELF-LEARNING COURSE
USEFUL PRE-REQUISITES
Basic understanding of drilling terms and procedures
Stuck Pipe Self Learning Package
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Table of Contents
OBJECTIVES.. 3
THE STRESS IN THE EARTH BEFORE WE DRILL A BOREHOLE....4
THE STRESS IN THE EARTH AFTER WE DRILL A BOREHOLE.......8
ROCK FAILURE........10
REVIEW QUESTIONS I....14
WELLBORE STABILITY PLANNING AND PREVENTATION...15
REVIEW QUESTIONS II...29
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS ...30
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Objectives
Upon completion of this training module you should be able to:
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Before we drill a borehole the rock in the earth is in a state of equilibrium. This state is called the
Initial State.
In the earth, there are 3 stresses that are perpendicular to each other:
V
h
These can be ordered in any way: for example 1 could be the vertical stress or one of the
horizontal stresses, depending on the sedimentary basin in which we are drilling.
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Normal Fault
Regime
v = 1
Steep sloping
h = 3
H = 2
v = 3
Gentle sloping
H = 1
h = 2
v = 2
h = 3
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H = 1
v > H > h
b) In a tectonically stressed regime, horizontal stress (H) is the maximum principal stress (1):
H > h > v
c) Slip fault regime, the horizontal stress (H) is the maximum principal stress (1):
H > v > h
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Radial Stress
Tangential Stress
Axial Stress
If we know what these wellbore stresses are then we will have a better idea of whether a
borehole will fail when we drill it.
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Rock Failure
Generally a rock can fail in 2 different ways:
a) Shear Failure:
This is caused by 2 perpendicular stresses that are different in magnitude.
b) Tensile Failure:
This is caused by one stress exceeding the tensile strength of the rock.
We need to prevent these failures from occurring (if we can) to minimize the amount of Non
Productive Time (NPT)
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pw
Time
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Figure 4 shows an example of a mini-frac. The y-axis shows the wellbore pressure (ie the mud
weight).
The formation is basically broken down and the pressure trace is examined from this we can
determine certain properties of the rock and this will give us geomechanical information that will
ultimately help us manage wellbore stability.
It can be seen that there is a linear trend (the elastic region) until The Leak Off Pressure.
At this point (the Leak off Pressure) the plot deviates from the straight line; the formation grains
start to move apart and take mud. The formation is on the threshold of moving from an elastic
state to a plastic state.
The Formation Breakdown Pressure pbd represents the maximum strength of the rock before it
breaks.
This will be equivalent to the pressure exerted by the mud in the borehole. The tensile strength
To of the rock is the corresponding Tangential Stress at this mud weight. (For simplicity of this
SLP we will neglect Axial and Radial Stress).
Therefore, the condition for tensile failure is when the tangential stress is equal to the tensile
strength of the rock.
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Review Questions I
1)What is the relationship between the earth stresses while drilling in a tectonically active
region?
2) What are the 2 main mechanisms that cause a formation to be overpressured ?
3) What are Wellbore Stresses and what do they depend on ?
4) Describe the 2 ways that a rock can fail
5) What is the difference between the Leak off Pressure and Formation Breakdown Pressure ?
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Increasing Mud
Weight
slae
ssko
tcyl
snbo
sdko
Pore
Pressure
tver
swbo
shae
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Horizontal
well
Mud
Weight
(g/cc)
Vertical well
Sh
Figure 8: Trajectory Analysis for Anisotropic Stress Field, Relaxed Basin (v is max)
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Two of the most important outputs that emerge from wellbore stability planning are the
determination of a safe mud weight window and the safest direction to drill, especially for highly
deviated wells.
Figure 6 shows that it is often desirable to drill with a mud weight between swbo (a shear failure
condition) and h (the minimum horizontal stress).
Figure 7 shows an example from the North Sea where the safe mud weight window should
between the black dashed line (Minimum Borehole Stability or shear failure) and the formation
propagation pressure (or the minimum horizontal stress).
Figure 8 shows that in a relaxed basin it is often safer to drill the well in the direction of the
minimum horizontal stress (h). Also it can be seen that the safe mud weight window narrows as
well deviation increases (ie you need to increase the mud weight to keep the wellbore stable but
be careful because the maximum mud weight before borehole instability occurs will now be
lower).
