GTAW Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is

frequently referred to as TIG welding. TIG
welding is a commonly used high quality
welding process. TIG welding has become
a popular choice of welding processes
when high quality, precision welding is
required.
In TIG welding an arc is formed between a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
the metal being welded. Gas is fed through
the torch to shield the electrode and
molten weld pool. If filler wire is used, it is
added to the weld pool separately.

TIG Welding Benefits

Superior quality welds
Welds can be made with or
without filler metal
Precise control of welding
variables (heat)
Free of spatter
Low distortion

Shielding Gases

Argon
Argon + Hydrogen
Argon/Helium

Helium is generally added to increase

heat input (increase welding speed or
weld penetration). Hydrogen will result
in cleaner looking welds and also
increase heat input, however, Hydrogen
may promote porosity or hydrogen
cracking.

GTAW Welding Limitations

Requires greater welder
dexterity than MIG or stick
welding
Lower deposition rates

More costly for welding thick

sections

Common GTAW Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Weld Discontinuities

Undercutting
Tungsten inclusions
Porosity
Weld metal cracks
Heat affected zone cracks

TIG Welding Problems

Erratic arc
Excessive electrode
consumption
Oxidized weld deposit
Arc wandering
Porosity

Difficult arc starting

MIG Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is
frequently referred to as MIG
welding. MIG welding is a commonly
used high deposition rate welding
process. Wire is continuously fed
from a spool. MIG welding is
therefore referred to as a
semiautomatic welding process.

MIG Welding Benefits

All position capability
Higher deposition rates than SMAW
Less operator skill required
Long welds can be made without
starts and stops
Minimal post weld cleaning is required

MIG Welding Shielding Gas

The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma,
stabilizes the arc on the metal being welded,
shields the arc and molten weld pool, and
allows smooth transfer of metal from the weld
wire to the molten weld pool. There are three
primary metal transfer modes:
Spray transfer (MP3 Audio)
Globular transfer (MP3 Audio)
Short circuiting transfer (MP3 Audio)
The primary shielding gasses used are:
Argon
Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
Argon/Helium
CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG
welding processes. However, in some

applications the presence of CO2 in the

shielding gas may adversely affect the
mechanical properties of the weld.

Common MIG Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your MIG welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:

Weld Discontinuities
Undercutting
Excessive melt-through
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete joint penetration
Porosity
Weld metal cracks
Heat affected zone cracks

MIG Welding Problems

Heavily oxidized weld deposit

Irregular wire feed
Burnback
Porosity
Unstable arc
Difficult arc starting

Flux Cored Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is frequently referred to as flux cored welding.
Flux cored welding is a commonly used high deposition rate welding process that
adds the benefits of flux to the welding simplicity of MIG welding. As in MIG
welding wire is continuously fed from a spool. Flux cored welding is therefore
referred to as a semiautomatic welding process.

Self shielding flux cored arc welding wires are available or gas shielded welding
wires may be used. Flux cored welding is generally more forgiving than MIG
welding. Less precleaning may be necessary than MIG welding. However, the
condition of the base metal can affect weld quality. Excessive contamination must
be eliminated.
Flux cored welding produces a flux that must be removed. Flux cored welding
has good weld appearance (smooth, uniform welds having good contour).

Flux Cored Welding Benefits

All position capability

Good quality weld metal deposit
Higher deposition rates than SMAW
Low operator skill required
Metallurgical benefits that can be gained from a flux

Common Flux Cored Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your flux cored welding process variables. Evaluate your
current welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding
problems and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Weld Discontinuities

Undercutting
Excessive melt-through
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete joint penetration
Porosity
Cracks
Slag inclusions

Flux Cored Welding Problems

Melted contact tip

Irregular wire feed
Burnback
Porosity

Stick Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is

frequently referred to as stick or covered
electrode welding. Stick welding is among
the most widely used welding processes.
The flux covering the electrode melts
during welding. This forms the gas and
slag to shield the arc and molten weld
pool. The slag must be chipped off the
weld bead after welding. The flux also
provides a method of adding scavengers,
deoxidizers, and alloying elements to the
weld metal.

