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Transitions:EducationalReformsthatPromoteEcologicalIntelligence
ortheAssumptionsUnderlyingModernity?

by

C.A.Bowers

2008

Contents:
Introduction
Chapter1ConceptualStepstoEcologicallySustainableEducationalReforms
Chapter2E.O.WilsonsDriftintoScientism:TheChallengeFacingScienceEducators
Chapter3TheEnvironmentalEthicImplicitinThreeTheoriesofEvolution
Chapter4WhytheLakoffandJohnsonTheoryofMetaphorMarginalizestheCultural
IssuesRelatedtotheEcologicalCrises
Chapter5RevitalizingtheCulturalCommonsoranIndividualizedApproachto
PlanetaryCitizenship:TheChoiceBeforeUs
Chapter6TheCaseAgainstJohnDeweyasanEnvironmentalandEcoJusticePhilosopher
Chapter7WhyaCriticalPedagogyofPlaceisanOxymoron
Chapter8TheDoubleBindofEnvironmentalistsWhoIdentifyThemselvesasLiberals
Chapter9TheRealFailureofUniversityFaculty
Chapter10RethinkingSocialJusticeIssuesWithinanEcoJusticeConceptual

andMoralFramework
Chapter11SuggestionsforaStateWideApproachtoEcologicallySustainable
EducationalReforms

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Chapter12WhatShouldbeIncludedinTeacherEducationProgramsinan

EraofGlobalWarming

Introduction:

Thiscollectionofessaysaddressesaworldthatitisinastateofrapidtransitionbothin
termsofculturalpracticesandintheviabilityofthenaturalsystemsthatalllifedependsupon.Even
thoughtherehavebeenearlierperiodsofrapidtransitioninculturalwaysofknowingandvalues,
thisisthefirstthatinvolvesanawarenessthatthechangestakingplaceintheEarthsnaturalsystems
areputtingthefutureofhumankindinjeopardy.Thesechangesareoccurringatanincreasingrate.
Morethanafewscientistsarefindingevidencethatwemaybeenteringaneweraofmass
extinction.Evenifthispredictionseemstooalarmist,thechangesoccurringinnaturalsystemsare
alreadyimpactingpeopleslives.Throughouttheworld,fisheriesarenolongerreliablesourcesof
protein,potablewaterisinincreasinglyshortsupply,agriculturallandisturningintodeserts,
weathersystemsarebecomingmoreextremeandchanginginwaysthatmakehabitationless
predictable,andthechemistryoftheworldsoceansischanginginwaysthatthreatenthefoodchain
infundamentalandirreversibleways.
Thetransitionsintheviabilityofnaturalsystemsarenowbeginningtoattracttheattentionof
politicians,religiousleaders,educators,andactivistsinThirdWorldcultures.Reversingtheforces
thataredeepeningtheculturalandecologicalcriseswillrequiremorethantheadoptionofenergy
efficientandlesscarbonproducingtechnologies,andmorethantheeffortsofsomecitizensto
recyclewhatwouldotherwiseendupinthelocallandfill.Unfortunately,eventheseeffortsare
limitedtoasmallminorityofAmericans.ThemajorityofAmericanpoliticians,religiousleaders,
andeducatorscontinuetobasetheirlivesonthemythofunendingprogressandtheincessantdrive

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toachieveasmuchmaterialwealthaspossible.Thatis,theycontinuetotakeforgrantedthecultural
assumptionsthatcontinuetogiveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytotheindividualistic,
consumerdependentlifestylethatisovershootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.
Thismindsetleadstotheconstantrepetitionofthewordprogressprogressinscience,in
technology,ineducation,innewconsumermarkets,andinselfdiscovery.Asprogressservesas
thetalismanofmodernindividuals,itmakesitunnecessaryforthemtoexplorethenatureof
ecologicalthinkingandwhyitisneeded.Thisfailureleadstoignoringthattodaysscientistshave
transformedtheearlyGreekunderstandingofoikosintoecologywhichnowstandsforhow
naturalsystemsaretobeunderstood.Theancientunderstandingofecologywasmoreinclusive.
Theirunderstandingofmanagingthehouseholdrecognizedtheinescapablerealitythatdailylifeis
nestedinculturalsystemsandculturalsystemsarenestedinnaturalsystems.Revivingthismore
inclusiveunderstandingledGregoryBatesontourgeustorecognizewhatthemythofunending
progressdenies:namely,thatculturalsystemscannotsurvivethedestructionofthenaturalsystems
theydependupon.
ItisdifficulttopredictwhetherAmericanswillawakentoneedforarapidtransitionintheir
unsustainableculturaltraditions,whichwillrequirereplacingthemythsandassumptionsupon
whichtheindustrial/consumerdependentcultureisbasedwithanecologicalformofintelligence.
Thedesireforconveniencesandmaterialsuccessmayprovetoopowerful,andtheuncertaintiesof
howtoengageinecologicalthinkingtoodauntingespeciallywhenmostAmericansremain
unawareofhowthevocabularytheyrelyuponcarriesforwardthemisconceptionsandassumptions
ofearlierthinkerswhodealtwiththeenvironmentallimitsoftheirdaybyexploitingthebioregions
ofothercultures.Insteadofrelyinguponthemythofprogress,wenowneedtorecognizethat
liminalityisthewordthatbestdescribeswhereweareintheprocessofculturalandenvironmental
transition:thatis,theuncertaintiesthatsurroundoureffortstofindtechnologicalsolutionsto
slowingtherateofglobalwarming.Liminalitycanalsobeunderstoodasreferringtothe
unpredictablechangesthatmayoccurinourguidingdemocraticpoliticalideologyasdemagogues
seektoexploittheecologicalcrisesfortheirowninterests.Someculturalgroupsarealready
attemptingtoescapetheuncertaintiesofthepresentbyseekingtoreturntowhataretakentobethe
certaintiesofthedistantpastandofthehumanlycreatednarrativesthathavebeengivensacred
status.Othersareattemptingtorevitalizethewisdomtraditionsofhowtoliveinmorecommunity

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centeredandthuslessenvironmentallydisruptiveways.Iftheeconomicsystemdoesnottotally
collapse,stillotherswillcontinuetheirhyperconsumerlifestyleandremainoblivioustothe
environmentalconsequencesthattheirchildrenwillbeunabletoescape.Giventhescientific
evidencethatglobalwarmingandthemeltingofglaciersarenotbeingreversed,thattherisinglevels
ofacidificationintheworldsoceanshavepeakedandarenowindecline,thattheworldfisheries
arenowrecovering,thereseemstobeonlyonecertaintythatshouldbetakenseriously.Namely,the
certaintythatculturescannotsurvivethedestructionoftheecosystemstheydependupon.Thisis
thecertaintythatJaredDiamonddocumentsinhisrecentbook,Collapse:HowSocietiesChooseto
FailorSucceed.
Theessaysinthisonlinebookincludepreviouseffortsonmyparttoraisequestionsabout
thewellintentionedthinkerswhoweregenuinelyconcernedaboutenvironmentalissuesaswellas
thefutureprospectsofhumankind,butwhorelieduponmanyoftheculturalassumptionsthatnow
underlietheprocessofeconomicandculturalglobalization.Severalofmymorerecentessays
representanattempttotranslatedifferentelementsofanecologicalformofintelligencethatare
oftenoverlookedbythosewhohaveadoptedareductionistinterpretationofecology.Thewritings
ofEdmundBurke,EdwardShils,GregoryBateson,WendellBerry,VandanaShiva,andThird
WorldactivistsinPeruandBoliviahavebeenespeciallyinfluentialinrecognizingthemulti
dimensionalityofanecologicalformofintelligence.
Anumberoftheessaysinthiscollectionhaveappearedearlierinsmalljournalsatatime
whenthemajorityofeducationalreformproposalswerefocusedonsocialjusticeratherthan
environmentalissues,andwhenenvironmentalistswerelargelyindifferenttotheneedtopromote
radicalreformsinpublicschoolsanduniversities.Nowthatthereisagrowingawarenessthat
educationalandenvironmentalissuesarerelated,therepublicationoftheseessaysmaycontributeto
therecognitionofhowleadingthinkersindifferentfieldsofinquiryarestillcaughtinthedouble
bindofrelyinguponecologicallydestructiveandculturallycolonizingassumptionstoframetheir
analysisofwhattheyunderstandtobethemajorproblemswenowfaceandtheirsolutionsto
them.Ineffect,byfocusingontheideasofE.O.Wilson,GeorgeLakoff,MarkJohnson,andJohn
Dewey,aswellasanumberofeducationalreformers,itishopedthatreaderswillasktheirown
questionsabouttheseandotherproponentsofprogress.Itisalsohopedthattheseessayswill
contributetogreaterawarenessofthedifferencesbetweenvariousexpressionsofecological

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intelligenceandtheexpressionofthemindsetresponsibleforourcurrentpredicamentof
overshootingthesustainingcapacityoftheEarthsnaturalsystems.
Asseveraloftheessayswerewrittenforaudiencesunfamiliarwiththeessaysthatappeared
insmallnoneducationaljournals,ithasbeennecessarytointroduceforthesedifferentaudiencesthe
basicissuesandconceptualframeworkthatmaynowappearasrepetitioustosomereadersofthis
collection.Ihopereaderswilloverlookthisproblemasaninevitableresultoftryingtointroducea
similarmessagetodifferentaudiences.Despitethisproblem,eachoftheessaysbringsnewissues
andnonmainstreaminterpretationsintofocus.Andeachessayrepresentsmyfirsteffortstodevelop
anecologicalpatternofthinkingthatrequiresovercomingtheartificialseparationsintodifferent
conceptualcategories,suchasseparatingtraditionsfromprogress,individualismfromculturally
mediatedexperiences,culturefromtheenvironment,theculturalcommonsfromachievingsocial
justiceinaconsumerdependentlifestyle,andtheimpactoftheWesternconsumerdependent
lifestylefromtheimpactonThirdWorldcultures.Whatareoftenunderstoodfromanonecological
perspectiveasunrelatedissuesmustnowbeunderstoodasrequiringanalysesandsolutionsthat
representthemaspartofacommon,interdependentworld.

Chapter1ConceptualStepstoEcologicallySustainableEducationalReforms
Theenvironmentalandsocialproblemswefacehaveincreasinglyominousimplicationsfor
thefuture.Inadditiontoglobalwarming,theamountofcarbondioxidereleasedintotheatmosphere
ischangingthechemistryoftheworldsoceanswhichfurtherthreatensthefoodchainwedepend
upon.Theshortageofpotablewaterandlossoftopsoil,whicharejusttwoofmanyenvironmental
changestakingplace,willfurtheraddtothemiseryofanincreasingworldpopulation.Thesocial
problemsareequallydauntingespeciallyinAmericawhereacombinationofmarketliberaland
Christianfundamentalismhasbecomethedominantpoliticalforce.Computerdrivenautomation,
outsourcingofjobstolowwageregionsoftheworld,andthedisappearanceoftheeconomicsafety
netsthatmanyworkerspreviouslytookforgranted,arereducingtheabilityofmanypeopletomeet

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theirbasicneeds.Atthesametimethelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsarerapidlybeing
exploitedasnewmarketsbytheindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption.Whatfewpeople
recognizeisthatthecommons,whichincludecommunitybasedmutualsupportsystemsaswellas
theintergenerationalknowledge,reducedependenceuponamoneybasedexistence.Theincreased
useofsurveillancetechnologies,theunderminingofdemocraticinstitutionsandcivilsafeguards,
andtheriseofafriend/enemyapproachtopoliticsatthelocalandnationallevel,addtothelistof
dauntingchallengesfacedbyenvironmentalists,socialjusticeadvocates,andeducationalreformers.
Oneofthereasonsfortheenvironmentalandpoliticalcriseswenowfaceisthemarket
liberalismthatgaveconceptualandmorallegitimacytotheglobalexpansionofthe
industrial/consumerdependentlifestyle.Marketliberalismisnowtheprincipalsourceof
indoctrinatingpeopleintobelievingthatthemainpathwayofhumanhistoryisnowasourceof
backwardnessandalimitationonindividualfreedom.Thispathway,whichvariesfromcultureto
culture,isbetterknownastheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Mostexamplesofthecultural
andenvironmentalcommonsencompassthoseaspectsofdailylifethathadnotyetbeenprivatized
andmonetized.Anotherfeatureofthecommons,aspracticedinmanycultures,istherelianceupon
localdecisionmakingandanawarenessthatcurrentpracticesshouldnotdiminishtheprospectsof
futuregenerations.
AsIwillexplaininfutureessays,publicschoolsanduniversitiesintheWesthaverelegated
knowledgeoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonstolowstatusbyomittingitfromthe
curriculum.Theresultisthatmanypeoplelackthelanguagefornamingthoseaspectsofthe
commonstheyparticipatein.Innotbeingabletoidentifywhattheydependuponandexperienceata
takenforgrantedlevelofawareness,theyareunabletoresistthefurtherenclosureofthecommons
thatmakesthemmoredependentuponconsumerism.Ishallalsoexaminethenatureofthelinguistic
doublebindsthatleadcurrenteducationalreformerstopromote,inthenameofindividualfreedom,
thefurtheremancipationfromthecommonssustainingintergenerationalknowledgeandmutual
supportsystems.HowtheculturalassumptionsreinforcedbyAmericanprofessorsinmany
disciplinescontributetolargenumbersofuniversitygraduatesbecomingdiehardsupportersof
PresidentGeorgeW.Bushsmarketliberaldomesticandforeignpolicieswillalsobeexamined.
Perhapsthemostdifficultchallengewillbetoconvinceprofessorsacrossthedisciplinestotake
seriouslyreformsthatcontributetotherevitalizationofthelocalculturalandenvironmental

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commons,andtolearnhowtobuildsupportwithinthecommunityforlivinglessmonetizedand
environmentallydestructivelives.
RevitalizingtheCulturalandEnvironmentalCommonsasSitesofResistancetoEconomic
Globalization
InordertounderstandthecriticismsIammakingofoureducationalinstitutions,aswellas
recommendationsforreform,itisnecessarytoclarifyfurtherthenatureoftheculturaland
environmentalcommonsaswellasthemanywaystheyarebeingenclosed.Iwillalsoexplaintheir
importancetoreducingthehumanimpactonnaturalsystems,andhowparticipationinthecultural
commonsreducesdependenceuponamoneyeconomy.
Thekeyfeaturesoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsthatneedtobeidentifiedifwe
aretocounterthecriticismthatwecannotgobacktoasimplerpastandanydiscussionofthe
commonsistheexpressionofromanticandwishfulthinkingincludethefollowing:(1)thecultural
andenvironmentalcommonsbeganwiththebeginningofhumanhistory;(2)theystillexistinallof
theworldsculturesincludingbothruralandurbanareasintheWest;(3)accesstothecultural
commonsvarieswiththeculturesstatussystemsandotherformsofexclusionandprivilege;(4)the
culturalandenvironmentalcommonsinmanycultureswere(andstillare)managedthroughlocal
democracy;(5)thefirstactsofenclosureofthecommonscanbetracedtointroductionofprivate
property,amoneybasedeconomy,sociallystratifyingreligiousbeliefs,and,morerecently,toa
varietyofculturalforcesthatrangefrompubliceducation,thenexusofscienceandtechnology,and
theglobalizationofmarketliberalideology.
Theenvironmentalcommons,whicharenowbeingheavilyimpacted(enclosed)bythe
Westsindustrialculture,includesthesoil,water,plants,animals,air,forests,oceans,rocks,gene
lines,andsoforth.Eventhemicroorganismsbeingdestroyedbypesticides(whichisaformof
enclosure)arepartoftheenvironmentalcommons.Theenclosureofthedifferentaspectsofthe
environmentalcommons,thatis,transformingwhatwasfreelyavailabletoalltowhatrequires
participatinginamoneyeconomy,canbeseeninsuchrecentdevelopmentsasthecorporate
ownershipofaquifers,thepatentingofgenelines,andtheprivatizingofpubliclandsandminerals.
Theculturalcommonsaredifficulttorecognize,asourparticipationinthemislargelypartof
thetakenforgrantedexperienceofeverydaylife.Awarenessoftheirlosstoooftenoccursafterthey
havebeenenclosedwhenitistoolatetoresist.Forexample,individualprivacywaspartofour

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takenforgrantedcommonsuntilwelearnedinthemediathatsurveillancetechnologiesarebeing
usedbythegovernmentandcorporations.Examplesoftheculturalcommonsthatstillexistinclude
thelanguagingprocessesthatarelearnedwhenbornintoaculture.Asthemoraltemplatesofthe
cultureareencodedinthelanguagetheybecomepartofthetakenforgrantedcommonsuntilthey
arechallengedaswronglyconstitutedorenclosedbymarketorientedvalues.Inadditiontothe
languagingprocesses,whichincludethespokenandwrittenword,narratives,patternsof
metacommunication,andthecreativearts,theculturalcommonsalsoincludestheintergenerational
knowledgeandskillsrelatedtothegrowing,preparation,andsharingofameal,craftknowledge,
healingpractices,games,knowledgeofhowtogreetaguest,civictraditionsofrightsand
responsibilitiesamongothers.Inotherwords,theculturalcommonsincludesallthenon
monetizedandnonprivatelyownedknowledge,skills,andformsofrelationshipsthatare
intergenerationallypassedalong.Whiletherearemanyexamplesoftheculturalcommonsthat
strengthencommunityinterdependenceandhaveasmallerecologicalimpact,therealsoare
examplesoftheculturalcommonsthatareunjust,basedonignorance,andthatfurtherdegradethe
naturalsystemsthatlifedependsupon.
Enclosuremaybedrivenbyanideology,suchasmarketliberalismwhichhasasitsgoalthe
transformationofwhatremainsoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsintomarkets.Enclosure
mayalsotakeotherformsrangingfromtheuseofseedsgeneticallyengineeredtoresisttheuseof
RoundUp,andwhichenclosesawiderangeofthefarmersknowledgeoflocalplantingconditions,
tothemanyformsofenclosurethatresultfromrelyinguponcomputermediatedthinkingand
communication.Someformsofenclosurerepresentgenuinecontributionstoimprovingthequality
ofdailylife,whilemanyothers,suchastheWorldTradeOrganizationslegalrighttooverride
(enclose)localdecisionmakingaboutavarietyofhealth,work,andenvironmentalissues,
underminefurthertheselfsufficiencyofthecommunity.Enclosurecanalsoresultfromthelossof
thecollectivememoryofthecommunity.Whenschoolsanduniversitiesfailtointroducestudentsto
thestoriesofthereligiouswarsinEuropethatledtheframersoftheAmericanConstitutionto
providefortheseparationofchurchandstate,andwhenthestoriesofthelabor,feminist,andcivil
rightsmovementsarenolongerpartofthecurriculum,thesesilencesleavestudentswithoutthe
languageandhistoricalperspectivenecessaryforrecognizinghowthesocialjusticegainsofthepast
arecurrentlybeingundermined.

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Revitalizingthelocalculturalcommonswillnotinitselfreverseeconomicglobalization.It
may,however,contributetoslowingtheprocessofenvironmentaldegradationanddependenceupon
amoneyeconomythatisfailingmillionsofpeoplesaroundtheworld.Asstudentsbecomeawareof
thenatureandimportanceoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons,aswellasthedifferentforms
ofdependenciesthatresultfromtheenclosureofwhatwaspreviouslyfreelyavailable,perhapsthey
willbecomemorecriticallyawareofwhatneedstoconservedandwhatneedstobereformedor
changedentirely.
Participationintheculturalcommonsfrompreparingamealfromatraditionalrecipe,
learningtoplayaninstrument,writingpoetry,usinglocalmaterialsandcraftskillsinconstructinga
building,toorganizinglocalresistancetotheforcesenclosingtheircivilrightsfostersavalues
basededucationalexperience.Whenstudentsgobeyondclassroomlearningaboutthelocalcultural
commonsaswellastheirculturaldiversity,includingthedifferentformsofenclosure,to
participatinginmentoringrelationshipstheyarediscoveringanddevelopingpersonalinterestsand
talents.Theyarealsolearningtobemoreselfconfidentinskillareas,tobemutuallysupportiveof
others,andtosupportthepatternsofmoralreciprocitywithinthecommunity.
HowUniversitiesContributetotheEnclosureoftheCulturalandEnvironmentalCommons
ThesamedoublebindthatcharacterizesEnlightenmentvaluesandmoderndevelopmentis
alsopresentinWesternuniversities.Universitiesarethesourceofmanygenuineachievementsthat
haveimprovedthequalityofpeopleslives.However,whenweweighsomeoftheachievements
againstthebackdropofglobalwarmingandrecentchangesinthechemistryoftheoceans,aswellas
theethnocentrismofWesternforeignpoliciesandtheglobalizationofanindustrial/consumer
dependentlifestyle,wearelikelytowonderwhethermanyoftheseachievementshaveputour
collectivefutureingreaterjeopardy.Thedoublebindofhowsomeformsofsuccesscanhave
destructiveconsequencescanbeseen,especiallyintheUnitedStates,inhowsomanyuniversity
graduatesmovefromtheclassroomtobecomingsupportersofthemarketliberaldomesticand
foreignpolicyagendaofPresidentGeorgeW.Bush.
Atalatertime,IwillexplainhowthemarketliberalorientationofAmericanstudentswho
mistakenlyrefertothemselvesasconservativesisreinforcedbythesilencesintheireducation,as
wellasbytheirsocialjusticeorientedprofessorswhosharemanyofthesameculturalassumptions
thatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytotheindustrialculturethathasenteredits

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digitalphaseofdevelopment.ButhereIwillfocusonhowthedistinctionbetweenhighandlow
statusformsofknowledge(withthelatterbeinglargelyleftoutoftheuniversitycurriculum)
contributestotheenclosureofwhatremainsoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Several
keypointsmadeinthepreviousdiscussionoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsinclude:
communitiesthatsustaintheirculturalandenvironmentalcommonsrelyupontheintergenerational
renewalofknowledge,skillsandrelationshipsthatreducedependenceuponparticipatinginthe
moneyeconomy;participationinthecommonsofteninvolveslocaldecisionmakingthattakes
accountoftheprospectsoffuturegenerations,aswellassocialandecojusticeissues;avitalcultural
andenvironmentalcommonsreducesdependenceupontheindustrial/consumerorientedlifestyle
thatiscontributingtoglobalwarming.Becausenotallculturalcommonsarefreeofoppressive
relationships,thetraditionsofourcivillibertiesandcriticalreflectionneedtoberenewed.
Todayitisdifficulttoidentifyanyaspectoftheculturalcommonsthatisentirelyfreeof
dependenceuponamoneyeconomy,oranyaspectofthemarketsystemthatisentirelyfreeoftraditions
thatarepartoftheculturalcommons.Thedifferencesaremarkedbydegreeofemphasisand
dependence.Thisalsoholdsforuniversities.Yetthecasecanbemadethatmostofwhatisnowlearned
inuniversityclassroomscontributestotheexpansionofthemarketforcesthatarefurtherenclosingwhat
remainsofthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsaswellasintegratingwhatremainsofthe
commonsofotherculturesintotheglobaleconomy.Theevidencecanbefoundinwhatuniversitieshave
designatedashighstatusknowledgeandintheprejudicesandsilencesreinforcedinphilosophy,
politicalscience,andeconomicsclasses,aswellasinsuchprofessionalcoursesasbusinessand
education.,
Highstatusknowledgeisbasedonanumberofculturalassumptionsthatgolargelyunexamined
inmostuniversityclassrooms.Theyinclude:(1)thattheindividualisthebasicsocialunit,andthus
sourceofideasandvalues;(2)thatchangeisaprogressiveforceandthusistobepromoted;(3)thatthis
isananthropocentricworldandtheenvironmentisaneconomicresource;(4)thatprintandotherabstract
systemsofrepresentationaremorereliablethanoraltraditions;(5)thatsciencerepresentsthehighestand
mostusefulapproachtoknowledge;(6)thatlanguageisaconduitinasender/receiverprocessof
communicationthatenablesobjectivefactsandinformationtobesenttoothers;(7)thattechnologyis
bothculturallyneutralandtheexpressionofprogress;(8)thatcompetitioninthemarketplace,onthe

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playingfield,andamongacademicsseparatesthewinnersfromthelosers;and(9)thatWesternformsof
knowledgeandvaluesarethemostculturallyadvanced.
Theseassumptionsareseldommadeexplicitanddiscussedinclasses.Rather,theyarereinforced
aspartoftheinterpretativeframeworksthataretakenforgranted.Thus,theycontributetothesilence
thatsurroundslowstatusformsofknowledgeandrelationshipswhichinturnleavestudentswithoutthe
languagethatwillenablethemtorecognizeandrenewtheculturalpracticesthatstrengthenthenon
monetizedtraditionsofcommunitythathaveasmalleradverseecologicalimpact.Oneofthechief
sourcesofthesilenceaboutthenatureandimportanceofthelocalcommons,aswellastheircultural
diversity,canbetracedtotheethnocentrismthatframeswhatislearnedinmanydisciplines.Ifthis
ethnocentrismwerenotpresent,studentsmightlearnthattheWesternidealofbecominganautonomous
individualisbasedonanumberofmythsthathavebeencarriedforwardinthemetaphoricallanguage
takenforgrantedbythecommunity.Theymightalsolearnthatmanyculturesthinkoftheindividualin
termsofintergenerationalrelationshipsandinterdependenciesaswellasbeingdependentuponthelife
sustainingecosystems.Learningaboutthediversityoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons,
includingthenonmonetizedtraditionswithintheirowncommunities,wouldprovideanawarenessofthe
extenttheyrelyuponintergenerationalknowledgesuchasthegrowingandpreparationoffood,the
creativearts,craftknowledge,builtenvironments,andthelanguageofsocialandecojustice,Ifstudents
lackthelanguagenecessaryformakingexplicithowtheyrelyupondifferentaspectsoftheculturaland
environmentalcommonstheywillbelessabletorecognizeandresistthedifferentformsofenclosureby
amarketsystemthathasnoselflimitingguidelines.Thatis,theywillbelessabletorecognizethe
transitionfromthemutualsupportsystemswithinthecommunitythatareecologicallysustainableto
becomingmoredependentuponamoneyeconomythatisthebasisoftheindustrial/consumerculture
nowthreateningthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.
Studentsneedtodevelopamorebalancedunderstandingoftheimportanceoffacetoface
communication,aswellastherolethatnarrativesplayinpassingonstoriesofinjusticesaswellas
advancesinmoralrelationships.Thismightenablethemtorecognizehowtheincreasingrelianceon
computerscontributestoenclosingmoreoftheculturalcommons.Mappingtheculturaland
environmentalcommonsoftheirlocalcommunitiesisalsolikelytocontributetoamorecomplex
understanding,evenappreciation,ofintergenerationaltraditionsthatleadtothedevelopmentofpersonal
interestsandtalentsaswellasanenhancedsenseofmeaningandpurposethatcomesfromthemutual

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supportactivitieswithinthecommunity.Throughtheexperienceofmentoringrelationships,theymay
discoveradifferentformofwealththanwhatisrequiredinconsumerrelationships.
Ineffect,thedoublebindofpromotinghighstatusknowledgethatsupportsthefurtherexpansion
oftheindustrial/consumerdependentculture,whileleavingstudentslargelyuninformedabouthowthe
commonsrepresentalternativestodependenceuponaconsumerlifestylethatisecologicallydestructive,
hasanotherconsequencethatneedstobeemphasized.Namely,localdemocracyaswellasourcivil
liberties,whichareessentialcharacteristicsoftheculturalcommonsintheWest,arebeingenclosedby
universitygraduateswhohaveturnedtheassumptionsunderlyinghighstatusknowledgeintoarigid
ideologywhichtheymistakenlyidentifyasconservatism.
RethinkingtheDeepConceptualFoundationsofEducationalReform
Aslandconservancygroups,environmentalscientistsandotheractivistsarealreadyworking
toconservewhatremainsoftheenvironmentalcommonsthefollowingshortessayswillidentifythe
misconceptionsthatcurrentlyunderliethemodernizingandecologicallyunsustainableagendaof
publicschoolsanduniversitiesthatareunderminingtheculturalcommons.
Currently,therearefourmainapproachestopreuniversityeducation.Theseincludehome
schooling,nationallymandatedprogramsthatintegratetestbasededucationaloutcomeswiththe
supposedneedsoftheworkplaceinaglobaleconomy,classroomswhereteacherspromotetheidea
thatstudentsshouldconstructtheirownknowledge(computermediatedlearningisseenas
facilitatingthisapproach),andteacherswhosimplyreproducethewayinwhichtheyweretaught.
Attheuniversitylevel,thereareindividualfacultyindifferentdepartmentswhoareaddressing
environmentalissues;butthemajoritycontinuetoteachandwriteasthoughglobalwarmingisnot
occurring.Asanumberofobservershavenoted,ifthereisadirectiontothereformofhigher
educationitisthecloserintegrationbetweenresearchandtheinterestsofthecorporateworld.A
criticismthatcanbemadeevenofenvironmentallyorientedfacultyisthatthereislittleevidence
thattheuniversitysroleinpromotingthehighstatusknowledgethatunderliesthecontinued
expansionoftheindustrial/consumerculturehaschangedorevenbeenseriouslyquestioned.
Ironically,theformsofknowledgeleftoutofthecurriculum,andthusrelegatedtolowstatus,
happenstobewhatsustainstheculturalcommonsthathaveasmalleradverseimpactonnatural
systems.

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Thebasicquestionthateducationalreformersneedtoaskis:Ifanincreaseinthelevelof
consumerismisnotaviableapproachtoslowingglobalwarming,andifacombinationofthepresent
consumerdependentlifestyleandgreaterrelianceonmoreefficientsourcesofenergyandrecycling
inthehomeisnotanadequateresponse,thenwhatarethealternativesthatwillhaveasmaller
environmentalimpact?Ihavesuggestedthatrevitalizingtheculturalcommonsistheonly
alternativethatreducesthelevelofconsumerismandthusdependenceonamoneyeconomythatis
increasinglyunreliable,andisdestructiveofhumanpotentialandofnaturalsystems.
Educationalreformsthatreducedependenceuponaneconomicsystemdrivenbythemarket
liberalideologythathasaglobalagendawillrequiremorethansimplyaddingecological
sustainabilitytothesocialjusticeliberalslonglistofpriorities.AsIhavepointedoutinseveral
booksandarticles,boththemarketliberals(whooutofignoranceidentifythemselvesas
conservatives)andsocialjusticeliberalssharemanyofthesamedeepculturalassumptionsthatthe
industrial/consumercultureisbasedupon.Thus,itisnecessarytorecognizethatecologically
sustainableeducationalreformsbothatthepublicschoolanduniversitylevelwillrequire
fundamentalchangesinlongheldpatternsofthinking,includingthedeeptakenforgrantedcultural
assumptionstheyarebasedupon.
Changesinthesepatternsofthinkingwillbedifficultbecausethepersonalidentitiesandthe
careersofclassroomteachersandprofessorsarebaseduponthem.Thattheseculturalassumptions
arelargelytakenforgrantedmakesthemanevengreaterimpedimenttochange.Whatneedstobe
addressedarethesilencesandprejudicescurrentlyreinforcedinschoolanduniversityclassrooms.
Theseincludetheethnocentrismthatisstillpresentinthecurrentemphasisonmulticultural
educationandthecombinationofsilencesandprejudicesthatcontributetotheindifferencethat
moststudentsexhibittowardecologicallysustainablepracticeswithintheirlocalcommunities.This
indifferencetowardenvironmentalissuesispartlyaresultoftheirbeingcaptivesofmediasponsored
hyperconsumerismandtheabilityoftechnologicalinnovationstoprovideinstantselfgratification
Anyseriousapproachtoreformingeducationinwaysthatleadtolifestylesandcommunities
thatreduceourecologicalfootprint,aswellasaddresssocial/ecojusticeissues,mustbeginwith
questioningsuchkeyconceptsastradition,individualism,progress,liberalism,conservatism,anda
humancenteredworld.Understandingthehistoricalmisconceptionsreproducedinhowthese
conceptsarecurrentlyunderstoodandused,aswellasunderstandingtheimplicationsofsuchnew

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conceptsasecologyandevolutionarecriticaltowhetherwecanchangetheTitanicmindsetthatis
currentlyonacollisioncoursewithglobalwarmingandtheotherdegradedsystemswedepend
upon.
Thestartingplaceforaligningourguidingconcepts(whichneedtobeunderstoodas
metaphorswithinanhistoricallylayeredsystemofrootandiconicmetaphors)istorecognizethe
misconceptionsaboutthenatureoflanguagestillperpetuatedinbothschoolsanduniversities.The
primarymisconceptionisthatlanguageisaconduitinasender/receiverprocessofcommunication.
Thisviewoflanguageisessentialtosustainingothermyths,suchasthewidelyheldideathatthe
rationalprocessisuninfluencedbytheassumptionsoftheculture,thatthereissuchathingas
objectiveknowledgeanddata(asthoughknowledgeanddataatdifferentpointsintheirorigindo
notbeginwithculturallyinfluencedhumanobservationandinterpretation),andthattheindividual
hasthepotential(ifgiventherighteducation)ofbecominganautonomousthinkerandmoralagent.
Theconduitviewoflanguagealsocontributestothelackofawarenessthatsuchwordsastradition,
individualism,progress,democracy,data,etc.haveahistoryandthattheircurrentmeaninghasbeen
framedbyculturallyspecificrootmetaphorsortouseatechnicalphrase,themetacognitive
schemathatoperateslargelyattheunconsciouslevelthinking.Anexampleofhowaschema(or
interpretativeframework)isreproducedinthelanguagingprocessesofaculturecanbeseeninhow
suchsupposedlycuttingedgethinkersasRichardDawkinsandE.O.Wilsonrelyuponthesame
mechanisticmodelofthinkingarticulatedcenturiesagobyNewtonandKepler.Otherexamples
includehowthemythopoeticnarrativeintheBookofGenesiscontinuestobethebasisofthinking
ofahumancenteredworldand,untilrecentlyamongsegmentsofsociety,asjustifyingmale
domination.
InthenextessayIwilldiscussthelayerednatureofmetaphoricalthinkingthatboth
illuminatesandhidesaspectsofhumanexperience,aswellashowlanguagecarriesforwardthe
moraltemplatesoftheculture.InordertoconnectthisdiscussionwiththeargumentIammakingfor
educationalreformsthathelprevitalizethelocalcommonsaswellastheirculturaldiversity,Iwill
focusthediscussionofhowmetaphoricalthinkingoftencarriesforwardthemisconceptionsofthe
pastandthatthemisconceptionsthatcharacterizethecurrentunderstandingofindividualism,
tradition,progress,liberalism,conservatism,andevolution(atleastitsextensiontoincludecultural

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memes)contributetothecurrentsilencesandprejudicesthatinhibitthestudentsabilitytorecognize
thesustainablecharacteristicsoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.
WhatAlGoreMissed:TheEcologicalImportanceoftheCulturalCommons
TherecommendationsforreducingconsumerismthatappearattheendofAlGoresbook,
AnInconvenientTruth,representhowlanguagemaycontributetoenclosingtheculturalcommons.
NoonecandenythatGoreslistofbehaviorsforreducingconsumerismissoundcommonsense.
Butalistofwhatthoughtfulpeoplearealreadydoing,suchasbuyingthingsthatlast,composting,
buyinglocal,andbagginggroceriesinareusabletotebag,isnosubstituteforsuggestingamore
radicalapproachtoreducingourdependenceupontheconsumerismthatiscontributingtoglobal
warmingwhichhisbookdocumentssowell.
Goredoesnotmentionthediversityoftheworldsculturalcommons,andhowthe
intergenerationalknowledge,skills,andmentoringrelationshipsthatarethebasisofmanyofthese
commonsrepresentcommunitycenteredalternativestobeingdependentuponindustrialfood,
entertainment,agriculturalpractices,healing,andotheraspectsofdailylifethathavebeen
monetized.Goressilenceabouttheecologicalimportanceoftheculturalcommonsshouldnotbe
takenasasignofhisdisagreementwiththispreandpostindustrialpathwayofhumanhistory.A
moreplausibleexplanationisthathisformaleducationfailedtoprovidethelanguagenecessaryfor
makingexplicitthelocalculturalcommonsbasedexperiencesthatarelargelytakenforgranted.As
mostpeoplereadinghislistofconsumerreducingrecommendationsarelikelytobeunawareofthe
importanceoftheculturalcommonsheoverlooks,thequestionarisesabouttheculpabilityofour
publicschoolsanduniversities.Iftheeducationalprocessdoesnotprovidestudentswiththe
languagenecessaryfornamingandthusmakingexplicittheculturalcommonstheywillotherwise
takeforgranted,theywillbelesslikelytorecognizewhendifferentaspectsofthecommonshave
beenenclosedbymarketforces,andbyagovernmentmovingclosertoequatingresistancetothe
marketliberalagendaofeconomicglobalizationwithterrorism.
TheformaleducationofmostAmericanshaslefttheminthedoublebindwhere
participationinthedailypracticesandrelationshipsoftheirlocalculturalcommonshavebeen
relegatedtotheareaofconceptualsilence,whilethelanguagethatisreinforcedinpublicschools
anduniversitiesisthelanguageofthemarketplace,technologicalinnovation,expertsystems,and
mediahype.Evidenceofhowwidespreadthepublicsinabilitytonamethedifferentaspectsofthe