The open hole section of a wellbore must be maintained in a condition that is good enough to
allow drilling and casing to be run. This does not mean that it is necessary to eliminate all
formation failure.
Indeed the wellbore can remain stable even after a period of prolonged formation failure.
An example of this is the Cuisiana field, Colombia where the wellbore has remained stable
because the cavings from borehole failures can be cleaned out of the hole.
In this example the wellbore instability was managed (or contained) rather than prevented.
In these cases it becomes difficult to find a solution that will completely prevent the instability
from occurring in the first place and wellbore stability management is required: for example,
loss circulation might be avoided at all costs, and techniques to manage the shear failure are
implemented such as good hole cleaning practices.
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a) Continuous monitoring
Real Time Wellbore Stability Control relies on an integration of all data available at the
Wellsite:
Surface signatures:
Cavings analysis Wellbore Failure,
Cuttings volume Hole Cleaning,
Pit volumes Gains (overpressured zone), losses,
Surface Drilling Parameters
MWD data:
Downhole Drilling Parameters
DWOB, DTORQ Friction / Drag
ECD behaviour Hole Cleaning, pack off
LWD data:
Gamma Ray, Resistivity Identify zones of potential instability from MEM
Sonic Pore pressure prediction while drilling
Caliper measurements if pattern is forming in some intervals, can identify unstable formations
A reliable diagnosis of the instability mechanism requires use of all available data.
If tabular cavings due to natural fracturing are observed then the resistivity log should be
checked for evidence of mud invasion into fractures and the mud records require examining for
losses.
Similarly, if splintered cavings due to over-pressured formations are seen then high gas levels,
kicks or mud gains may also be present.
The observation of angular cavings due to breakouts requires the debris levels in the hole to be
discerned. In all cases, the cavings volume should be compared to the ECD and the degrees of
tight hole and restricted circulation to discern the effectiveness of the hole cleaning and the
severity of instability.
(see cavings analysis on the following pages)
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Cavings Analysis:
An analysis of cavings can provide a signal that the borehole is failing and indicates both the
nature of the instability and the troublesome formations.
Cavings dimensions range from a few millimetres to 10 cm or more, with larger examples rising
to the surface while lodged in the BHA.
There are four main types of caving:
Tabular,
Angular,
Splintered
Those which cannot be characterized.
Angular cavings are a consequence of breakouts. These cavings are characterized by curved
faces with a rough surface structure. The surfaces intersect at acute angles (much less than 90
degrees). Figure 10 shows Angular Cavings.
Splintered cavings have two nearly-parallel faces with plume structures. This type of caving is
due to tensile failure occurring parallel to the borehole wall and commonly occurs in
overpressured zones drilled with a small overbalance. Figure 11 shows Splintered Cavings.
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Figure 10:
Angular Cavings
The higher the cavings rate the more severe the failure for a given hole cleaning efficiency.
The dominant caving should be noted not the proportion of different cavings.
The cavings rate is measured by the time required to fill a bucket placed underneath the shakers.
The cavings volume is then proportional to the amount of cavings in the bucket.
CARE MUST BE TAKEN IF HOLE CLEANING IS POOR THERE WILL BE FEWER CUTTINGS
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Mechanism
Lost Time
Permeable
formation
Stuck pipe
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
Fault slip/
activation
Sloughing
Stuck pipe
Stuck pipe,
excessive reaming
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
Unconsolidated
formation
Mobile formation
Chemical activity
Wellbore
Trajectory
In-situ
stresses
Formation
Stength
Pore
Pressure
Geology
Low
compared to
mud pressure
Frequent
changes
Tortuous
High stress
deviation
Faults present
Weak
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Closely spaced
natural fracs /
weak planes
High
High mean
stress
Low yield
strength
Large sand or fractured section
High
overburden
High
stress/stength
ratio
Planes of
weakness
Mud
pressure>pore
pressure
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Mechanism
Permeable
formation
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
ROP
DWOB
Decreases
Fault slip/
activation
-ray
GAPI
60
GAPI>60,
& GAPI
60 often
Decreases
Low
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
Low
Resistivity
UBI
Frequent &
rapid changes
Frequent well
diameter changes
Local borehole
elongation
Decrease
Low
Low
High
Caliper
Sloughing
Unconsolidated
formation
DTOR
Decreases
Borehole
enlargement
Borehole
enlargement
Diameter less
than gauge
Borehole
enlargement
GAPI >
60
Hole tightens
with time, or
dissolves
Borehole
enlargement
GAPI >
60
GAPI <
60
Detected.