Stick Welding Benefits

Equipment used is simple, inexpensive, and portable

Electrode provides and regulates its own flux
Lower sensitivity to wind and drafts than gas shielded welding processes
All position capability

Common Stick Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Weld Discontinuities

Undercut
Incomplete fusion
Porosity
Slag Inclusions
Cracks

Stick Welding Problems

Arc Blow
Arc Stability
Excessive spatter
Incorrect weld profile
Rough surface

Porosity

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high quality, very high deposition rate welding
process. Submerged arc welding is a high deposition rate welding process
commonly used to join plate.

Submerged Arc Welding Benefits

Extremely high deposition rates possible

High quality welds
Easily automated
Low operator skill required

Common Submerged Arc Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Weld Discontinuities

Cracks
Porosity
Slag
Undercut

Submerged Arc Welding Problems

Solidification Cracking
Hydrogen Cracking
Incomplete fusion
Irregular wire feed
Porosity

Resistance Welding
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW), Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW), and
Projection Welding (PW) are commonly used resistance welding processes.
Resistance welding uses the application of electric current and mechanical
pressure to create a weld between two pieces of metal. Weld electrodes conduct
the electric current to the two pieces of metal as they are forged together.
The welding cycle must first develop sufficient heat to raise a small volume of
metal to the molten state. This metal then cools while under pressure until it has
adequate strength to hold the parts together. The current density and pressure

must be sufficient to produce a weld nugget, but not so high as to expel molten
metal from the weld zone.

Resistance Welding Benefits

High speed welding

Easily automated
Suitable for high rate production
Economical

Resistance Welding Limitations

Initial equipment costs

Lower tensile and fatigue
strengths

Lap joints add weight and

material

Common Resistance Welding Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Resistance Welding Problems and Discontinuities

Cracks
Electrode deposit on work
Porosity or cavities
Pin holes
Deep electrode indentation
Improper weld penetration
Surface appearance
Weld size
Irregular shaped welds

Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion joining process that produces a weld
by impinging a beam of high energy electrons to heat the weld joint. Electrons
are elementary atomic particles characterized by a negative charge and an
extremely small mass. Raising electrons to a high energy state by accelerating
them to roughly 30 to 70 percent of the speed of light provides the energy to heat
the weld.

An EBW gun functions similarly to a TV picture tube. The major difference is that
a TV picture tube continuously scans the surface of a luminescent screen using a
low intensity electron beam to produce a picture. An EBW gun uses a high
intensity electron beam to target a weld joint. The weld joint converts the
electron beam to the heat input required to make a fusion weld.
The electron beam is always generated in a high vacuum. The use of specially
designed orifices separating a series of chambers at various levels of vacuum
permits welding in medium and nonvacuum conditions. Although, high vacuum
welding will provide maximum purity and high depth to width ratio welds.

EBW Benefits

Single pass welding of thick joints

Hermetic seals of components
retaining a vacuum
Low distortion
Low contamination in vacuum
Weld zone is narrow
Heat affected zone is narrow
Dissimilar metal welds of some
metals
Uses no filler metal

EBW Limitations
High equipment cost
Work chamber size constraints
Time delay when welding in
vacuum
High weld preparation costs
X-rays produced during welding

Rapid solidification rates can

cause cracking in some
materials

Common EBW Concerns

We can help optimize your welding process variables. Evaluate your current
welding parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common welding problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
EBW Problems and Discontinuities

Undercutting
Porosity
Cracking
Underfill
Lack of fusion
Shrinkage voids
Missed joints

Robotic Welding
There are two popular types of industrial
welding robots. The two are articulating
robots and rectilinear robots. Robotics
control the movement of a rotating wrist in
space. A description of some of these
welding robots are described below:
Rectilinear robots move in line in any of
three axes (X, Y, Z). In addition to linear
movement of the robot along axes there is a
wrist attached to the robot to allow rotational
movement. This creates a robotic working
zone that is box shaped.
Articulating robots employ arms and rotating
joints. These robots move like a human arm
with a rotating wrist at the end. This creates
an irregularly shaped robotic working zone.
There are many factors that need to be considered when setting up a robotic
welding facility. Robotic welding needs to be engineered differently than manual
welding. Some of the consideration for a robotic welding facility are listed below:

Accuracy and repeatability

Number of axes
Reliability
Fixtures
Programming

Maintenance
Controls
Weld monitors
Arc welding equipment
Positioners

Seam tracking systems

Part transfer

A robotic welding system may perform

more repeat ably than a manual
welder because of the monotony of
the task. However, robots may
necessitate regular recalibration or
reprogramming.

Robots should have the number of axes necessary to permit the proper range of
motion. The robot arm should be able to approach the work from multiple
angles.
Robotic welding systems are able to operate continuously, provided appropriate
maintenance procedures are adhered to. Continuous production line
interruptions can be minimized with proper robotic system design. Planning for
the following contingencies needs to be completed:

Rapid substitution of the inoperable robots.

Installing backup robots in the production line
Redistributing the welding of broken robots to functioning robots close by

Soldering and Brazing

Soldering and Brazing are joining processes where parts are joined without
melting the base metals. Soldering filler metals melt below 840 F. Brazing filler
metals melt above 840 F. Soldering is commonly used for electrical connection
or mechanical joints, but brazing is only used for mechanical joints due to the
high temperatures involved.

Soldering and Brazing

Benefits

Economical for complex

assemblies
Joints require little or no
finishing
Excellent for joining dissimilar
metals
Little distortion, low residual
stresses
Metallurgical bond is formed

Sound electrical component

connections

Soldering and Brazing Issues

We can help optimize your joining process variables. Evaluate your current
joining parameters and techniques. Help eliminate common joining problems
and discontinuities such as those listed below:
Soldering and Brazing Joining Problems

No wetting
Excessive wetting
Flux entrapment
Lack of fill (voids, porosity)
Unsatisfactory surface appearance

Base metal erosion

Structural Welding Codes

There are several Structural Welding Codes. This web page provides an outline
of the Structural Welding Codes. Typical examples of these are listed below:

Steel (AWS D1.1)

Aluminum (AWS D1.2)
Reinforcing Steel (AWS D1.4)
Stainless Steel (AWS D1.6)

Overview
The Structural welding Codes cover various aspects for fabricating and erecting
welded structures. While there are changes to the Codes from time to time the
outlines here provide an overview of the information in the codes.
For comparison the Structural Welding Codes are more comprehensive than
Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), as issues
such as design and fabrication are addressed in other sections of the ASME
BPVC. Some examples of welding requirements addressed by the Structural
Welding Codes include:

Design of welded connections

Requirements for Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)

Requirements for Welding Personnel Performance Qualification
Fabrication Requirements
Inspection

Weld Design
Engineers typically design welded connections in accordance with the
requirements identified in the welding code. The codes address various aspects
of the weld. Some of the weld issues specified are listed below

Groove welds
Fillet welds
Weld length
Complete joint penetration
Partial joint penetration
Lap joints
Weld size
Weld spacing
Transitions
Static and cyclical loading

Qualification
Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) and Welding Personnel Performance
Qualification are required. The qualification covers various aspects concerning
the production of welds. Some of these items are listed below:

Welding Process (SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, SAW etc.)

Base metal
Filler metal
Preheat and Interpass temperature
Amperage
Voltage
Travel speed
Shielding gas
Thickness
Welding position
Backing

Requirements for Welding procedure Specifications and Welding Personnel

Performance Qualification are identified in the Codes.