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culturalcommons,andtoexplainwhytheyareimportantintermsofthenarrativesthatareoften
(butnotalways)sourcesofmoralguidance,traditionsofcivilliberties,andskillsandmutual
supportiverelationshipsthatarealternativestoconsumerismcanbefoundbyaskingclassroom
teachersandmostuniversityprofessorswhattheyunderstandaboutthenatureofthecultural
commons.Ihavefoundthatmostofthemrespondwithblankstarestoanyattempttodiscussthe
culturalcommons.Afewbooksarenowbeingwrittenabouttheimportanceoftheenvironmental
commons,aswellasmanyarticlesthatexaminehowdifferentculturesaremanagingwhatremains
oftheirenvironmentalcommons.Thisrenewedinterestinthecommonshasnotinfluencedwhatis
beingtaughtinpublicschoolsanduniversities,astheyarestillinthegripoflinguistictraditionsthat
wereeithersilentabouttheculturalcommonsorwereprejudicedtowardthem.Totakethecultural
commonsseriouslyistoidentifywithwhatuniversitiescontinuetodesignateaslowstatusandas
thesourceofsuperstitionandbackwardness.
Aspointedoutinapreviousessay,themetaphoricalnatureoflanguagecarriesforwardover
manygenerationstheanalogsthatprevailedatanearliertimeofmetaphoricalthinkingofhowto
understandsomethingnew.AnexampleisthewayinwhichE.O.WilsonandRichardDawkins
continuetoreproduceintheirwritingsthemisconceptionsofNewtonandKeplerwhoassumed
wronglythatallaspectsoflifecouldbeunderstoodashavingthesamepropertiesasamachine.Few
professorsandevenfewerclassroomteachersunderstandhowthemetaphoricalnatureofthe
languagetheyrelyuponcarriesforwardthemisconceptionsofthepast.Unfortunately,manyof
thesemisconceptionsareresponsibleforthesilencesandprejudicesthatcharacterizemanypeoples
relationshipswiththeirlocalculturalcommons.Inrecentmonthswehavewitnessedimportant
aspectsoftheculturalcommons,suchasthetraditionsofhabeascorpusandtherighttoprivacy,
beingenclosedwithlittleornoreactionfromthegeneralpublic.Narrativesofsocialjustice
struggles,aswellasethnictraditionsrelatedtothesharingoffoodandmutualsupport,arealso
beingenclosedbytheincreasingrelianceontechnologicallymediatedcommunicationand
entertainment(e.g.cellphones,iPods,computergaming,etc.).
Ifweexaminetheideas,silences,andprejudicesofinfluentialthinkersintheWest,suchas
Plato,Descartes,Locke,Smith,Spencer,andmorerecentphilosophers,wefindthattheyviewed
localknowledgeasasourceofbackwardness.Theysharedaprejudicethatmarginalizedthe
knowledgesystemsofothercultureswhichalsoreducedthepossibilitythatwewouldunderstand

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theecologicalimportanceoftheirculturalcommons.WhatPlato,Descartes,andLockereinforcedis
thatthereisnothingtobelearnedfromtraditions;andthey,alongwithSmith,Spencerandrecent
philosopherssuchasRichardRorty,reinforcedtheideathatwordshaveuniversalmeaningsquite
separatefromtheirculturalcontext.Ineffect,theseearlyphilosophersandpoliticaltheorists
elevatedtheuseofabstractlanguageoverthevernacularlanguagesbuiltupovergenerationsof
placebasedexperiences.Thislegacyofabstractlanguageandthinkingisnowusedtojustifythe
enclosureoftheculturalcommonsaroundtheworld.Thisabstractlanguageincludessuchwordsas
individualism,privateproperty,freemarkets,criticalinquiry,progress,competitionwhichisthe
vocabularyofmarketliberalism.Thisliberalvocabularyisbasedonculturalassumptionsstill
reinforcedinmostuniversitycourses.Whatthisvocabularymarginalizesarethewordsessentialto
understandingthenatureandimportanceoftheculturalcommonsasrepresentingalternativesto
economicglobalization.Thisalternativevocabularyincludesamoreculturallyinformed
understandingoftradition,conservinganintergenerationallyconnectedformofindividualism,non
monetizedactivitiesandpatternsofmutualsupport,moralreciprocitybetweenthehumanandnon
humanworld.Itis,inessence,thevocabularyofconnectednessandinterdependencythatisbasicto
howweparticipateinourlocalculturalandenvironmentalcommons.
Anotherwayinwhichthelanguagereinforcedinoureducationalinstitutionscontributesto
thesilencefoundinGoreslistofrecommendationsisthat,contrarytotheconduitviewoflanguage,
thelanguagingsystemsofaculturereproduceitsmoraltemplates.Thus,learningthelanguageofthe
culturealsoinvolvesacquiringthemoraltemplatessharedbyothermembersoftheculture.
Languagingprocessesareabouthowrelationshipsshouldbeunderstoodandmorallyconducted.
Keytothisprocessishowwordsencodewhatisunderstoodbymembersofthecultureaboutthe
attributesoftheparticipantsintherelationships.Tomakethisassimpleaspossible,iftheword
womanisunderstoodasnothavingtheattributesofintelligenceandstrength,thenthemoralcode
ofthecultureallowstreatingwomenasinferiortomen.Ifthewordsweed,wilderness,and
desertareunderstoodaslackingpositiveattributes,thenitismorallysoundtoeradiatetheweed,
exploitthewilderness,andtousethedesertasatoxicwastesite.Thefateoftheculturalcommons
hassimilarlybeeninfluencedbythemoraltemplatesreproducedinthehighstatusvocabulary
reinforcedinoureducationalinstitutions.Ifthephraseculturalcommonshasnodiscernable
positiveattributes,thenithasnomoralstandingandattentionwillbefocusedonthelanguagethat

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identifiesthemanymanifestationsofmaterialprogresseventhoughthisformofprogressis
underminingtheecosystemsthatweandfuturegenerationsrelyupon.Goresoversightmustnotbe
viewedashisfailuretolearnfromhisprofessors;hisfailureisintakingthemtooseriouslyandin
reproducingtheirsilences.
Thenextessaywillfocusonhowtheeducationalusesofcomputerscontributeto
underminingtheculturalcommons,aswellastheabilityofteachers/professorstohelpstudents
acquirethecommunicativecompetencenecessaryforresistingtheformsofenclosurethatleadto
furtherdegradingtheenvironmentandforreformingthetraditionsoftheculturalcommonsthatare
sourcesofinjustice.
HowPublicSchoolsandUniversitiesCanContributetoReducingConsumerism
Earlieressaysdiscussedthenatureoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsaswellashow
universitiesestablishwhatconstituteshighstatusknowledgewhileatthesametimerelegatingtolow
statusthefacetoface,intergenerationalandlargelynonmonetizedknowledgeandrelationshipsthatare
partofeverylocalculturalcommons.Themanyenvironmentallyorientedcoursesnowofferedinmost
universitiesalsodeservecommentbeforeIsuggestthedirectionthateducationalreformneedstotakeifitis
torectifythesilencesinAlGoresthinkingabouthowtoreduceconsumerism.Mostdepartmentsin
universitiesnowofferenvironmentallyorientedcourseswherestudentsmaystudythehistoryof
environmentalthought,ecocriticism,environmentalethics,environmentalsociology,religionandecology,
andsoforth.Thesecourses,asimportantastheyare,shareacommonlimitation;namely,theyaretaught
withintheconceptualframeworkoftheprofessorsacademicdiscipline.
Amajorlimitationofthisapproachisthatnoneoftheacademicdisciplineshavemadethecultural
commonsthemainfocusofstudy.Thatis,fewifanyfocusonhowpeoplecanlivelessconsumerdependent
lives,andhowconservingtheworldsdiversityofculturalcommonsisessentialtolivinginasustainable
relationshipwiththenaturalsystems.Thereisasimilarlackoffocusonthedifferentformsofenclosure
thatrangefromtheintroductionofnewtechnologies,modernizingideologies,toreligiousfundamentalism.
Thepromotionofhighstatusknowledge,withitsemphasisonreinforcingthesameculturalassumptions
thatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytotheindustrialrevolutionthatisnowbeingglobalized,
hasresultedinuniversitiesbeingmajorcontributorstotheenvironmentalcrises.Unfortunately,manyofthe
professorswhoareaddressingenvironmentalissueswithintheconceptualframeworkoftheirdisciplinestill

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promotethesedeep,takenforgrantedculturalassumptionsaboutindividualism,theprogressivenatureof
change,theethnocentrismimplicitintheirviewoftherationalprocessandcriticalinquiryastheonetrue
approachtoknowledge,andtheconduitviewoflanguage.
Theseassumptionsarealsoresponsibleforthemisrepresentationsthatimpedetheabilityofmost
studentstorecognizetheecologicalimportanceofthelocalculturalcommonsandthedifferentformsof
nonmonetizedwealththataccompanythediscoveryofpersonalinterestsandtalents,participatingin
mentoringrelationships,andinbecomingmoreintergenerationallyconnectedandresponsible.Unlessthey
arepartofareligiousandethnicgroupthatvaluestraditionsasessentialtotheiridentityandsenseof
community,moststudentswillleavetheuniversitywiththeideathattraditionsareimpedimentstoprogress.
Andmostwilltakeforgrantedtheassumptionsthatunderliebothmarketandsocialjusticeliberalism
withfewbeingawareofthetraditionsofconservativethinkingthatunderliethechecksandbalancessystem
ofgovernment,theConstitution,andthatthereisaconnectionbetweenthinkingofEdmundBurkeand
WendellBerry.Indeed,moststudentswillreproducetheformulaicthinkingoftheirprofessorsthatleadsto
labelingthemarketliberalismofPresidentGeorgeW.BushandthinktankssuchastheAmericanEnterprise
Instituteasconservative.Norwilltheyrecognizetheimportanceofaskingwhatthesefauxconservatives
wanttoconserve
Thefollowingisabriefintroductiontotheeducationalreformsthatneedtobeundertakeniffuture
graduatesaretoavoidthenavethinkingfoundinAlGoresrecommendationsforreducingconsumerism.
Asthelimitedspacehereallowsforonlyanoverviewofthesereforms;ifanyoneisinterestedinamore
extendeddiscussiontheyshouldgotohttp://cabowers.net/andclickonHandbook.Thebasicfocusof
educationalreformsshouldbetoeducatestudentstounderstandthedifferencesinhowthelocalcultural
commonsandtheindustrial/consumercultureimpactnaturalsystemsaswellashowtheyinfluence
communitytraditionsofselfrelianceandmutualsupport.Thatis,educationalreformsneedtohelpstudents
understandhowthedifferentaspectsofthelocalculturalcommonsenablethemtolivelessmoney
dependentandlessenvironmentallydestructivelives.Theyalsoneedtolearnaboutwhythediversityofthe
worldsculturalcommonsaresitesofresistancetotheforcesofeconomicglobalizationthatareaddingto
globalwarming.
Whatiscriticallyimportantatthistimeisforstudentstoacquirethebackgroundknowledgethatwill
enablethemtorecognizewhatisbeinglostwhendifferenttraditionsoftheculturalcommonsarebeing

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underminedbyeconomicandideologicalforces.Thatmoststudents,aswellasadults,participateintheir
localculturalcommonsatatakenforgrantedlevelofawarenesscreatesaspecialchallengeforclassroom
teachersanduniversityprofessors.Inadditiontobeingabletomakeexplicitthelargelynonmonetized
activitiesandrelationshipsthatareatthecenterofcommunitylife,classroomteachersandprofessorsalso
willneedthebackgroundknowledgenecessaryforhelpingstudentstobecomeexplicitlyawareofthe
differencesintheirexperiencesastheymovebetweenthenonmonetizedandmonetizedsubcultures.That
is,asmediatorstheyneedtohelpstudentsrecognizethedifferences betweenfoodpreparedinaccordance
withtraditionalrecipesandindustrialpreparedfood,betweenvolunteeringinacommunityprojectand
workinginahighlystructuredjob,betweendevelopingtheirowncreativetalentsandpurchasinga
commerciallyproducedartisticcreation,betweentheexperienceofbeingfreeofconstantsurveillanceand
beingunderconstantsurveillance,betweentheexperienceofbeinginnocentuntilprovenguiltyandthe
possibilitythatbecauseofamistakeinidentityonemightbeimprisonedwithoutlegalrecourse.Theseare
onlyafewofthefundamentaldifferencesbetweentheculturalcommonsandmarketorientedculturethat
needtobeclarified.
However,itisnotjustamatterofrecognizingdifferences.Rather,theteacher/professorsroleasa
mediatoralsoincludesencouragingstudentstomakeexplicitandthusnamethedifferencesinhowtheir
experiencesinthetwosubculturesinfluencethedevelopmentoftheirpersonaltalents,thenatureoftheir
relationswithothers,aswellhowtheexperiencesinthetwosubculturesinfluencetheirsenseof
empowerment,dependency,andsocialjustice.Justasfeministsbecameempoweredwhentheybeganto
namethedifferentexpressionsofgenderbias,beingabletonamewhatisotherwiseexperiencedasthe
takenforgrantedisthefirststeptobecomingcommunicativecompetentandthustorevitalizinglocal
democracyasakeyelementinthelocalculturalcommons.
Mediatingbetweenthestudentsexperiencesmeanshelpingstudentsexaminethepracticesinboth
thenonmonetizedandmonetizedsubculturesintermsofwhatcontributestoanecologicallysustainable
future.Someoftheachievementsoftheindustrialculturewillberecognizedasworthretainingwhile
others,suchthepatentingofgenelinesandthecreationofterminatorseedswillbeseenasaddingto
povertyandasenvironmentallydestructive.Similarly,therewillbeaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthat
needtobereformedorrejectedentirely.

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Thefocusonwhatissustainablealsorequiresthatthepublicschoolteacheranduniversityprofessor
beabletoclarifythehistoricalandideologicalforcesthatunderliethevariousformsofenclosurethatturn
theculturalcommonsintocommoditiesandexpertservicesthatrequireparticipatinginthemoney
economy.Learningaboutthetensionsandinterdependenciesbetweenthetwosubculturesstudents
participateinonadailybasisisprofoundlydifferentfromaneducationthatintroducesstudentstothe
abstractknowledgethatistoooftenbasedontheintellectualinterestsoftheirprofessorsordesignersof
curriculummaterials.Forexample,becausefewphilosophyprofessorshaveaninterestinthecultural
commonsstudentsareunlikelytolearnhowWesternphilosopherscontributedtoprivilegingavocabulary
thatislargelyresponsibleforthesilencesabouttheimportanceoftheculturalcommonsandforthe
ethnocentrismthathasprejudicedstudentstothinkingthatthereisnothingtolearnfromotherculturesabout
howtolivemoreecologicallycenteredlives.Noraretheylikelytolearnfromprofessorsinotherdisciplines
howotheraspectsoftheculturalcommonshavebeenenclosed.Aspointedoutearlier,theprejudices
inherentinthedifferentdisciplinesframewhatwillbethefocusofattentionandwhatismarginalized.Our
futureprospectswilldependinpartonlearningtorenewtheculturalcommonsthathavebeenmarginalized
bymostacademicdisciplines.
HowtheEducationalUsesofComputersUndermineLearningAbout
theCulturalandEnvironmentalcommons
Beforeexplainingwhystudentsneedtounderstandthedifferencesbetweencomputermediated
thinkingandcommunication,andthefacetoface,intergenerationallyconnectedrelationshipsthatarepart
oftheprocessofrenewingtheculturalcommonsitisimportanttoexplainattheoutsetwhycomputers
shouldnotbeviewedasaculturallyneutraltechnology.Liketheuseofothertechnologies,theyselectfor
amplificationcertainaspectsofhumanexperience,whilereducingothers.Thecanstore,model,schedule,
retrieve,design,monitor,andcommunicateinformationanddataovervastdifferences,aswellasperform
manyotherusefulfunctions.Buttheyhaveseriouslimitations,suchbeingunabletoreproduceembodied
experiences,differencesinculturalcontexts,tacitunderstandings,thecomplexmessagesthatarepartoforal
communication,thehistoryoftheanlogsencodedinthelanguagethatappearsonthescreen,mentoring
relationships.InadditiontoreinforcingaCartesianwayofthinkingthatprivilegestheindividuals
perspectiveandsenseofagency,anditsincreasinginfluentialroleinbringingmoreofeverydaylifeunder
constantsurveillancebygovernmentandcorporations,otherlimitationsofcomputermediatedlearningcan

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betracedtotheculturalassumptionsofthepeoplewhowritethesoftwarewhichoftengounnoticed
becauseofthewaythatprintreinforcestheideathatwhatappearsonthescreenisobjectiveandfactual.
IntheshortspaceallowedhereIwillfocusonsomeofthepositivecharacteristicsofcomputers
whentheyareusedinclassroomsandinonlinecourses,andthendiscusswhycomputersunderminethe
classroomteachersandprofessorsmediatingroleinhelpingstudentsrecognizethedifferencesbetween
theirexperiencesintheculturalcommonsandintheindustrialconsumerculturetheyalsoparticipateinona
dailybasis.Intheuppergradesaswellasinuniversityclasses,theroleoftheteacherandprofessor
continuesmuchasbeforecomputersappearedonthescene.Assignmentsareexpandedbyusingthe
computeraresearchtoolthatprovidesaccesstoawiderrangeofinformationincludingalreadywritten
papersthatstudentscandownloadandhandinasevidenceoftheirowndiligentefforts.When
communicationbetweentheprofessorandstudentisonline,computerschangetherelationshipin
fundamentalways.Onlinerelationshipshavetheadvantageofmarginalizingskincolor,aswellasthe
clothesandbodylanguagethatcommunicatesocialclassesandethnicdifferencesthatsometimesarethe
basisofprejudicialjudgmentsonthepartoftheteacherandprofessor.Computersalsotendtomakethe
relationshipbetweenstudentsandteacher/professorlesshierarchical,aswellasfreeingstudentstoexchange
ideaswitheachotherratherthanwithanauthorityfigurestandinginthefrontoftheroom.Ideasand
questionscanbeexchangedwithoutbecomingpartofthepowerrelationsthatarecommunicatedthrough
thebodylanguagethatisoftenmisinterpretedandthusdamagingtoachievingmutualunderstandingofwhat
isbeingdiscussed.
Whatmaynotoccurtotheprofessors,ortotheadministratorseverinsearchofnewmarketsfrom
whichtodrawstudents,isthattheonlinecoursesrepresentaformofculturalcolonizationtotheideathat
educationautomaticallytranslatesintoahighermaterialstandardofliving.Thecolonizationtothe
industrial/consumermindsettakestwoforms:thatofeducatingstudentstotakenforgrantedWestern
assumptionsincludingtheassumptionsthatWesterntechnologiesandwaysofthinkingarethemost
progressiveandenlightenedintheworld.Theotherformofcolonizationthatonlineeducationpromotesis
thewayitrepresentsbothdirectlyandindirectlytheknowledge,practices,andactivitiesoftheworlds
diverseculturalcommonsastheexpressionofbackwardnesseventhoughtheculturalcommonsare,in
manyinstances,astorehouseofknowledgeabouthowtolivetheselfsufficient/lessconsumerlifestylethat
globalwarmingwilleventuallyforceallculturestoadopt.Indeed,atalllevelsoftheeducationalprocess,

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andinallcultures,themessageiscontinuallyreinforcedthatcomputermediatedthinkingand
communicationisessentialtoearningalivingintheglobaleconomy.
Insummary,whenwebegintoconsidertherelationshipsandformsofknowledgethatarepartofthe
processofmediatingbetweenthetwodifferentculturalorientations,wefindthatcomputersareextremely
limiting.Incomparingthelimitationsofcomputerbasedlearningtowhatisrequiredwhenteachersand
professorsviewtheirresponsibilityasmediatingbetweenthestudentsexperienceatheymovebetweenthe
twoculturalorientations,wefindthefollowing:(1)Asmediatorsteachersandprofessorsneedanindepth
knowledgeofthelocalculturethatotherstakeforgrantedincludingthetakenforgrantedconceptualand
materialisticmoralfoundationsofthecultureofconsumerismaswellasthemoraltraditionsthatarethe
legacyofsocialjusticeachievementsthatarepartoftheculturalcommons..(2)Themediatingprocessalso
requiresfacetofacequestioning,sharingofinsights,developingthelanguagefornamingwhatpreviously
wastheunnamedandunrecognizedpartofexperience,andthecontinualcomparingoftheabstract
representationsofeverydayexperiencewithembodiedexperiences.Noneoftheserequirementscanbemet
bytheexpertswhowritethesoftware,astheywillbeunabletorepresentaccuratelythelocalexperiences,
culturalcontexts,andthecharacteristicsofthebioregion.Thebesttheycandoisconstructabstract
scenariosandmodelsthatmayreplicatecertainculturalpatternsofdecisionmakingbuttheywillstillbe
abstractandthusreinforcethespectatorandgameorientedmentalityofstudents.
Theuseofconstructivisttheoriestojustifytheincreasingrelianceuponcomputersisalso
problematic.Overtheyears,constructivistapproachestolearninginthechildcenteredclassroomsdidnot
leadstudentstoaskaboutracismandgenderbias,norweretheyconcernedaboutthedestructionofthe
culturalandenvironmentalcommonsthatwerecomingunderassaultbythenewtechnologiesandmarket
forces.Learningabouttheskillsandaccumulatedknowledgeconnectedwithmostculturalcommons
activitieswillbebeyondthegraspofstudentswhohavebeenindoctrinatedintobelievingthattheycanonly
findoppressionandthestuntingoftheircreativeinsightsiftheylearnfromthetraditionsoftheir
community.Thequestionsthatshouldhavebeenaskedbytheearlyprogressiveeducators,andbytodays
proponentsofconstructivistcomputerbasedlearningare:Willrelianceuponthestudentsimmediate
experienceandinsightsenablethemtolearnaboutthemedicinalcharacteristicsofdifferentplants,howto
performtheskillsconnectedwiththebuildingtrades,howtoprepareamealthathastherightnutritional
ingredients,howtosetupaloomandtoplayagameofchess,andthecivilrightstheyshouldprotect?Will

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theybeabletorecognizethepoliticalchangesthatcharacterizedhowotherdemocraticsocietiesallowed
themselvestobetransformedintofascistsocieties?Whattheconstructivistorientedclassroomteacherswill
notdooutoffearofimposingtheirknowledgeonsupposedlyvulnerablestudentsistoasktheimportant
questions,andtointroducestudentstoanunderstandingofthehistoricalforcesthatcontinuetoinfluence
presentwaysofthinking.Andthisisexactlywhattheroleofmediatorrequirestoaskthequestionsabout
thetakenforgrantedandecologicallyproblematicaspectsoftheculturethatfewifanystudentshavethe
backgroundknowledgetoask.Itisinknowingwhattheimportantquestionsarewhattakenforgranted
waysofthinkingandexperienceneedtobenamedandthuscriticallyexamined,whatneedstobechanged
andwhatneedstobeintergenerationallyrenewedthatmakestheconstructivistapproachtoteachingand
learningsoinadequate.Indeed,giventhesilencesaboutthenatureoftheecologicalcrisesthatcharacterize
thethinkingofconstructivistlearningadvocates,itwouldnotbeincorrecttosaythattheirapproachisan
exampleoftheculturallyandecologicallyuninformedleadingthosewholackthebackgroundfor
recognizingwhatishappeningtotheenvironmentonaglobalscale.
Computerbasedlearningprovidesaccesstoimportantandtowhatisoftenmisleadinginformation,
aswellasasenseofanabstractcommunitythatreducespersonalvulnerabilities.However,itcanneverbe
thebasisforlearningabouttheexperientialdifferencesbetweentheculturalcommonsandamoney
dependentexistenceorabouttheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisisthatthecomputer,aswellasthe
peoplewhouseit,arecomplicitindeepening.
WesternPhilosophers,theTitanicMindSet,andtheUpcomingCollisionwithEnvironmentalLimits
Thechangesoccurringinthenaturalsystemswedependuponfromglobalwarmingtothechanges
inthechemistryoftheoceans,andnowtotherapiddeclineinplantpollinatorssuggestthatourproblems
aremuchdeeperthanrelyinguponoutdatedcarbonemittingtechnologies.Onefeaturecommontoallforms
ofenvironmentaldegradationisthatthesechangeshavebeenoccurringoverhundredsofyears,withtherate
ofchangeacceleratinginrecentyears.Thatis,thechangeshavebeenpartoftheenvironmentalcontext
withinwhichpeoplesliveshavebeenembedded.Yet,withtheexceptionofrecentscientificreportsandthe
effortsofenvironmentallyawarecitizens,thelanguagethatorganizespeopleswaysofthinking(including
thelanguagereinforcedinpublicschoolsandmostuniversityclasses)continuestomarginalizean
awarenessoflocalenvironmentalcontexts.Italsomarginalizesawarenessofthedifferencesbetween

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embodiedexperiencesintheculturalcommonsandinthecultureofindustriallyproducedproductsand
services.WhatwillbeaddressedhereishowthetraditionofWesternphilosophyhascontributedtothe
patternofcontextfreethinking,andtorelianceonmetaphorsthatencodeanalogsthatwereconstituted
beforetherewasanawarenessofenvironmentallimits.
ThewayWesternphilosopherscontributedtoatraditionofabstractthinkingthatisnowputtingus
onacollisioncoursewithenvironmentallimitsdeservesamoreextendedtreatmentthantheseshortpages
allows.Thus,readersmayfinditusefultoreadthechapterwithasimilartitleinmyonlinebook,Critical
EssaysontheEnclosingoftheCulturalcommons,IshalltouchonthefeaturesofkeyWesternphilosophers
whocontributedtothepatternofthinkingthatassumedthatwords,suchasrationality,individualism,
progress,freedom,development,etc.,haveauniversalmeaningthattranscendsdifferentculturalcontexts.
Platomadeamajorcontributiontothistraditionofmarginalizingtheculturalandenvironmentalcontexts
thathaveinfluencedthelanguageandthoughtpatternsofmanynonWesterncultureswhenheintroduced
theideaofpurethinkingaboutarealitythatisindependentofexperienceandoftheculturaland
environmentalecologyitisalwaysembeddedinasGregoryBatesonargues.Platoalsocontributedto
threeothertraditionsthatstrengthenedtheWesternprejudicesandsilencesaboutthenatureandimportance
oftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Theseincludehisrejectionofnarrativesandpoetryas
unreliablesourcesofknowledge,hisargumentsthatindirectlymarginalizedtheimportanceof
intergenerationalknowledge(traditions),hissilenceaboutthenatureofotherculturalwaysofknowing
(whichwerepartofhisculturalworld),andthewaysinwhichculturesdegradedtheenvironmentsthey
dependedupon.
DescartesandLockefurtherstrengthenedtheideathatintergenerationalknowledge,whichthey
understoodastraditions,isanimpedimenttotheefficacyoftheirrespectiveapproachestoknowledge.
TheyalsocontinuedPlatossilencesaboutotherculturalwaysofknowing,andthedangersofdegrading
naturalsystems.Iftheseexamplesappearunrelatedtomyargumentthatthesephilosophers,alongwith
AdamSmithandJohnStuartMill(amongothers)contributedtothecurrenttraditionofrelyinguponan
abstractvocabularythatcontinuestomarginalizeanawarenessofculturalandenvironmentalcontexts,I
suggesttheyreadcurrentphilosopherssuchasJohnDeweyandRichardRortyandevenscientistssuchas
E.O.WilsonandFrancisCrick.Readersshouldalsoexaminehowmanycurrentphilosophersareawareof
otherculturalwaysofknowing,thenatureandimportanceoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons

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and,mostimportantly,howthemeaningassociatedwithsuchmetaphorsasindividualism,tradition,
intelligence,conservatism,liberalism,progress,andsoforth,arebasedontheanalogsthatwereconstituted
duringtheperiodofEnlightenmentthinking.Thislackofawarenessoftheculturalcommonsalsoaccounts
forwhyphilosophershavebeensoslowtorecognizethoseaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthatwere(and
continuetobe)sourcesofinjusticesuchasthetraditionofpatriarchy,racism,culturalcolonization,and
theecologicalcrises.
Thisbriefoverviewofthesilencesandprejudicesthathavecharacterizedthetraditionofmainstream
Westernphilosophybringsustothenextquestion:namely,howcanwebegintorelyuponametaphorical
languagethatisinformedbycurrentanalogsratherthantheanalogsderivedfromthethinkingofPlato,
Descartes,Lockeandotherphilosopherstaughtinouruniversities?Theproblemismademoredifficultby
thefactthatcurrentanalogsareoftenmisleading,andmayhavelongtermnegativeconsequences.For
example,someprominentscientistsnowarguethatculturesarealsosubjecttotheprocessofnatural
selectionbyclaimingthatculturalpatternsarememesthatmustmeetthesametestofDarwinianfitnessas
genes.Theirextensionofthetheoryofnaturalselectionprovidesapowerfulanalogformarketliberals
whoclaimthatcorporationsshouldonlybeheldaccountabletomeetingNaturestestofsurvivalofthe
fittest.Usingthecomputerasananalogforhowtothinkaboutthehumanbrainisalsoprofoundly
misleading.
GregoryBatesonandCliffordGeertzprovidetwoimportantinsightsthatmaycontributetoamore
accountableuseofthemetaphorsthatplaysuchanimportantroleinframinghowwethinkandin
determiningwhatisbeingmarginalizedorrelegatedtotherealmofsilence.Batesonsinsightwasaboutthe
natureofdoublebindthinking.Doublebindthinking,asheexplains,reliesuponanalogsformedinthe
distantpastbythinkersengagedinearlierpoliticaldebates,andwhowereunabletoaccountofourcurrent
culturalandecologicalcontext.Thus,theanalogsderivedfromtheideasofclassicalliberalthinkers,which
manyoftodaysmarketliberals,andevenenvironmentalists,takeforgrantedcanbetracedbacktothe
analogsderivedfromthewritingsofLocke,Smith,andHerbertSpencer(whocoinedthephrasesurvivalof
thefittest).Tociteyetanotherexample,themetaphortraditionstillcarriesforwardtheanalogsofthe
earlyEnlightenmentthinkerswhoassociatedtraditionswiththechurch,privilegesofthearistocracy,andthe
GreatChainofBeingthatlimitedpeoplesopportunities.Ineffect,overcomingdoublebindthinking
involvesunderstandingthatthelanguageweusemaycarryforwardthemisconceptionsofthepast.

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Overcomingtheproblemofdoublebindthinkingrequiresdrawingfromcurrentexperiencesinthematrixof
culturalandecologicalpatternstheanalogsthatwillconnectourpoliticaldiscourseandpolicieswiththe
realitieswenowfacewhichmeansrecognizingthatprogress(unliketheEnlightenmentview)often
introduceschangesinotherpartsofthelayeredandinterdependentecologicalsystemsthatmaybe
destructive.
Geertzsideaofthickdescriptionisalsorelevanttoensuringthatourmetaphorsarebasedon
analogsthattakeaccountofourcurrentsituationoflivinginaculturallyandecologicaldiverseworld.
Thickdescriptioninvolvesconsideringallthebackground(historyofpreviousrelationships,memory,class
andsocialstatus,genderissues,etc.)thatneedstobetakenintoaccountinunderstandingthedifference
betweenaninvoluntarywinkandtheinfluencesonandthepurposeofthewinkthatisintentional.Thick
descriptionalsoneedstobeusedinidentifyingthepatterns,history,politicalissues,andalltherestofthe
ecologyofrelationshipsandideasthatcanserveasanalogsforunderstandingsuchtermsasindividualism,
freedom,progress,traditions,intergenerationalknowledge,thecommons,conservatismandliberalism,data,
andsoon.Ifweweretodoathickdescriptionofwhatitmeanstobeanindividual,free,toprogress,tobea
liberaloraconservative,andsoon,thattakeaccountofthemultiplelayersofrelationshipsandtakenfor
grantedtraditionsthatarepartofcontextandtacitdimensionsoftheexperiencecommonlyassociatedwith
thesemetaphorsthequestionofwhichanalogswouldbethemoreaccurate.Thosederivedfromthe
Enlightenmentthinkersorfromtheprocessofthickdescription?Whatexampleswouldwecomeupwithin
termsofsayingthatourexperienceofbeinganindividualislikethisexperience?Wouldthethick
descriptionalsoenableustorecognizethatourindividualismisalwayspartofalargerecologyof
interdependentrelationshipsincludingthelanguagederivedfromearliernonecologicallyawaretheorists
whoignoredcontext,tacitunderstandingsandthetakenforgrantednatureofmostculturallymediated
humanexperience?
Westernphilosophersputusonthepathofdoublebindthinking,andouruniversitiescontinueto
ignorethatourcontextfreemetaphorsthatarethebasisofsomuchcontemporarythinkingneedtomeetthe
testofthickdescriptionandthattheprocessofthickdescriptionneedstoincludetheecologicalfootprint
ofhumanbehaviorthatisbasedontheanalogsderivedfromtheEnlightenment.
TranslatingTheoryintoEcologicallySustainableEducationalPractices

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Thepreviousessayexplainedhowmetaphorscarryforwardtheanalogsthatarethesourceofdouble
bindthinkingtoday,andonhowtheprocessofthickdescriptionisessentialtoestablishingcurrentandmore
ecologicallysustainableanalogs,packedalotintoafewshortsentences.Admittedly,theessaymadefor
prettydensereading.Nevertheless,itprovidestheconceptualframeworkforunderstandingwhysomuchof
whatislearnedinpublicschoolsanduniversitiesreinforcesthesamemindsetthatcontinuestobeamajor
contributortothedeepeningecologicalcrises.
Toreviewthechiefcharacteristicofdoublebindthinking:itinvolvesrelyingupontheanalogs
constitutedinthedistantpastwhentherewasnounderstandingofenvironmentallimits,thenatureand
ecologicalimportanceoftheculturalcommons,thediversityofculturalwaysofknowingandthusoftheir
culturalcommons.TheseanalogsalsocarriedforwardwhatEnlightenmentthinkersmarginalizedand
fundamentallymisrepresentedassourcesofbackwardness:namelysuchwordsastradition,conserving,
intergenerationalknowledge,communitycenteredtechnologies,etc.Therolethatthickdescriptionplaysin
overcominghowlanguagebasedonabstractandlongheldanalogsreproducestodaythemisconceptionsof
thepastistheotherkeyidea.Anexampleofhowwords(metaphors)reproducethemisconceptionsand
prejudicesofthepastcanbeseeninhowthewordLudditeisstillusedtodaytodismisspeopleasbeing
againsttechnology.WhattheLudditeswerereallyagainstwasindustrialtechnologythatthreatenedtheir
skillsandtherhythmsandinterdependenciesofcommunitylife.Examplesofhowthickdescription
underminestheuseofabstractions(thatiswordsmetaphorsusedtodayinaformulaicway)canbeseen
inthewayfeministsdescribedthehistoryofbias,exploitation,andmarginalization.Thickdescriptionled
tounderstandingthewordwomenashavingmanypossibilitiesandtalentsandthusnotlimitedtothe
stereotypethatwasencodedintheearlierformulaicuseoftheword.Thickdescription,ineffect,
problematizestheuseofstereotypesthatcarryforwardtheanalogsformedatanearliertime.Metaphors
usedtodaythatareinneedofbeingsubjectedtothickdescriptionincludethinkingofthebrainaslikea
machineandoperatingonsoftware,culturalpatternsaslikememes,andpatriotismassupporting
thePresidentsforeignpoliciesofaggression.
Thequestionnowiswhyshouldtheclassroomteacheranduniversityprofessorunderstandthe
natureofdoublebindthinking?Andequallyimportant,whenshouldtheyencouragestudentstofindmore
currentandecologicallyinformedanalogsbyengaginginathickdescriptionofwordswhosehistorically
derivedanalogsareotherwisetakenforgranted?Again,thismaysoundlikeaheavydutydiscussionthat

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wouldonlyinterestanacademic;buttherealityisthattheserelationshipsneedtobeunderstoodifweareto
takeseriouslyAlbertEinsteinsobservationthatyoucannotusethesamemindsettoresolvetheproblems
thatwerecreatedbythatmindset.Toputitmoredirectly,classroomteachersanduniversityprofessors
needtohelpstudentsidentifycurrentanalogiesthatreflectboththeculturalandecologicaldimensionsof
dailyexperience.Weneedtostoprelyingonthepastformsofintelligencenowencodedinmuchofour
language.Thepracticalimplicationscanbeseeninthewayfeministsfreedthemselvesfromthepatriarchal
analogsthatwentunquestionedforcenturies.Thecivilrightsmovementwasalsotheoutcomeofthis
processofchallenginghowthedominantsocietyreliedupontheanalogsfromthedistantpasttojustifythe
oppressionandmarginalizationofAfricanAmericansaswellasindigenouscultures,and,now,various
immigrantpopulations.
Ifstudentsaregoingtolearnaboutthecommunitycenteredalternativesthatwillenablethemtolive
lessconsumerdependentlives,andtodiscovertheirowntalentsandfuturerolesasmentorsinanactivity
thatispartoftheculturalcommons,classroomteachersanduniversityprofessorswillneedtoengagethem
inathickdescriptionofthelinguisticlegacyoftheEnlightenmentthinkerswhofollowedinPlatos
footstepsofrelyinguponpurethinkingthatwasdivorcedfromlocalcontexts,embodiedexperiences,and
anawarenessofhuman/naturedependencies.Nearlyeveryaspectofthecurriculumcontainswordsthatare
partoftheprocessofsocializationwhereculturalcontextandtheembodiedexperienceofstudentsare
marginalizedorrelegatedtotherealmofsilence.Examplesmayhelphere.Studentswhoreadoraretold
abouttechnologyareseldomaskedtodescribethewaysinwhichdifferenttechnologiesmediatetheir
experiencesuchasinfluencingtheirrelationshipswithothers,howtheythink,formsofdependencyand
empowerment,andsoforth.Anothertypicalexampleofhowthemeaningofawordisdependentuponan
analogconstitutedinthedistantpastcanbeseeninhowcommunityisexplainedinthirdgradetextbooks
asaplacewherepeoplework,shop,andplay.Thethickdescriptionwouldbringoutthatcommunity
involvesrelationshipswithanimals,plants,changesinweather,aestheticexperiences,awarenessofthe
trailsandsacredplacesofearlierinhabitants,andsoforth.Tociteanotherexample,thetitleofthe
textbook,OurWorld,alsocarriesforwardananalogofthepastthatwasbasedonthewidelyheldroot
metaphorthatrepresentedhumansasatthecenteroftheuniverseandasincontrolofnature.
ThereareothermetaphorsthatcarryforwardthemisconceptionsofEnlightenmentthinkersthat
continuetobereinforcedatalllevelsofpublicanduniversityeducationmetaphorsthatmakeitmore

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difficultforstudentstorecognizethepatternsofcommunityselfsufficiency,interdependence,and
ecologicalimportanceofthelocalculturalcommonswhichdifferfromculturetocultureandfrom
bioregiontobioregion.Thesemetaphorsincludeindividualism,freedom,liberalism,tradition,
conservingandconservatism,intelligence,progress,technology,freemarketsandsoforth.If
studentsweretodoathickdescriptionofliberalism(whichhasitsconceptualrootsinthenonculturally
informedtheorybasedthinkingofJohnLocke,AdamSmith,andJohnStuartMill,etc.)theywouldfindthat
theanalogsassociatedwithsuchwordsasfreedom,individualism,progress,andahumancenteredworld,
wouldhavetoberadicallyalteredinordertotakeaccountofhowlanguagecarriesforwardandinfluences
whatandhowtheindividualthinks,howshe/heisdependentuponnaturalsystems,howprogressalways
involvesunintendedconsequencesandoftenleavesproblematictraditionsstillinplace,howdifferent
technologiesmediateandthusarenotaneutraltool,andsoforth.Similarly,athickdescriptionofthe
studentsexperienceoftraditions(ratherthanrelyinguponthedecontextualizedanalogstakenforgranted
intheformulaicuseoftheword)wouldencompassthewholerangeofdailyexperiencethatinvolvethere
enactmentofpatternsandwaysofthinkingthathavebeencarriedforwardfromthepast.IttookEdward
Shilsover350pagestodescribethecomplexityoftraditions.Andhewasnotmakinganargumentfor
traditions.Rather,hewasdoingathickdescriptionofhowtraditionsarecarriedforwardaspartofpeoples
takenforgrantedexperienceaswellasthemisconceptionsthatleadpeopletobeunawareofwhen
importanttraditions,suchashabeascorpusandprivacyarebeingenclosedbyothertraditionslike
ideologies,marketforces,andthedrivetocreatetechnologiesastotalsurveillancesystems.
Thekeypointhereisthatunlessstudentsareabletorecognizehowtheirthinkingislargely
dependentuponwords(metaphors)whosemeaningsareframedbyanalogsconstitutedinthepast(andare
largelytakenforgrantedtoday),theywillcontinuetoignorethelocalculturalcommonsthatneedtobe
revitalizedasalternativestotheconsumerdependentlifestylethatisexacerbatingglobalwarmingandthe
otherformsofenvironmentaldegradation.Thedoublebindthatisbeingperpetuatedtodayresultsfromthe
failureofclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorstorectifythemeaningofkeymetaphors.Manyof
thesemetaphors,andtheanalogstheyencode,willcontinuetobetakenforgrantedbyclassroomteachers
anduniversityprofessorsincludingtheoldassumptionsthatthetechnoscientistswillfindasolutionto
globalwarming,andthatprogresswillcontinueaslongaspeopleincreasetheirlevelofconsumerismandas
marketforcescontinuetoenclosewhatremainsoftheworldsdiversityofculturalcommons.