Rotation of
breakouts
Borehole
enlargement
Borehole
enlargement
Diameter less
than gauge
Borehole
enlargement
Decreases
Mobile formation
Chemical activity
Decreases
Decreases
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Close spaced
fracs/weak planes
Decreases
Low
Low
Low
Borehole
enlargement
Decreases
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GAPI >
60
GAPI >
60
Swelling detected
Diametrically
opposed &long
Fracture &
bedding plane
orientation
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Orientation &
span detected
Possible
detection
Borehole
geometry
Mechanism
Pump pressure
Circulation
Mud
Permeable
formation
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
Gradual decrease
Flow
decreases
Water loss,
high solids
Spikes
Flow erratic
Spikes
Increase
Flow erratic
Flow
decreases
Pit level
increase
Fault slip/
activation
Sloughing
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
Unconsolidated
formation
Increase
Volume rate
changes
frequently
Loss
Large & flat
Background
gas high
Flow erratic
Spikes
Increase
Increase
Mobile formation
Flow
decreases
Flow
decreases
Chemical activity
Increase
Flow
decreases
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Spikes
Flow erratic
Decrease
Flow
decreases
Flow
decreases
Close spaced
fracs/weak planes
Cuttings and
cavings
Decrease
Salt present,
rise in Cl
MW & solids
increase
Apparent loss
Large, brittle,
fissile, concave
Abrasive &
hard
Unconsolidated
& uncemented
Salt grains
Soft,water
soluble.Gumbo
High volume
Hookload
Surface
Torque
Increases
Higher
High
Erratic
Packed off
High
High when
pumps off
Large overpull
at connections
Increase
High
Diametrical wear
Packed off
High
Large overpull
at connections
Large overpull
at connections
Large overpull
at connections
High
Drillstring
Increase
High &
erratic
Erratic
Undergauge
BHA
Erratic
Packed off
Increases
High
Packed off
Loss
Loss at similar
weights across
field
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Squarish, high
volume
High
High
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Frequent
Wiper
Trips
Infrequent
Wiper
Trips
Decrease
ROP
Increase
Mud Gel
Strength
Increase
Mud
Circulation
Rate
Limit
OD size /
Drill
Collars
Increase
Mud
Weight
Decrease
Mud
Weight
Use
Minimum
Overbalance
(200 psi)
Ensure
Overbalance
exceeds 200
psi
Add
Fluid
Loss
Agents
Use
Inhibitive
Mud
Minimize
swab and
surge
affects
Breakouts
Sloughing
Natural
Fractures /
Weak Planes
Drilling
Induced
Fractures
Fault
Activation
Undergauge
Hole
Interbedded
Sequence
Overpressured
Formation
Unconsolidated
Formation
Mobile
Formation
Permeable
Formation
Chemical
Activity
Figure 16: Actions inhibiting the instability mechanisms. A "1" indicates that the action suppresses the instability.
A "0" indicates that the action has no influence on instability or
makes it worse.
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b) Remedial Actions
If wellbore instability becomes severe as detected from a) continuous monitoring, and hole
cleaning cannot remove cavings from the wellbore then the wellbore would be unstable.
The ability to deal effectively with the consequences of the unstable wellbore depend on the
instability mechanism and its severity.
Remedial action generally involves the control of surface parameters (e.g. ROP, RPM, flow rate,
mud weight/rheology).
For example, if mud losses are currently occurring, but a mud weight decrease is not possible
due to conditions that will be encountered while drilling through formations below the current
hole bottom (cavings generation), then decreasing the ROP will reduce cuttings loading and
therefore the ECD. This may be sufficient to eliminate mud losses and also reduce cuttings
loading in deeper intervals
The emphasis when considering remedial actions, which either suppress instabilities or minimize
their consequences, should be the entire open hole interval, rather than focusing on problem
fixing at the bit.