Fabrication
Fabrication and erection of welded assemblies and structures are detailed in the
code. Some of the items covered by the code are listed below

Base metal
Welding consumables
Preheat and Interpass temperature
Stress relief heat treatment
Backing, backing gas, or inserts
Welding environment
Design compliance
Preparation of base metal
Dimensions and Tolerances
Weld profile
Repairs

Inspection
Requirements for the Inspector's qualifications and responsibilities, acceptance
criteria for discontinuities, and procedures for nondestructive testing (NDT) are
identified in the Code. Some of the items identified in the code are listed below:

Inspector
Materials

WPS

Equipment

Welder Qualification

Welds

Records

Acceptance Criteria

Alternate Acceptance Criteria

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Magnetic Particle Testing

Radiographic Inspection

Ultrasonic Inspection

ion IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Overview
The forms listed below form the basis for verifying welding procedures and
welder performance:

WPS - welding procedure specification

PQR - procedure qualification record
WPQ - welder performance qualification

There are three steps in qualifying welders and welding procedure specifications
to Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC).
First, prepare a welding procedure specification (WPS). The WPS must contain
the minimum requirements that are specified by the code. The WPS provides
guidance for welding by specifying ranges for each variable.
Second, a procedure qualification record (PQR) is used to verify the WPS. The
WPS is qualified by welding procedure qualification test coupons. The variables
and tests used are recorded on a PQR.
Third, the performance of the welders is verified by welding performance
qualification test coupons. The variables and tests used with the particular
variable ranges qualified are recorded on a welders performance qualification
(WPQ) record.
Another way of conceptualizing these requirements is shown below:
Specify:
Variable ranges
WPS
Essential variables
Nonessential variables
Record:
Actual variables
PQR
Essential variables
Tests and results
Record:
Actual variables
WPQ Specify Ranges
Qualified
Tests and results

Outline of Articles in ASME Section IX

An abbreviated summary of items covered in ASME Section IX is provided below

Article I - Welding General Requirements QW-100

Article I covers the scope of ASME Section IX, the purpose and use of the WPS,
PQR and WPQ, responsibility, test positions, types and purposes of tests and
examinations, test procedures, acceptance criteria, visual examination, and
radiographic examination.

Article II - Welding Procedure Qualifications QW-200

Article II covers the rules for the preparation of WPS and PQR. Each process is
listed separately in QW-250 with the essential, supplementary essential, and
nonessential variables.
The WPS shall specify a value or range for each essential, nonessential and,
when necessary, each supplementary essential variable listed for each welding
process. The PQR shall record the value for each essential and, when
necessary, each supplementary essential variable used.
When a change is made in an essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and
requalified with a new PQR, unless the revision can be supported by an existing
PQR.
Similarly, when the code requires notch-toughness, supplementary essential
variables become additional essential variables. When a change is made in a
supplementary essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and requalified by a
new PQR, unless the revision can be supported by an existing PQR for notchtoughness applications.

Article III - Welding Performance Qualifications QW-300

Article III covers the preparation of WPQ records. Each welding process is listed
separately in QW-350 with the essential variables for welding performance. The
WPQ form must record a value for each essential variable used and must list a
range qualified for each of these essential variables.
Article III covers responsibility, type of tests, records, welder identification,
positions, diameters, expiration and renewal of qualifications. Welders and
Welding Operators may be qualified by visual and mechanical tests, or by
radiography of a test coupon, or by radiography of the initial production weld.

Article IV - Welding Data QW-400

Article IV covers welding variables that are used in the preparation and
qualification of the WPS, PQR or the WPQ as applicable. Some of the welding
variables are listed below:

Joints
Base Materials

Filler Materials

Positions

Preheat

Postweld Heat Treatment

Gas

Electrical Characteristics

Technique

Article IV also includes assignments of P-Numbers (ASME base materials), SNumbers (other materials), F-Numbers (grouping of filler metals) and A-Numbers
(weld metal chemical analysis).
Tables for WPS qualification thickness limits and tables for WPQ thickness and
diameter limits are also included. There are tables for welding positions
signifying that a welder who qualifies in a particular position is qualified to weld
within a range of positions as appropriate. Furthermore, test coupons, the
removal of test specimens, and the test jig dimensions are identified.

Article V - Standard Welding Procedure Specifications (SWPS) QW500

Article V covers rules for the adoption, demonstration, and application of the
Standard Welding Procedure Specifications, (SWPSs).