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AGuideforClassroomTeachersandUniversityProfessors
Discussionsofeducationalreformsthataddresshowtorevitalizetheculturalcommonsaswellashow
tohelpstudentsdevelopthecommunicativecompetencenecessaryforengaginginthepoliticalprocessof
resistingvariousenvironmentalandcommunityformsofenclosuretoooftenaremetwithindifferenceora
blankstarethatindicatesalackofunderstanding.Whyotherwiseintelligentpeopleareunabletorecognize
thecommunityandecologicalimportanceoftheculturalcommonscanbetracedtothewayinwhichpublic
schoolsanduniversitieshaverelegatedtheknowledgeandskillsthatsustaintheculturalcommonstosuch
lowstatusthattheyareleftoutofthecurriculum.Thus,inordertodiscusseducationalreformsthataddress
howtorevitalizethelocalculturalcommonsinaneraofglobalwarmingandeconomicglobalization,itis
firstnecessarytohaveaclearunderstandingofthecharacteristicsoftheculturalcommonsandthedifferent
formsofenclosure.Thefollowingprovidesanintroductoryoverview.
KeyCharacteristicsoftheCulturalCommons

Theculturalcommonsrepresentthelargelynonmonetizedandnoncommodifiedknowledge,skills,
activitiesandrelationshipsthatexistineverycommunity.

Theyarepartoftheintergenerationallegacywithincommunitiesthatenablepeopleto
engageinactivitiesandrelationshipsthatarelargelyoutsideofthemainstreamconsumer,
moneydependentculture.

Theculturalcommonsareintergenerationallypassedalongthroughfacetofacerelationships
thatmayincludementoring.

Thenatureoftheculturalcommonsvaryfromculturetoculture,withethnicgroupsoften
sharingaspectsoftheculturalcommonswiththedominantcultureaswellasmaintaining
theirownculturalcommons.

Theculturalcommonsofsomeculturesmaybethesourceofunjustsocialpractices,whilein
otherculturestheculturalcommonscarryforwardthetraditionsessentialtocivillibertiesand
democraticpractices.

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Theculturalcommonsarethebasisoflocaleconomiesandsystemsofmutualsupportthat
contrastsharplywiththemarketsystemthatisdrivenbytheneedtocreateademandforthe
constantstreamofnewproducts.

Participationindifferentaspectsofthelocalculturalcommonsenablespeopletodiscover
personalinterests,developskills,andtoengagewithothersinwaysthatstrengthenthesense
ofcommunitybelongingandresponsibility.

Theculturalcommons,inrelyinguponnonindustrialapproachestoproductionand
consumption,haveasmalleradverseimpactonnaturalsystems.

Theactivitiesandskillsthatareexpressionsoftheculturalcommonsconnectthegenerations
inwaysthatareprofoundlydifferentfromrelationshipsthatcharacterizerelationshipsina
consumerorientedculture.Moralreciprocity,receptivitytointergenerationallearningand
mentoring,andanawarenessofwhatneedstobeconservedasessentialtocommunity
identityandselfsufficiencyaremoreeasilylearned.

Embodiedexperiencesintheculturalcommonsaremorelikelytostrengthenthepropensity
tocooperateratherthantocompete,andtoleadtoidentifyingoneselfmoreintermsof
mutuallysupportiverelationshipsandpersonaltalentsratherthanasanautonomous
individualwhoreliesuponconsumerismasthemarkerofsuccess.

Theculturalcommonsstrengthenthepatternsofmutualsupportandfacetoface
relationshipswithabroadersegmentofthecommunity,andthusstrengthenthepracticeof
localdemocracy.

Theculturalcommonsareunderconstantthreatfromideological,technoscientific
developments,andeffortsofthemarketsystemtoincorporatedifferentaspectsofthecultural

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commonsintothemarketsystemthustransformingwhatremainsofcommunityself
sufficiencyintodependenceuponthemarketandamoneyeconomy.
ExamplesofIntergenerationalKnowledge,Skills,Practices,andActivitiesIdentifiedasthe
CulturalCommons:(thislistwillvaryfromcommunitytocommunity,andbetweenethnicgroups
withinthecommunity)

Food:Growing,preparing,andwaysofsharingfood.Includesknowledgeofgrowing
conditions,recipesforpreparingfood,traditionsofsharingfoodthatstrengthenfamilyand
ethnicsolidarity.

HealingPractices:Intergenerationalknowledgeofmedicinalcharacteristicsofplants,
traditionsofprovidingdifferentformsofsupportformembersofthecommunitythathave
physicalandemotionalproblems

CreativeArts:Variousformsofdance,theatre,poetry,writing,painting,sculpture,
photographythatinvolvecommunityparticipation,developmentofinterestsandtalents,and
areonlyminimallydependentuponthemarketsystemofproductionandconsumption.

Narrativesandceremonies:Thenarrativesthatareexpressionsofcommunitymemory
rangingfromsports,achievementsintheareaofsocialjustice,exemplaryindividualswho
havemademajorcontributionsandthosewhohadadestructiveinfluence.Ceremoniesthat
celebrateimportantevents,religioustraditions,andsoforth.Importanttopassingonthe
moralvaluesofthegroupandstrengtheningethnic,workingclass,religiousandotherforms
ofgroupidentity.

CraftKnowledgeandSkills:Activitiesthatcombineaestheticjudgmentandskillin
workingwithwood,metal,clay,jewelry,glass.Producesbothusefulobjectsaswellas

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providesforindividualexpressionthathasatransformativeeffectonthequalityofeveryday
lifethatraisesitabovethebanal,whatisroutineandtakenforgranted.

GamesandOutdoorActivities:Intergenerationalknowledge,skills,andmoralguidelines
carriedforwardinvariousgamesrangingfromplayingchess,cards,tofootball,track,tennis,
andothergames.Also,includeshiking,birding,camping,andsoforth.Manyofthese
activitiesincreasinglyarebecomingcommercializedandthusarebeingtransformedin
communitydestructiveways.

AnimalHusbandryandCare:Intergenerationalknowledgeaboutthecare,breeding,and
usesofdifferentanimalsfromsheepdogs,horses,tohouseholdpets.Encompassesawide
rangeofknowledgeaboutsourcesoffeed,habitsandtraitsoftheanimal,tohowtotreat
physicalandotherformsofdisabilities.

PoliticalTraditions:Democraticpractices,traditionsthatprotectcivillibertiesachievedin
thepast,modesofpoliticaldiscourse,moralcodesthatgovernpoliticaloutcomesnot
dependentuponuseofforceandviolence,protectionofminoritygroupsandpointsofview,
protectionofacademicfreedom.

Language:Vocabularythatilluminatesandhidesintermsoftheculturesprioritiesand
prejudices,maybeastorehouseofknowledgeoflocalecosystems,framesdifferentformsof
socialrelationships,reproducesthemisconceptionsofearlierthinkers,maycarryforwardthe
wisdomofearliertimes,essentialtocommunicativecompetence,maybeusedbytotalitarian
forcestocontrolconsciousnessandbehavior,hasadifferentculturalinfluencedepending
uponwhetheritcommunicatedfacetofaceormediatedthroughprintandelectronicmodes
ofcommunication.

FormsofEnclosure:

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Generaldefinition:Enclosureinvolvestransformingtheculturalandenvironmental
commonsfromwhatislargelysharedincommon,andsubjecttolocaldecisionmaking,into
whatisprivatelyowned,partoftheindustrial/marketeconomy,andwheredecisionmaking
islocatedoutsidethecommunity.

Ideologies::Thetraditionofmarketliberalism,withitsemphasisonexpandingmarketsand
profits,privateownership,andonignoringculturaldifferences,continuestobeamajor
sourceofenclosure.Religiousfundamentalismmayalsoleadtodifferentformsofenclosure
suchascivilliberties,narrativesofachievementsintheareasofsocialjusticeand
environmentalprotection.

Technologies:Themediatingcharacteristicsofdifferenttechnologiescontributetovarious
formsofenclosurefromthewaycomputersenclosure(marginalize)thepossibilityof
mentoringandfacetofacecommunication,theenclosureofprivacybysurveillance
technologies,theenclosureofcraftknowledgebyautomatedmachines,tothebio
technologiesthatnowmakeitpossibleforprivateownershipofgenelines.

UniversitiesthatDefineWhatConstitutesHighStatusknowledge:Byidentifyingwhat
constituteshighstatusknowledge(whichisbasedonmanyofthesamedeepcultural
assumptionsthatunderlietheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatiscontributingtothe
ecologicalcrises)universitiesandcollegeshaverelegatedthevariousformsofknowledge
thatarethebasisoftheculturalcommonstolowstatuswiththeresultthatfewgraduates
areawareofthecomplexityandecologicalsignificanceoftheculturalcommonsoftheir
communities.

SilencesPerpetuatedbyModernFormsofDevelopment:Theemphasisonchange,
individualism,consumerism,personalhappinessandinterests(aswellasthepersonal
insecuritiesthataccompanythemodernindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption)

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hasresultedinsocialdivisionswheretheyoungergenerationisunawareofhowparticipation
inthelocalculturalcommonsmayleadtodiscoveringpersonalinterests,thedevelopmentof
skillsandtalents,andasenseofcommunity.Indeed,itwouldbemoreaccuratetosaythat
mostoftheyoungergenerationispredisposedtorejecttheculturalcommonsasirrelevant.
Theoldergenerationswhohavediscoveredpersonalfulfillmentandwaysofcreative
expressionfromparticipatingindifferentactivitieswithinthelocalculturalcommonstoo
oftenremainisolatedfromtheyoungergeneration.Whatisbeingenclosedarethe
intergenerationalcontinuities,whichleavestheyoungergenerationmoredependentupon
whatthemarketcanprovide.

EconomicGlobalizaton:Westerntraditionsthatarebeinguniversalizedsuchas
approachestoeducation,varioususesofcomputers,science,Englishandotherdominant
languages,marketsystemofproductionandconsumptions,militarydomination,etc.,are
contributingtotheenclosureofmanyoftheworldslanguagesandthusoftheworlds
culturalcommons.Theresultisthatmorepeoplearebecomingdependentupon
consumerismandthusaddingtotheforcesdeepeningtheecologicalcrises

FreneticPaceofEverydayLife:Themodernlifestyleofexcessiveconsumerism,
technologiesthatrequireconstantpersonalattentionsuchacellphonesandcomputers,work
andhomeresponsibilities,andtheincreasingfeelingthatifoneisnotactivelyengaged
simultaneouslyinseveralactivitiesthattimeisbeingwastedallcontributetofocusing
attentiononthetaskathand.Thisleaveslittletimeforindepthreflectionsaboutthose
aspectsoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsthatneedtobeintergenerationally
renewedinordertoensureourfuturesurvival.Thisfreneticlifestyle,whereescapeistoo
oftenfoundinwatchingtelevisionwithitsconstantremindersofconsumerproductsthatlead
togreaterhappiness,alsocontributestothecurrentstateofindifferencetoconsideringthe
largerandlongtermissuessuchasthedifferentimpactsthateconomicglobalizationand
thespreadingecologicalcrisesarehavingonthelivesofhundredsofmillionsofpeople.The

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lackoftimetobecomeinformedandreflectonthechangesthatneedtobeundertakenisalso
amajorcontributortovariousformsofenclosure.

ThePracticeofaValuesBasedEducation
Thepreviousessayshavetakenthereaderonawidetourofissuesthatarenotusually
discussedinthinkingabouteducationalreforms;thus,itissomewhatsurprisingthatIhavenot
receivedmorecriticalcomments.Havingexaminedhowuniversitiespromotethesamehighstatus
ideasandvaluesthatunderlietheindustrial/consumerorientedculture,howthemetaphoricalnature
oflanguagecarriesforwardthemisconceptionsofearlierthinkersaswellasthetraditionofrelying
onwordsthatarecontextindependent,andhowthelocalculturalcommonsrepresentalternatives
todependenceuponalevelofconsumerismthatisamajorcontributortoglobalwarming,itisnow
timetofocusoneducationalreformsthatwillcontributetoachievingthevaluesessentialtomorally
coherentandecologicallysustainablecommunities.
Thevaluesofintellectualcuriosity,emotionalandspiritualintelligence,acommitmentto
freedom,justice,andpeacecannotbegivenmorethanlipservicebyteachers/professorsifthedaily
experienceofstudentsreinforcesthevaluesandtakenforgrantedpracticesofthemarketplace.The
voiceoftheteacher/professorwillsoundritualisticincomparisonwiththedailypressuresof
workinginrepetitiveandunfulfillingjobs,increasingpersonaldebt,uncertaintiesofeconomicand
foodsecurity,dailyreportingofcollusionbetweengovernmentandcorporateinterests,andthe
failuresofanimmoralimperialisticforeignpolicy.Socialjusticeandenvironmentaleducatorshave
attemptedtoreversetheecologicallyandcommunitydestructiveslipperyslopethathasbeena
hallmarkofAmerica,buthavehadonlyminorsuccesses.Andeventheminorsuccesses,especially
intheareaofracialandgenderequality,havefailedtoslowtherateofenvironmentaldegradation
whichisnowaworldwidecrisis.Inspiteoftheirwellintendedefforts,teachers/professorshave
alsofailedtoeducatestudentsaboutthecommunitycenteredalternativestothehyperconsumerism
lifestyle,aswellashowtheindustrial/consumerorientedcultureundermineslocaldemocracyand
traditionsofcommunityselfsufficiency.Asmentionedinpreviousessays,fewteachers/professors

39
recognizethatamajorcontributortothecurrentpolitical,ecological,andmoralcrisesisthehyper
consumerismpromotedbythemarketliberalideology,withitsemphasisoneverincreasingprofits,
expansionofmarkets,andexploitationofworkersandconsumers.
Whenteachers/professorsbecomeawarethatreducingthelevelofconsumerismisas
essential,ifnotmoreso,thantheadoptionofmoretechnologiesthathaveasmallercarbonfootprint,
theythenmaybegintorecognizethatthesmallgroupofcolleaguesadvocatingfortherenewalof
communityneedtheirsupportifthecurrentenvironmental,political,andeconomictrendsaretobe
reversed.Andwhenthisrealizationismorewidelyaccepted,theywillfindthatcurriculumreforms
mustbecenteredonintroducingstudentstoanunderstandingofthelocalculturalandenvironmental
commons.theimportanceofmaintainingthediversityoftheworldscommons,theeconomic,
ideological,andtechnologicalforcesthatareenclosingthem(thatisturningwhatwaspreviouslya
largelynonmonetizedrelationshipandactivityintoonethatismonetizedandsubjecttomarket
forces).ThevaluesidentifiedintheCovenantonvaluesbasededucationcanonlybefullyrealized
infacetoface,intergeneratonallyconnectedcommunitieswhereindividualsdiscoverpersonal
talents,developskillsandthecommunicativecompetenceessentialtoparticipatorydemocracyand
notinthemarketcenteredexistencewhereselfishnessandcompetitivenessareessentialtothe
survivalofthefittestethos.
Educationalreformsthatfocusonrevitalizingthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommons
inruralandurbanAmericawillrequirethatthetakenforgrantedinterpretativeframework
reinforcedtodayinmostclassroomsaboutindividualautonomy,theprogressivenatureofchange,
andahumancenteredworldwillneedtobeexaminedcritically.Thecurriculumshouldfocusonthe
tensionsexistingbetweenthetraditionsofselfsufficiencyandpersonalempowermentfoundinmost
aspectsoftheculturalcommonsaswellastheformsofdeskilling,disempowering,andecological
degradationthatisconnectedwithbeingsototallydependentuponconsumerismthathasnow
entereditsglobalizationphase.Theoverridingquestionsthatshouldbeaddressedinthestudents
examinationofdifferentaspectsoftheculturalcommonsandtheindustrial/consumerculture
include:Howarerelationshipsaffected?Doestheactivitycontributetothedevelopmentofpersonal
talentsandskills?Isitmutuallysupportiveofothers?Doesitcontributetobecomingless
dependentuponamoneyeconomy?Whatimpactdoesithaveonthenaturalenvironment?Doesit

40
diminishtheprospectsoffuturegenerations?Doesitrequiretheexploitationofothers?Isthe
activityandthewayofthinkingitrequiresfreeofoppressiveimplicationsforothers?
Ifthesequestionsareconsideredcarefully,ratherthenseenasaritualisticchecklist,what
shouldbecomeclearisthatacurriculumthatiscenteredonthetensionsbetweentheculturaland
environmentalcommons,andtheindustrialculturethatistirelessinenclosingwhatremainsofthe
worldscommons,willfocusonlearningaboutrelationships,andtheconnectionsbetweenthe
languageacquiredinbecomingamemberofthelanguagecommunityandwhatismarginalized,
silenced,andmisrepresented.Aspointedoutinpreviousessays,thelanguagelearnedinpublic
schoolsanduniversitieshasmarginalizedtheimportanceofbeingawareofthenatureand
importanceoftheculturalcommons,theculturallynonneutralnatureoftechnology,thewaysin
whichlanguagecarriesforwardthemisconceptionsofearliertheoristswhowereunawareof
environmentallimitsanddifferentculturalwaysofknowing.Andithasreinforcedthemythofthe
autonomousindividualwhoisseparatefromtheworldthatshe/heobservesandactsupon.A
curriculum,whichcanbeintroducedintheearliestgradesanddevelopedingreaterdepthatthe
universitylevel,thatfocusesondifferentaspectsoftheculturalcommons,andinacomparativeway
onwhatthetechnoscientific/industrialproductsthatpeoplehavebecomedependentupon,brings
intotheforegroundtheinescapablenatureofhowtheindividualisembeddedinmultiplelevelsof
relationshipsandinterdependencies.
Howdoestheconduitviewoflanguageinfluencewhetherembodiedrelationshipsare
recognizedandhowdoesitaffectwhethertheindividualacceptsresponsibilityforintellectual
accountabilityandmoralreciprocity?Ifwordsareacceptedashavingauniversalmeaning,rather
thanbeingcontextdependent,doesthiscontributetotheindividualbeingmoresusceptibleto
propagandaandanOrwellianpoliticaldiscourse?Thesequestions,usingagelevelappropriate
examples,canbeintroducedintheearlygradesbyusingtheconceptshapinglanguagethatappears
intextbooksandonthecomputerscreenasexamples.Theycanalsobeintroducedattheuniversity
levelwhereanhistoricalperspectiveaswellasdifferencesinideologiescanbediscussed.
Thelastessaycontainedalistofculturalcommonsactivities,witheachitemonthelist
havingmanydifferentformsofexpressionanddepthofknowledgeandskill.Eachoftheseareas,
whetherintheareasoffood,creativearts,craftknowledgeandskill,democratictraditions,isunder

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theconstantpressureofenclosurethatis,beingtransformedfromanintergenerationallyconnected
andlargelynonmonetizedactivityintoaproductorservicethatrequiresparticipatinginamoney
economythatisbothenvironmentallydestructiveandincreasinglyunreliableascorporations
downsizeandoutsource.Inthecaseofourtraditionsofdemocracyandcivilliberties,theprocessof
enclosureisresultinginanincreasinglyauthoritarianpoliticalsystemthatreliesuponsurveillance,
theincreasingthreatofbeinglabeledasathreattosociety,andlossofachecksandbalancesystem
ofgovernment.Learningthehistoryofthisaspectofourculturalcommonsaswellasthehistoryof
theideologicalandeconomicforcesthatliebehindthisgatheringforcewillalsocontributeto
empoweringpeople,aswellastheircommitmenttolocalcommunities,peace,anddemocracy.
Ineffect,everyformofparticipationintheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsregardless
ofculturalgroupandrural,suburban,andurbansettingcanbemadethefocusofwhatneedstobe
criticallyexamined.Insomeinstances,aspectsoftheculturalcommonswillbefoundtobeinneed
ofradicalchange,andinotherinstancestherewillbeaspectsofthetechnoscientificbasedindustrial
culturethatwillbefoundtobebeneficialtothelifeofthecommunityandessentialtolowering
thehumanimpactonnaturalsystems.
TeachingasMediatingBetweenUnsustainableandSustainableCulturalPractices
Therearetwocertaintiesthatneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenthinkingabouteducating
foranecologicallysustainablefuture.First,culturalbeliefsandpractices,whichvaryfromculture
toculture,aremajorcontributorstotheecologicalcrises.Thesecondcertaintyisthatsolittle
attentionhasbeengiventotheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisesthatwedonotalwayshavea
clearunderstandingofwhichbeliefsandpractices(includingusesoftechnology)arepartofthe
problemorpartofthesolution.Inmanyinstances,thisdichotomouspatternofthinkingalso
becomespartoftheproblemassometechnologies,suchascomputers,areaconstructiveforcein
todaysworldwhileatthesametimetheycontributetoeconomicglobalizationandtoanevenmore
extremeformofsubjectiveindividualism.Thesecertaintiesneedtobekeptinmindwhenthinking
oftheclassroomteachers/professors/parentsroleasamediatorwhosetaskistohelpstudents
becomemoreawareofwhichculturalpatternsandwaysofthinkingareecologicallysustainable
andwhicharenot.
Asdiscussedinearlieressays,mostofthestudentseverydayexperienceinvolves
participationindifferentaspectsofthelocalculturalcommons(e.g.,foodpreparedaccordingto

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traditionalrecipes,learningfromparentshowtotakecareofaminorphysicalproblem,participating
inamusicalgroup,playingagameofchess,assumingthatonesprivacyisnotbeinginvadedby
governmentorcorporations,helpingothersinsolvingaproblemorcompletingatask,etc).They
alsoparticipateinvariousmarket/consumerdependentactivities(eatingatafastfoodoutlet,
purchasingvariousitems,drivingacar,usingmedicinesforanewlyidentifiedillness,workingin
variousjobs,etc).Eachoftheseactivitiesalsoinvolverelianceondistinctvocabulariesanda
complexecologyofemotions,skills,andrelationships.Whatiscommontobothsubculturesthat
studentsdailyparticipateinisthatmostofthepatternsandwaysofthinkingarelargelytakenfor
granted.Inbeingtakenforgranted,thestudentswillbelessawareoftheirecologicalfootprint,and
lessabletoarticulatewhycertainformsofenclosureoftheculturalcommonsneedtoberesisted.
Themediatormetaphorisparticularlyaptintermsofindicatingthateducationshouldnotbe
amatterofgivingstudentsanswersandpredeterminedwaysofthinkingthattoooftenreproducethe
misconceptionsfromthepast.Rather,theroleofthemediatoristoencouragestudentstomake
explicitthedifferentdimensionsoftheirexperienceaswellastheirecologicalconsequences.For
example,encouragingstudentstonamethedifferencesintheirexperienceofrelationships,self
empowermentordisempowerment,whatismarginalizedorcannotbecommunicated,what
contributestoagreaterorsmallerecologicalfootprint,etc.,astheyengageinprintbasedandoral
communicationwithothers,inlearningtoplayamusicalinstrumentandpurchasingaCD,insharing
amealwithfamilyandfriendsandgrabbingafastmealthathasbeenindustriallyprepared,in
volunteeringinacommunityprojectandworkingatajobwheretheintelligenceandskillhavebeen
builtintothemachine,assumingthatoneisinnocentuntilchargedandprovenguiltyandbeing
pulledoutofalineandquestionedbecauseofskincolor,foreignname,andhavingonesname
appearonanintelligenceagencyslistofpotentialthreatstosociety.
Themediatorstaskistoencouragestudentstodescribe(thatis,toattachwords)tothe
relationshipsandpatternsoftheirexperienceintheculturalcommonsthatwouldotherwisebeleftas
thetakenforgrantedbackgroundtowhattheyareexplicitlyawareof.Thedescription,as
mentionedinanearlieressay,wouldbewhatCliffordGeertzreferredtoasthickdescriptionor
whatcanbecalledapersonalbioculturalethnography.Thekeyisinencouragingstudentstomake
explicitthecomplexityofthepersonalexperienceaswellastheculturalhistoryandpatternsthat
havealsoinfluencedtheexperience.Thiscanthenbecomparedwiththeirthickdescriptionof

43
experiencesinthemarket/consumerorientedculture.Learningtogivecloseattentiontocultural
differencesleadstodevelopingthelanguagenecessaryforexercisingcommunicativecompetence
whichisrequiredinresistingtheenclosureofdifferentaspectsoftheculturalcommons.Whatis
commontonearlyallformsofenclosureisthelossofskills,patternsofmutualsupportwithinthe
community,andlocaldecisionmaking,Ironically,thesignificanceoftheselossesaretoooften
representedasnecessarytotheachievementofmoreindividualfreedomandmaterialprogress.
Theroleofthemediatoralsoincludesencouragingstudentstoinvestigatetheforcesthat
contributedtopastformsofenclosureoftheculturalcommonssuchastechnological,scientific,
ideological,linguistic,economicdevelopments.Givingcloseattentiontothedifferencesbetween
experiencesintheculturalcommonsandinthemarket/consumerculturemayleadtoasking
questionsaboutwhichpracticeandtraditionhasthemoreadverseenvironmentalimpact.Insome
instances,itmaybedecidedthatwhathasbeendiscoveredandmadeavailablethroughthe
scientific/industrialsystemofproductionhasmadeimportantcontributionstothequalityof
everydaylife;whileaspectsoftheculturalcommonsmaybefoundtobesourcesofsocialinjustice.
Beforethethickdescriptionisundertaken,itisreallynotpossibletojudgewhatismoreecologically
sustainableandenhancingofcommunity.Thelayerednatureofthemetaphoricallanguagethat
frameshowmembersofthecommunitythink,aswellasvaluesencodedandunconsciously
reproduceintheprocessofmetaphoricalthinking,arealsopartoftheculturalcommons.Manyof
themetaphors,aspointedoutinpreviousessays,carryforwardtheanalogsthatwereconstitutedat
anearliertimebytheoristswhodidnotunderstandeitherthenatureandimportanceofthecultural
commons(oftenseeingthemasbackward),orthepossibilityofovershootingthesustainingcapacity
ofnaturalsystems.
Ratherthanacceptthemeaningofsuchmetaphorsasprogress,individualism,tradition,
conservative,freedom,andsoforth,whicharebasedontheanalogsconstitutedinthedistantpast,
themediatorshouldencouragestudentstodoathickdescriptionoftheirembodiedexperiencesthat
accompanytheuseoftheseabstractmetaphors.Thatis,couldtheydescribetheexperienceofbeing
anautonomousindividualwithouthavingtodescribethenetworkofconstantlychanging
relationshipsandinterdependencieswithotherpeopleandwiththemanynaturalsystemstheyare
nestedin?Wouldtheirdescriptionoftheexperienceofautonomyalsoincludetheculturalpatterns
thatareaninescapableaspectofhowtheyexpresstheirsupposedautonomy?Wouldthe

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Enlightenmentviewoftradition,whichisstillheldbymanyeducatorswhoviewitasasourceof
backwardnessandthusanimpedimenttoprogress,beunderstooddifferentlyifstudentswere
encouragedtodoathickdescriptionoftheculturalpatternstheyreenactonadailybasisandthat
meetEdwardShilsunderstandingofatraditionasanyaspectofculturethatispassedalongover
fourgenerations?Wouldtheanalogthatleadstothinkingoftechnologyasaneutraltoolholdupif
studentsweretodoathickdescriptionofhowthecharacteristicsofthetechnologyamplifycertain
aspectsofexperiencewhilereducingothers?Extendingthemediatingresponsibilityofthe
classroomteacher/professor/parentintotheareaofthemetaphoricallanguagethatinfluences
understandingrelationshipswithintheculturalcommonsandtheindustrial/consumerculturewould
helptoensurethatthemetaphorsderivedfromthepastwouldhavelesscontroloverhowthecurrent
cultural,moral,andecologicalcrisesareunderstoodandrespondedto.AlbertEinsteinmadethe
pointthatwecannotsolvethecurrentcrisisbyrelyinguponthesamemindsetthatcreatedit.This
insightalsoappliestotheproblemofrelyingupontheoldanalogsencodedinthemetaphorswerely
upontodayandthatcontinuetoframeourthinkinginwaysthatdonottakeaccountofcurrent
political,cultural,andenvironmentalrealities.
Inotherwords,mediatingbetweencultures(theculturalcommons,thecultureofthe
industrial/consumerdependentlifestyle,andtheculturesofthedistantpast)requiresthatwedonot
taketheeasyroadofrelyingupontheformulaicuseoflanguagederivedfromaculturaland
environmentallydifferentpast;butrathermaketheefforttoalignourlanguageinwaysthatenable
ustounderstandtherelationshipsandinterdependenciesthatarecriticaltoourfuturesurvivalas
morallycoherentandecologicallysustainablecommunities.

Chapter2E.O.WilsonsDriftintoScientism:TheChallengeFacingScienceEducators
ThemannerinwhichDarwinstheoryofevolutionisbeingextendedtoexplainnonbiological
phenomenaposesaspecialchallengetoenvironmentallyorientedthinkersandactivists.Italsochallenges
educatorstoreflectonthereformsneededthatwillenablescientiststorecognizehowlimitedthe
scientificmethodisforaddressingculturalissues,andforpredictingthedirectionoffuturecultural
changes.E.O.Wilsonsclaim,forexample,thatmoralvaluesareactuallymoralpredispositionsencoded
inourgenes,andthatmoralvaluesmustmeetthetestofnaturalselection(thatis,ensurethereproductive

45
successoffuturegenerations)undercutstheculturalknowledgesystemsuponwhichourmoralvaluesas
wellasothersarebased.Similarly,theclaimsbycomputerproponentssuchasHansMoravec(1988),
KevinKelly(1994),andRayKurzweil(1999)thatcomputersrepresentthetransitiontothepost
biologicalphaseofevolution,andthatartificialintelligencewillreplacethemorelimitedandpoorly
adaptedhumanintelligence,haveevenmorewidespreadimplications.Oneofthemostobvious
implicationbeingthatifpeoplewanttopostponetheirownevolutionarydemise,theywillneedtoadapt
asmanyaspectsoftheirlivesaspossibletowhatcanbeprocessedthroughacomputer.Toquestionor
resisttheuseofcomputersonthegroundsthattheypromoteaconsumerdependentlifestyle,andthat
theyunderminefacetofacecommunities,wouldbe,ineffect,toresistNaturesdesignprocesswhich,
sothescientificargumentgoes,ensuresthatthebetteradaptedsurvive.GregoryStock,theauthorof
Metaman:TheMergingofHumansandMachinesintoaGlobalSuperorganism(1993)predictsthatthe
nonwesternculturesthatfailtoadoptdigitaltechnologies,andtheaccompanyingwesternmindset,will
becomeasextinctasthedinosaur.Forenvironmentalistsworkingtopreservelinguisticdiversityaspart
ofastrategyforpreservingbiodiversity,Stocksreadingoftheprocessofnaturalselectionsuggeststhat
Naturehasalreadydoomedtheireffortstofailure.Currentextrapolationsonthetheoryofevolution
confrontenvironmentaleducatorswiththeespeciallydifficultchallengeofhelpingstudentsunderstand
theappropriateandinappropriateextrapolationsonthetheoryofevolution.Thischallengeismadeeven
moredifficultbytheclaimsofsuchprominentscientistsasE.O.WilsonandthelateCarlSaganthatthe
scientificmethodistheonlylegitimateapproachtoknowledge.Indeed,ifWilsonandtheothersare
correctinclaimingthatthebrainisaproductofnaturalselection,thentheoutcomeofnaturalselection
willalsodeterminewhichspeciessurvivestheecologicalcrisiswhichmeanswearedeludingourselves
inthinkingthatourfateispartlyinourownhands.
Whileevolutionisbeingincreasinglyusedastheprimaryexplanatoryframeworkin
disciplinesaswiderangingasanthropologyandpsychology,wefindthebroadestclaimsbeingmade
onitsbehalfbyE.O.Wilsonwhoisbeingacclaimedasoneofthenationsleadingscientistsand
environmentalspokesman.Byextendingthetheoryofevolutioninwaysthatexplaincultureas
havingageneticbasis,andthusguidedbyNaturestestofgeneticfitness,hiswritingsunderminethe
environmentalistseffortstoaddresstheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisis.Thus,itisimportant
toconsiderhowhisextrapolationssupporttheculturalforcesthatareunderminingtheselfrenewing
capacityofnaturalsystems.Itisalsoimportanttoexaminethedoublebindinherentnotonlyin

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Wilsonsthinkingbutinthefuturisticprescriptionsofotherevolutionorientedscientistsand
technologists.
ThiscritiqueofWilsonisnotintendedinanywaytodiminishthesignificanceofhisscientific
researchandpublications.Buthiseffortstoestablishanewdisciplineofsociobiology,whichisto
provideempiricalevidenceofthebiologicalbasisofhumanbehaviorandculturalnorms,ismore
problematicandthusdeservingofcriticism.IntheTwentyFifthAnniversaryEditionof
Sociobiology:TheNewSynthesis(2000),Wilsonsummarizeswhatisneededtomakethefinal
separationbetweenscientificandprescientificknowledge.
Tograsphumannatureobjectively,toexploreittothedepthsscientificallyandto
comprehenditsmanifestationsbycauseandeffectexplanationsleadingfrombiologyinto
culture,wouldbetoapproachifnotattainthegrailofscholarship,andtofulfillthedreamsof
theEnlightenment.humannatureastheepigeneticrules,theinheritedregularitiesofmental
development.Theserulesarethegeneticbiasesinthewayoursensesperceivetheworld,the
symboliccodingbywhichourbrainsrepresenttheworld,theoptionsweopentoourselves,
andtheresponseswefindeasiestandmostrewardingtomake.pp.viiviii
AsheputsitinConsilience:TheUnityofKnowledge(1998),thegenesthatpredisposepeopleto
thinkandactincertainwaysaregovernedbytheprocessofnaturalselection.Whileheappearsto
grantculturearoleintheprocessofevolutionbyusingthephrasegeneculturecoevolution,the
reality,asheputsit,isthattheconsistentguidingforceisnaturalselection.Hegoesonto
explainthatthegenesthatconferhighersurvivalandreproductivesuccessonorganismsbearing
them,throughtheprescribedtraitsofautonomy,physiology,andbehavior,increaseinpopulation
fromonegenerationtothenext.Thosethatdonot,decrease(p.129).
Asthisreductionistexplanationhasespeciallyimportantimplicationsforenvironmentalists
andeducatorswhoareconsideringhowdifferentculturalbeliefsandpracticesimpactthe
environment,itisimportantthattheconceptualfoundationsofwhatWilsonisrepresentingasthe
newparadigmforunderstandingculturalchangebeexaminedmoreclosely.InConcilience,he
statesthattodaythegreatestdividewithinhumanityisnotbetweenracesorreligions,oreven,as
widelybelieved,betweenliterateandilliterate.Itisthechasmthatseparatesscientificfrom
prescientificcultures(p.45).Hegoesontoclaimthatscienceforitspartwilltestrelentlessly

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everyassumptionaboutthehumanconditionandintimeuncoverthebedrockofthemoraland
religioussentiments(p265).Scientificknowledge,whichWilsoncallsthetruescientificepic
thusprovidesthebestchanceofhumansurvival.Buthumansurvivalwillrequirethereligionsof
theworldtoadoptasecularinterpretationofthehumanepicthatisinaccordancewiththefindings
ofscience.Ineffect,Wilsonisclaimingthatonlyasciencebasedreligionwillmeetthetestof
naturalselection.
ManyofWilsonsadmirersintheenvironmentalmovementarelikelytoclaimthathe
acknowledgesthatcultureplaysaroleinprocessofhuman/culturalevolution.Givenhis
environmentalcontributions,theyarealsolikelytoignoretheimplicationsofhisepistemological
universalism:thatis,thatscienceprovidestheonlylegitimatepathwaytoknowledge.Giventhis
tendencytoignoreWilsonsproclivityforsweepinggeneralizations,itisallthemoreimportantto
considercloselyhowheexplainsthegeneticbasisofthemind,aswellastheepigeneticrulesthat
guidetheformationofculture.
Wilsonsunderstandingofthemindisespeciallyimportant.InhischapteronTheMind,
hewritesthatallthathasbeenlearnedempiricallyaboutevolutioningeneralandmentalprocesses
inparticularsuggestthatthebrainisamachineassemblednottounderstanditself,buttosurvive
(1998,p.96).Hegoesontoclaimthatthesurestwaytograspcomplexityinthebrain,asinany
otherbiologicalsystem,istothinkofitasanengineeringproblem(1998,p.102).Hisuseofa
mechanisticmetaphorforrepresentingthebrain,aswellashissuggestionthatthebrainneedstobe
approachedasanengineeringproblem,needstobeconsideredwithinthecontextwheretheguiding
valueswillbederivednotfromtraditionalreligion,butfromthetrueevolutionaryepic.Thatis,
thebrainshouldnotonlybeunderstood,butalsoengineeredintermsofwhatcontributestosurvival
withinthelongtermtimeframethatNaturerequirestoseparatethefitfromtheunfit.Whilehe
doesnotadvocateeugenics,hisrejectionofnonscientificallybasedvaluesaswellashisreference
tothinkingofthebrainasanengineeringproblemcertainlyopensthedoorforscientistswhowant
tospeeduptherateatwhichNaturesdesignprocessworks.
Wilsonsexplanationofthegeneticbasisoftheepigeneticrulesthatfilterandcodestimuliin
senseorganisms,andguidetheformationofbehaviorandculturealsoneedstobechallenged.As
heexplainsit,