The ROP and hole cleaning efficiency form the key links between wellbore instability and
operations. Rock debris in the annulus, resulting from drilling and/or wall failure, will increase if
hole cleaning is inadequate, raising the risk of pack-offs and stuck pipe. The ability to clean the
hole is also related to the ROP.
Figure 16 outlines the various actions that are recommended for various given wellbore stability
mechanisms. It can be seen that minimizing swabbing and surging affects helps to suppress more
instability mechanisms than any other drilling practice.
Also it can be seen that drilling practices such as wiper trips that are often considered as routine
are sometimes detrimental to wellbore stability. Minimising wiper trips can help suppress
actions that are sensitive to mechanical agitation of the formation such as mobile formations /
sloughing shales, weak planes.
Increasing mud weight is not necessarily the answer to wellbore stability problems. Whilst this
practice can help suppress breakouts, it can cause drilling induced fractures or activate natural
fracture networks by drilling above the minimum horizontal stress. However, where
overpressure occurs, it is desirable to drill with an overbalance that exceeds 200 psi. In all cases,
calculations are required prior to drilling to determine optimal parameters.
This problem becomes amplified in deviated and especially horizontal wells where the mud
window between shear and tensile failure becomes so small that sometimes there is no stable
mud weight window.
Good drilling practices such as Circulation, Rotation, Reciprocation, of the drillstring to
remove excess cuttings in highly deviated wells, and close examination of shale shakers to
examine volume of cuttings and their geometry is desirable to manage (suppress) unstable
wellbores.
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Review Questions II
6) When planning a mud program, how is the mud weight often determined ?
7) In a relaxed basin, as well inclination changes from vertical to horizontal, what happens to the
Mud Weight Window ?
8) Describe the 3 main types of cavings found on the shale shakers ?
9) For the following wellbore instability problems, what drilling practices would you use to
surpress or control the problem ?
a) Borehole Breakouts
b) Natural Fractures / Weak Planes
c) Unconsolidated formations
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H > h > v
2)
Loading mechanisms where the pore fluid cannot escape as quickly as the rock
compaction rate, and the pore fluid gets squeezed and pressured because it cant escape.
Unloading mechanisms where a formation rises to a shallower depth, and the pore fluids
cannot escape, then the formation is overpressured compared to surrounding (shallower)
formations (because the pore fluids still have the same pressure as before the formation
rose). Hydrocarbon generation where the pore fluids are trapped is another example.
3)
When we drill a hole in the rock, we replace the rock with a cylinder of mud and a set of
stresses are created in the region of the wellbore wall. These stresses are known as
Wellbore Stresses.
They depend on the mud weight used, and the far field stresses H , h and v
4)
Tensile failure occurs when the rock grains are held in tension and are pulled apart.
Shear failure occurs when the rock grains are under a state of compression by 2 stresses
that are acting perpendicular to each other and their magnitudes are very different.
5)
Leak off Pressure the wellbore pressure at which the rock begins to yield and the
formation grains begin to move apart and take mud.
Formation Breakdown Pressure the wellbore pressure at which the rock physically breaks
down.
6)
Often (but not always) between the condition for shear failure and the minimum horizontal
stress h
7)
It generally becomes more narrow (ie you have to less of a margin in which to drill safely )
8)
Tabular from natural fractures (where the cavings will have flat, parallel faces with
bedding not parallel to the parallel faces of the caving).
or from weak planes (the same as natural fractures but the bedding is parallel to the faces
of the cavings).
Angular from borehole breakouts (they have curved faces with rough surface structure)
Splintered from overpressured zones (concave flat, thin, planar structures)
9 a) Perform frequent wiper trips, ensure hole is kept clean by: increasing mud gel strength,
increasing mud circulation rate, increase mud weight. Also minimize swabbing / surging to
stop borehole breakouts from getting worse, circulate / rotate / reciprocate (in extended
reach or highly deviated wells).
b) Minimise wiper trips otherwise might make situation worse (especially if problem is due to
weak planes), increase mud gel strength to help decrease fluid mobility, add fluid loss
agents to help control loss circulation, ensure drilling with minimum overbalance,
minimize swab/surge.
c) Minimise wiper trips, increase mud weight, minimise swab/surge, ensure hole cleaning.
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