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thegenesprescribingtheepigeneticrulesofbrainandbehaviorareonlysegmentsofgiant
molecules.Theyfeelnothing,carefornothing,intendnothing.Theirroleissimplyto
triggerthesequenceofchemicalreactionswithinthehighlystructuredfertilizedcellthat
orchestrateepigenesis.Theirwritextendstothelevelofmolecule,cell,andorgan.This
earlystageofepigenesis,consistingofaseriesofsequentialphysicochemicalreactions,
culminatesintheselfassemblyofthesensorysystemandthebrain.Onlythen,whenthe
organismiscompleted,doesmentalactivityappearasanemergentprocess.Thebrainisa
productoftheveryhighestlevelsofbiologicalorder,whichareconstrainedbyepigenetic
rulesimplicitintheorganismsanatomyandphysiology.1998,p.165,italicsadded
AsIreadthisstatement,thesequencesofchemicalreactionstriggeredbythegenesprescribethe
epigeneticrulesthatgoverntheselfassemblyofthesensorysystemandbrain.Butfollowingthe
statementwhereWilsonassertsthatthebrainistheproductofthehighestlevelsofbiologicalorder
heintroducestheideaofgeneculturecoevolution.Witnesstheconstitutiveroleheassignsthe
brain,whichfollowsthelastsentenceintheabovequotation:
Workinginachaoticfloodofenvironmentalstimuli,it(thebrain)seesandlistens,plansits
ownfuture.Bythatmeansthebraindeterminesthefateofthegenesthatprescribedit.
Acrossevolutionarytime,theaggregatechoicesofmanybrainsdeterminetheDarwinianfate
ofeverythinghumanthegenes,theepigeneticrules,thecommunicatingminds,andthe
culture.p.165
Thesetwosegmentsofhisexplanationofthecasualrelationshipbetweengenesandthebrain
representthemostimportantparagraphinhisbook.First,itassertswithoutanyscientificevidence
thatthebrain,includingalltheactivitiesofthebrainmetaphoricalthinking,memory,conscious
awareness,themetacognitiveschematasharedwithothermembersoftheculture,experienceof
meaning,valuejudgments,intentionality,senseofidentityaretheproductofphysicochemical
reactions.Havingmadethisclaim,whichwouldalsohavetoaccountfordifferencesinculturalways
ofknowing,includingallthebrainimplicatedexperienceslistedabove,hethenreverseshimselfby
statingthattheaggregatechoicesofmanybrainsdeterminetheDarwinianfateofeverythinghuman
whichhelistsasthegenesandepigeneticrulesthatheearlydescribesasresponsiblefortheself
assemblyofthesensorysystemandbrainInBiologyasIdeology(1992),R.C.Lewontinsumsup
theproblematiclogicofWilsonssociobiologyasgenesmakeindividuals,individualshave

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particularpreferencesandbehaviors,thecollectionofpreferencesandbehaviorsmakeculture,andso
genesmakeculture(p.14).EventhoughWilsonrejectsbeingclassifiedasageneticdeterminist,
LewontinssummaryneedstobecomparedwithWilsonsownstatementaboutthegenes
prescribingtheepigeneticrulesofbrainandbehaviorareonlysegmentsofgiantmolecules(1998,p.
165).Wilsonsdescriptionofthebrainsmachinery,andwhatheelsewheredescribesasthe
brainmachine,whichismadeupofcells,alsoneedstobetakenintoaccountinassessingthe
correctnessofLewontinssummary.
Whatwecallmeaningisthelinkageamongtheneuralnetworkscreatedbythespreading
excitationthatenlargesimageryandengagesemotion.Thecompetitiveselectionamong
scenariosiswhatwecalldecisionmaking.Theoutcome,intermsofthematchofthe
winningscenariostoinstinctiveorlearnedfavorablestates,setsthekindandintensityof
subsequentemotion.Thepersistentformandintensityofemotionsiscalledmood.The
abilityofthebraintogeneratenovelscenariosandsettleonthemosteffectiveamongthemis
calledcreativity.1998,p.115
Thecellsthatarethebasisoftheneuralnetworksthatmakeallofthishappen,toreiterateWilsons
causallinkages,arethegenesthatprescribetheepigeneticrulesthat,inturn,prescribethe
physiochemicalprocesseswithinthebrainthatleadtotheexperienceofmeaning,creativity,andso
on.Toputthisanotherway,thesementalprocesses,thatis,theconfigurationsofthebrainmachine
bestsuitedtosurviveovergenerations,aregovernedbyNaturesdesignprocessthatweknowas
naturalselection.
AgainitmustbepointedoutthatWilsonsattempttoavoidthecriticismofgenetic
determinismislikeaverbalshellgame.Hisargumentthatgenescreatebrains,andthatbrains
determinethesurvivabilityofthegenesandtheepigeneticrulesgoverningbrainsandbehavioris
circular,andhasnobasisinscientificevidence.Wilsonissimplytryingtoexplainawaythe
contradictioninherentinhistheory.Andheneedsthereadertoassumethathisauthorityasamuch
acclaimedscientistcarriesoverintothecomplexdomainoftheworldsdiversecultures.Inspiteof
Wilsonsgiftasawriterandasrespectedscientists,thereaderneedstokeepinmindthathisattempt
torepresentthebrainandcultureascodeterminantsintheevolutionaryprocess,itisalways,ashe
alsoclaims,thegeneticmakeupofhumansand,moreimportantly,theotherorganismsthat
constitutestheenvironmentthatcullstheweakfromthestrong.AsWilsonputsit:thebrainsthat

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choosewiselypossesssuperiorDarwinianfitness,meaningthatstatisticallytheysurvivelongerand
leavemoreoffspringthanbrainsthatchoosebadly(1998,p.165).
ThebasicinconsistencyinWilsonsthinking,andinthethinkingofenvironmentalistswho
takehimseriously,canalsobeseeninthefollowingstatement.Intheintroductiontotheanniversary
editionofSociobiology:TheNewSynthesis,Wilsonwritesthatconservation,asIhavelong
believed,isultimatelyanethicalissue.Ignoringwhathehaswrittenelsewhereaboutthegenetic
basisofmoralsentiments,Wilsongoesontoclaimthatmoralpreceptsinturnmustbebasedon
sound,objectiveknowledgeofhumannature(p.viii).Theimmediatequestionmightbe:Ifmoral
sentimentsaregeneticallyencoded,whatpurposewouldbeservedbyacquiringasound,objective
knowledgeofhumannature?ItappearsthatWilsonisretreatingtotheoldviewofrationalityasa
forcethatcanshapethecourseofNature.Thisleadstoanotherquestion:Howcanascientistor
anyoneelseacquireobjectiveknowledgeofhumannatureiftheyunavoidablyrelyuponthe
cognitiveschemataencodedinthelanguageoftheirculturalgroup?Thecognitiveschematathatisa
takenforgrantedinWilsonsthinking,andcanbetracedbacktoJohannesKeplerswayof
understandingtheuniverse,canbeseeninWilsonsrepresentationofthebrainasamechanism
andasanengineeringproblem.Wilsonalsotakesforgrantedtheculturalcognitiveschematathat
representschangeaslinearandprogressiveinnaturewhichleadshimtoseescientificknowledge
asrepresentingaprogressiveadvanceovertheknowledgeofsocalledprescientificcultures.The
ironyinherentinthisculturalpatternofthinkingisthatWilsonargues,aswelatershallsee,that
scientificallybasedknowledgeshouldbethebasisofaworldmonoculture,whichwillrequirethe
disappearanceofdiversityinculturalwaysofknowing.Giventhatnaturalselectiondoesnotmove
inalinear,progressivedirection,andthatitisthedynamicsourceofbiologicaldiversity,Wilsons
argumentthattheworldsculturesshouldbebasedonassumptionsthathavebeenscientifically
testedreproducesthelongheldwesternmyththatculturescanprogressonlywhentheyadoptthe
highstatusknowledgeoftheWest.IfWilsonweretobeconsistentinhisextrapolations,heshould
bearguingforculturaldiversity,justincaseascientificallybasedcultureisunabletoadapttofuture
environmentalchanges.
ThiscriticismofWilsonislikelytotakemostreadersbysurprise,ashecontinuallywrites
abouttheimportanceofbiodiversitytoourfuturesurvival.Hiswritingsontheimportanceof
biodivesityarebotheloquentandwelldocumented.Ifoneonlyreadsthefinalchapterof

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ConsiliencewhereWilsondiscussesthedifferentdimensionsoftheecologicalcrisis,andeven
expressesdeepreservationsaboutthegeneticengineeringofhumantraits,hecomesacrossasoneof
thenationspreeminentenvironmentalists.HisworkwithNatureConservancyfurtherstrengthens
thisimpression.Buthisextrapolationsonthetheoryofevolution,particularlyhisreductionist
explanationofculture,raisesseriousquestionsaboutwhetherhehascreatedapowerful
metanarrative(ideology)thatwillbeusedbythepromotersofeconomicandtechnological
globalization.Ithink,onbalance,thathisextrapolationswillfurtherstrengthentheintegrationof
scientificresearchintothecorporateculturethatistheenginedrivingtheglobalizationofthe
westernmindsetthatequatesconsumerismwithsuccessandhappiness.Hiswritingsalsogive
legitimacytothewesternideathatwinnersarethefittestanideathathasitsrootsinanearlier
phaseofDarwinianthinkingaboutthefateofculturesthatwerebeingcolonized.Toreiterateapoint
thatWilsoncontinuallymakes,thereproductivesuccessoffuturegenerationsistheultimatetestof
geneticfitnesswhichtothepublicandheadsofcorporationssoundslikeanotherwayofsaying
thatNaturedictatesthesurvivalofthefittest.ItisinterestingthatWilsonavoidsusingthisphrase,
butneverthelessgivesitarenewedsenseoflegitimacy.Letmebemorespecificaboutwhy
Wilsonscontributiontoanideologythatjustifiestheglobalizationofwhathasbecomean
increasinglysciencebasedcorporateculturewillovershadowthecontributionshemakesasa
spokespersonforconservation.InwhatfollowsIwillidentifyanumberofdoublebindsinhis
reductionistthinking,andinhisinabilitytorecognizethelimitsofthetheoryofevolutionasan
explanatoryframework.
EvolutionaryAdvantageofWesternScience.Wilsonsstatementaboutthegreatestdividebeing
whatseparatesprescientificfromscientificcultures,aswellashismanyotherreferencestothe
backwardnessofnonwesterncultures,hasspecialsignificanceforenvironmentalists.Itjustifies,for
example,thecurrenteffortsonthepartoftransnationalcorporations,neoliberalpoliticians,and
scientistswhoseresearchisincreasinglydependentupontheprioritiesofcorporationstopromotethe
westernmodelofeconomicdevelopmentasthepanaceaforliftingpeopleoutofpoverty.What
Wilson,aswellaselitegroupsthatbelievesurvivaldependsuponthescientificknowledgeofthe
West,donotrecognizeisthatthedominantpatternsofwesternculturearepoorlyadaptedto
maintainingthesustainingcapacityoflocalecosystems.Asrecenthistoryhaveproven,the

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technologicalandconsumerdependentlifestyleoftheWestrequiresthecontinualexploitationofthe
bioregionsofotherculturalgroups.
ManyoftheculturesthatWilsonandotherswanttoseedisplacedbytheEnlightenment
traditionsoftheWesthavedevelopedinwaysthatenablethemtolivewithinthelimitsand
possibilitiesofthelocalenvironments.TheZapatistasofSouthernMexico,theQuechualivingin
thePeruvianAndes,andotherindigenousculturesspreadacrossNorthandSouthAmericanas
wellinotherpartsoftheworld,possessbothacomplexknowledgeoflocalecosystemsaswellas
intergenerationaltraditionsthatrenewtheprinciplesofmoralreciprocitythatlimittheirimpacton
naturalsystems.Astheseculturesarepressuredtomodernizebyadoptingtheformsofknowledge
thatWilsonupholdsasmoreevolutionaryadvanced,theybecomemoreindividuallyandconsumer
orientedandenvironmentallydisruptive.Indeterminingwhichformofcultureisbetteradaptedto
itsenvironment,IsuggestthereaderlearnaboutthecosmovisionoftheQuechualivinginthe
diverseecosystemsthatmakeupthePeruvianAndes.Whatisparticularlyinterestingisthattheir
worldviewhasledtooneofthemostgeneticallydiversefoodproductionregionsintheworld.
Theircarefulobservationofchangesineveryaspectoftheirenvironment,aswellastheirwayof
understandingthatallrelationshipsthatmakeupthenaturalworldinvolvebothnurturingandbeing
nurtured,standsinsharpcontrasttoWilsonsreductionist,survivaloriented,andmechanistic
science.IamnotsuggestingherethatwecanorshouldadopttheQuechuaworldview,whichhas
sustainedthemovereighttotenthousandyears.RatherlearningaboutthecomplexityofQuechua
knowledgeoflocalecosystems,andtheculturalpatternsthatenabledthemtofosterandsustain
biodiversityinoneofthemorechallengingregionsoftheworld,willhelpbringintoquestion
Wilsonsclaimaboutthebackwardnessofprescientificcultures,andhiswillingnesstoseethem
disappear.Manyotherindigenouscultures,aswearebeginningtolearn,couldalsobecitedas
examplesofbeingecologicallycenteredinwaysthatculturesbasedonwesternsciencearenot.
EvolutionasanIdeology.Wilsonsextrapolationsonthetheoryofnaturalselectioncoverawide
rangeofculturalphenomena.Theyinclude:prescientificculturesarepoorlyadaptedtotheir
environments,moralvaluesandreligionsarebiasesinmentaldevelopmentthatareencodedinthe
genes,thebrainisaproductofnaturalselection,andthebasicdriveinlifeistosurvivelongerandto
leavemoreoffspring.Whiletheseclaimsappeartogivescientificlegitimacytoacademicsand
otherexpertswhoarenowexplainingeverythingfromculturaltrendstoindividualbehaviorsas

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shapedbytherolethatgenesplayintheprocessofnaturalselection,noneoftheabove
extrapolationsarebasedonscientificevidence.Causalrelationshipsinthesymbolicnatureof
culturespecificallythecomplexinterplaybetweentheepistemeofaculturalgroup,thelanguaging
processesthatsustainthesharedmetacognitiveschemata,andtheindividualssenseofselfidentity
andmeaningthatbothreproduceandindividualizethesharedculturalpatternscannotbe
empiricallyestablishedwithoutintroducingfundamentalmisrepresentations.Nevertheless,Wilsons
everypronouncement,nomatterhowproblematic,isgivenpublicexposureofteninleading
magazinessuchasTheAtlanticMonthlyandinscientificjournals.Themiseducationofthepublic
isbeingfurtheredbyproponentsofcomputerswhoexplaintechnologicaldevelopmentsasguidedby
theprocessofevolution.Psychologistsarealigningtheirprofessionaljudgmentswiththenew
scientificorthodoxythatWilsonhaspioneeredbyexplainingarangeofhumanbehavioras
geneticallybased;whileanthropologistsarefindingthatculturaldevelopmentsrepresenteffortsto
preservesthegroupsgeneticmaterial.Evenartisnowbeingexplainedasanadaptivebehaviorthat,
asEllenDissanayakaputsit,hassurvivalvalue(1992,p.35).Ineffect,Wilsonsextrapolations
arehelpingtorenewanexplanatoryframeworkthatispresumedtohaveascientificbasis,andthus
isbeinggiventhespecialstatuswherecriticismisviewedasunwarrantedandtheexpressionofanti
Enlightenmentthinking.
Atotalizingexplanatoryframework,especiallyonethatappearstobegroundedinscience
andpromotedbyacademicswho,byvirtueoftheirinstitutionalpositions,determinewhatconstitutes
highstatusknowledge,becomesapowerfulideologymadetoorderforthosewhowanttopromote
thelatesttechnologyandtoopenupnewconsumermarkets.IncontrasttoDarwinstheory,which
emphasizesthatthesurvivalvalueofbehavioraltraitsisdeterminedovermanygenerations,the
proponentsofmodernizationreadtheprocessofnaturalselectionintoeverysituationwhereanew
technologydisplacestechnologiesandotherculturaltraditionsthathavesurvivedwithonlyminor
modificationovermanygenerations.Forexample,electroniccommunitiesarenowbeing
interpretedasmoreadvancedthanfacetofacecommunities.Similarly,globalizinganindustrial
modeofproductionandconsumptionisbeingexplainedasmoreevolvedthanselfsufficientand
nonmonetizedcultures.Andtheprospectsofgeneticallydesignedoffspringisbeingviewedas
puttingtheprocessofnaturalselectioninthehandsofexpertswhowilleliminatetheelementof
chance.ThistransformationofDarwinstheorycanalsobeseeninLeeSilverspredictionthat

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geneticengineeringwillsoonleadtohumansevolvingintotwodistinctspecies.ThisPrinceton
Universitymolecularbiologistenvisionsthegeneticallyplannedoffspringbecomingaseparate
GeneRichspeciesofhumans,whilethenongeneticallyplannedwillevolveastheNaturals
whowillperformtheserviceandhardlaborfunctionsinsociety(1997,pp.47).
Wilsonscontributiontoturningthetheoryofevolutionintoanideology(thatis,helpingto
revivethenineteencenturyideologyofsurvivalofthefittest)retainskeyconceptualelementsthat
weretheunderpinningsoftheIndustrialRevolutionandthecolonizingprocessthatitrequired.
Theseincludetheideathatthebasicdriveistosurviveinanenvironmentthatrewardswinnersand
eliminateslosers;thatscientificallybasedtechnologiesaremoreevolvedthantechnologiesthatare
moreintegratedintothewebofcommunitylifeandrequiregreaterskillonthepartoftheuser;that
values(whichmayinvolvecooperationwithinthefamilyorcorporateunitthatcompetewithother
units)shouldbejudgedonthebasisoftheirsurvivalvalue;andthatevolutionisthescientists
specialwordforwhatmodernthinkerscallprogress.Asthesearetheassumptionsthatunderliethe
westernmodeloftechnologicalandeconomicdevelopmentthathashadsuchanadverseimpacton
theenvironmentoverthelasttwohundredandfiftyyears,environmentalistsneedtoaskwhether
Wilsonssociobiologyoutweighsinimportancehiscontributionsasanadvocateofbiodiversity.
ExtinctionofPreScientificCultures.WilsonsreadingoftheRosettaStoneofevolution
strengthensthepopularbiasthatnonwesternculturesarebackward,andinneedofbeing
transformedinwaysthatcorrespondtothewesternformofconsciousness.Wilsondoesnotprovide
scientificevidence,butasserts,asnotedearlier,thatthegreatestdividefacinghumanityisbetween
theprescientificandscientificcultures.Ineffect,hisargumentthatthenaturalsciencesshouldbe
theunifyingbasisofallformsofknowledge,aswellashisclaimthatscienceshouldbethefinal
arbiterofreligiousinsight,puthimonthesideofthosewhoequateprogresswiththecreationofa
worldmonoculture.
ThedoublebindinWilsonseffortstoestablishtheworldwideprimacyofscientifically
basedknowledgeisthatitleadstounderminingthelinkagebetweenculturalandbiodiversitythatis
justnowbeingunderstoodbyenvironmentalists.Wilsonsdesiretoseethedisappearanceof
cultureshecategorizesasprescientificleadstothelossoflanguagesthatareastonishingcomplex
repositoriesofknowledgeoflocalecosystems.AustralianAborigines,forexample,haveencodedin
theirlanguageandceremoniessuchawealthofknowledgeoftheinterrelationshipofplants,

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animals,weatherpatterns,andphysicalcharacteristicsofthelandscapethatAustraliangovernment
scientistshaveaskedthemtoprovidemapsthatindicatetheediblefloraandfauna,andexplaintheir
nutritionalvalue.TheKapingamarangiislandersofMicronesia,accordingtolinguistsDavidNettle
andSuzanneRomaine,varytheirfishingactivityevenlyover200indigenousvarietiesoffish,thus
ensuringthatnoonevarietyisfacedwithextinction.NettleandRomainealsocitetheexampleof
theHaunoowholiveontheislandofMindaro.Theseprescientificpeoplecanidentify450
speciesofanimalsandover1500localplants;theyalsocultivateasmanyas450differentplantsin
theirgardenswithmanyoftheplantshavingknownmedicinalvalue.Thefarmingpracticesofthe
Haunootakeaccountofthe10basicand30derivativetypesofsoil.Theirlanguagealsoincludes4
differenttermsforsoilfirmness(NettleandRomaine,2000,pp.71,166167).TheQuechuaofthe
PeruvianAndesrepresentyetanotherexampleofasupposedlyprescientificculturethatWilson
wouldliketoseetransformedbytheadoptionofscienceastheirsacrednarrative.Forovereight
thousandyearstheQuechuacosmovisionhasrepresentedlifeprocessesasareciprocaldialogue
betweenhumans,deities,andnature.Theirunderstandingofalllifeprocessesasessentially
nurturingrelationshipshasenabledthemtoturnthediversityofecologicalnichesandmicroclimates
thatcharacterizetheAndesintooneoftheworldsgreatestcentersofdiversityofcultivatedplants.
Theygrowover1500varietiesofquinoaandover3500varietiesofpotatoes.Otherexamplesthat
fitintoWilsonscategoryofprescientificculturecouldeasilybegiven.
GivenWilsonsknowledgeoftheimportanceofbiodiversity,itissurprisingthatheignores
thewealthofevidencenowemergingfromscientificstudiesofthecomplexandaccurateknowledge
oflocalecosystemspossessedbymanyindigenouscultures.Hadhetakenthisintoaccount,his
theoryoftheepigeneticbasisofculturalpatterns,includinghisreductionistsubtheoriesaboutthe
geneticbasisofbrainactivityandlanguage,wouldnothavehadtheconceptualcoherenceheneeded
forhisargumentthatscientificallybasedculturesarebetteradaptedtomeetthechallengesoflong
termsurvival.Thereisanotherreasonforthiscriticallyimportantoversight.Hismechanistic
understandingofthebrain,alongwithhisneedtoexplaintheepigeneticrulesgoverningthe
possibilitiesoflanguage,preventhimfromrecognizingthatthemythopoeticnarrativesofthese
diverseculturesarethebasisoftheirwayofknowingwhichincludestheirwaysofunderstanding
relationshipsandthewayrelationshipsarerepresentedinametaphoricallanguagethatis
intergenerationallyshared.

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ThereasonforWilsonsfailuretounderstandhowthemetacognitiveschemata(whatIhave
elsewherecalledrootmetaphors)ofaculturalgroupinfluenceshowrelationshipsareunderstoodis
hisrigidembraceofthegenesdeterminecultureargument.Witnesshowinthefollowing
statementheattemptstogivecultureacoevolutionaryrole,butendsupreassertingtherealitiesof
humanevolutionargumentwhichincludesthewholepackageofassumptionsaboutgenesgiving
risetoindividualbehaviorsandculturaltraitsthatarebetteradaptedforlongtermsurvival.Iwill
quoteWilsonheretoensurereadersthatIamnotmisrepresentinghimonthiscrucialissue.
Thebrainconstantlysearchesformeaning,forconnectionsbetweenobjectsandqualitiesthat
crosscutthesensesandprovideinformationaboutexternalexistence.Wepenetratethat
worldthroughtheconstrainingportalsoftheepigeneticrules.Asshownintheelementary
casesofparalanguageandcolorvocabulary,culturehasarisenfromthegenesandforever
bearstheirstamp.Withtheinventionofmetaphorandnewmeaning,ithasatthesametime
acquiredalifeonitsown.Inordertograspthehumancondition,boththegenesandculture
mustbeunderstood,notseparatelyinthetraditionalmannerofscienceandthehumanities,
buttogether,inrecognitionoftherealitiesofhumanevolution.1998,163
HadWilsonextendedthediscussionofmetaphortotakeaccountofthelayerednatureof
metaphoricalthinking,includinghowmaterialcultureisalsotheexpressionofmetaphorical
thinking,hemighthaverecognizedthathisownexplanationoforganicprocesses,suchashowgenes
performandtheactivitiesofthebrain,isframedbyhisrelianceuponamechanisticrootmetaphor.
ScienceandtheEvolutionaryEpicastheSourceofValues.Wilsonstransformationofthe
theoryofevolutionintoanideologythatistoguidetheworldsculturesraisesthequestionaboutthe
abilityofscienceasamodeofinquiry,andscientistswhoareunconsciouslyinfluencedbythe
assumptionsoftheirownculture,toestablishthemoralvaluesthataretoputhuman/nature
relationshipsonamoresustainablebasis.Wilsonclearlythinksthatevolutionhasnowcarried
humankindtoanewlevelofmoraldevelopment.Butbeyondassertingthatthenonsecularandnon
scientificallybasedculturesshouldabandontheirmythopoeticnarrativesinordertoacceptwhat
evolutionarybiologistscertifyasthebedrockofmoralandreligioussentiments,Wilsonhaslittle
tosayabouthowtoaffectthischange.Hissilenceaboutaneffectivestrategyforcarryingoutthe
changesheseesbeingdictatedbyevolutionisparticularlynoteworthyinaworldwherethe
mythopoeticnarrativesofdifferentculturesareincreasinglyatthecenterofpoliticalconflict.

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Hemay,however,haveanotherreasonforremainingsilentonthiscrucialissue.Hemay
simplyassumethatthegenesthatpredisposedthemembersofdifferentculturestocreatemoral
norms,andthemythopoeticnarrativesthatgivethemlegitimacy,mayovertimegivewaytogenes
thatpredisposethemtolivebymoralnormsbettersuitedtosurvivingtheongoingprocessofnatural
selection.ThusthebetteradaptedgenesthatWilsonseesasthebasisoftheepigeneticruleswill
simplysolvetheproblembyreplacingtheunfitmoralnormswiththosethatmeetthetestof
Darwinianfitness.AccordingtoWilsonsgenocentricarguments,environmentalistsandotherswho
thinkthatrationaldiscussionsthattakeaccountoftheculturalforcesthatadverselyimpactthe
Earthsecosystems,thequestformoreecologicallycenteredmetanarratives,andecojustice
orientededucationalreformscanmakeadifferencesimplydonotunderstandthatNatureswaysdo
notalwaysfitwhathumansdesireforthefuture.GiventhedeeplymoralnatureofWilsonsthesis,I
dontthinkheiswillingtoaccepttheconclusionsthatfollowhisargumentsabouttherealitiesof
humanevolution.
ButIhaveconcernsthatgobeyondWilsonsnaveunderstandingofhowtochangethedeep
culturalfoundationsofthevaluesystemsofdifferentcultures.Theseconcernsalsogobeyondthe
questionofwhetherhehasadequateevidenceforhisclaimthatcultureiscreatedbythecommunal
mind,andeachmindinturnistheproductofageneticallystructuredbrain(1998,p.127).My
concernshavetodowithscientistsasindividualswho,inlearningtothinkandcommunicateinthe
languagepatternsoftheirculture,unconsciouslyreproducetheassumptionsoftheircultureinthose
areaswherescientificdiscoveriesarebeingtranslatedintotechnologies,whereindividualscientists
explainthesocialvalueoftheirdiscovery,andwheretheypredicthowtheirdiscoverieswillchange
thefuturedirectionoftheculture.WhileWilsonrepresentsscientistsasengagedinadialectic
involvingrationalthoughtandempiricalevidence,thehistoricalrecordofscientistsasexemplary
moralagentsandfuturistthinkersismixed.Weareallawareofhowtheirresearchand,inmany
cases,personalsacrificeshaveimprovedthequalityofhumanlifeandexpandedourknowledgeof
thephysicalworld.ButlikeJanus,thetwofacedRomangodthatlooksinoppositedirections,the
historyofthescientificcommunityalsohasaJanusface.Thatis,scientistsasacommunityof
scholar/researchershavemadecontributionsthathavebeenconstructive,andcontributionsthathave
beendestructiveevenenvironmentallydestructive.

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IfwelookatthehistoricalrecordofthescientiststhatWilsonwantstoputinchargeof
aligningmoralvaluesoftheworldscultureswiththewayheunderstandsthegeneticbased
evolutionaryoriginofmoralandreligiousbeliefs,wefindthefollowing:(1)Scientistshaveinthe
pastandcontinuetodaytobethesourceofbasicknowledgethatenabledtheIndustrialRevolution,
andthedigitalphaseithasnowentered,toexpandonaglobalscale;(2)Scientistshaveprovidedthe
knowledgeforthedevelopmentofweaponsofmassdestruction.Thatsomescientistsnowoppose
theuseofthemoredestructiveweaponsdoesnotchangethefactthatscientistshavenotalways
exercisedthehighwisdomthatWilsonassignsthem;(3)Scientists,asStephenJayGouldpointed
outinTheMismeasureofMan(1981)weremajorcontributorstointelligencetestingandsupported
theracistassumptionitwasbasedon;(4)Scientistsintheearlypartofthiscenturyweredeeply
implicatedintheeugenicsmovement,andtheyarecontinuingtosupportthebasicassumptionsof
thismovementtodaywiththeirdrivetofindthegeneticbasisforeliminatinghumanabnormalities
whichgoeswellbeyondtheeliminationofdiseasesbyplacingthescientistsandtheirclientsinthe
roleofdefiningwhatconstitutesnormality;(5)Scientistshaveintroducedintotheenvironmenttens
ofthousandsofsyntheticchemicalsasafixforcertainproblemsbutwithoutanadequate
understandinghowthechemicalsinteractwithotherchemicalprocessesuponwhichvariouslife
formingsystemsdepend.Themythofprogressratherthanwhatisnowcalledtheprecautionary
principlehasbeenthebasisoftheirsocialandecologicalawareness.Fortunately,thisisbeginning
tochange.Butwearenowwitnessinganotherdevelopmentthatraisesthequestionofwhether
scientistsarecapableofbeingthesuperiormoralguidesthatWilsonrepresentsthemas.The
mergingofscientificresearchwithcorporateagendas,includingthegrowingpracticeofscientists
seekingpersonaleconomicgainthroughtheirresearch,isincreasingtheircomplicityintheprocess
ofeconomicandtechnologicalglobalizationthatfurtherthreatenstheviabilityoftheEarths
ecosystemandwhatremainsoftheselfsustainingcapacityofculturesthathavenotyetbeen
pulledentirelyintotheWestsnewcolonialsystem.
Thesecriticismsofscientistsarenotmeanttodiminishtheimportantcontributionstheyare
makinginmanyareasoflifeincludingamoreaccurateunderstandingoftherateandscaleof
changesoccurringinnaturalsystems.Butwecannotforgetthatthetechnologydependent,
consumerdrivenlifestylenowbeingglobalizedhaditsrootsinearlierscientificachievements.The
hubrisofwesternscientists,includingthewayinwhichtheyhavedenigratedknowledgesystems

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basedonnonwesternassumptions,ispartlyresponsibleforourfailuretolearnfromecologically
centeredculturestheimportanceofextendingmoralreciprocitytothenaturalworld.AldoLeopolds
ASandCountyAlmanac((1949)representsoneofthefirsteffortsintheWesttoarticulatealand
ethic.Whileitrepresentsaneloquentandcompellingstatement,ithasnotbeenincorporatedinto
ourceremoniesandtakenforgrantedpatternsofdailylife.TodaysrealityisthattitleofCarl
Sagansbook,TheDemonHauntedWord:ScienceasaCandleintheDark(1997)expressesmore
accuratelythehubristowardwhatWilsonreferstoasprescientificcultures.Thecurrenteffortto
patentindigenousknowledgeofbiodiversity(thatis,toexploititasanotherresourceintheindustrial
process)isyetanotherexampleofthefailureofwesternscientiststoprovidemoralleadershipin
sustainingtheculturaldiversitythatissoessentialtotheviabilityofbiodiversity.Thescientists
currentroleintheappropriationofindigenousknowledgeforindustrialpurposes,whichtheyjustify
inthenameofprogress,representsacontinuationofoveratwohundredandfiftyyearcollaboration
betweenscientistsandindustryacollaborationthathasunderminedtheabilityofmanyspeciesto
ensurethesurvivabilityoftheirgeneticmaterial.ThiscollaborationistotallyignoredbyWilson.
Indeed,hisargumentsformakingscientiststheguardiansoftheworldsmoralvaluesignoresthe
longhistoryofdestructiveandmorallyproblematicprojectsthatshouldbelaidoutalongsidethe
equallylonghistoryofpositiveachievements.Butthismorebalancedviewofthescientistscapacity
asamoralleaderistotallylackinginWilsonsthinking.
WilsonsargumentthatscientistsshouldtakeonthePrometheanroleofsavingthediverse
culturesoftheworldfromtheconsequencesoftheirprescientificknowledgesystemsledWendell
BerrytowriteadevastatingcritiqueofwhathecallstheexplicitlyimperialisticnatureofWilsons
faithintheultimateempiricalexplainabilityofeverything(2000.P.30).AsBerryputitinThe
MiracleofLife:AnEssayAgainstModernSuperstition,Wilsonhimself,inhisconvictionthat
everythingthatisnotscienceouttobeandwillbe,showshimselftobeamanwithafiercely
proprietarymindanddireintentionstowardtheunenlightened.Thelogicofhispositionisclearand
itismostdisquieting(p.31).
EcologicalImplicationsofScienceasanAntiTraditionTradition.
AnyassessmentofWilsonscontributiontocreatingamoreecologicallysustainableculture
mustalsotakeintoaccountthescientistsknowledgeoftheirownculture,aswellasthatofother
cultures.WhenWilsonclaimsthatscientistswilltestrelentlesslyeveryassumptionaboutthe

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humanconditionandintimeuncoverthebedrockofmoralandreligioussentiments(1998,p.265)
heisassumingthatscientistspossesssuperiorknowledgeandthattheyshouldtakeonthe
Prometheanroleofrescuingpeoplefromtheirmisconceptions.Butoneofthecharacteristicsofthe
humancondition,regardlessofculturalgroup,isthatitinvolvesdependenceupontraditions.As
mosttraditionsareatakenforgrantedpartofdailyexperience,thechallengeistorecognize
traditionsthatareessentialtocivilsocietyandlessconsumerdrivenlives,thatarenolongeruseful,
andthatwerewronglyconstitutedinthefirstplace.Theecologyoftraditions,whichincludesall
aspectsofculturepasseddownandreenactedoverfourgenerationsorcohorts,representsthe
intergenerationalcontinuitieswithinaculture.Scienceasamodeofinquiry,andthetechnologies
andideologyitreliesupon,arealsoexamplesoftraditions.ButasEdwardShilspointsout,science
isatraditionthathasasitprimarypurposetheoverturningoftraditionsthatdonotmeetthetestof
newscientificdiscoveries.Thatis,scienceiswhatShilscallsanantitraditiontraditionthathasits
rootsinEnlightenmentthinking.Asanantitraditiontradition,sciencehasledtoimportantchanges
inwaysofthinkingandinthedevelopmentofhighlyusefultechnologiesthathavebecomenew
traditions.Ithasalsobeenthebasisofnewtraditionsthatwearenowrecognizingas
environmentallydestructive,suchasfarmingtechniquesthatoverlyrelyuponchemicalpesticides
andfertilizers,theoverprescribingofdrugs,andthepracticeofseekingatechnologicalsolutionto
environmentalproblemsratherthanchangesinculturalvaluesandwaysofthinking.Thelistof
moreecologicallysustainableculturaltraditionsunderminedbyscientificallybasedtechnologies
includeshowtheGreenRevolutionunderminestheindigenousknowledgeofhowtoadapt
agriculturalpracticestothecharacteristicsoflocalecosystems,thedisplacementofcraftknowledge
bytheindustrialmodeofproduction,theunderminingofmentoringrelationshipsandembodied
experiencesofplacebycomputermediatedcommunication,andthemarginalizationof
intergenerationalknowledgeandskillsbymarketorientedtechniquesthatarebasedonscientific
knowledgeofhowtoshapehumanexpectationsandtocreategreaterefficienciesinmarket
activities.Indeed,theprocessofglobalizingwesterntraditionsofindustriallyproducedfoods,
clothes,modesofcommunication,andsoforth,isdependentuponwesternscience,andthese
westerntraditionsnotonlyunderminelocaltraditionsofselfsufficiencybutalsofosteracultural
ecologyofconstantchangeinconsumerexpectationsandtechnologicalinnovation.

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TheproblemwithWilsonsrecommendationthatscientistsshoulddecidewhatvaluesand
culturalpracticespeopleshouldlivebyisthatscientists,asagroup,areamongtheleastqualifiedto
makedecisionsaboutwhichtraditionsareessentialtomorallycoherentandecologicallysustainable
cultures.Aspointedoutabove,theirconceptualorientationistowardintroducingnewtechnologies
andwaysofthinking.Asidefrompersonalexperience,whichismostlyexperiencedastakenfor
grantedbackgroundknowledge,theyhavenoexpertknowledgeofwhichtraditionsareespecially
importantassourcesofselfsufficiency,norhavetheydemonstratedaspecialawarenessofthe
importanceoftraditionsthatarebeingunderminedorentirelylostasaresultofthetechnologiesthat
newscientificdiscoveriesgiveriseto.Forexample,scientistsasagrouphavenotresistedtheloss
ofthetraditionofprivacy,includingfreedomfromgovernmentalsurveillance,whichcomputersnow
makepossible.Norhavetheybeenconcernedaboutthelossofthetraditionsdependentuponface
tofaceintergenerationalcommunicationthatarealsobeingunderminedbycomputertechnologies.
IfWilsonweretobeconsistentinhisargumentthatgenesdeterminebrainsandthusculture,
andthatnaturalselectiondetermineswhichgenescontainthechemicalinstructionsbestsuitedtothe
survivaloffuturegenerationsoftheorganism,theprocessofdeterminingwhichbeliefsandcultural
practicesshouldsurvivewouldbelefttoNatureandnotbeplacedontheshouldersofscientists.As
pointedoutearlier,Wilsonspoliticalagendaistocreateaworldmonoculturebasedonthethinking
ofscientistswhohavemadeessentialcontributionstotheearlierand,now,presentphaseofthe
IndustrialRevolutionarevolutionthathasunderminedculturesthathaveasmallerecological
impactandthathasunderminedtheselfrenewingcapacityofnaturalsystems.
Wilsonsdivisionofhumanevolutionintowhathecalledthegreatestdivide,thechasm
thatseparatesscientificfromprescientificcultures(1998,p.45),aswellashisargumentsfor
replacingtheworldsreligionswiththescientificnarrativeofhumanevolution,seemsstrangelyat
oddswithhisbiophiliahypothesis.Hiscallfortheculturesoftheworldtoadoptthescientific
narrativeastheirsecularreligion,isreallyacallforaworldmonoculture,Atthesametimehis
biophiliahypothesis,whichisalsowithoutascientificallyestablishedbasisthattakesaccountof
culturaldifferences,isthathumanevolutionhasledtothegeneticbasisofhumanpreferencesfor
andaffiliationswithlifeformingprocesses.Hishypothesisalsoclaimsthatbiophobic(adversive)
responsesonthepartofhumanstowardenvironmentaldestructioncanalsobetracedtotheprocess
ofhumanevolution.IfWilsonhadtriedtoreconcilehisargumentsforaworldmonoculturebased

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solelyonscientificallybasedknowledgewithhisbiophiliahyposthesishewouldhavebeenfaced
withexplainingwhyhewantstoimposeascientificallybasedepistemologyandmoralsystemon
indigenousculturesthathaveevolvedtothepointwheretheirtechnologies,ceremonies,patterns
ofmoralreciprocity,andplacebasedknowledgeareexpressionsofhumanaffiliationwiththelife
formingprocessesthatmakeuptheirbioregion.ItmaybethatWilson,inrecognizingthathis
argumentsaboutnaturalselectionandthelonghistoryofdisclaimersaboutsciencebeingseparate
fromvalues,realizedthathewouldneedtocomeupwithatheorythatexplainsthegeneticbasisof
anenvironmentalethic.Butheoverlookedthehistoricalrecordofwesternscience,andhowithas
beenjustifiedonthegroundsthatitwouldenablemantosubduenature,toexploitisasaresource,
andtofindsubstitutesforsystemsthatdisappear.Ineffect,hearguesforuniversalizingamodeof
inquiry,andtheeconomicsystemdependentuponit,thatshowfarlessevidenceofthequalitieshe
associateswithbiophilia.Indeed,Wilsonsreferencetothebrainasamachine,asaproblemin
engineering,suggeststhat,inspiteofthefamethathascometohimbecauseofhistheoryof
biophilia,histhinkingisstillinthetraditionofsciencethattreatsnatureasanobjectofstudy,
exploitation,andexperimentation.Thesearehardlythequalitiesthatheassociateswithbiophilia.
Ithasonlybeeninthelastthreeorsodecadesthatscientistshavebecomewidelyconcerned
aboutchangesinnaturalsystems,whiletheirrecordofhelpingtoincorporatenatureintothe
industrial,monetizedculturegoesbackhundredsofyears.Andeventoday,therearescientistswho
arestillworkingtoincorporatenaturalprocessesintoanindustrialmodeofproductionand
consumption.Whilethegrowingconcernaboutachievingscientificknowledgeofchangesin
naturalsystems,anddevelopingtechnologiesthatmitigatethehumanimpact,representsan
importantdevelopment,thereislittleevidencethatscientistshavebeguntothinkaboutthe
interconnectionsbetweenthemythopoeticnarrativesofdifferentculturesandthetraditionsthat
makethemlessdependentuponconsumerismwhichisoneofthemainthreatstotheenvironment
andthustothesurvivabilityofthegeneticmaterialofdifferentspecies.
Insummary,Wilsonsgoodintentions,andevenhisgenuineconcernaboutconserving
biodiversity,arelesssignificantthanthesupporthisextrapolationsonthetheoryofevolutiongiveto
thepromotersofaworldmonoculturebasedonawesternconsumerdependentlifestyle.Wilsonhas
madeimportantscientificcontributionsandhasbeengivenwideacclaim.Butthefatalflawinhis
thinkingisthathedoesnotrecognizethedeepculturalassumptionsthatlimithisabilitytorecognize

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whenhehassteppedbeyondtheboundariesinwhichheisknowledgeable.Andhedoesnot
understandhowhistakenforgrantedculturalassumptionsleadtorecommendationsthatwork
againsthisgenuineconcernaboutthesurvivabilityofhumankind.WhileWilsoncouldbejustifiably
accusedofhavingaPrometheancomplex,heshouldbeunderstoodasembodyingthelimitationsthat
characterizemostscientists:thatis,thefailuretounderstandhowtheiractivitiesimpactthecultures
oftheworld.Yet,theeducationthatmostscientistsreceiveignoresthisincreasinglyimportant
limitation.Rather,itreinforcestheideologythatrepresentsscientificinquiryasfreeofcultural
influences.Thiseducationalsoreinforcesanevenmoredestructivemyth,namelythatthescientist
isnotresponsibleforhowsocietyturnsscientificdiscoveriesintonewtechnologiesandsystemsof
control.Theproblematicnatureofthisideologycanbeseenintheselfcertainty(indeed,hubris)of
MartinW.Lewiswhostates:
Asaselfprofessedenvironmentalist,Ifullyconcurthatthepassageintothetwentyfirstcenturysees
theworldinastateofecologicalcrisis.Ifurtheragreethatmuchoftheblamemustbe
assignedtotechnologiesthatowetheirexistencetothesuccessofEnlightenmentthought.
ButIamalsoconvincedthatawholeheartedcommitmenttoreasonandscienceoffersthe
onlywayoutofthedilemma.Onlythroughscientificinvestigationcanweknowtheorigin
andmagnitudeoftheplanetsproblems.Butofequalsignificanceisthefactthatonly
throughsciencecanwedeviselessharmfultechnologiesthatwillallowustocontinueto
enjoythefruitsofmodernitywhichtwentiethcenturyhumanswillnotforeswear,nomatter
howurgentthepleadingwithoutundercuttingnaturalsystemsintheprocess.Grossand
Levitt,1996,p.210(italicsadded)
Again,weseethedoublebind.ToparaphraseLewis,themindsetthathasbeenamajorcontributor
totheecologicalcrisisistheonlymindsetcapableofsavinghumanity.LikeWilson,Lewis
representationofthescientistasamodernPrometheusomitstheimportanceofunderstandingculture
inallitsdimensionsanddiversity.Theproblemisthatthelanguageofscience,andtheideology
thatlegitimatesitshigherstatus,isinadequateforunderstandingtheculturallimitsofscientific
expertise.
References

64
ApffelMarglin,Frederique(editorwithPRATEC).1998.TheSpiritofRegeneration:Andean
CultureAgainstWesternNotionsofDevelopment.London:ZedBooks.
Berry,Wendell.2000.LifeisaMiracle:AnEssayAgainstModernSuperstition.Washington,D.C.:
Counterpoint.
Gould,StephenJay.1981.TheMismeasureofMan.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Dissanayaka,Ellen.1992.HomoAestheticus:WhereArtComesFromandWhy.NewYork:Free
Press.
Kelly,Kevin.1994.OutofControl:TheRiseofNeoBiologicalCivilization.Reading,Mass.:
AddisonWesley.
Kurzweil,Ray.1999.TheAgeofSpiritualMachines:WhenComputersExceedHuman
Intelligence.NewYork:VikingPress.
Leopold,Aldo.1966edition.ASandCountyAlmanac.SanFrancisco:SierraClub/BallantineBook.
Lewis,MartinW.1994.RadicalEnvironmentalPhilosophyandtheAssaultonReason.Pp.209
230inTheFlightfromScienceandReason,ed.PaulR.Gross,NormanLevitt,andMartin
W.Lewis.NewYork:NewYorkAcademyofSciences.
Lewontin,R.C.1992.BiologyasIdeology:TheDoctrineofDNA.NewYork:HarperPerennial.
Moravec,Hans.1988.MindChildren:TheFutureofRobotandHumanIntelligence.
Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.
Nettle,Daniel,andSuzanneRomaine.2000.VanishingVoices:TheExtinctionoftheWorlds
Languages.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Sagan.Carl.1997.TheDemonHauntedWorld:ScienceasaCandleintheDark.London:Headline
Book.
Silver,Lee.1997.ReMakingEden:HowCloningandBeyondWillChangetheHumanFamily.
NewYork:Avon.
Stock,Gregory.1993.Metaman:TheMergingofHumansandMachinesintoaGlobal
Superorganism.Toronto:DoubledayCanada.
Wilson,E.O.1998.Consilience:TheUnityofKnowledge.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.
__________.2000.Sociobiology:TheNewSynthesis.Cambridge,Mass.:TheBelknapPressof
HarvardUniversityPress.

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Chapter3TheEnvironmentalEthicImplicitinThreeTheoriesofEvolution

InEducatingforEcoJusticeandCommunity(2001),Ibrieflydiscussthepitfallsofusing
evolutionasaconceptualframeworkforrecommendingeducationalreforms.Whilemybookwasin
theearlystagesofbeingreviewed,EdmundOSullivansTransformativeLearning:Educational
st
Visionforthe21Century(1999)appeared.OSullivansbookissignificantforanumberof

reasons.Butthetwomostimportantarethatitrepresentsoneofthefirstbookswrittenbyatheorist
deeplyrootedinthetraditionofcriticalpedagogythataddressestheculturalchangesbeingforced
upontheworldbytheecologicalcrisis.Second,theconceptualframeworkheusesisbasedonthe
BrianSwimme/ThomasBerryinterpretationofevolutionorwhattheycalltheuniversestory.It
shouldalsobesaidthatOSullivansextrapolationsontheSwimme/Berryinterpretationare
insightful,wellsupportedbyotherwriterswhoshareaholisticviewoftherelationshipbetween
humansandNature,andpersuasivelyargued.
MypurposehereisnottocritiqueTransformativeLearning,buttofamethediscussionon
anotherlevelonethatreturnstotheconcernsIraisedinmyearlierdiscussionofthelimitationsof
usingatheoryofevolutiontoexplainculturaldevelopments.Ishouldsaytheoriesofevolutionas
thereare,amongothers,threeprominenttheoriesthathaveprofoundlydifferentpolitical
implications.Inaworldwheretherearestillapproximately6000differentlanguagesstillspoken
(withmanyofthevergeofextinction),andthusanequalnumberofworldviews,thevast
differencesinwaysofknowingnowunderpressurefromglobalizationcreateyetanothersetof
issuesbeingignoredbythetheoristspromotingthethreeschoolsofevolutionarythoughtthatwillbe
examinedhere.
Thecriticalquestionsthatneedtobeaskedbyanyeducationaltheoristwhoreliesuponone
ofthethreetheoriesofevolutionare:Whichoneisthemostscientificallybased?andWhichone
mosteffectivelyaccountsforthediversityoftheworldsculturesparticularlytheculturesthathave
developedecologicallysustainablebeliefsandpractices?.Theanswertothesequestions,asIwill
attempttoshow,willhelptoclarifyacharacteristicsharedbyallthreeinterpretationsofevolution:
namely,howtheylendideologicalsupporttothewesternapproachtocreatingaworldmonoculture.
Thatis,theanswertothesequestionswillbringoutthedoublebindofhowusingatheoryof

66
evolutiontoaddressecologicalproblemscan,atthesametime,legitimatetheculturalpracticesthat
arethegreatestthreattoecologicalsustainability.
Assessingtheideologicalandecologicalimplicationsofthreedifferentinterpretationsof
evolutionbringsintofocusanumberofissuesthateducationaltheorists,aswellasotherreform
mindedthinkers,shouldconsider.Astherearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenthethreeaccounts
ofevolution,thequestionofwhichoneisvalidbecomesacentralconcern.Thereisalsothe
questionofwhetherthethreeaccountsofevolutionavoidthelimitationsoftheSocialDarwinismof
thelatenineteenthcentury.Additionally,thereisthequestionofwhetheranevolutionarybased
explanatoryframeworkmakesboththeeducationalandpoliticalprocessesweassociatewitha
democracylittlemorethanmisguidedthinking.InlightofKevinKellysobservationthatNatures
agendaisoutofourcontrol(1994,p.471),theidealofaneducatedcitizenrybeingessentialtoa
democraticsocietymaynotfitNaturesagendaforensuringthesurvivalofthefittest.Before
examiningthethreeinterpretationsofevolutionbeinggivenprominencebydifferentgroups,itmust
beacknowledgedthatimportantdebatesamongevolutionists,suchastheoneprecipitatedbythe
fieldresearchofStephenJayGould,willnotbeconsidered.Norwilltheargumentsthata
DarwinianinterpretationofevolutionignoresthattheuniverseandtheEarthsorganismsaretoo
complextobeexplainedbytheinterplayofmutationsandtheselectivepoweroftheenvironment,
andthusthattheevolutionisthustheoutcomeofintelligentdesign(i.e.God).
EnteringthePostBiologicalPhaseofEvolution
Thepowerofcomputershasledtomanypredictionsofhowtheywillchangelifeinthe
future,suchasreproducinghumanemotions,becominganauxiliarybrain,andprovidingforinstant
languagetranslations.Perhapsthemostimportantpredictionisthatcomputersrepresentthenext
phaseofevolutionarydevelopment,whichwillleadtoapostbiologicalworldmonoculture.Hans
Moravec,theprincipalresearchscientistattheRoboticsInstituteatCarnegieMellonUniversity,
announcedin1988thatwearenowenteringapostbiologicalworlddominatedbyselfimproving,
thinkingmachines(p.5).Morerecently,hewroteintheEndoftheMillenniumSpecialIssueof
ScientificAmerican,thatby2040wewillfinallyachievetheoriginalgoalofroboticsanda
thematicmainstayofscientificfiction:afreelymovingmachinewiththeintellectualcapacityofa
humanbeing(1999,p.126).Theevolutionaryadvantageofcomputersoverhumans,ashepointed
out,isthatcomputersarecapableofmentalcalculationsmillionsoftimesfasterthanthehuman

67
brain.Withtheevolutionofintelligencebeingtakenoverbycomputers,Moravecpredictedthatthe
evolutionarydeadendforhumanswillbeaNevadastyleSunCityexistence.Asheputit,humans
willprobablyoccupytheirdayswithavarietyofsocial,recreationalandartisticpursuits,notunlike
todayscomfortableretireesorwealthyleisureclassesp.135.
Giventhehighlyspecializednatureofeducationexperiencedbymostcomputerscientists,it
shouldbenosurprisethatMoravecisnottheloanPrometheanthinkerwhoholdsoutthepromise
thatthefuturefateofhumanswillnolongerbedependentupontheflawedthinkingofpoliticians
anddespots,butwillbedeterminedbyNaturesprocessofnaturalselectionwhichwillensurethat
thebestandmostdeservingwillsurvive.GeorgeDyson,authorofDarwinAmongtheMachines
(1997)andsonofNobelPrizerecipientFreemanDyson,explainshowNaturerewardsthefittest.
ByfittestDysonmeansthemosteconomicalandefficientprocessesforencodinginformation
thatarethebasisoflifesustainingprocesses.Thefollowingquotationneedstobereadinthecontext
ofthesubtitleofhisbook,whichisTheEvolutionofGlobalIntelligence.
Biologyandtechnologyevidenceparalleltendenciestowardcollective,hierarchical
processesbasedoninformationexchange.Asinformationisdistributed,ittendstobe
represented(encoded)byincreasinglyeconomical(meaningful)forms.Thisevolutionary
process,wherebythemosteconomicalormeaningfulrepresentationwins,leadstoa
hierarchyoflanguages,encodingmeaningonlevelsthattranscendcomprehensionbythe
systemsindividualcomponentswhethergenes,insects,microprocessors,orhuman
minds.Nature,inherboundlessaffectionforcomplexity,hasbeguntoclaimourcreations
asherown.1997,p.78.
WhileDysondoesnotusethevocabularyofclassicalliberalthinkers,orthatofthepromotersof
theWorldTradeOrganization,heneverthelessgivestheimpressionthattheclassicalliberal
worldviewissupportedbythescientificallybasedtheoryofevolution.Itisalsoimportanttonote
howDysonmergesthecategoriesofbiologicalorganismsandmachines,whichpreviouslyhavebeen
understoodasseparate.ThisaspectofDysonthinkingisbecominganincreasingconventionaltrait
amongawiderangeofscientists.Dysonsextensionofthetheoryofnaturalselectiontoexplain
technologicaldevelopmentsgovernedbythesamedesigncriteriaNatureusesinthenaturalworldis
alsocriticallyimportant.Ineffect,heopensthedoortoexplainingallaspectsofculture,andthusthe
developmentofdifferentcultures,asgovernedbythelawsofnaturalselection.Theargumentthat

68
thebetteradaptedareselectedtosurvive,andtoreproducethemselvesthroughfuturegenerations,
makespoliticslittlemorethanatheatreofillusionsandimpossibleexpectations.
AnotherpointthatneedstobebroughtoutisthatDysonshouldhaverecognizedthathislast
statementaboutNaturesboundlessaffectionforcomplexityisinconsistentwithhismainthesis
namely,thatevolutionisleadingtoaglobalintelligence.Thatis,inthecaseofhumanevolution,the
complexityofdifferentculturalwaysofknowing,whichareadaptedinmanyinstancestothe
characteristicsoftheirbioregion,istoreplacedbyamachinemediatedglobalintelligence.Inother
words,culturalevolutionistobeguidedbyanoppositesetofdesigncriteria.
GregoryStockalsopresentsapictureofanevolutionaryprocessthatleadsfromawide
arrayoftraditionorientedculturestoahybridofcomputerandbiologicalprocesseshecalls
Metaman.HoldingaPh.D.inbiophysicsfromJohnsHopkinsUniversity,Stocklaysoutthe
evidenceofanevolutionaryprocess,whichmovedfromdiverseculturesdependentuponahuman
brainandaugmentedbyintergenerationalknowledgetoaglobalformofintelligence.UnlikeDyson,
Stockisawareofculturaldifferences.Buthebringstheprejudicesofthescientist,aswellasthoseof
themodernurbanthinker,tohisinterpretationofthem.Thefollowingquotationsbothprovidethe
evidenceheusestojustifyhisclaimthatweareevolvingaglobalintelligence,andthestagesofits
development.
TowardGlobalCulture
Afewcenturiesago,theworldbrimmedwithrich,distinctiveculturaltraditions.Notonlywere
Zulus,Eskimos,Maoris,andothernatureculturesstilllargelyisolatedfromoutsideinfluences,
butdifferencesbetweendevelopedlandswerepronounced.Todaysuchdiversityismostlya
thingofthepast.1993,p.99
HumanMachinesHybrids
Asthenatureofhumanbeingsbeginstochange,sowillconceptsofwhatitmeanstobehuman.
Onedayhumanswillbecompositebeings:partbiological,partmechanical,partelectronic.p.
152
Thehumanformwillinsteadcometorepresentabroadvarietyofpotenthybridsbetween
biologyandtechnologybeingsthatcanonlysurvivewithMetaman.p.171
FromHumanBraintoGlobalMind

69
Continuallysensing,transferring,andmanipulatinginformation,Metamandoesmorethanjust
shuffleandstoredata.Metamaninterpretsandprocessesit.Inessence,Metamanactually
thinksbyusingabrainthatisliterallyallaroundus.Andthatbraincontainswithinitthe
functionalequivalentoftheglobalmemoryhousingallhumanitysaccumulatedknowledge.
1993,pp.8485.
Scientistssupposedlyonlydealwithfactsderivedfromempiricalevidence,andleavetoothersthe
nonempiricalrealmofvalues.ButthisisnotthecasewithStock.Heusesevolution,andthusthe
authorityofscience,tocloakaseriesofvaluejudgmentsthathaveimportantideological
implications.
Forexample,hisstatementaboutculturaldiversitybeingathingofthepastisnotbasedon
scientificevidence,butrepresentsavalueladeninterpretationthatreflectsthewesternassumption
thatdevelopmentisalinearprocessmovingfromawiderangeofindigenousculturestoa
progressive,technologicallydevelopedmodernculture.Ineffect,Stockisattemptingtogive
scientificlegitimationtoacontinuationofthewesternprojectofglobalcolonization.Insteadofusing
thegodwordsofprogressandmodernization,heusesthesupposedlynonpoliticallanguageof
evolutiontoexplainhowMetamanwillendupwithawestern,liberal/technologicallyoriented
mindset.
Thequestionthatneedstobeaskedis:Whatisthescientificbasisforthedecisionthatthe
membersofotherculturesshouldnothaveavoiceindecidingwhethertheywanttobetransformed
bywesterntechnologyintothefuturistichybridenvisionedbyStock?Whatscientificevidenceexists
thatsupportstheclaimthatMetamanwillbebetteradapted,andthushaveamoresustainablefuture
thanthemembersofculturesthathaveaccumulatedacomplexunderstandingofthelimitsand
possibilitiesoftheirbioregionsandhavedevelopedovermanygenerationscomplexwaysof
communicatingthisknowledgeandthemoralframeworkitisembeddedin?Stock,likeMoravecand
Dyson,lacksanunderstandingofwhensciencebecomesanideology,andhowtheideologyisrooted
inliberaltraditionsofthinking.
RayKurzweilspredictionofhowcomputersaregoingtoevolvebeyondhumansiseven
moreremarkableanddisturbing.Liketheothers,hispredictionsmustbeseenasanindirectwayof
identifyingwhatisworthpreserving.Hisbook,TheAgeofSpiritualMachines:WhenComputers
ExceedHumanIntelligence(1999),isbasedonthesameassumptionsheldbytheMoravec,Dyson,

70
andStock:namely,thathumanswillhavenoinfluenceovertheirownrelationshipwithtechnology;
thatthediverseculturesareirrelevanttohowtheprocessofnaturalselectionwillselectcomputers
overhumansastheunitofsurvival;andthattheecologicalcrisiswillplaynopartinthedirectionof
evolutionarychange.Kurzweilisequallysilentabouttheimportanceofwhatcannotbedigitized
otherthanasanabstracttext.Theimportanceoffacetoface,contextual,andmetaphoricallylayered
waysofknowinguniquetodifferentculturesaretotallyirrelevantforthesimplereasonthatthey
representanevolutionarydeadend,likethedinosaur.AccordingtoKurzweil,computerswillhave
humanlikepersonalitiesindistinguishablefrompeopleweknowtoday.Theywillalsohavea
humanlikecapacityforreligiousexperience.Ashistechnooptimismseemstooovertheedgeto
havebeentakenseriouslybyapublisher,letalongintelligentreaders,itisagainnecessarytoreadhis
predictionsinhisownwords.
Ondownloadingthehumanmindintoacomputer:
Objectively,whenwescansomeonesbrainandreinstantiatetheirpersonalmindfileintoa
suitablecomputermedium,thenewlyemergentpersonwillappeartootherobserverstohave
verymuchthesamepersonality,history,andmemoryasthepersonoriginallyscanned.
Interactingwiththenewlyinstantiatedpersonwillfeellikeinteractingwiththeoriginalperson.
Thenewpersonwillclaimtobethatsameoldpersonandwillhaveamemoryofhavingbeen
thatperson,havinggrownupinBrooklyn,havingwalkedintoascannerhere,andwokenupin
themachinethere.HellsayHey,thistechnologyreallyworks.(1999,p.125)
Ontheendofmortality:
Actuallytherewontbemortalitybytheendofthetwentyfirstcentury.Notinthesensethatwe
haveknownit.Notifyoutakeadvantageofthetwentyfirstcenturysbrainportingtechnology.
Upuntilnow,ourmortalitywastiedtothelongevityofourhardware.Whenthehardware
crashed,thatwasit.Formanyofourforebears,thehardwaregraduallydeterioratedbeforeit
disintegrated.Aswecrossthedividetoinstantiateourselvesinourcomputationaltechnology,
ouridentitywillbebasedonourevolvingmindfile.Ourimmortalitywillbeamatterofbeing
sufficientlycarefultomakefrequentbackups.Ifwerecarelessaboutthis,wellhavetoloadan
oldbackupcopyandbedoomedtorepeatourrecentpast.(pp.128129)

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Onvirtualhousesofworshipforspiritualmachines:
NeuroscientistsfromtheUniversityofCaliforniaatSanDiegohavefoundwhattheycallthe
Godmodule,atinylocusofnervecellsinthefrontallobethatappearstobeactivatedduring
religiousexperiences.Whenwecandeterminetheneurologicalcorrelatesofthevarietyof
spiritualexperiencesourspeciesiscapableof,wearelikelytobeabletoenhancethese
experiencesinthesamewaywewillenhanceotherhumanexperiences.Withthenextstageof
evolutioncreatinganewgenerationofhumansthatwillbetrillionsoftimemorecapableand
complexthanhumanstoday,ourabilityforspiritualexperienceandinsightisalsolikelytogain
inpoweranddepth.Twentyfirstcenturymachinesbasedonthedesignofhumanthinking
willdoastheirhumanprogenitorshavedonegoingtorealandvirtualhousesofworship,
meditating,praying,andtranscendingtoconnectwiththeirspiritualdimension.pp.152153
IfweweretotakeKurzweilseriously,decisionsaboutwhatneedstobeconservedinordertolive
moreecologicallysustianableliveswillbemadeinthefuturebycomputerscapableofupdatingtheir
softwareinwaysthattakeaccountofeverymicroandmacrochangeinthelayeredandmultiple
ecosystemsthataresocomplexthatscientistsareonlynowbeginningtopartiallyunderstandthem.
Ineffect,itdoesntmatterhowmuchhumansmisusetheenvironment,ascomputerswillhavethe
capacitytoprocesstrillionsofbitsofinformationandthuskeepallhumanandnaturalsystemsin
balance.Contrarytocurrentpessimismabouttheefficacyofthepoliticalprocesstoreach
internationalagreementsoncurbingenvironmentallydestructivepractices,Kurzweilandtheother
technoutopiansholdoutthepromisethatcomputerswillshortlybetakingoverand,likeatotally
benevolentGod,willrestoretheGardenofEdentoitsoriginalharmony.Indeed,theyshareKevin
KellysfaiththatwhileeverythingoutofourcontrolNaturewillensurethatthefittestsurvive.In
ordernottoleavetheimpressionthatcomputerscientistsaretheonlyoneswithaspecialproclivity
forexpressingtheirhubrisinwaysthatleadtointerpretingevolutionashavingpoliticallytotalitarian
implications,itwillbeusefultoconsiderE.O.Wilsonsmoremainstreaminterpretationofevolution.
GeneCultureCoEvolution

72
Whileevolutionisbeingincreasinglyusedastheprimaryexplanatoryframeworkindisciplinesas
widerangingasanthropologyandpsychology,wefindthebroadestclaimsbeingmadeonitsbehalf
byE.O.Wilsonwhoisbeingacclaimedasoneofthenationsleadingscientistsandenvironmental
spokesman.Byextendingthetheoryofevolutioninwaysthatexplaincultureashavingagenetic
basis,andthusguidedbyNaturestestofgeneticfitness,hiswritingsunderminetheeffortsof
educationalreformerstoaddresstheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisis.Thus,itisimportantto
considerhowhisextrapolationssupporttheculturalforcesnowunderminingtheselfrenewing
capacityofnaturalsystems.Itisalsoimportanttoexaminethedoublebindinherentnotonlyin
Wilsonsthinkingbutinthefuturisticprescriptionsofotherevolutionorientedscientists.
ThiscritiqueofWilsonisnotintendedinanywaytodiminishthesignificanceofhisscientific
researchandpublications.Buthiseffortstoestablishanewdisciplineofsociobiology,whichisto
provideempiricalevidenceofthebiologicalbasisofhumanbehaviorandculturalnorms,ismore
problematicandthusdeservingofcriticism.IntheTwentyFifthAnniversaryEditionof
Sociobiology:TheNewSynthesis(2000),Wilsonsummarizeswhatisneededtomakethefinal
separationbetweenscientificandprescientificknowledge.
Tograsphumannatureobjectively,toexploreittothedepthsscientificallyandto
comprehenditsmanifestationsbycauseandeffectexplanationsleadingfrombiologyinto
culture,wouldbetoapproachifnotattainthegrailofscholarship,andtofulfillthedreams
oftheEnlightenment.humannatureastheepigeneticrules,theinheritedregularitiesof
mentaldevelopment.Theserulesarethegeneticbiasesinthewayoursensesperceivethe
world,thesymboliccodingbywhichourbrainsrepresenttheworld,theoptionsweopento
ourselves,andtheresponseswefindeasiestandmostrewardingtomake.pp.viiviii
AsheputsitinConsilience:TheUnityofKnowledge(1998),thegenesthatpredisposepeopleto
thinkandactincertainwaysaregovernedbytheprocessofnaturalselection.Whileheappearsto
grantculturearoleintheprocessofevolutionbyusingthephrasegeneculturecoevolution,the
reality,asheputsit,isthattheconsistentguidingforceisnaturalselection.Hegoesontoexplain
thatthegenesthatconferhighersurvivalandreproductivesuccessonorganismsbearingthem,
throughtheprescribedtraitsofautonomy,physiology,andbehavior,increaseinpopulationfromone
generationtothenext.Thosethatdonot,decrease(p.129).

73
Asthisreductionistexplanationhasespeciallyimportantimplicationsforenvironmentalists
andeducatorswhoareconsideringhowdifferentculturalbeliefsandpracticesimpactthe
environment,itisimportantthattheconceptualfoundationsofwhatWilsonisrepresentingasthe
newparadigmforunderstandingculturalchangebeexaminedmoreclosely.InConsilience,he
statesthattodaythegreatestdividewithinhumanityisnotbetweenracesorreligions,oreven,as
widelybelieved,betweenliterateandilliterate.Itisthechasmthatseparatesscientificfrom
prescientificcultures(p.45).Hegoesontoclaimthatscienceforitspartwilltestrelentlessly
everyassumptionaboutthehumanconditionandintimeuncoverthebedrockofthemoraland
religioussentiments(p265).Scientificknowledge,whichWilsoncallsthetruescientificepic
thusprovidesthebestchanceofhumansurvival.Buthumansurvivalwillrequirethereligionsof
theworldtoadoptasecularinterpretationofthehumanepicthatisinaccordancewiththefindings
ofscience.Ineffect,Wilsonisclaimingthatonlyasciencebasedreligionwillmeetthetestof
naturalselection.
ManyofWilsonsadmirersintheenvironmentalmovementarelikelytoclaimthathe
acknowledgesthatcultureplaysaroleinprocessofhuman/culturalevolution.Givenhis
environmentalcontributions,theyarealsolikelytoignoretheimplicationsofhisepistemological
universalism:thatis,thatscienceprovidestheonlylegitimatepathwaytoknowledge.Giventhis
tendencytoignoreWilsonsproclivityforsweepinggeneralizations,itisallthemoreimportantto
considercloselyhowheexplainsthegeneticbasisofthemind,aswellastheepigeneticrulesthat
guidetheformationofculture.
Wilsonsunderstandingofthemindisespeciallyimportant.InhischapteronTheMind,
hewritesthatallthathasbeenlearnedempiricallyaboutevolutioningeneralandmentalprocesses
inparticularsuggestthatthebrainisamachineassemblednottounderstanditself,buttosurvive
(1998,p.96).Hegoesontoclaimthatthesurestwaytograspcomplexityinthebrain,asinany
otherbiologicalsystem,istothinkofitasanengineeringproblem(1998,p.102).Hisuseofa
mechanisticmetaphorforrepresentingthebrain,aswellashissuggestionthatthebrainneedstobe
approachedasanengineeringproblem,needstobeconsideredwithinthecontextwheretheguiding
valueswillbederivednotfromtraditionalreligion,butfromthetrueevolutionaryepic.Thatis,
thebrainshouldnotonlybeunderstood,butalsoengineeredintermsofwhatcontributestosurvival
withinthelongtermtimeframethatNaturerequirestoseparatethefitfromtheunfit.Whilehedoes

74
notadvocateeugenics,hisrejectionofnonscientificallybasedvaluesaswellashisreferenceto
thinkingofthebrainasanengineeringproblemcertainlyopensthedoorforscientistswhowantto
speeduptherateofNaturesdesignprocess.
Wilsonsexplanationofthegeneticbasisoftheepigeneticrulesthatfilterandcodestimuliin
senseorganisms,andguidetheformationofbehaviorandculture,alsoneedstobechallenged.As
heexplainsit,
Thegenesprescribingtheepigeneticrulesofbrainandbehaviorareonlysegmentsofgiant
molecules.Theyfeelnothing,carefornothing,intendnothing.Theirroleissimplyto
triggerthesequenceofchemicalreactionswithinthehighlystructuredfertilizedcellthat
orchestrateepigenesis.Theirwritextendstothelevelofmolecule,cell,andorgan.This
earlystageofepigenesis,consistingofaseriesofsequentialphysicochemicalreactions,
culminatesintheselfassemblyofthesensorysystemandthebrain.Onlythen,whenthe
organismiscompleted,doesmentalactivityappearasanemergentprocess.Thebrainisa
productoftheveryhighestlevelsofbiologicalorder,whichareconstrainedbyepigenetic
rulesimplicitintheorganismsanatomyandphysiology.1998,p.165,italicsadded
AsIreadthisstatement,thesequencesofchemicalreactionstriggeredbythegenesprescribethe
epigeneticrulesthatgoverntheselfassemblyofthesensorysystemandbrain.Butfollowingthe
statementwhereWilsonassertsthatthebrainistheproductofthehighestlevelsofbiologicalorder
heintroducestheideaofgeneculturecoevolution.Witnesstheconstitutiveroleheassignsthe
brain,whichfollowsthelastsentenceintheabovequotation:
Workinginachaoticfloodofenvironmentalstimuli,it(thebrain)seesandlistens,plansits
ownfuture.Bythatmeansthebraindeterminesthefateofthegenesthatprescribedit.
Acrossevolutionarytime,theaggregatechoicesofmanybrainsdeterminetheDarwinianfate
ofeverythinghumanthegenes,theepigeneticrules,thecommunicatingminds,andthe
culture.p.165
Thesetwosegmentsofhisexplanationofthecasualrelationshipbetweengenesandthebrain
representthemostimportantparagraphinhisbook.First,itassertswithoutanyscientificevidence
thatthebrain,includingalltheactivitiesofthebrainmetaphoricalthinking,memory,conscious
awareness,themetacognitiveschematasharedwithothermembersoftheculture,experienceof
meaning,valuejudgments,intentionality,senseofidentityaretheproductofphysiochemical

75
reactions.Havingmadethisclaim,whichwouldalsohavetoaccountfordifferencesincultural
waysofknowing,includingallthebrainimplicatedexperienceslistedabove,hethenreverses
himselfbystatingthattheaggregatechoicesofmanybrainsdeterminetheDarwinianfateof
everythinghumanwhichhelistsasthegenesandepigeneticrulesthatheearlydescribesas
responsiblefortheselfassemblyofthesensorysystemandbrain
InBiologyasIdeology(1992),R.C.LewontinsumsuptheproblematiclogicofWilsons
sociobiologyasgenesmakeindividuals,individualshaveparticularpreferencesandbehaviors,the
collectionofpreferencesandbehaviorsmakeculture,andsogenesmakeculture(p.14).Even
thoughWilsonrejectsbeingclassifiedasageneticdeterminist,Lewontinssummaryneedstobe
comparedwithWilsonsownstatementaboutthegenesprescribingtheepigeneticrulesofbrain
andbehaviorareonlysegmentsofgiantmolecules(1998,p.165).Wilsonsdescriptionofthe
brainsmachinery,andwhatheelsewheredescribesasthebrainmachine,whichismadeupof
cells,alsoneedstobetakenintoaccountinassessingthecorrectnessofLewontinssummary.As
Wilsonputit,
Whatwecallmeaningisthelinkageamongtheneuralnetworkscreatedbythespreading
excitationthatenlargesimageryandengagesemotion.Thecompetitiveselectionamong
scenariosiswhatwecalldecisionmaking.Theoutcome,intermsofthematchofthe
winningscenariostoinstinctiveorlearnedfavorablestates,setsthekindandintensityof
subsequentemotion.Thepersistentformandintensityofemotionsiscalledmood.The
abilityofthebraintogeneratenovelscenariosandsettleonthemosteffectiveamongthemis
calledcreativity.1998,p.115
Thecellsthatarethebasisoftheneuralnetworksthatmakeallofthishappen,toreiterate
Wilsonscausallinkages,arethegenesthatprescribetheepigeneticrulesthat,inturn,prescribethe
physiochemicalprocesseswithinthebrainthatleadtotheexperienceofmeaning,creativity,andso
on.Toputthisanotherway,thesementalprocesses,thatis,theconfigurationsofthebrainmachine
bestsuitedtosurviveovergenerations,aregovernedbyNaturesdesignprocessthatweknowas
naturalselection.
AgainitmustbepointedoutthatWilsonsattempttoavoidthecriticismofgenetic
determinismislikeaverbalshellgame.Hisargumentthatgenescreatebrains,andthatbrains
determinethesurvivabilityofthegenesandtheepigeneticrulesgoverningbrainsandbehavioris

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circular,andhasnobasisinscientificevidence.Wilsonissimplytryingtoexplainawaythe
contradictioninherentinhistheory.Andheneedsthereadertoassumethathisauthorityasamuch
acclaimedscientistcarriesoverintothecomplexdomainoftheworldsdiversecultures.Inspiteof
Wilsonsgiftasawriterandasrespectedscientists,thereaderneedstokeepinmindthathisattempt
torepresentthebrainandcultureascodeterminantsintheevolutionaryprocess,itisalways,ashe
alsoclaims,thegeneticmakeupofhumansand,moreimportantly,theotherorganismsthat
constitutestheenvironmentthatcullstheweakfromthestrong.AsWilsonputsit:thebrainsthat
choosewiselypossesssuperiorDarwinianfitness,meaningthatstatisticallytheysurvivelongerand
leavemoreoffspringthanbrainsthatchoosebadly(1998,p.165).
ThebasicinconsistencyinWilsonsthinking,andinthethinkingofenvironmentalistswho
takehimseriously,canalsobeseeninthefollowingstatement.Intheintroductiontotheanniversary
editionofSociobiology:TheNewSynthesis,Wilsonwritesthatconservation,asIhavelong
believed,isultimatelyanethicalissue.Ignoringwhathehaswrittenelsewhereaboutthegenetic
basisofmoralsentiments,Wilsongoesontoclaimthatmoralpreceptsinturnmustbebasedon
sound,objectiveknowledgeofhumannature(p.viii).Theimmediatequestionmightbe:Ifmoral
sentimentsaregeneticallyencoded,whatpurposewouldbeservedbyacquiringasound,objective
knowledgeofhumannature?ItappearsthatWilsonisretreatingtotheoldviewofrationalityasa
forcethatcanshapethecourseofNature.Thisleadstoanotherquestion:Howcanascientistor
anyoneelseacquireobjectiveknowledgeofhumannatureiftheyunavoidablyrelyuponthe
cognitiveschemataencodedinthelanguageoftheirculturalgroup?Thecognitiveschematathatisa
takenforgrantedinWilsonsthinking,andcanbetracedbacktoJohannesKeplersmechanistic
wayofunderstandingtheuniverse,canbeseeninWilsonsrepresentationofthebrainasa
mechanismandasanengineeringproblem.Wilsonalsotakesforgrantedtheculturalcognitive
schematathatrepresentschangeaslinearandprogressiveinnaturewhichleadshimtosee
scientificknowledgeasrepresentingaprogressiveadvanceovertheknowledgeofsocalledpre
scientificcultures.TheironyinherentinthisculturalpatternofthinkingisthatWilsonargues,as
welatershallsee,thatscientificallybasedknowledgeshouldbethebasisofaworldmonoculture,
whichwillrequirethedisappearanceofdiversityinculturalwaysofknowing.Giventhatnatural
selectiondoesnotmoveinalinear,progressivedirection,andthatitisthedynamicsourceof
biologicaldiversity,Wilsonsargumentthattheworldsculturesshouldbebasedonassumptions

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thathavebeenscientificallytestedreproducesthelongheldwesternmyththatculturescanprogress
onlywhentheyadoptthehighstatusknowledgeoftheWest.IfWilsonweretobeconsistentinhis
extrapolations,heshouldbearguingforculturaldiversity,justincaseascientificallybasedcultureis
unabletoadapttofutureenvironmentalchanges.
ThiscriticismofWilsonislikelytotakemostreadersbysurprise,ashecontinuallywrites
abouttheimportanceofbiodiversitytoourfuturesurvival.Hiswritingsontheimportanceof
biodivesityarebotheloquentandwelldocumented.Ifoneonlyreadsthefinalchapterof
ConsiliencewhereWilsondiscussesthedifferentdimensionsoftheecologicalcrisis,andeven
expressesdeepreservationsaboutthegeneticengineeringofhumantraits,hecomesacrossasoneof
thenationspreeminentenvironmentalists.HisworkwithNatureConservancyfurtherstrengthens
thisimpression.Buthisextrapolationsonthetheoryofevolution,particularlyhisreductionist
explanationofculture,raisesseriousquestionsaboutwhetherhehascreatedapowerful
metanarrative(ideology)thatwillbeusedbythepromotersofeconomicandtechnological
globalization.Ithink,onbalance,thathisextrapolationswillfurtherstrengthentheintegrationof
scientificresearchintothecorporateculturethatistheenginedrivingtheglobalizationofthe
westernmindsetthatequatesconsumerismwithsuccessandhappiness.Hiswritingsalsogive
legitimacytothewesternideathatwinnersarethefittestanideathathasitsrootsinanearlier
phaseofDarwinianthinkingaboutthefateofculturesthatwerebeingcolonized.Toreiterateapoint
thatWilsoncontinuallymakes,thereproductivesuccessoffuturegenerationsistheultimatetestof
geneticfitnesswhichtothepublicandheadsofcorporationssoundslikeanotherwayofsaying
thatNaturedictatesthesurvivalofthefittest.ItisinterestingthatWilsonavoidsusingthisphrase,
butneverthelessgivesitarenewedsenseoflegitimacy.
TheBrianSwimme/ThomasBerryInterpretationofEvolution
Thethirdinterpretationofevolution,orwhatBrianSwimmeandThomasBerrycallthe
universestoryisgainingasignificantfollowingamongcertainsectorsofthereligiouscommunity,
thegeneralpublic,andeducationaltheoristssuchasEdmundOSullivan.NeitherSwimmenor
Berryarescientists,whichmayaccountforwhytheygivetheiraccountofevolutionamorespiritual
interpretation.Swimmeearnedhisdoctorateinmathematics,havingwrittenhisdissertationon
SingularitiesintheNBodyProblem,andisnowDirectoroftheCenterfortheStoryofthe
UniverseattheCaliforniaInstituteofIntegralStudies.ThomasBerryfoundedtheHistoryof

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ReligionProgramatFordhamUniversity,andservedasPresidentoftheAmericanTeilhardde
ChardinAssociation.TogethertheywroteTheUniverseStory(1992),whichisbothahistoryofthe
originoftheuniverseandthedevelopmentoflifeonearth,andofthedevelopmentalstagesof
humanculture.
TheUniverseStoryismeanttobemorethanthenarrativizationoftheuniverses15billion
yearhistory.Rather,themainpurposeofSwimmeandBerryistoplacetheecologicalcrisiswithin
thelargercontextofthelifeformingprocessesthathaveledtothebiologicallydiverseworldaswe
nowknowit.Theirconcernisthatthemodernindustrialapproachtoproductionandconsumption
nowthreatentodestroythenaturalsystemsthathumanlifedependsupon.Whereastheothertwo
interpretationsofevolutionsuggestthathumandecisionsareirrelevant,SwimmeandBerrysee
humansasatacriticaljuncture.Ineffect,theyarguethatthefuturedirectionthatevolutionwilltake
dependsuponwhetherhumanschooseenteringaneweratheycalltheEcozoicphaseofevolutionor
continuetoperpetuatethelifedestroyingTechnozoicera.TheEcozoicera,theypointout,will
requireafundamentaltransformationofconsciousness,onethatrecognizesthattheentireplanetis
interdependentandgovernedbythesamelifeproducingforces.Thistransformationof
consciousnesswillalsorequire,astheyputit,thatthehumancommunitybecomessacredthrough
itsparticipationinthelargerplanetarycommunity(1992,p.257).
Theirviewthathumanchoicewilldeterminewhetherevolutionwillfollowthepathdictated
byeithertheTechnozoicandEcozoicera,aswellastheirappealforachangeinhuman
consciousness,leadsinevitablytoadiscussionoftherolethateducationshouldplay.Andin
suggestingthateducationhasaroletoplayincontributingtoamoreecologicallysustainablefuture,
theyareagaindepartingfromthegeneocentricinterpretationofevolutionarticulatedbyWilsonand
thecomputercentricinterpretationofMoravec,Dyson,andKurzweil.TheargumentofSwimme
andBerrythathumanagencycandirectthefuturecourseofevolutionrepresentsaradicaldeparture
fromthemorewidelyacceptedviewthattheenvironmentselectsthelifeformsthataretosurvive
andreproducethemselvesthroughfuturegenerations.Thustheyneedtoexplaintheprocessof
evolutioninawaythatallowsfortheefficacyofhumanchoice.Andtheydothisbyintroducingthe
ideathatevolutionisbasedonwhattheycalltheCosmologicalPrinciple.Thisprinciple,they
claim,ischaracterizedbydifferentiation,autopoiesis,andcommunionthroughouttimeandspace
andateverylevelofreality(p.71).

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Differentiationissimplyanothertermfortheprocessofmutationandnicheselection,andisa
corefeatureofthemainstreaminterpretationofevolutionarticulatedbyWilsonandRichard
Dawkins(1976).Autopoiesis,whichreferstotheselforganizingcharacteristicsofallorganisms,is
alsoessentialtothemainstreaminterpretationofevolution.Butcommunionisnot.Swimmeand
Berrysummarizethenatureofcommunionasbeingrelatedforrelationshipistheessenceof
existence(p.77).Thisunderstandingofcommunion(relationships)asadefiningcharacteristicof
lifecouldhavebeenachievedbyusingthewordecology,However,theuseofcommunionhasa
moretheologicalconnotationthatisessentialtotheirwayofframingcitizenshipwithintheEcozoic
era.Theyalsowanttogobeyondjustintroducingareligioustheme:theywanttheprincipleof
communiontoframehowevilisunderstood.Astheyputit:
Thelossofrelationship,withitsconsequentalienation,isakindofsupremeevilinthe
universe.Inthereligiousworldthislosswastraditionallyunderstoodasanultimatemystery.
Tobelockedupinaprivateworld,tobecutofffromintimacywithotherbeings,tobe
incapableofenteringintothejoyofmutualpresencesuchconditionsweretakenasthe
essenceofdamnation.p.78
SwimmeandBerrysuggestthatthereisanothercharacteristicofevolutionthathasbeen
overlookedintheotherinterpretations.Thatis,theyexplaintheprocesswherebynaturalselection
fitsanorganismtoaparticularnicheinawaythatinveststheorganismwithintentionalchoice.
Theirexampleistheevolutionofthehorseandthebison,whichtheyclaiminvolvedachoiceonthe
partofthehorsetoevolveinawaythatmadesurvivaldependentuponspeedofmovement.The
bisonevolveditsmoremassivephysicalfeaturesbymakingthechoicetostandandconfrontits
enemies.Unlikethetwopreviousinterpretationsofevolutionbeingconsideredhere,Swimmeand
Berryneedtointroduceintentionalchoiceintotheprocessofnaturalselectioninordertomakethe
casethathumanshaveachoicebetweenaTechnozoiclifedestroyingfutureandanEcozoiclife
sustainingfuture.
Itisespeciallyimportanttonotethattheintroductionofcommunionandchoiceasessential
featuresofevolutionarenotfoundinthemainstreamscientificversionofevolution.Wehaveonly
torecallWilsonsexplanationofhowgenescarrytheinstructionsthatgiveorganismstheir
distinctiveformandcapabilitiesincludingmentalprocessesthatproduceculture.Wilson
attemptedtoavoidpresentingaformofgeneticdeterminismbysuggestingthatgenescoevolved

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withculture,butheconstantlyfollowshisgeneculturecoevolutionwithstatementssuchasthe
following.
Thousandsofgenesprescribethebrain,sensorysystemandalltheotherphysiological
processesthatinteractwiththephysicalandsocialenvironmenttoproducetheholistic
propertiesofmindandculture.Throughnaturalselection,theenvironmentultimatelyselects
whichgeneswilldotheprescribing.1998,p.137italicsadded
ItisalsoimportanttonotethatSwimmeandBerryalsoacknowledgenaturalselectionaslifes
powertosculptdiversityinacreativefashion(p.127).Inanotherstatementthatisconsistentwith
themainstreamtheoryofevolutiontheywritethatnaturalselectionisasurvivalofthefittestin
thesensethatthegenesenablingoneparticularphenotypetosucceedrelativetoallothersare
selectedandpassedon(p.128).
TheproblemthatSwimmeandBerrydonotaddressishowtoreconcilehumanchoicewith
theamoral,nonrationaldynamicsofnaturalselectionwhichSwimmeandBerryacknowledgeas
dictatingthesurvivalofthefittest.Anotherproblemtheyoverlookisthathumanchoiceand
communionoccurwithinahumantimeframethatisprofoundlydifferentfromthetimeframewithin
whichnaturalselectionworks.TheeffortsofSwimmeandBerrytohumanizetheinexorable
dynamicsofnaturalselectionthusseemlittlemorethanwishfulthinkingthatmayormaynothave
anyinfluenceonmeetingthetestofnaturalselection.PerhapsthepredictionsofMoravec,Stock
andtheothertechnoutopiansthatcomputerswillreplacehumanswillprovetobemoreaccurate.
Nature(theinterplaybetweengenesandtheenvironment)maynotrewardtheeffortsof
environmentalists,butinsteadrewardthecorporationsworkingtoimposeamonocultureoftasteand
valuesontheworld.ItmayevenbepossiblethatNaturesfittestwillprove,overtime,tobethe
dictatorswhodonotflinchatimposingrepressivepoliciesontheweakestmembersoftheir
societies.Inshort,evenifoneacceptsthatevolutioncangovernsculturaldevelopments,thelife
spanofindividualswhomakejudgmentsaboutwhatrepresentstheoutcomeofnaturalselectionin
theareaofcultureistoolimitedtoaccuratelypredictwhatNaturehasselectedforsurvival.
Havingacceptedevolutionasthetotalexplanatoryframework,SwimmeandBerryhaveno
realbasisforclaimingthathumanchoicecaninfluencetheoutcomeofnaturalselection.Swimme,
forexample,seesnotcontradictioninbasingthefollowingstatementonanevolutionaryaccountof
thesurvivalofthefittest:

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Thecenterofthecosmosiseacheventinthecosmos.Eachpersonlivesinthe

centerofthecosmos.Scienceisoneofthecarefulanddetailedmethodsbywhichthehuman
mindcametograspthefactoftheuniversesbeginning,buttheactualoriginandbirthplace
isnotascientificidea;theactualoriginoftheuniverseiswhereyouliveyourlife.1996.p.
112italicsintheoriginal
Swimmeslifeaffirmingwordsmayappealtomembersoftheaffluentmiddleclasswhoare
searchingforasenseofmeaninginanincreasinglymaterialisticworld,buttheyseemtobemore
NewAgethanconsistentwiththeevolutionaryparadigmthatisthebasisoftheirstoryofthe
universe.Indeed,hisstatementsuggeststhateverykindofbehavioriswhatthecosmosisdoing,and
thatthecosmoswillsortoutthefittestfromtherest.
IdeologicalandEducationalImplications
Itneedstoberecognizedattheoutsetthatadoptinganyofthethreetheoriesofevolution
contributestoextendingtheexplanatorypowerofscienceintothesymbolicdomainofculture.For
allitscontributionstoimprovingthequalityoflive,andtoexpandingourknowledgeofnatural
phenomena,thescientificmodeofinquiryistoolimitedtoexplaintheevolutionarybasisof
mythopoeticnarratives,meaning,values,anddailypracticesofdifferentcultures.Theclaimthat
culturalpatternsarememesthataredeterminedinthemicroecologieswithinwhichgenespasson
theirlifebuildinginstructionssimplyreflectsthehubrisofscientistswhodonotrecognizethe
limitationsofscience.
Thereare,however,otherreasonsforcautioninadoptinganyofthethreeexplanationsof
culturalevolution.Acarefulexaminationofthecomputercentricandgenocentricinterpretations
ofevolution,aswellastheuniversestoryofSwimmeandBerry,bringsoutanimportantlimitation
intheirthinking.Namely,allthreeenvisionevolutionleadingtoaworldmonoculture.TheWilson
andtheSwimme/Berryinterpretationsaresensitivetotheecologicalcrisis,yetbothoftheir
accountsarebasedonassumptionthat,regardlessofculturaldevelopments,itisNaturethatselects
thefittesttosurvive.Wilsonwantstomakescientiststheultimatejudgeofwhichculturalbeliefs
andpatternswillmeetthetestofDarwinianfitness.SwimmeandBerryenvisiontheworlds
culturesorganizingthemselvestofitthesinglestoryoftheevolutionoftheuniverse.The
primarypurposeofeducation,accordingtothem,shouldbetoenableindividualhumanstofulfill
theirproperroleinthislargerpatternofmeaning.Theygoontoclaimthatwecanunderstand

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thisroleintheGreatStoryonlyifweknowthisstoryinitsfulldimensions(1992,256).While
Swimmeclaimsthateachpersonlivesinthecenterofthecosmosmaysuggestthatcultural
diversityispartoftheunfoldingofthecosmos,theunderlyingepistemologicalframeworkisthe
theoryofevolutionofwesternscience.Ineffect,SwimmeandBerryareclaimingthatthereisonly
onestory,and,byextension,thatthestoriesofotherculturesaretobeabandonedinfavorofthe
onethatclaimsthatnaturalselectionshapeslifeatafundamentallevel(127).Theirreferencesto
Muslim,Hindu,andConfucianculturesmightsuggesttothecasualreaderthattheyarecommitted
toaculturallydiverseworld.Nevertheless,itneedstobekeptinmindthatthemainthemethey
keepcomingbacktothroughoutthebookisthatwesternsciencehasgivenustheonlytruestory
thatlifeandcultureareformedthroughnaturalselection.
Asidefromthefailureofallthreetheoriestoaccountforhowculturesreproducethemselves
inwaysthatareconsistentwiththeirmythopoeticnarratives,andforhowmanyoralcultureshave
attainedafarmoreecologicallycenteredexistencethanthesupposedlymoreadvancedwestern
cultures,thereistheevenmoreseriousproblemofexpandingthetheoryofevolutionintoatotal
explanatoryframework.Themicrolevelofnaturalselection,wherebettergenesproducebetter
organismsthatareabletoreproducethemselvesovermanygenerations,cantooeasilyleadtothe
extrapolationthatatthemacrolevelthebettermemes(culturalbeliefsandpatterns)havemetthe
testofnaturalselectionandbecomeencodedintheinstitutionsthatrepresentthecuttingedgeofthe
evolutionaryprocess.Thatis,thescientificaccountofwhysomeorganismssurvivewhileothers
donotiseasilytranslatedintoanideology,aswehavewitnessedsincethelatterpartofthe
nineteenthcentury,thatjustifiesthedestructionoflocalselfreliantculturaltraditionsinthename
ofprogress.
Whileideologiesdotheirworkintheimmediatehereandnow,naturalselectionworksover
alongertimeframethanwhathumanscanindividuallyexperience.Humanssimplycannot
determinewhatwillsurviveoverthelongterm,buttheycanfindinthetheoryofnaturalselection
themetaphorsthatlegitimizetheiractivitiesandinstitutionsasbeingconsistentwithNaturesdesign
process.Thesemetaphorincludecompetitive,betteradapted,fittest,and,now,sustainable.
ThesemetaphorscaneasilybeincorporatedintothelanguageofClassicalLiberalism,whichisthe
guidingideologyunderlyingthewestseconomicsystems.

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Intodaysworld,argumentsforglobalizingaconsumer/technologydependentlifestyle,the
rightoftheWTOtonullifytheprocessofdemocraticdecisionmakingatalllevelsofgovernment,
andtherightofcorporationstodestroytheeconomicbasisoflocalcommunitiesandtheresource
baseofThirdWorldcultures,canallbejustifiedonthegroundsthatthebasiclifeformingprocesses
arebeingexpressedwhenthestrong(thefittest)displacetheweakest(theunfit).Swimmesmantra
(thecenterofthecosmosiseacheventinthecosmos)caneasilybeadoptedbyheadsof
corporationsandthedecisionmakersintheWTOandWorldBank.
ItisunfortunatethatSwimmeandBerrychoseevolutionasanexplanatoryframeworkfor
suggestingthatthedirectionofculturaldevelopmentintheWestneedstobechanged.By
suggestingthatchoice,communion,andanecologicallysustainableformofconsciousnessare
subjecttotheprocessofnaturalselection,theygivesupporttoanupdatedandthussupposedlymore
scientificallyrigorousversionofSocialDarwinism.Iftheenvironmentdeterminesthefittest,then
choicebecomeswhatmarketsdictate,communionbecomesthesenseofparticipatinginan
interconnectedglobaleconomy,andsustainabilitybecomesamatterofbeatingbackcompetitorsby
exploitingcheaperlaborandthenaturalresourcesofThirdWorldcultures.Theycouldhavemadea
strongercaseforalertingthepublictothedangersoffollowingthepresentcourseofexperimental
andunrestrainedtechnologicaldevelopment,andfortheirunderstandingofthechangesthatwill
leadtolifestylesgovernedbyadeepcommitmenttomoralreciprocitybetweenhumans,between
humansandNature,andbetweencultures.TheideasofGregoryBateson,theliteratureondifferent
culturalapproachestorevitalizingtheirtraditionsofselfsufficiency,andthecritiquesofhow
internationaleconomicagreementsareundermininglocaldemocratictraditionsandpatternsofself
reliancewouldhaveprovidedtheinsights,evidence,andsenseofhopethatSwimmeandBerrywant
toengenderthroughtheirstoryoftheuniverse.Insteadoftheomnipresentbackgroundmessagethat
Naturedecides,thereaderwouldhaveencounteredexamplesofonthegroundeffortsofpeoplein
differentculturalcontextstolivelessecologicallydestructivelives.
ImplicationsforEducationalReforms
Mosteducationaladvocatesofconstructivistlearningarepreparingstudentsforparticipation
intheglobalmonoculturethatrequiresconstantchange.Thesetheoristscontributetothemodern
mindsetthatexperienceschangeasthenorm,andastheexpressionofprogress.Indeed,their
respectiveprocessapproachestoeducationareclaimedtobethewellspringofnewideasandvalues

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thatwillacceleratetherateofchange.Theircontinualreferencestothereconstructionofexperience
andtotransformativelearningindicatesthattheseeducationaltheorists,ineffect,sharethesame
viewofconstantchangethatunderliesallthreeinterpretationsofevolution.Theyalsosharein
commonwiththethreeinterpretationsofevolutiontheassumptionthattheirprescriptionsforreform
aretobeuniversallyapplied.Whiletheymaygivelipservicetoculturaldiversity,theyassumethat
theirassumptionsabouttheprogressivenatureofchange,individualism,ongoingemancipation,and
ananthropocentricworldviewaresharedbyallcultures.Andliketheinterpretersofevolutionthey
assumethattheyspeakforalltheworldscultures.
Whatisneededtodayarenoteducationalreformsbasedonthesamedeepcultural
assumptionsthatunderliethecurrentphaseofeconomicglobalizationandculturalcolonization
twinprocessesthatareundermininglinguistic/culturaldiversityandareacceleratingthedestruction
ofnaturalsystems.Educationalreformshould,instead,addressissuesconnectedwithecojustice
thathaveimplicationsforallcultures.Theironyisthatecojusticeisnotbasedonthelogicof
Darwinianfitnesswherethecontingenciesoftheenvironmentselectwhichorganismand
corporationistoreproduceitselfovergenerationstocome.Rather,itisorientedtowardaddressing
theplightofwhatfromaDarwinianpointofviewwouldbeviewedastheweakestgroupsinsociety
andthemostvulnerablecultures.
Thefourprinciplesofecojusticethatshouldbethefocusofeducationalreforminclude:(1)
addressingthenature,causes,andstrategiesforeliminatingenvironmentalracism;(2)affecting
basicreformsthatwillendtheexploitationoftheSouthbytheNorth;(3)revitalizingthenon
commodifiedtraditionsofselfreliancewithindifferentcommunitiesandculturalgroupsthatwill
reducedependenceonindustriallyproducedgoodsandservices;and(4)ensuringthattodays
culturalpracticesdonotdegradetheenvironmentinwaysthediminishtheprospectsoffuture
generations.Eachoftheseareasofeducationalreformcanbejustifiedascontributingtoan
ecologicallysustainablefuture,buttheydonotfitwithWilsonsexplanationofhowgenescreatea
rangeofpossibilitiesthattheenvironment,inturn,willselectforsurvivalwhich,inthefinal
analysis,SwimmeandBerryalsosubscribeto.
Asmentionedearlier,thethreeinterpretationsofevolutionemphasizethatchangeisa
constant,whichiseasilyinterpretedtomeanthatculturesundergoingrapidchangeareinaconstant
stateofadaptingtothecontingenciesoftheenvironment.Ontheotherhand,culturesorientedto

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conservingbeliefs,practicesandplacebasedtechnologiesareviewedasbackward,undeveloped
andascolonizingopportunities.Conservingcultures,eventhosethatareecologicallycentered,are
thusseenasonthevergeofextinction.Yet,theonlyeffectiveresistancetothecurrentglobal
expansionoftheindustrialmodeofproductionandconsumptionisinlocaltraditionsoffacetoface,
intergenerationallyconnectedactivitiesandformsofknowledgethathavenotbeenmonetized.
Thesecommunityrevitalizingtraditionsvaryfromculturetoculture,andareunderpressurefromthe
productsoftransnationalcorporationsgearedtooverwhelmtheircompetitioninrealshorttermtests
ofsurvivaloftechnologicallyandeconomicallyfittest.Astheculturalenvironmentsbecome
increasinglyshapedbythesetransnationalcorporations,askingthequestionWhatdoweneedto
conserveinaneraofecologicaluncertainty?appearstobeanirrelevantifnotareactionary
question.Butthisistheveryquestionthatisatthecenterofanecojusticeandcommunitybuilding
approachtoeducationalreform.
TheconditionofhyperconsumerismthatnowexistsinNorthAmerica,andisnowupheldas
thestandardthatotherdevelopedandnondevelopedculturesshouldaspireto,isamajorcontributor
toenvironmentalracism,theexploitationoftheSouthbytheNorth,andtoputtingtheprospectsof
futuregenerationsatrisk.Hyperconsumerismandtheconstantsearchfornewtechnologiesand
exploitablenichemarketsarealsoresponsiblefortheamountoftoxicwastethatgetsdumpedinthe
neighborhoodsofthemostvulnerablegroupsinsociety.Therapiddepletionofnaturalresources,
whichrequiresexploitingtheresourcebaseofThirdWorldculturescanalsobetracedbacktothe
hyperconsumerismthatisnowthenorminNorthAmerica.Theproblemisthattheneedto
continuallyexpandmarketsinordertoexpandproductionandprofitsrequiresthatculturaltraditions
ofselfsufficiencybeundermined,aswearewitnessingintheindustrialapproachtoagriculture
beingpromotedinThirdWorldculturesthatrequiresthepurchaseoffertilizers,pesticides,and,in
manyinstances,seedsfornextyearsplanting.Tociteanotherexample,theindustrializationoffood
preparationandconsumption(e.g.,MacDonalds,KFC,etc.)disruptsthepassingonof
intergenerationalknowledgeaboutthepreparationoffoodandthefacetofaceexperienceof
familiessharingtheirstorieswitheachotheroverameal.Ifweexaminealltheculturaldisruptive
characteristicsofhyperconsumerismwefindthewhattheindustrializationoflifeprocessesrequires
istheautonomousindividualthatwesternapproachestoeducationhavealsomadetheirgoal.

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Anecojusticeapproachtoeducationcanaddresstheecologicallydisruptivelevelof
consumerismbyorientingthecurriculummoretowardsrevitalizingtheintergenerationalformsof
knowledge,skills,andactivitiesthatrepresentalternativestoaconsumerdependentlifestyle.Thus,
theimportanceofaskingwhatitisinthevariouscommunitiesandculturalgroupsthatneedstobe
conservedintheareasoffoodpreparation,ceremonies,healing,thearts,sports,craftknowledge,
patternsofmutualaid,andsoforth.Studentsneedtodoasurveyofjusthowmanyaspectsofdaily
lifeinvolvesomeformofmonetizedrelationshipsandactivity.Andtheyneedtoengageinasurvey
oftheaspectsofthedifferentcommunitiesandculturalgroupsthatinvolvenonmonetized
relationshipsandactivities.Theymayfindmentorsinthevariousarts,gardening,sports,useof
placebasedtechnologies,storytelling,andsoforththatwillleadtothedevelopmentofthestudents
interestsandtalentsandthatreducetheneedtoworklonghoursinminimumwagejobsthatleave
littleornotimeforparticipatingincommunitynetworks.Unfortunately,theecojusticereformsthat
followfromreducingthetodaysoutofcontrolconsumerismaregoingtobedifficulttoachieve,
partlybecausetheintergenerationalknowledgethatneedtoberevitalizedhasbeenaccordedlow
statusbypublicschoolsanduniversities.
Yetrevitalizingthelocalknowledgeofselfsufficiency,bothwithinwesternandnonwestern
culturesisabsolutelyessentialifwearetoslowthecurrentrateatwhichtheworlds6000orso
languagesaredisappearingalongwiththeknowledgetheyencodeoflocalecosystems.The
emphasisonchange,andbeingthedominantcultureintheDarwiniangameofsurvivalofthefittest,
putstheseecologicallycenteredculturesatgreatrisk.Withtheirdisappearance,theindustrialmodel
ofproductionandconsumptiongainsinstrengthandmomentum.ThedangerinWilsons
genocentricargumentcanbeseenifthelogicofhispositionisspelledout:thegenesthatgiveriseto
brainsthataremorecompetitiveincreatingnewtechnologiesandexpandmarketsbyundermining
intergenerationaltraditionsofselfreliancearethemajorcontributorstodevelopingaworld
monocultureandtoturningtheenvironmentintotoxicwaste.
Thesuggestionthatweneedamajorchangeinconsciousness,particularlyinwestern
cultures,islikelytorunintostiffoppositionevenfromenvironmentalistsandcommunityactivists.
Theproblemisthatforgenerationsthepromotersoftheindustrialmodelofproductionand
consumptionhavebeenidentifiedwithconservatism,eventhoughtheirideasandvalueshavetheir
rootsintheClassicalLiberaltraditionofJohnLocke,JohnStuartMill,andamisreadingofAdam

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Smith.TheideasofthesefoundingfathersofliberalismwasgivenfurtherlegitimizationbySocial
DarwintheoristssuchasHerbertSpencer.Theneedtodayisnotfortheglobalexpansionofthis
traditionofthinking,butforanunderstandingofhowtoachieveabetterbalancebetween
communitycenteredtraditionsofselfsufficiencyandrelianceontechnologicaladvancesthatmake
agenuinecontributiontoimprovingthequalityoflifewithindifferentcultures.Educationalreforms
needtobebasedonanunderstandingofhowthecurriculumcanbestprovidestudentswiththe
knowledgeandvaluesnecessaryforassessingtheimpactofnewtechnologiesontheenvironment
andonthetraditionsofselfreliancewithindifferentcultures.Contrarytotheconventionalwisdom
heldbymosteducationalreformers,askingthequestionWhatdoweneedtoconserveastheworld
movesclosertoovershootingthecapacityofnaturalsystems?isessentialtodemocraticdecision
making.Relianceonatheoryofnaturalselectionthatexplainshowthediversityoflifehasevolved
fromprimitivetocomplex,andhowcertaincultureswillsurvivewhileotherswillnot,makesthe
questionofwhatneedstobeconservedappeartobeirrelevantifnotareactionarypositiontohold.
Theassumptionthattheenvironmentselectsthebetteradaptedculturesupportsthewesterncultural
myththatequateschangewithprogress,whichisnottheassumptionthatleadstoresistingthe
economicandpoliticalforcesbehindtheprocessofglobalizingaconsumerdependentlifestylethat
israpidlydegradingtheenvironment.Resistancetotheseforcesisatthelocallevel,infacetoface
relationshipsthatinvolvenonmonetizedactivitiesandpatternsofmutualsupport.Andrevitalizing
theseintergenerationallyconnectedpatternsofcommunitythatarethebasisofmoralreciprocityand
ecologicalsustainabilityoftenrepresentactsofresistancetothedominationofwhathasbeen
industriallyproducedwhichtoneoliberalthinkersappearsasthemostculturallyevolved.Thus,
genuinecurriculumreformsmustnotbebasedonanyofthethreetheoriesofevolutionwhich
becomeideologieswhenextendedintothedomainofculture.Norcantheybebasedontheliberal
assumptionsthat,inthenameofprogressandindividualautonomy,underminedculturalsourcesof
resistancetotheindustrializationofeverydaylife.
References
Bowers,C.A.2001.EducatingforEcoJusticeandCommunity.Athens:UniversityofGeorgia
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___________.Winter,2001.TowardandEcoJusticePedagogy.EducationalStudies.Vol.32.
No.4.Pp.401416
Dawkins,Richard.1976.TheSelfishGene.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Dyson,George.1997.DarwinAmongtheMachines:TheEvolutionofGlobalIntelligence:
Reading,Mass.:AddisonWesley.
Kelly,Kevin.1994.OutofControl:TheRiseofNeoBiologicalCivilization.Reading,Mass.:
AddisonWesley.
Kurzweil,Ray.1999.TheAgeofSpiritualMachines:WhenComputersExceedHumanIntelligence.
NewYork:VikingPress.
Lewontin,R.C.1992.BiologyasIdeology:TheDoctrineofDNA.NewYork:Harper.
Moravec,Hans.1988.MindChildren:TheFutureofRobotandHumanIntelligence.Cambridge,
Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.
____________.December,1999.RiseoftheRobots.ScientificAmerican.Vol.281.No.6.Pp.
124135.
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OSullivan,Edmund.1999.TransformativeLearning:EducationalVisionforthe21

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Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress/ZedBooks.
Stock,Gregory.1993.Metaman:TheMergingofHumansandMachinesintoaGlobal
Superorganism.Toronto:DoubledayCanada.
Wilson,E.O.1998.Consilience:TheUnityofKnowledge.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.
__________.2000.Sociobiology:TheNewSynthesis.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversity
Press.
Swimme,Brian.1996.TheHiddenHeartoftheCosmos:HumanityandtheNewStory.Maryknoll,
NY.:OrbisBooks.
Swimme,Brian,andBerry,Thomas.1992.TheUniverseStory.SanFrancisco:
Harper/SanFrancisco.
Chapter4WhytheLakoffandJohnsonTheoryofMetaphorisInadequateforAddressing
CulturalIssuesRelatedtotheEcologicalCrises

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ThewritingsofGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnsonwereintendedtoradicallychangeoneofthe
dominanttraditionsofWesternphilosophy,whichisthetraditionofabstracttheorythatstretchesfrom
theancientGreeksdownthroughthewritingsofthetodaysanalyticphilosophers.Inplaceofde
contextualizedandthusculturallyuniformedtheoriesaboutthenatureofreality,mind,language,and
individualism,LakoffandJohnsonproposedthatthetaskofthephilosopheristoclarifyhowthe
metaphoricalbasisoflanguage,andthussystemsofknowing,originatesintheembodiedexperienceof
individuals.Ineffect,theiragendaissummedupinthetitleoftheirmajorbook,Philosophyinthe
Flesh:TheEmbodiedMindanditsChallengetoWesternThought(1999).Whiletheymakeacogent
caseagainstthemanywaysinwhichWesternphilosophershaveframedtheprocessofreasoning,thus
achievinglittlemoreforhumanitythangivinglegitimacytotheirowntheoreticaledifices,theLakoff
andJohnsonargumentthatmetaphoricalreasoningoriginatesinindividualssensorimotorexperiences
soregularlytheybecomeneurallylinked(1999,p.555)representsanequallyextremeandproblematic
position.Inplaceoftherationalprocessthatisrepresentedasfreeofbothculturalandembodied
experiences,theyarguethatthestartingpointofphilosophy,science,andknowledgegenerallybegins
withtheindividualsperceptualandmotorsystemsthatis,embodiedexperience.
Thewordcultureoccasionallyappearsintheirwritings,buttheydonotexamineitscomplex
natureanddiversity,andthustheimplicationsithasforbringingintothequestiontheWestern
notionoftheautonomous(thatis,culturallyuninfluenced)individualtheytakeforgrantedand
uponwhichtheirentiretheoryrests.Awordtheydonotmentionisecology.Thisomission,leads
inturn,totheirfailuretoacknowledgethattodaytheecologicalcrisesshouldframeanydiscussion
ofmetaphoricalthinking.Whatcannotbeexplainedbytheirtheoryiswhytheysharethisoversight
withkeyWesternphilosopherswhoalsoignoredhowtheenvironmentsoftheirerawerebeing
degraded.Supposedly,theindividualwhosesensorimotorexperiencesandhabituatedneural
connectionsbecomethebasisforframingthemeaningofwords(metaphors),andthusforhow
relationshipsareunderstood,isunaffectedbychangesinthenaturalenvironment.Thisisnotsimply
anoversightthathasfewifanyseriousimplications.Itbecomesofparamountimportancewhenitis
recognizedthattheextrapolationofthewordecology,whichisthemodernizedversionofthe
earlyGreekwordoikos,alwayssituatestheindividualasaparticipantwithinaculturaland
environmentalcontext..Itisonlywhentheindividualistreatedasanabstractionthatthese
ecologicalrelationshipsareignored.Ineffect,theindividualsembodiedparticipationinthislarger

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ecologyofrelationshipsincludesotherpeople,thesemioticsystemsoftheculturallyconstructed
world,andthecomplexmessageexchanges(whatGregoryBatesonreferstoasthedifference
whichmakesadifference)thatsustainthecomplexandinterdependentlivingsystemswerefertoas
thenaturalenvironment.
Inordertounderstandthemorelongtermproblemoflocating,asLakoffandJohnsonputit,
ourconceptualsystemintheindividualsperceptualandmotorsystems(1999,p.555),itis
necessarytosummarizethechangesthattheEarthsnaturalsystemsareundergoing.Itneedstobe
recognizedattheoutsetthatglobalwarmingisjustoneaspectoftheecologicalcrisesthatisnot
likelytobeaddressedbyconceptsderivedfromtheembodiedexperienceoftheindividual.Indeed,
theirextremereductionistunderstandingoftheoriginsofknowledgeleadstoaradicaldifference
betweenwhatindividualswouldbeabletolearnfromtheirembodiedencounterswiththeirlocal
environmentsandwhatscientistsarenowreporting.Forexample,scientistsstudyingtheimpactof
globalwarminghavedocumentedthattheGreenlandicecapismeltingatanacceleratingrate,with
oneglaciermovingtotheseaatarateof2metersanhourona3milefrontandatadepthof1500
meters.ThemeltingoftheArcticseaiceandtheglaciersintheAntarcticisalsoacceleratingata
ratetotallybeyondwhatscientiststhoughtpossible.AndtheglaciersintheHimalayasandtheTibet
QinghaiPlateauthatfeedthemajorriversinIndiaandChinaaredisappearingatarateof7percenta
year;withglacierinotherpartsoftheworlddisappearingatasimilarrate.(Brown,2008).Thebasic
assumptions(listedbelow)ofLakoffandJohnsonlimittheindividualsconceptualunderstandingof
theenvironmenttowhattheyhaveanembodiedrelationshipwith.Theresultwouldbethatgrasping
theworldwideconsequencesofglobalwarmingwouldbebeyondtheindividuals
conceptualization.
ThereareotherchangesinthelifesustainingcapacityoftheEarthsecosystemsthatwould
alsogounrecognized.Inadditiontotheglobalthreattothesourcesoffreshwaterthathundredsof
millionsofpeopleface,therearesimilarchangesinthechemistryoftheworldsoceans.Asthe
oceansabsorbhigherlevelofcarbondioxidetheyarebecomingmoreacidic,andthischangeintheir
chemistryaswellastemperatureisthreateningtheorganismthatarethebasisoftheoceanfood
chain.Otherchangesintheworldsoceansincludethenearextinctionofmanyfisheriesthatare
vitalsourcesofproteinthathundredsofmillionsofpeopledependupon.Kolbert,2006).In
additiontodroughtsthatareaffectingmanyregionsoftheworld,andthedyingoffofvastforests

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duetochangesintemperaturesthatmakethemvulnerabletoinsects,theestimatedlossoftheearths
topsoilhasbeenputatoverthirtypercent.
Thehugeexpansionoftheworldspopulationoverthelastcenturyalongwiththespreadof
economicglobalizationhavecombinedintoanincreasinglydestructiveforcethatisunderminingthe
capacityofnaturalsystemstoregeneratethemselves.Untilsocialphilosophersandmarketliberals
turnedAdamSmithstheoryoffreemarketsandtheinvisiblehandintoanabstractandthus
universallawofeconomics,marketswerelocalandintegratedintotheculturalfabric(including
moralnormsgoverningreciprocity)oftheworldsdiverseofcommunities.Butthisabstracttheory
hasnowtakenonthesamestatusasthenaturallawofgravity,andhasbecomeamajorforcein
spreadingtheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestylethatisincreasingtherateofenvironmental
degradation.China,forexample,isbecomingtransformedintoaconsumerorientedsociety,and
nowisfirstintheproductionofcoal,steel,andcement.Italsohas16oftheworlds20most
pollutedcities.Theircurrenteconomicdownturnisbeingmetbyreducingtheproductionof
consumergoodsforexport,butisbeingreplacedbygreaterinvestmentininfrastructureprojects
includingthebuildingofmorecoalfiredelectricalgeneratingandcarbonemittingplants.These
plantsarebeingbuildatarateofoneveryweekorso.Chinahasalreadyconsumedtheforestsof
Thailand,Cambodia,andthePhilippinesandatthecurrentratewillwithintwodecadesswallow
theforestsoffiveneighboringcountries,includingtheforestsoftheRussianFarEast.India,Brazil,
aswellasmanyothercountriesarealsoonthesameconsumerorientedculturalpathwayof
development.Indeed,consumerismandtheadoptionofWesternpatternsofthinkingandvaluesare
nowassociatedwithbecomingmodernanddeveloped,andthusfreeofbeingstigmatizedas
culturallybackward.
Asphilosophershavealonghistoryofignoringhowculturalbeliefsystemsimpactthelife
sustainingcapacityoflocalecosystems,thequestionthatislikelytocomeupis:whatrelevancedoes
thisoverviewoftheecologicalcriseshaveforassessingwhatisproblematicaboutthe
Lakoff/Johnsontheoryoftheembodiedoriginsofourguidingmetaphors?Whatisbeingoverlooked
bythescientistsandengineerswhoaretryingtodevelopmoresustainableandlesscarbonproducing
technologies,andbythegeneralpublicthathasacceptedthatnewtechnologiesarethesolutionsto
theecologicalcrises,isthatweneedtochangethemetaphoricallanguagethatgaveconceptual
directionandmorallegitimacytotheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethathasbecomeamajor

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contributortoovershootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.LakoffandJohnsongotit
rightwhentheyarguedinMetaphorsWeLiveBy(1980)thatallthoughtisbasedonmetaphors,
Whentheymadetheturntowardlocatingthesourceofmetaphorsintheembodiedexperienceofthe
individual,whichwasmotivatedbytheirconcernwiththehegemonyofabstracttheoryandlanguage
usagebymainstreamWesternphilosophers,theylostsightofthemoreobviousandnow
ecologicallyimportantcharacteristicoflanguage.Thatis,theyignoredthatwordsasmetaphors
haveahistoryandthattheycarryforwardthemisconceptionsandsilencesofearlierthinkerswho
succeededinestablishingtheanalogsthatframedthemeaningofwordsovertime.Ineffect,they
failedtorecognizethattheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatisnowbeingglobalized,and
thatisovershootingthesustainingcapacityofthenaturalsystems,isbasedonthemetaphorical
thinkingofearlierthinkerswhowereunawareofenvironmentallimits.
Beforeexplaininghowmuchoftodaysecologicallyproblematicthinkingisbasedonwhat
GregoryBatesonreferstoasdoublebindthinkingitisnecessarytoreproduceherethe6basic
assumptionsthattheLakoffandJohnsontheoryisbasedupon.Inordertoavoidany
misrepresentationsoftheirassumptions,theyshallbepresentedhereastheyappearinPhilosophyin
theFlesh.

Embodied Reason

EmbodiedConcepts:Ourconceptualsystemisgroundedin,neurallymakesuseof,andis
criticallyshapedbyourperceptualandmotorsystems.

ConceptualizationOnlyThroughtheBody:Wecanonlyformconceptsthroughthebody.
Therefore,everyunderstandingthatwecanhaveoftheworld,ourselves,andotherscanonly
beformedintermsofconceptsshapedbyourbodies.

BasicLevelConcepts:Theseconceptsuseourperceptual,imaging,andmotorsystemsto
characterizeouroptimalfunctioningineverydaylife.Thisisthelevelatwhichweare
maximallyintouchwiththerealityofourenvironment.

EmbodiedReason:Majorformsofrationalinferenceareinstancesofsensorimotor
inferences.

EmbodiedTruthandKnowledge:Becauseourideasareframedintermsofourunconscious
embodiedconceptualsystems,truthandknowledgedependuponembodiedunderstanding.

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EmbodiedMind:Becauseconceptsandreasonbothderivefrom,andmakeuseof,the
sensorimotorsystem,themindisnotseparatefromorindependentofthebody.Therefore,
classicalfacultypsychologyisincorrect.(1999,p.555)

Therecanbenodoubtthatmanyofourmetaphorshavetheiroriginsinbodilyexperiences,as
LakoffandJohnsonpointout.Conceptssuchasupanddown,backandforward,fullandempty,
andeventheoldBritishsystemsofmeasurementofinch,foot,yard,andmilecanbetracedbackto
bodilyexperiences.Also,theirdiscussionofhowdifferentexperiencesprovidegenerative
frameworks(schemas)forunderstandinganactivity,behavior,andpolicy,wherethealready
familiarbecomesthemodelforunderstandingsomethingnew,hastobetakenseriously.Itneedsto
bepointed,however,thattheirinsightisonlypartlycorrect.Someofourconceptsdohavean
embodiedoriginyeteventheseconceptualschemaswilldifferfromculturetoculture,depending
upontheculturesmythopoeticnarrativesand/orcosmology.Forexample,whileLakoffand
JohnsonwouldattributetheconceptthatunderliestheuseofthepersonalpronounItothe
embodiedexperienceofanindividual,theyoverlookthatthisisaculturallyconstructedidentity
onethatcanbetracedbacktothewritingsofpostmedievalphilosophersandpoliticaltheorists.
InsteadoftheIwantandIthinkhabituatedpatternofthinkingsoprevalentintheWest,thereis
aprofoundlydifferentwayofunderstandingselfwhichvariesfromculturetoculture.Amongthe
traditionalMaori,forexample,whenaguestentersintothemarea(thecommunalgatheringplace)
shegiveshernameandthenherlineagefollowedbyanexplanationofhertiestothefamilyor
groupsheisvisiting.IfweconsidertheQuechuaofthePeruvianAndeswefindadifferentwayin
whichthisrelationalselfisunderstoodwhichcanbetracedtotheircosmovisionthatrepresentsall
aspectsoflifeasinterdependentandinconstantcommunicationwithplants,animals,andweather
patternscommunicatingwhatthepeoplesagriculturaldecisionsshouldbe.Thekeypointisthat
LakoffandJohnsonrepeatthesilencesaboutthenatureandinfluenceofculturethatcharacterizes
Westernphilosophy.Oneoftheconsequencesofperpetuatingthishubrisisthatreaderswhotake
themseriouslyarenotlikelytorecognizethatwehavemuchtolearnfromculturesthathave
developedinwaysthatenabledthemtolivewithinthelimitsandpossibilitiesoftheirbiroregions.
WhileLakoffandJohnsonalsoremainsilentabouttheecologicalcrises,theconsensusofthe
worldsscientistsisthatwearewithinafewgenerationsofatippingpointwhenchangesinhuman
behaviorswillnotlongerbeabletoreducetherateofglobalwarming.Itisimportant,therefore,to

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considerwhethertheLakoffandJohnsontheoryoftheembodiedbasisofmetaphoricalbasisof
thinkingisusefulforunderstandingwhythedominantWesternculturecontinuestopromotean
industrial/consumerdependentlifestylewhentheevidencecontinuestomountthatitisecologically
unsustainable.Theotherquestionthatneedstoberaisediscantheirtheoryoftheembodiedorigins
ofourconceptsleadtointroducingfundamentalchangesinwaysofthinkingandbehaviorsthathave
asmallerecologicalfootprintincludingchangesinourpoliciesofeconomicandcultural
colonizationthatpreventotherculturesfromrevitalizingtheirtraditionsofselfsufficiencyand
mutualsupportthatarelessdependentuponamoneyeconomyandthathaveasmallerecological
footprint?
WhattheLakoffandJohnsontheoryofmetaphorfailstotakeintoaccountisthatwordshave
aculturallyspecifichistory.Asmetaphorswhosemeaningswereframedbyanalogsestablishedin
thedistantpastbypeoplewhowereunawareofenvironmentallimitsandotherculturalknowledge
andmoralsystems,thesewordscontinuetoinfluencecurrentthinkinginwaysthatreproducethe
misconceptionsandsilencestakenforgrantedintheseearliertimes.AlbertEinsteinwasawareof
thisproblemwhenhewarnedaboutthedangerofrelyinguponthesamemindsetthatcreatedthe
problemtofixit.DoublebindthinkingisthephraseGregoryBatesonusedtodescribethissame
problem,whichheunderstoodasthefailuretorecognizethatthemeaningofkeywordsusedtoday
asthebasisofunderstandingcurrentproblemsandrelationshipswereframedbytheanalogs
establishedbyearlierthinkerswhowereaddressingissuesinadifferenthistoricalandculturalera.
Theanalogsthatframedthemeaningofwordssuchasintelligence,technology,tradition,
individualism,property,freedom,woman,environment,andsoforth,canbetracedback
toearliertheories,powerfulevocativeexperiences,andeventomythopoeticnarrativessuchasfound
intheBookofGenesis.Forexample,thelimitinganalogsthatframedhowthewordwomanwas
understoodintheWestoverthousandsofyearsdidnotariseoutofthe
embodied/sensorimotor/neurallyconnectedexperienceoftodaysindividual.Nordotodayswidely
acceptedunderstanding,especiallywithintheacademiccommunity,ofsuchwordsandphrasesas
tradition,artificialintelligence,property,andenlightenmenthavetheiroriginsinthe
subjectiveembodiedexperienceoftheindividual.Theanalogsthatcontinuetoframewhatistaken
todayasthemeaningofthesewordscanbetracedbacktoearliereventsandthinkers.Tosummarize

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akeyshortcomingoftheLakoffandJohnsontheoryabouttheoriginsofmetaphoricalthinking:it
cannotaccountforthelinguisticcolonizationofthepresentbythepast.
Norcantheirtheoryclarifythedynamicsofthelinguisticcolonizationofothercultures.
Indeed,ifonegivescarefulconsiderationtotheir6keyassumptions,itbecomesimpossibleto
explainthedifferencesinculturalwaysofknowingincludingwhysomeculturalshavedeveloped
inwaysthataremoreecologicallysustainable.Forexample,thecollectionofessaysbyThird
WorldwritersinWolfgangSachsTheDevelopmentDictionary:AGuidetoKnowledgeasPower
(1992)provideexamplesofhowsuchwordsasdevelopment,market,povertywhose
meaningswereframedbytheanalogstakenforgrantedbyWesternthinkersareunderstoodasthe
languageofculturalcolonization.GeraldBerthoudsummarizesinthefollowingwaythecolonizing
agendaintheWesternuseofdevelopment:
Whatmustbeuniversalizedthroughdevelopmentisaculturalcomplexcenteredaroundthe
notionthathumanlife,ifitistobefullylived,cannotbeconstrainedbylimitsofanykind.
Toproducesucharesultintraditionalsocieties,forwhomthesupposedlyprimordial
principleofboundlessexpansioninthetechnologicalandeconomicdomainsisgenerally
alien,presupposeovercomingthesymbolicandmoralobstacles,thatis,riddingthese
societiesofvariousinhibitingideasandpracticessuchasmyths,ceremonies,rituals,
networksofsolidarityandthelike.(Sacks,p.72)
BerthoudidentifiestheanalogsthatframetheWesternideaofdevelopmentbyobservingit
subjectsThirdWorldculturestothecompellingideathateverythingthatcanbemademustbe
made,andthensold.Ouruniverse(accordingtheWesternwayofthinking)appearsunshakeably
structuredbytheomnipotenceoftechnoscientifictruthsandthelawsofthemarket(p.71).The
otheressaysinTheDevelopmentDictionarybringouthowkeywordsinthemodernvocabularyare
notculturallyneutralmetaphors,butarepartoftheprocessoflinguisticcolonizationthatservesto
legitimateeconomiccolonization.Andthecombinationoflinguisticandeconomiccolonization
impactsthebehaviorofindividualsevenattheleveloftheindividualsperceptual,imaging,and
motorsystemswhichisthereverseoftheLakoffandJohnsonformulathatrepresentsbodily
experiencesasshapingtheindividualsconceptualsystem.
ThereisanothercharacteristicofmetaphoricalthinkingignoredbyLakoffandJohnsonthatis
criticaltowhetherweareabletoadoptamoreecologicallyinformedwayofthinkingandbehaving.

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Theimagemetaphors(orwhatcanbereferredtoasiconicmetaphors)theyfocusonasoriginatingin
embodiedexperiences,aswellasimagemetaphorsthatcomedowntousfromearliertimes(which
theydonotrecognize)areoftenframedbytheprevailingrootmetaphorsoftheculture.According
toRichardH.Brown,rootmetaphorsaremetacognitiveschematathataretakenforgrantedandthus
framethinkinginawideareaofculturalactivityoveryearsevencenturies(1977,p.125).They
originateinthemythopoeticnarrativesoftheculture,powerfulevocativeexperiencesthatare
sustainedovergenerations,andfromtheprocessesofanalogicbasedtheoriesbywriterswhowere
abletooverturnolderrootmetaphors.
IntheWest,patriarchyandanthropocentrismareexamplesoftakenforgranted
explanatory/moralframeworks(rootmetaphors)thathavenotonlyframedhowpeoplethinkand
behave,butalsowhattheyignore.Individualismandprogressarealsorootmetaphorsthatcanbe
tracedbacktovariouspoliticaltheorists,evocativeexperiencesrangingfromtheintroductionofthe
printingpresstotheearlysuccessesofmodernscience.Mechanismisyetanotherrootmetaphor
whoseoriginswasnotintheindividualsbodilyexperiences,buttoacombinationofhistorical
eventsrangingfromorganizingtherhythmsofdailylifeinaccordancewiththecyclesofa
mechanicalclock,thesuccessfulapplicationsofamechanisticparadigmbyscientists,toadvancesin
medicineandothertechnologiessuchascomputers.Theexplanatorypowerofthemechanismroot
metaphoroverhundredsofyearscanbeseeninJohannesKeplers(15711630)statementthatmy
aimistoshowthatthecelestialmachineistobelikenednottoadivineorganismbuttoa
clockwork;inMarvinMinskys(earlyleaderinthefieldofartificialintelligence)statementthat
ourconsciousthoughtsusesignalsignstosteertheenginesinourminds,controllingcountless
processesofwhichwerenevermuchawareof,inRichardDawkinsreferencetothebodyasa
survivalmachine;inE.O.Wilsonsreferencetohisbrainasamachine,inthecurrentwayof
identifyingaplantcellaspossessingapowerhouse,recyclingcenter,andaproductioncenter;
andintodayswidespreadreferencestothebrainaslikeacomputer.
Asmetacognitiveexplanatoryframeworksguidethoughtandbehavioratatakenforgranted
levelofconsciousness,theyexerciseaprofoundinfluenceonmanyasaspectsofcultureandthus
ontheembodiedexperiencesoftheindividual.Forexample,therootmetaphorofpatriarchy
establishedtheanalogsforunderstandingtheidentifyandbehaviorofwomeninwaysthatwere
highlyrestrictive,anditexercisedthiscontrolovercenturiesuntilonlyrecentlywhentheword

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woman,insomesectorsofsociety,becameassociatewithawiderangeofnewanalogssuchan
engineer,artist,doctor,politician,andsoforth.Wecouldtakeothermutuallysupportiveroot
metaphorsintheWestandtracehowtheycreateareasofsilence,limitthevocabularytowhatis
conceptuallyandmorallycoherentwiththerootmetaphor,andthuscontrolthediscoursethatframes
howpoliticalproblemsareunderstoodandtheapproachtoresolvingthem.Whatisespecially
importantabouttherootmetaphorslistedaboveisthattheygaveconceptualdirectionandmoral
legitimacytotheindustrial/individuallycentered/consumerdependentlifestylethathasbeena
majorcontributortoglobalwarmingandtotheeconomicexploitationoftheenvironment.
Asfisheriesdisappear,droughtsbecomemorewidespread,stormsmoreviolent,andsourcesof
potablewaterincreasinglyscarceandcontaminated,theembodiedexperiencesthatLakoffand
Johnsonwanttoclaimasthesourceofconceptsandinferencesareunlikelytoleadtoanawareness
thateverydaylifeisbeingimpactedbyasymbolicecologythatisstillbeingreinforcedateverylevel
oftheeducationalprocessandbythemedia,politicalpundits,andevenbymany
environmentalists.Tomakethepointmoredirectly,embodiedexperiencealonewillnotprovidethe
conceptualandlinguisticcapitalnecessaryforrecognizingthedoublebindthinkingthatlimitsour
abilitytorenewtheintergenerationalpatternsofselfsufficiencyandmutualsupportthatrepresent
alternativestotheindustrial/consumerlifestylethatismovingusclosertothetippingpointthatwill
havehugeconsequencesfortheembodiedexperienceoftheindividualsuchassocialchaos,
starvation,andtoxicinducedillnessesanddeath.Whatisironic,especiallysincethenewroot
metaphorofevolutionisnowbeingextendedtoexplainhowculturalpatterns(memes)aresubjectto
thesameprocessofnaturalselection,isthatitisbeingpromotedbyprofessorswhoareunawarethat
whenevolutionisturnedintoarootmetaphorthatsupposedlyexplainsthesymbolicworldofculture
itsupportsthemarketliberalideologythat,inbeingglobalized,isexacerbatingtheecologicalcrises.
WhileLakoffandJohnsonclaimthatourconceptualsystemisgroundedin,neurallymakes
useof,andiscruciallyshapedbyourperceptualandmotorsystems,itturnsoutthattheirwritings
andwaysofunderstandingpoliticalissueshavebeenheavilyinfluencedbytherootmetaphorsthey
takeforgranted.JohnsonrespondedinalettertomyearliercriticismofLakoffslackofhistorical
accuracyandmisuseofourpoliticalcategoriesbyclaimingthatthereisnothingproblematicwith
Lakoffsreferencetoenvironmentalistsasprogressives.ThepointtokeepinfocusisthatJohnsons
associationofenvironmentalismwiththeforcesofprogressandLakoffsrelianceonthesame

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politicallanguagethatunderliestheculturalforcesthatarepushingtheworldbeyondwhatthe
ecosystemscansustainisthattheirconceptsarenotderivedfromtheirownembodiedexperiences.
Whatisironicisthatiftheyhaddoneanethnographicdescription(orwhatCliffordGeertzcalls
thickdescription)oftheirownembodiedexperiencestheywouldhavefoundthattheycannotbe
explainedbyusingthecontextfreevocabularyoffreedom,individualautonomy,andlinear
progress.Rather,aselffocusedethnographywouldleadtoanawarenessofthemanywaysthe
descriptionofembodiedexperiencesrequiresavocabularythatforegroundsthemanybiologicaland
culturalconservingprocessesincludingthelanguageandthusthoughtpatternsderivedfromthe
past,thetemperamentallyconservingofwhatoneiscomfortablewithinfood,conversations,
friends,ofhowtheirownDNAandRNAconservesphysicaltraitsthatareintergenerationally
connected,andallthetakenforgrantedculturalpatternsthatsustaineverydaylife.Ineffect,a
descriptionofembodiedexperiencethatisnotdistortedbyideologyandtheformulaicuseof
languagewouldbeadescriptionofconservingculturalprocessesandpatternswithonlyminor
ethnobiographicdifferences.
ThetaskhereistodocumenthowLakoff,inparticular,isunabletorelyuponhisowntheory
whenitcomestojustifyinghispoliticalpreferences,andtostigmatizinghispoliticalopponents.In
hisNewYorkTimesbestsellingbook,DontThinkofanElephant:KnowYourValuesandFrame
theDebate(2004)Lakoffmakesanimportantcontributiontounderstandinghowtheuseoflanguage
frameswhatisgivenattentionandwhatismarginalizedintodayspoliticaldiscourse.Heismaking
thebasicpointthatlanguageisnotpoliticallyneutral.Instead,thegroupthatisabletoestablishits
preferredvocabulary(includingitssilencesandmetaphoricallybasedprejudices)willcontrolthe
policiesthatareconceptuallyconsistentwiththeirlanguage.Ineffect,agroupcannotachieveits
ownpoliticalgoalsifitisforcedtothinkintheopponents.language.
Insteadoffollowingwhatisderivedfromhisownembodiedbasedreasoning,Lakoffadopts
theOrwellianvocabularythatisnowcurrentateveryleveloftheAmericanpoliticaldiscourse.This
discourselabelsasconservativesthemarketliberalswhoderivetheirideasaboutfreemarketsand
theinvisiblehandfromtheabstracttheoriesofclassicalliberalthinkersandthereligious
fundamentalistswhoderivetheirguidingprinciplesfromtheequallyabstractideathattheBible,
whichhasundergonemanytranslations,representstheactualwordofGod.LakoffsOrwellian
thinkingleadstoidentifyingasprogressivesthesocialgroupsconcernedwithconservingourcivil

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liberties(theAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion),thenaturalsystemswedependupon(the
environmentalists),thepeoplewhotranslatetheirreligionintosocialjusticeactivism,andethnic
groupsworkingtosustaintheconnectionsbetweentheiridentitiesandtheirtraditions,asall
identifiedasprogressives(p.14).Lakoffalsolabelsasconservativesthethinktankssuchasthe
CATO,AmericanEnterprise,andHooverInstitutes.Ifhehadcheckedouttheirwebsites,ratherthan
relyinguponpopularmisconceptions,hewouldhavefoundthatallthreeidentifytheexpansionof
freemarkets,individualfreedom,andastrongdefenseastheirprimarypoliticalagenda.Hewould
havefoundthefollowingonthewebsiteoftheCATOInstitute: "Conservative smacks of an
unwillingness to change, of a desire to preserve the status quo. Only in America
do people seem to refer to free-market capitalism--the most progressive,
dynamic, and ever-changing system the world has ever known--as conservative.
LakoffisoldenoughtorememberRonaldReaganintroducingtheGeneralElectricweeklytelevision
programwheretheGEmantraofProgressisourmostimportantproductservesastheanalogthe
publicwastoidentifywithGEtechnologies.Surely,heisawarethatthetechnoscientific/industrial
culturehasalwaysclaimedtheroleofbeingtheprimaryprogressiveforceinsociety.Ithasonly
beeninrecentyearsthat,outofawidespreadignorancethatcanbepartlyattributabletothefailure
ofuniversitiestointroducestudentstothehistoricalrootsofcurrentideologies,thattheever
changingsystemoffreemarketcapitalismhasbeenlabeledasconservative(Hartz,1955).
Aspointedoutabove,oneofthecharacteristicsofarootmetaphoristhatitssupporting
vocabularydoesnotincludethewordsthatenablethebasictakenforgrantedculturalassumptions
uponwhichitreststobequestioned.Inthecaseoftherootmetaphorofprogress,thetwowordsthat
areeitherproscribedormisrepresentedaretraditionandconserving.Byrelyingupontheroot
metaphorofprogresstoframehisanalysisofliberalismandconservatism,Lakofffallsintothe
conceptualtrapoflettingtherootmetaphorofprogressdictatewhatshouldnotbequestioned:
namely,whetherinterpretingallformsofchangeastheexpressionofprogressispartlyresponsible
forunderminingthetraditionsthatshouldbeconserved.Habeascorpus,theConstitutionandtheBill
ofRightsaretraditionsthatshouldbeconservedwhichistheprimaryagendaoftheAmericanCivil
LibertiesUnion.Sincetheearlydaysofthe1900s,therehasbeenamovementtoconservewhatare
increasinglyreferredtoastheenvironmentalcommons,whichincludewhatremainsofthenatural
systemsthathavenotbeentakenoverbyprivateandcorporateownershipandturnedintomarket

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opportunities(whichisconsideredbymarketliberalsasprogress).Theculturalcommons,which
bothLakoffandJohnsoncouldhavemadethefocusoftheirdiscussionofembodiedknowledge,
representtheintergenerationalknowledge,skills,andmutuallysupportiverelationshipsthatenable
peopletolivemorecommunitycenteredandthuslessmoneydependentandlessenvironmentally
destructivelives.Yetitisthesecommunitiesthataresourcesofresistancetothemarketsystemthat
theCATOInstitutecelebratesastheengineofprogress.Inshort,byuncriticallyacceptingan
interpretativeframework(rootmetaphor)thatcanbetracedbacktothe17thcenturyshiftinWestern
consciousness,LakoffabandonshisownprescriptionsforhowtoaccountforEmbodiedReason.
Bylackinganhistoricalknowledgeoftheoriginsofphilosophicalconservatism,whichhasledto
ourchecksandbalancesystemofgovernment,andoftheabstracttheoriesofclassicalliberalism,
Lakoffunknowinglyalignshimselfwiththeenvironmentallydestructiveandculturalcolonizing
forcesofthemarketliberalswhopromoteprogressasthoughitisalawofnature.
ThequestionsthatshouldbeaskedabouttheLakoffandJohnsontheoryoftheembodied
reasonandtheembodiedoriginsofmetaphoricalthinkinggomuchbeyondtheproblemoftheir
inabilitytoabidebytheirownguidingassumptions.Thedeeperproblemistheirlackofawareness
thatwearenotonlyatatippingpointintermsoftherateofenvironmentalchanges,butalsoata
tippingpointintermsofwhetherhumankindcanmovebeyondthemythsthatunderliethe
individualistic/consumeroriented/industrialculture.Thetippingpoint,ineffect,involvesthechoice
offollowingtheculturaltrajectoryofeconomicglobalizationthatisbeingadoptedinmanyregions
oftheworldorrevitalizingthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsthatrepresentapost
industrialconsciousnessthatisbasedontheancientrootmetaphorthatrepresentsthebiologicaland
culturalrenewingprocessesasanecology.Manyenvironmentallyorientedscientistshavemoved
beyondthemechanisticrootmetaphorbylearningtothinkofthenaturalworldaslivingecologies,
andmanyThirdWorldcultureshavenotentirelylosttheirecologicallyinformedtraditions.
ThemainchallengewillbeforphilosophersandsocialtheoristssuchasLakoffandJohnsonto
explainthedangersofacceptingwithoutquestiontherootmetaphorsthatwereconstitutedbefore
theirwasanawarenessofecologicallimitsandtoexplain,inwaysthatcanbewidelyunderstood,
howoureverydayvocabularyintheWestneedstoframedbyanalogsthatareculturallyand
ecologicallyinformed.Giventheirunquestioningembraceoftherootmetaphorofprogressand
theircommitmenttoassumingthatembodiedexperienceistheprimarysourceofthemetaphorsthat

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guidethoughtandbehaviors,itisdoubtfulthattheircontributionwillbelittlemorethanyetanother
distractionaswemoveclosertotheecologicaltippingpoint.Perhapsiftheyweretostartnotwith
theembodiedexperienceofthesupposedlyautonomousindividual,butwiththeindividuals
culturallymediatedembodiedexperience,theywouldhavetheconceptualopeningforconsidering
theinfluenceofculture,theroleoflanguageintheculturalconstructionofidentitiesandwaysof
thinking,theimpactofdiverseculturesontheembodiedexperiences,andecologicalimplicationsof
doingathickdescriptionorpersonalethnographyoftheinterdependencieswithinthelocal
culturalcommons.Thiswouldhaverepresentedagenuinedeparturefromthesilencesandhubrisof
mostWesternphilosophers.
References
Brown,Lester.2008.PlanB3.0:MobalizingtoSaveCivilization.NewYork.W.W.Norton
Brown,RichardH.1977.APoeticforSociology:TowardaLogicofDiscoveryfortheHuman
Sciences.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Hartz,Louis.1955.TheLiberalTraditioninAmerica:AnInterpretationofPoliticalThoughtSince
theRevolution.Harcourt,Brace.
Kolbert,Elizabeth.2006.TheDarkeningSea.TheNewYorker.November20,pp.6775.
Lakoff,George,andMarkJohnson.1999.PhilosophyintheFlesh:TheEmbodiedMindandIts
ChallengetoWesternThought.NewYork;BasicBooks.
____________________________.1980.MetaphorsWeLiveBy.Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press.
Lakoff,George.2004.DontThinkofanElephant:KnowYourValuesandFrametheDebate.
WhiteRiverJunction,VT:ChelseaGreen.
Sachs.Wolfgang(editor).1992.TheDevelopmentDictionary:AGuidetoKnowledgeasPower.
London.ZedBooks.

Chapter5RevitalizingtheCulturalCommonsorAnIndividualizedApproachtoPlanetary
Citizenship:TheChoiceBeforeUs

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WhileattendingtheinternationalconferenceonLifelongCitizenship,ParticipatoryDemocracy,
andSocialChangethatwassponsoredbytheOntarioInstitutefortheStudyofEducation,Ilearned
thatjustbeforePauloFreiresuntimelydeathhehad,accordingtoMoacirGadotti,theDirectorofthe
PauloFreireInstituteinBrazil,turnedhisattentiontoputtingdownhisfirstthoughtsontheneedfor
anecopedagogy.GadottiwentontoclaimthatFreiresyetunpublishedthoughts,whentheyare
published,wouldbeseenbyenvironmentaleducatorsasmakingamajorcontributiontothe
formulationofanecopedagogythathasasitsultimategoalthecreationofaplanetary
consciousness.
AsFreiresexactthoughtswerenotmadeavailabletothelargeaudience,wehadtorelyuponGadottis
representationofFreiresthinkingofhowtoreconciletheongoingprojectofemancipationwithhowto
liveinamoreecologicallysustainableway.Theassumptioncommunicatedtotheaudiencewasthat
GadottisextrapolationsmerelyrepresentedanextensionofFreiresnewlyarticulatedguidingprinciples.
Gadottididnotelaborateontheactualpracticeofanecopedagogy;ratherhisfocus(andwhathe
representedasFreiresmainfocus)wasonthebigpicture.Thatis,thewayinwhichanecopedagogyis
totransformtheworldsdiverseculturesintowhathekeptreferringtoascitizensofasinglenation.In
anearlierarticlethatincludesamoreextendeddiscussionoftheglobalagendaofanecopedagogy,whose
mainpointswerereiteratedinGadottispresentationtoanaudienceofover400studentsandprofessors
fromdifferentcountries,hewrotethatthemaingoalofanecopedagogyisthedevelopmentofthe
planetarycitizen(2000,p.8).Hisexplanationofhowthisnewformofcitizenistobeachievedisbased
onthecoreassumptionsandsilencesinFreiresformulationofapedagogyoftheoppressed.Thus,the
keystonepremiseofFreirestheoryofhowhumansaretoachievetheirhighestpotential,whichisto
engageinthecontinualrenamingoftheworldthatistofollowfromcriticalreflection(1974edition,p.
76),alsobecomesthekeystonethatholdstogetherGadottistheoryofthenatureandgoalofaneco
pedagogy.InthearticlePedagogyoftheEarthandCultureofSustainability,GadottireiteratesFreires
criticismofthebankingapproachtoeducationbystatingthateducatingthen,wouldnotbeasEmile
Durkheimexplainedasthetransmissionofculturefromonegenerationtothenext,butthegrandjourney
ofeachindividualinhisinterioruniverseandintheuniversethatsurroundshim(2000,p.9).Itis
importanttonotethatnowhereinFreireswritingsdoesonefindareferencetothegrandjournalintothe
individualssubjectiveuniverseasanempoweringsourceofknowledge.Butthereisanevenmore

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seriousproblemwithGadottisassumptionthatthetransmissionofculturefromonegenerationtothe
nextcanbeavoidedbythesubjectiveexplorationsoftheindividual.IhaveputinitalicsGadottisuseof
themasculinepronounashiswayofrepresentingallofhumankind,whichisanexamplethat
demonstrateshisfailuretounderstandthemanywaysthatculturaltraditionsarepassedonatatakenfor
grantedlevelofawareness.
Gadottisinabilitytoemancipatehimselffromthemanywaysinwhichthelanguagingprocessesof
hisowncultureareintergenerationallyreproducedrelatestoamoreseriousproblem;namely,thewayin
whichhisecopedagogyreproducestheWesternassumptionsthatmakeitapedagogyofWestern
imperialism.FollowingtheFreireaninspiredideathatcultureshouldnotbetransmittedfromone
generationtothenext,Gadottistatesthatglobalizationinitselfdoesnotposeaproblem,sinceit
constitutesanunprecidentedprocessofadvancementinthehistoryofhumankind(p.9).Therecouldnot
beclearerstatementofhowGadottiunderstandstheultimategoalofaecopedagogy:namely,aglobal
culturethatwillreplacethediversityoftheworldscultures.ButGadottiisunwillingtoexaminethelogic
oftheargumentthatanecopedagogyshouldemancipateindividualsfromtheculturethatispassedonand
modifiedbyeachgeneration.Thatis,heisunwillingtoconsiderthepossibilitythatindividuals,when
relyinguponthreirownconstructionofknowledgeandvalues,mightnotleadtotheplanetary
consciousnessheenvisionsasavertingecologicaldisaster.Norishewillingtoconsiderthatmanyofthe
worldscultureshavealreadyworkedouthowtolivewithinthelimitsoftheirbioregions.Itshouldalso
bepointedoutthattheGadottivision,tobeachievedbyteacherswhofunctionastransformative
intellectuals,vastlyoverestimatesthewillingnessofpeopletorejectallthetraditionsoftheirculture
(suchastheMuslim,Hindu,Quechua,Zapotec,Inuit,andsoforth)eveniftheycouldbecomeawareof
howtheirtakenforgrantedculturalpatternsinfluencetheirperceptions,waysofunderstanding
relationshipsandnormsthatguidetheirmoralreciprocitywiththenaturalenvironment.Thispartofthe
theorythatunderliestheGadottisecopedagogyissonave,uninformedbyrecentworldevents,and
drivenbyamessianicethnocentrismthatitissurprisingthatheisalreadybeinglookedtoasaleading
theoristonhoweducationcancontributetosavingtheplanet.
ThelanguageusedinthetalksgivenbyGadottiandSandraLucianaDalmagro(awomenwhoworks
withthelandlesspeasantsofBrazil)highlightedthehighstatuspoliticalmetaphorsintheWest:
democracy,individualism,citizen,change.Theybothspokeabouttheimportanceofpromotingdecision
makingbyindividualswhounderstandthemselvesassubjectswhocancreatetheirownhistory.What

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theydidnotacknowledgeisthattheindividualswhohavebeenemancipatedfromtheintergenerational
knowledgeoftheirculturewouldexercisedemocraticdecisionmakingatthesameemotivelevelasthe
customerwhomakesachoicebetweenthevastarrayofproductsinashoppingmall.Similarly,neither
GadottinorDalmagrorecognizedthattheconceptofacitizengoesbacktotheearlyGreeks,which
representedaprofoundshiftfromallegiancetothefamilyandthetribetothatofthestate.Butthe
Westernagendathatistofreethepeoplesoftheworldfromthesupposedbackwardnessoftheircultures
isalsotoinclude,asGadottiputit,promotingwithineachindividualthedesire,indeed,their
responsibilityforchangingtheworld.FollowingFreiresthinking,theprimarypurposeofaneco
pedagogyistocreatethedesireonthepartofeachgenerationtochangetheworldoftheprevious
generation.
GadottisextensionofwhatherepresentedasFreirescoreideasonthenatureofanecopedagogy
overcomesthesilenceabouttheenvironmentalcrisisthathaslongbeenahallmarkofFreireswritings
aswellasthatofhismanyfollowers.ButthebasiccontradictionsinherentinFreiresthinking,suchas
equatingemancipationwithwhatamountstoindoctrinationtoaWesternwayofthinking,remain.Asin
thepast,thisandothercontradictionswentunnoticedbymostoftheaudiencethatincludedprofessors
whostooduptopraiseGadottiforhelpingthemrecognizetheimportanceofusingFreireanideasin
addressingenvironmentalproblems.Perhapsthemostegregiouscontradiction,whichalsowent
unnoticed,isthatthecoreassumptionsunderlyingGadottisextensionsonwhathekeptreferringtoas
Freiresyetunpublishedthoughtsonanecopedagogy(theindividualshouldbeemancipatedfromthe
traditionsofher/hisculture,therecognitionthatcriticalinquiryistheonlysourceofempowering
knowledge,thatchangeleadstoprogress,etc.)arealsotheassumptionsthattheWestsindustrialculture
isbasedupon.Gadottisargumentthatglobalization(thatis,thedevelopmentofaworldmonoculture)
representsanadvanceinhumanhistoryisalsosharedbysuchorganizationsastheWorldTrade
Organizationsandtheneoliberalpoliticianswhowanttotransformeveryaspectofdailylife(eventhe
processofhumanreproduction)intoamarketopportunity.WhileGadottiisveryclearthathisvisionofa
globalcultureistobeunderstoodasstandinginoppositiontoaglobalindustrialculture,hedoesnot
understandthathisidealoftheautonomousindividualwhohasnointergenerationallyacquiredskillsor
knowledgeoftheculturespatternsofmutualaidwouldbetotallydependentuponthemarkettomeet
her/hisdailyneeds.Tociteoneexample,theindividualwhodoesnotknowwhather/hisculture
understandsaboutgrowingandpreparingfood,whichisdependentuponaknowledgeofthesoil,weather

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conditions,recipeshandeddownovergenerations,andrejectslearningfromthisintergenerational
knowledgeasthoughdoingsowereacriticalpedagogyinspiredcivicvirture,ismorelikelytobe
dependentuponindustrialprocessedfoodthatisdestructiveofboththeenvironmentandhumanhealth.
Tomakethispointmoredirectly:althoughGadattiishighlycriticaloftheglobalizationofamarket
orientedculture,hiswayofunderstandingtheprimarygoalofanecopedagogywouldhavetheeffectof
creatingtheveryformofindividualismthatcanmosteasilybeexploitedasacustomer.
IagreewithGadottithattheecologicalcrisisistheparamountissuethatfacesallofhumanity,but
onlywishthatFreirehadnotignoreditduringthemanyyearswhenhisintellectualleadershipinfluenced
severalgenerationsofprofessorsofeducationwhoarenowunabletorecognizethatresistanceto
globalizationisnotachievedbypromotingthesamevaluesandassumptionsthatarethebasisofthe
currentprojectofremakingtheworldintheimageoftheWest.TheironyisthatGadottis
recommendationthateachindividualshouldpursueher/hisowngrandjourney,whichmiraculouslyisto
leadtoplanetarycitizenship,couldhaveeasilybeenwrittenbythespeechwriterforPresidentGeorge
W.Bush.TransformingthediverseculturesoftheworldintheimageofWesterncultureisnotonlyan
extensionofwesterncolonization;itwillfurtheracceleratetheovershootingofthelifesustainingcapacity
oftheEarthsnaturalsystems.ThiscriticismshouldnotbeinterpretedassayingthatGadottisupports
PresidentBushsforeignpolicies.TheissueismorefundamentalinthatbothPresidentBushandGadotti
takeforgrantedacommonsetofWesternassumptionsthatdifferentpoliticalgroupscanusetojustify
theirownends.Butthesignificanceofthedifferencesareminorcomparedtotheimperialisticnatureof
theassumptionstheyshareincommon;whichistheneedforonenation(aglobalmonoculture)where
individuals,inpursuitofmakingtheirownhistory,rejecttheintergenerationalknowledgethat,inmany
instances,isthebasisforresistingthefurtherexpansionoftheindustrialculture.

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EducatingforEcoJusticeandtheRevitalizationoftheCommons
Thereisanotherwaytothinkaboutthedirectionthateducationalreformshouldtakeonethat
strengthenstheabilityoftheworldsdiverseculturestoresisttheenvironmentallydestructiveandcultural
homogenizingforcesthatarenowbeingglobalized.Thisalternativeapproachtoeducationalreform
involveslearningabout(indeed,revitalizing)thetraditionsofthecommonsoftheseculturesthatgoback
totheoriginsofhumankind.Basically,thecommonsincludedwhatwasavailabletoallmembersofthe
culture:thewater,air,woodlands,pastures,plants,animals,aswellasothernaturalsystems.The
commonsalsoincludedthesymbolicaspectsoftheculture:narratives,knowledgeofthecyclesofnatural
systems,spokenandwrittensymbolsystems,craftknowledge,music,dances,moralnormsandpatternsof
reciprocity,knowledgeofthemedicinalcharacteristicsofplants,andsoforth.Thecommonswereand
stillarevarieddependinguponthecharacteristicsofthebioregion.Andtheculturesthatdevelopedover
hundreds,eventhousandsofyearsofplacebasedandtestedexperiencealsoledtodifferenttraditionsthat
becameatakenforgrantedpartofthecommons.Thekeyissuehereisnottointerpretthisbrief
overviewofthecommonsasrepresentingallthesymbolicaspectsofthecommonsasfreeofinjusticeand
environmentalabuse.
Ifweweretotracetheintroductionofenclosureindifferentcultureswewouldfindthatinmany
instancesitwasbasedonunjustrelationshipsandwasthecauseofimpoverishment(fromour
perspective).Inafewinstancesitledtomajorculturalachievements.Basically,enclosureinvolved
transformingwhatwassharedincommon(thatis,availabletoallmembersofthecommunity)into
whatwasprivatelyowned,intoacommodity,andintoamonetizedactivityorrelationship.For
example,whatwaspreviouslypassedonthroughmentoringrelationshipsandisnowdispensedby
expertsrepresentsthetransitionfromthenonmonetizedandnonprivatizednatureofthecommonsto
themonetizedandprivatizednatureofthemarket.Enclosuretakesmanyforms,butessentiallyit
involvesexclusion,disenfranchisement,anddispossessioninwaysthatadvantagesomegroupsover
others.Italsoreducescollectiveandlocaldecisionmakingabouttherulesthatwillgovernthe
commonsbyshiftingthepowerofdecisionmakingtoindividualsandinstitutionsthatdonothaveto
experiencetheconsequencesoftheirdecisions.Thirdly,enclosureforcesmoreaspectsofdailylifeto
comeunderthelogicofamoneyeconomywhichmarginalizesthepracticesofmutualexchange
andbarterrelationships.Itrepresents,ineffect,thetransitionfromworkasanactivitythatisreturned
toviewingworkasanactivitythatispaid.

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Inthecontemporaryworld,theprocessoftechnologicalandeconomicglobalizationinvolvesthe
furtherenclosureofthecommonsofbothnaturalandculturalsystems.Thepressuretoprivatize
water,land,forests,thegenelinesofplants,animalandhumanblood,themineralsundertheground,
andsoforth,hasincreaseddramaticallyinrecentyears.Theenclosureofthesymbolicaspectsofthe
commonsofdifferentculturesisbeingdrivenbythesamemarketforces.Thisincludestheenclosure
ofeducation,firstbythestate,andnowbyprivategroups.Italsoincludeshealthcare,entertainment,
sports,food,andeventhoughtandcommunicationwhichisnowbeingmediatedbycomputersand
cellphones.TheWesternapproachestoenclosure,drivenbythemergingofscience,technology,and
corporations,iscontributingtotheemergenceofaplanetarycultureaplanetaryculturethatGadotti
giveslegitimacytobyhisfailuretorecognizethedangersofusingthesamelanguageandrelying
uponthesameculturalassumptionsastheneoliberalpoliticansandinstitutionsheopposes.
Themostrecentexpressionsofenclosureinvolvethespreadofgeneticallymodifiedseedsthat
requiretheuseofsuperpowerfulpesticidesthatkilloffthenearbybirds,animals,wildplants,and
themicroorganismsinthesoil.Tociteanotherexample,thefurtherautomationoftheprocessof
workthatfurtherreducestheneedforworkers(whichisanimportantformofenclosure)also
continuestheprocessofdispossessingworkersoftheircraftknowledgeandskill.Asthe
intergenerationalknowledgethatsustainedthecommonsforgenerationsdisappearsunderthe
pressureoftheliberalideologythatpromotestheprogressiveideathatindividualsshouldconstruct
theirownknowledgebyexploringthedepthsoftheirowninterioruniversemoreaspectsofdailylife
willrequireparticipationinamoneyeconomy.Inshort,enclosureofthenaturalsystemsthat
sustainedhumancommunitiesforcenturies,andthepoliticaleconomythatdeterminesthe
distributionofwealthwithinandamongcultures,aremajorcontributorstothepovertythatis
increasingaroundtheworld.
Understandinghoweducationalreformcancontributetotherevitalizationofworldscommonsis
becomingmoreurgentastheautomationofproductionreducestheneedforworkerswhichisnow
beingfeltevenincountriessuchasMexicoandChina.Themythofunendingprogressandarising
materialstandardoflivingisfastbeingchallengedeveninWesterncountrieswherepensionfunds
arediminishing,unemploymentisrising,andlocaldecisionmakingaboutconservingthecommonsis
beingoverruledbyinternationaltreatiesandinstitutionssuchastheWorldTradeOrganization.

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Buttheforcesresistingtheeducationalreformsthataddresstherevitalizationofthecommons
arebothpowerfulandnumerous.Publicschoolsanduniversities,forexample,continuetoreinforce
themindsetthatunderliestheglobalizationofindustrialculture.Thecomplicityofeducatorsin
resistingtherevitalizationofthecommonscanbeseeninthewaytheprofessorsandstudents
listeningtoGadottiapplaudedwildlywhenhefinishedhistalkonhowanecopedagogycontributes
tothecreationofaglobalcultureofanomicindividuals.TheirreceptivitytotheGadottisvisionand
representationofFreireslastthoughtsontheneedforanecopedagogywasinnowayextraordinary
fromthewaymostpublicschoolteachersanduniversityprofessorsthink.Theincessantquestfor
newwaysofthinking,technologies,andvaluesisadominantcharacteristicofWesterneducationat
alllevels.TheotherhighstatusformsofknowledgepromotedinWesterneducationalinstitutions
thatdenigratetheformsofknowledgeandrelationshipsthatsustainthecommonsincludethe
emphasisontheabstractandoftenformulaicknowledgeofexperts,thetechnologiesthatarebasedon
Westernscienceandaregenerallyuninformedbyaknowledgeoftheculturetheyareintroducedinto,
andtheauthorityofprintedtexts(andnowcomputermediateddata).Theseaspectsoftheliberal
mindsetarefurthersustainedbyignoringthedifferencesintheknowledgesystemsofdifferent
cultures,byrelyinguponanevolutionaryexplanatoryframeworkthatrepresentsWesternculturesas
moreadvancedandbetteradaptedtosurvivethantheindigenousculturesthatlivebyecologically
informedpractices.ThehubrisofWesternthinkers,includingprominentscientistssuchasE.O.
Wilson,FrancisCrick,andStephenHawking,ispartlyresponsibleforimposingupontherestofthe
worldthetechnologiesthatarebothculturallyandenvironmentallydestructive.
Thegenerationsthathavebeeneducatedtothinkinwaysthatsupportaconsumerandtechnology
dependentlifestylelackthelanguagethatwouldenablethemtonamethenonmonetizedknowledge,
activities,andrelationshipsintheirowncommunities.Whenlimitedinthisway,theyareunableto
understandtheimportanceofwhatremainsofthecommonsincludingthefactthatthecommons
providesalternativesforthenewlyunemployedorunderemployedtoliveproductiveandmeaningful
livesonmuchlessmoneythanpreviouslythought.Unlikethemonetizedaspectsofeverydaylife,the
commonsinvolvesmutualsupportandpatternsofreciprocitythatwillbeevenmoreneededaswe
movetowardtheglobalstateofconsciousnessthatacceptsunemploymentandpovertyastheprice
thatmustbepaidfortechnologicalprogress.

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ThereisanotherproblemconnectedwiththewayWesterneducationalinstitutionsmarginalize
orarecompletelysilentaboutthenatureandimportanceofthecommonsandthedangersthat
accompanythefurtherenclosureofthecommons.Thatis,ignoranceofandindifferencetothe
commonsresultsinthecollectivefailuretorecognizewhenvitalaspectsofthecommonsarebeing
enclosedsuchasthecurrentprocessofprivatizingmunicipalwatersystems,theexpansioninthe
corporateownershipoftheairwaves,andinthefurtherindustrializationofhumanreproductionand
theplantswerelyuponforfood.Ignoranceoftheneedtoprotectthecommonsofothercultures,
includingtheirlanguagesthatencodetheiraccumulatedknowledgeofsustainablepracticeswithin
theirbioregion,leadsnotonlytothelossofculturaldiversityinapproachestoselfsufficiencybut
alsotothelossofbiodiversityitself.
Therevitalizationofthecommonsisimportantforreasonsthatgobeyondthenonmonetized
mutualsupportsystemsthatrepresentsitesofresistancetotheexpansionofindustrialculture.Itis
alsoimportantbecausethecommonsrepresentarefugeforpeoplewhopossesstheskillsthathave
beenmarginalizedbytheindustrialculture,whofindthatworkisnolongeravailabledueto
automationandoutsourcing,andwhowanttobasetheirlivesonmeaningfulsocialrelationshipsand
communityenhancingactivities.Therevitalizationofthecommonscanalsobeunderstoodashaving
bothapoliticalandmoraljustification.Thatis,thenonconsumer,nonenclosedaspectsofthe
commonscanbejustifiedonthegroundsthatitcontributestoecojustice.Andbyextension,
educationthatcontributestotherevitalizationofthecommonscanbeunderstoodasanecojustice
pedagogythatstandsinsharpcontrasttotheromanticvisionofGadottiwhereeachindividual
undertakesthegrandjourneyinhisinterioruniverseandintheuniversethatsurroundshim.
AnyonecomparingtheecojusticepedagogybeingoutlinedherewiththeecopedagogyofGadotti
alsoneedstokeepinmindhisgoaloffosteringcitizenshipinasinglenationthatistobebasedona
planetaryconsciousness.Itisdifficulttoavoidinterpretinghissolutiontothefurtherdegradation
oftheenvironment,andwhathemeansbyaplanetaryconsciousness,asanythingotherthanaworld
monoculturebasedonWesternvalues.
Anecojusticepedagogywillcontributeinthefollowingwaystoresistingthefurtherenclosure
ofwhatremainsoftheworldscommons,andtoaddressingtheconsequencesofeconomic
imperialism.First,byfosteringagreaterawarenessofthetoxiccontaminationthatresultsfromthe
industrialprocess,andhowthedisposalofthetoxicwasteisinfluencedbytheculturessocialstatus

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system,itwillgivetheissueofenvironmentalracismasmorecentralplaceinthecurriculum.
Second,byhelpingthestudentsunderstandthenatureofthecommonsandhowtheydifferinterms
ofcultureandbioregion,theforcesofenclosure,themanyadverseconsequencesofdifferentforms
ofenclosure,anecojusticepedagogyprovidestheknowledgenecessaryforthestudents
communicativecompetence.Furthermore,theseunderstandingswillenablethemtorecognizethat
therearealternativestobeingtotallydependentuponamoneyeconomythatisincreasingly
characterizedbythedoublebindwherethecostofpayingforthebasicnecessitiesofdailylife
continuestoincreasewhiletheopportunitiesforwork(evenlowpayingones)continuetodisappear.
Third,byhelpingstudentsrecognizethecommunitycenteredalternativestoalifeofneartotal
dependencyuponconsumerism,andtheenvironmentalimpactonThirdWorldcountriesthatresults
fromthehyperconsumerismintheWest,anecojusticepedagogycontributestoreducingthe
dominationoftheSouthbytheNorth.Fourth,byhelpingstudentstounderstandtheecological
consequencesofglobalizingaconsumerdependentlifestyleandbyhelpingthemtounderstandthe
consequencesoflosingmanyoftheworldsecologicallyinformedknowledgesystems,anecojustice
pedagogyhelpstoensurethattheprospectsoffuturegenerationshavenotbeendiminishedbya
degradedenvironment.Fifth,bycontributingtoalessconsumerdependentlifestyle,anecojustice
pedagogycontributestotherevitalizationoflocaldemocracyandtowhatVandanaShivahasreferred
toasearthdemocracythatis,therightofnaturalsystemstorenewthemselves.
IfweconsidertheideologicaldifferencesbetweentheGadottisapproachtoanecopedagogy
andanecojusticepedagogy,wefindthatwhileGadottiiscriticalofindustrialculture,he
neverthelessbaseshisprescriptionsforreformonthesameliberalassumptionsthatareusedtojustify
economicglobalization.Thatis,globalizationforboththeproponentsofindustrialcultureandfor
Gadottiisviewedasthehighestexpressionofhumandevelopment.Inaddition,boththeproponents
ofeconomicglobalizationandGadottiagreethatculturaldifferencesshouldbereplacedbyasingle
wayofknowing.Andwhiletheydifferontheendsthataretobeservedbycriticalreflection;they
alsoagreethatintergenerationalknowledgelimitstheabilityofeachindividualtorenametheworld
andtobefreeoftheconstraintsofthepatternsofreciprocitythatcharacterizeintergenerationally
connectedcommunities.Theanomicformofindividualismthatcanbemoreeasilymanipulatedby
themediaturnsout,uponcloseexamination,tobeidenticaltotheindividualwholivestheself
centeredlifeofexploringhisinterioruniverseandisbothignorantofandindifferenttothe

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traditionsofmutualsupportthatarethesourceoffood,shelter,politicalfreedoms,andnarrativesthat
arethebasisofthecommunitysmoralcodes(whichmaynotalwaysbeinlinewithourmoral
priorities).Tobringoutanothercommonalitybetweentheproponentsofglobalizingthe
industrial/enclosureorientedcultureandtheplanetaryculturebeingadvocatedbyGadotti:while
Gadottiexpressesdeepconcernaboutthedestructionofnaturalsystemshesharesthesame
indifferencetowhatisthecentralquestionthatshouldbeaskedasthelifesupportingsystemsthat
constitutesthecommonscomeunderevengreaterassault.Namely,neithertheproponentsof
economicglobalizationnorGadottiaskwhatneedstobeconservedasthebasisofresistingthe
furtherdegradationoftheenvironmentandthespreadofpoverty.ThisisalsoaquestionthatFreire
andhisfollowersneverasked.
Whentheenclosureofthecommonswasnottheresultofanakedpowergrab,ithasbeen
justifiedascontributingtosocialprogress.Theprivatizingandmonetizingofthenatural
environment,theairways,healthpractices,genelines,andsofortharelargelybeingjustifiedinterms
ofthelatter.Astrongcasecanbemadetheinternationaltradeagreementscurrentlyforcingpeople
offthelandareamixtureofthetwo.Seldomhasenclosurebeenjustifiedonthegroundsthatit
conserveswhatcontributestothewellbeingofthehumanandnaturalcommunity.Thecurrent
effortsofvariousconservationgroups,suchastheNatureConservancyandtheConservationLand
Trust,topurchaselandinordertoreturnittothepublicshouldnotbeviewedasexamplesof
enclosure,butratherasexpandingthecommons.Withtheenvironmentnowundergoingchangesthat
couldnothavebeenimaginedamere30yearsago(themeltingofthepolaricecaps,thecollapseof
fisheriespreviouslythoughttobeinexhaustible,thespreadoftoxicchemicalsinourbodiesand
throughtheenvironment,etc.)itisnownecessarytorecognizethatthelanguageofliberalism
(progress,individualism,emancipation,development,globalvillageandplanetaryconsciousness)
excludesanalternativevocabularythatenablesustoconsiderthecentralconcernsof
environmentalists,ThirdWorldactivists,andpeopleintheWestwhoselifestylescontributeto
sustainingthecommons.Theselattergroupsareconcernedwithconservingthediversityof
species,culturalwaysofknowingthathavebeenshapedbyinhabitingabioregionoverhundreds
eventhousandsofyears,andtheintergenerationalknowledgethathasbeenthebasisofcommunity
selfsufficiency.Thesegroupsarenowunderintensepressure,asdocumentedinHelenaNorberg
HodgesAncientFuture:LearningfromLadakh(1992),FrederiqueApffelMarglins(with

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PRATEC)editedbook,TheSpiritofRegeneration:AndeanCultureConfrontingWesternNotionsof
Development(1998)toadopttheWesternmodelofdevelopment,whichmeanstoacceptthe
enclosureoftheirtraditionsinexchangeforWesterntechnologiesandconsumergoods.The
resistancetotheWesternmodelofdevelopment,asdocumentedinBonfilBatallasMexicoProfundo
(1996)andwhichwasthecentralfocusofindigenousactivistsattendingtherecentconferenceon
AmericanProfundoinMexicoCity,isalsoorientedtowardconservingthetraditionsessentialto
culturalidentity,selfsufficiencyoutsideoftheWesternmoneyeconomy,andtoconservingnatural
systems.
Thewordconservingandthephrasemindfulconservatism(Bowers,2003)arenotpartof
thevocabularyofGadottiforachievingamoresustainableworld.Indeed,whentheword
conservatismappearsinthewritingsofbothGadottiandFreire,itisequatedwiththeevilsof
capitalism.InhistalkattheinternationalconferenceGadottisaidtherewasnopossibilityofhavinga
dialoguewiththeconservativeswhorunthetransnationalcorporations.Whatheandthemany
followersofFreirewhoalsoidentifycorporationsasconservativeinstitutionsfailtounderstandis
thatindustrialcultureisbasedonthevaluesandassumptionsofClassicalLiberalthinkerssuchas
JohnLocke,AdamSmith,andJohnStuartMillandmorerecentlyonthereemergenceofSocial
Darwinistthinkingthatissweepingthroughuniversitydepartments.Initsstatementofguiding
principlesthatappearsonthewebsiteoftheCATOInstitute(whichisthemostinfluentialliberal
thinktankinAmerica),thepointismadethatonlyinAmericaismarketorientedliberalism
interpretedasthehighestexpressionofconservatism.
Thismarketorientedindustrialcultureisbeinggivenfurtherlegitimacybyscientistswhoare
extendingvariousinterpretationsofevolutioninwaysthatexplainwhichculturalmemesmeetthe
testofDarwinianfitnessandthusaregeneticallydriventobecomethebasisofaworldmonoculture.
ItisalsoimportanttorecognizethatbothGadottiandFreire(1974)alsorelyuponatheoryof
evolutiontojustifytheirvisionofaglobalconsciousness.Buttheyarenotalone.Thetransformative
learningtheoriesofEdmundOSullivanandWilliamDoll,Jr.,arealsobasedonaninterpretationof
evolutionthatincorporatestheWesternmythoflinearprogress.Asidefromthefactthattheprocess
ofnaturalselectionisthebasisofdiversity,whilethetheoryoftransformativelearningassumesthe
worldwideadoptionofWesternassumptionsandthuswouldleadtoaworldmonoculture,thereis
anotherironythatisoverlookedbyproponentsoftransformativelearningsuchasGadotti,Freire,

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OSullivan,andDoll.Whiletransformativelearningisavisiontoberealizedinthefuture,the
spreadoftheWestsindustrial,consumerorientedcultureisthemosttransformativeforceintodays
world.
ThefailureofGadottitorecognizetheideologicalrootsofindustrialculture,andhowmanyof
theliberalassumptionshesharesincommonwithitevenashecriticizesitsexploitivenature,
explainswhyhedoesnotrecognizethatcriticalreflectionshouldalsobeusedintheserviceof
revitalizingthecommons.Whiletheyequatecriticalreflectionwithindividualscreatingtheirown
history,asbothGadottiandFreireputitintheirseparatewritings(especiallyreadFreires
discussiononpage199,ThePoliticsofEducation),anecojusticepedagogyisbasedonthe
recognitionthatconservingthecommons,includingearthdemocarcy,ispartlydependentuponthe
exerciseofcriticalreflection.Forexample,anecojusticepedagogyinvolvesrelianceuponcritical
reflectionaspartoftheprocessofclarifyingwhatisbeingoverturned(enclosed)bytheintroduction
ofcomputers,theuseofrobotsintheworkplace,thegeneticengineeringofplantsandanimals,the
furthermergingofuniversitiesandcorporateculture,theimperialismoftheWesternentertainment
system,theincreasingrelianceontheindustrializationoffood,andthewaycurrentpoliticianscreate
demonsinordertocreateaNazilikestateofcomplianceonthepartofthepublic.Inthese
examples,theoutcomeofcriticalreflectionmightleadtoadoptingnewwaysofdoingthings
whichwouldmeanthatsometraditionswouldbeseenasinneedofbeingchanged,andinother
instancescriticalreflectionwouldleadtoconservingtraditionsthatareimportanttothecommunity.
Butanecopedagogyisnotbasedsolelyoncriticalreflection;italsorecognizesthattheviabilityof
thecommonsalsodependsuponotherwaysofknowingandintergenerationalrenewalsuchas
mentoring,theuseofnarratives,embodiedlearning,themultiplelanguagingprocessesthatlargely
passonthetakenforgrantedassumptionsandbehavioralpatternsoftheculturewhichareoftenin
needofbeingexaminedcritically(suchastheculturalassumptionsthatGadottitakesforgranted).
Forreaderswhoareuncomfortablewiththewordconservatism,andwhoarenotawarethat
mostgroupswhoidentifythemselvesasconservativesareactuallyintheliberaltraditionofthinking,
theymightconsiderwhetherthereareanyaspectsoftheirlegalsystem,includingConstitutional
rightstheywouldwanttoconserve.IntermsoftheUnitedStates,wouldtheywanttoconserve
thetraditionofatrialbyajuryofpeers?Wouldtheywanttoconservethetraditionofan
independentjudicialsystem,includinganindependentSupremeCourt?Orwouldtheyconsiderthe

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controloftheSupremeCourtbyapoliticalpartythelatestexpressionofprogress?Wouldtheywant
toconservethegainsmadeoverthelastcenturyintheareaofwomensrightsandprotectionsinthe
workplaceorwouldtheybewillingtoletpowerfulinterestgroupstransformthesegainsintoa
moreprogressivedevelopmentsuchastherecentefforttoeliminateovertimepayforworkers.
Thelattereffortwasjustifiedonthegroundsthatitwouldenablecorporationstobemore
competitiveaprogressivedevelopmentintheeyesofliberal,freemarketadvocates.Andona
morepersonallevel,wouldthereaderwanttoconservethetraditionsoffoodpreparationwithin
theirfamilyandculturalgrouporisindustriallyprocessedfoodtobeembracedasthelatest
expressionofprogressandthemergingintoaplanetaryconsciousness?
Anecojusticepedagogyisbasedontheneedtoconserveculturaltraditionsthatenablepeople
toreducetheirdependenceonamoneyeconomyaswellasthesizeoftheirecologicalfootprint.
Butitisunlikelythatthepractitionersofanecojusticepedagogywillsucceedinrectifyingtheuse
ofourpoliticalvocabularyontheirown.Theyneedthehelpofothergroupsthatareconcerned
aboutthelossofculturalandspeciesdiversity,andthegrowingthreatofaglobalculturebasedon
theWesternideaoftheautonomous,selfcreatingindividual.Ideally,ifpublicschoolsand
universitieswouldhelpstudentsunderstandthatthewordstraditionandconservatismaretoo
complextobereducedtotheformulaicthinkingthatnowpassesforanempoweringpolitical
discourseitmightthenbepossibletorecognizethatthehistoryofliberalismcoevolved(Iusethe
termdeliberately)withthegrowthoftheIndustrialRevolutionandthatthehubrisitisbasedupon
accountsforitsroleinfurtheringWesternimperialism.Itmightalsobepossibleforstudentsto
understandthemanyformsofconservatism,andthusbeabletodiscriminatebetweenwhatis
reactionary,whatistheexpressionoftraditionalism(thatis,themistakenbeliefthattraditions
shouldnotchange),andwhatisorientedtoconservingthenonmonetizedformsofknowledge,
relationships,andactivitiesthatrepresentsourcesofresistancetothefurtherenclosureofthe
commonsofdifferentcultures.
ThehubrisofWesternliberalismandthehubristhatunderliestheGadottisapproachtoaneco
pedagogyshouldleadustoaskthequestionofwhendoesareformorientededucatorcrosstheline
bybecominganagentofculturalinvasion.Thisquestioncouldbebroadenedtoincludeanycultural
outsider(thescientist,developmentspecialist,missionary,etc.).Here,Ishallfocusonthe
differencesbetweenanecopedagoyandanecojusticepedagogy.

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AkeycharacteristicoftheecopedagogyadvocatedbyGadotti,andthatcorrespondsto
Freiresvisionofaworldofconstantchange,isthatitisbasedonadeficitmodelofculture.The
deficit(backwardness,wronglydeveloped,lackinginadherencetoWesternvalues)istobe
overcomeastheteacher,asanagentofculturaltransformation,reinforcestheindividualsown
determinationofideasandvalues(thejourneyintotheinterioruniverse)andrelianceoncritical
reflectionasthebasisformembershipasplanetarycitizen.ThatthemembersofIslamic,Hindu,
Buddhist,Christian,andthousandsofindigenouscultures(manyofthelatterhavingalreadyworked
outasustainableenvironmentalethic)willallowthemselvestobetransformedbyecopedagoguesto
fittheWesternEnlightenmentidealofthecriticallyreflective,selfdeterminingindividualistotally
unrealistic.TheromanticperceptionoftheEarthasasinglecommunityblindsGadottifrom
recognizingthatmanynonWesternculturesarealreadyecologicallycentered,andthatweshouldbe
learningfromthemabouthowtoliveinwaysthatsustainthecommons.Gadottisblanketformula
forchangingotherculturestofithisidealofasingleformofconsciousness,whathecallsa
planetaryconsciousness,indicatesthatheisblindedbyhisextremeethnocentrism(whichhe
shareswithFreire)andthehubristhatleadshimtodictatehowtheworldsculturesshouldreform
themselvesinordertosavetheplanet.
Theroleoftheecojusticeorientededucatorisprofoundlydifferent.Astherevitalizationofthe
commonsrequiresaddressingallfiveaspectsofecojusticethathaveparticularrelevanceforguiding
educationalreform,theteachersrolebecomesthatofamediatorandnotatransformative
intellectualasHenryGirouxputit.Asamediatorbetweencultures,includingthedifferences
withinWesternculture,theeducatorsresponsibilityistohelpthedifferentcommunities(and
cultures)tounderstandtheculturaltransformationsthatarelikelytoresultwhenWestern
technologiesandsystemsofexpertknowledgeareadopted.Clarifyingthesepotential
transformationsinvolvesfosteringacommunitywidediscussionoftheassumptionsthatunderlie
Westernapproachestodevelopment,andhowtheadoptionofWesternvaluesandtechnologieswill
affectthecommonsastheyknowit.Mediatingthusinvolvesmakingexplicitwhatliesbehindthe
languageofprogressandmodernization.TheeducatorwhomadeexplicitforQuechuateachersthe
formsofculturalknowledgethatcannotbedigitized,aswellashowadoptingcomputersinschools
involvesbothformsofenclosureandbecomingdependentuponamoneyeconomywasactingasa
mediator.Similarly,theeducatorwhoexplainstoCanadianbureaucratswhytheInuit,asa

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subsistenceculture,needtopossessriflesandwhytheydonotwantchildcarecenters,aswellas
helptheInuiteldersunderstandtheculturalassumptionsofthebureaucrats,isplayingtheroleofa
culturalmediator.Thedecisionsabouttheircollectivefutureisthuslefttothemtomake.
Anecojusticepedagogycanonlybeeffectiveinclarifyingthenatureofculturaldominationas
theeducatorlearnsfromthecommunitys(cultures)approachestosustainingthecommons.This
mediatingrolealsoextendstotheeducationalprocesswithinWesterncontexts.Thatis,the
curricularfocuswouldbeonclarifyingtheecologicalimplicationsofdifferenttraditionssuchasthe
nonmonetizedtraditionswithinthecommunityandtheindustrialtraditionsofenclosure.While
Gadottisproposalforanecopedagogyandanecojusticepedagogyarebasedonsimilarconcerns
aboutthedestructionoftheEarthsecosystems,theyrepresentprofoundlydifferentapproachesto
understandingtheroleofeducationinresistingthefurtherenclosureofthecommons.Given
Gadottisvisionofhowtheworldsculturesshouldbetransformed,itisclearthathehavecrossed
thelineandisdedicatedtopromotingtheaspectsofWesternimperialismthatpavesthewayfor
theglobalizationoftheindustrialcultureherejects.

References
Batalla,Bonfil.1996.MexicoProfundo:RecalimingaCivilization.Austin,TX.:UniversityofTexas
Press.
ApffelMarglin:Frederique,withPRATEC(editors).1998.TheSpiritofRegeneration:Andean
CultureConfrontingWesternNotionsofDevelopment.London:ZedBooks.
Bowers,C.A.2003.MindfulConservatism:RethinkingtheIdeologicalandEducationalBasisofan
EcologicallySustainableFuture.Lanham,Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.
Freire,Paulo.1974.PedagogyoftheOppressed.MewYork:SeaburyPress.
__________.1974.EducationforCriticalConsciousness.NewYork:SeaburyPress.
__________.1985.ThePoliticsofEducation:Culture,Power,andLiberation.SouthHadley,MA.:
Bergin&Garvey.
Gadotti,Moacir.2000.PedagogyoftheEarthandCultureofSustainability.SaoPaulo,Brazil.
InstitutoPauloFreire.Pp.111.

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NorbergHodge,Helena.1991.AncientFutures:LearningfromLadakh.SanFrancisco:SierraClub
Books.

Chapter6TheCaseAgainstJohnDeweyasanEnvironmentalandEcoJusticePhilosopher

MyparticipationinarecentconferenceonPragmatismandValuesheldinStaraLesna,
SlovakiarekindledmydoubtsabouttherelevanceofDeweysideasforaddressinganecological
crisisthathasmanydimensionsbeyondthatofglobalwarming.Isayrekindledmydoubts,asthey
werefirstformedbyRichardRortysattempttoreconcilethecontingentknowledgeandvaluesof
theironistindividualwithhisanthropocentricinterpretationofsolidarity.1Althoughtheparticipants
attheSlovakianconferencehadbeenexposedintheirindividuallivestofrequentmediacoverageof
globalwarming,depletionoftheworldsfisheries,andevidencethatindustrialchemicalsare
changingthereproductionpatternsofhumansaswellasotherspecies,notoneoftheparticipants
attemptedtorelateDeweysideastowhatisnowthemostproblematicsetofissuesweface.1This
isparticularlysurprisingasDeweymadeproblematicsituationsthestartingpointandcentralfocus
ofexperimentalinquiry.MymorerecentreadingoftheessaysinEnvironmentalPragmatism
(1996),editedbyAndrewLightandEricKatz,furtherconfirmedmyconcernthattheattemptto
representDeweyasanimportantenvironmentalphilosopherwillhavelittle,ifany,influenceon
environmentalthinkers.
InthechaptertitledNatureasCulture:JohnDeweysPragmaticNaturalism,whichappears
inEnvironmentalPragmatism,LarryA.HickmanexplainshowDeweycanbeinterpretedasan
evolutionarynaturalist,andevenaslayingthebasisforanepistemologythatsituatesinquirywithin
contextswherenatureandthehumancommunityareintegralaspectsofproblematicsituationsand
thustothereconstructionofexperience.IfIallowmyselftoaccepttheconceptualboundariesthat
HickmanandtheothercontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatismtakeforgranted,Icaneven
appreciateDeweysargumentthattheexperimentalnatureofwhathetermedthemethodof
intelligenceisenhancedbyaneducationalprocessthatprovidesforthewidestpossible
participatorydecisionmaking.TheproblemisthatIcannotaccepttheseconceptualboundaries.
ThisisbecauseDeweysepistemology,aswellastherecenteffortstorevivehisphilosophy,aretoo

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limitedforaddressingtheculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisis.Evenmoreseriousisthathisideas,
evenwhenhiseffortstonaturalizeintelligenceareconsidered,cannotbeusedtoclarifyandgive
legitimacytomoreecologicallysustainableculturalpractices.Indeed,Ishallarguethatthe
characteristicsofculturethatareexcludedfromconsiderationbyDeweyandhiscurrentfollowers
areatthecenterofadoublebindthatwouldariseifhisepistemologyweretobeuniversalized.That
is,Ishallarguethathisepistemology,withitsemphasisongrowthinthecapacitytoreconstruct
experienceandthustoreplacespectatorbasedknowledgewithhismethodofintelligence,would
representyetanotherexpressionofwesterncolonialismandthatthiswouldfurtherunderminethe
abilityofmanyculturestoavoidtheconsumer/technologydependentlifestylethatisoneofthe
majorcontributorstotheecologicalcrisis.
TheideasofDeweyandhiscurrentinterpretersarebasedonafundamentalmisunderstanding
ofculturaldiversity,thenatureandroleofmythopoeticnarrativesandtheresultingrootmetaphors
thatencodeacultureswayofunderstandingrelationships,andtheintergenerationalnatureof
traditions.Ishalladdresseachoftheseaspectsofcultureinordertoshowthatkeyaspectsof
Deweysphilosophycannotbeusedasabasisforaffectingthedeepculturalchangesthatthe
ecologicalcrisiswillforceustomake.
1.TheDiversityofCulturalEpistemologies:
ItisimportanttoacknowledgeattheoutsetthatDeweysreferencestoculturearebasedonan
evolutionaryframeworkthatrepresentsculturesaseitherbackwardoradvanced.Backwardcultures,
accordingtoDewey,relyuponaspectatorapproachtoknowledgeaswellasfixedtruthsandvalues.
InDemocracyandEducation(1916)hestatesthatthemethodofintelligenceofsavagesisplainly
absurdsoabsurdthatwefailtonotethatsavagesaresimplyfallingbackuponhabitinawaythat
exhibitsitslimitations.2Advancedcultures,ontheotherhand,areorientedtowardgrowth,
experimentalinquiry,democracy,andwhatMichaelEldridgetermssecularity.3
ThefollowingistypicalofhowDeweyunderstoodthenatureofculture.AsheputsitinArtas
Experience(1959edition)asthedevelopinggrowthofanindividualfromembryotomaturityisthe
resultofinteractionoforganismwithsurroundings,socultureistheproductnotofeffortsofmen
putforthinavoidorjustuponthemselves,butofprolongedandcumulativeinteractionswith
environment.4ThisexplanationappearstoreaffirmtheargumentthatLarryHickmanmakesin

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EnvironmentalPragmatismaboutthebiocentricnatureofDeweysphilosophy.Whilethe
culture/NatureconnectionisimportantinthecurrentdebateoverwhetherDeweywasan
anthropocentricthinker,themoreimportantissueisthatthisandothersimilarstatementsofDewey
reflectsanevolutionary(developmental)wayofunderstandingculture.Andthisevolutionary
frameworkservestodelegitimatetheefficacyofotherculturalepistemologies.Deweysfailureto
takeaccountofdifferencesinculturalwaysofknowing,andthusapproachestocommunityand
human/Naturerelationships,canbeseeninthewaythelectureshepresentedattheImperial
UniversityofJapanin1919omittedanyreferencetotheculturalwayofthinkingofhishosts.
Statementssuchaschangeisassociatedwithprogressratherthanlapseandfallandgrowthitself
istheonlymoralendmusthavesoundedstrange,evenincomprehensibletothoseintheaudience
whohadnotalreadybecomewesternized.5
ItalsoneedstobepointedoutthatDeweyssingularfocusonwhathecalledthemethodof
intelligencetotallymarginalizedtheculturalwaysofknowingthatcharacterizedthe
neighborhoodsofChicagoandNewYork,whichwaspartoftheenvironmentheinteractedwithona
dailybasis.Thequestionthatneedstobeaskedis:Washisvisionofdemocracybasedonthe
assumptionthatItalian,Irish,Jewish,andPolishimmigrants,tocitethelargerethnicgroups,should
abandontheirwaysofknowingandtraditionsthatservedasthebasisoftheiridentityandpatternsof
moralreciprocityinordertobeparticipantsinthenewdemocraticsocialorder?Asecondquestion
alsoneedstobeasked:DothecontemporaryfollowersofDeweyexpectthemembersoftheworlds
majorculturestoabandontheirwaysofknowinginordertoembraceDeweysmethodof
intelligence?ItisinterestingtonotethatE.O.Wilson,anotheradvocateofanevolutionary
interpretationofculture,sharestheDeweyianassumptionthattheexperimentalmethodofwestern
scienceshouldbecomethebasisofknowledge,values,andeventhereligionsoftheworlds
cultures.6
Themultiplemoral,political,andenvironmentalproblemsconnectedwithuniversalizingDeweys
pragmatism,aswellastherevisionistinterpretationsfoundinRortysContingency,Irony,andSolidarity
(1989)andMichaelEldridgesTransformingExperience:JohnDeweysCulturalIntrumentalism(1998)
aresimplyignored.Theyareevenomittedfromthevariousinterpetationsoftheusefulnessof
pragmatismfoundinEnvironmentalPragmatism.Thefailuretoaddresstheseissuesisespeciallyironic
whenweconsiderthatmanyoftheworldscultures(WesternApache,Balinese,Zapotectocitejustof

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few)representculturalepistemologiesandmoralsystemsthatinvolvelifestylesthathaveasmaller
adverseimpactontheirbioregions.
BothRortyandEldridgedeservetobefaultedevenmorethanDeweyastheirwritingisbeing
doneinaeramarkedbywidespreadmediacoverageof,aswellasscientificreportson,therapid
declineintheviabilityofnaturalsystems.Rortysironistindividual,aswellashiscategoryoffinal
vocabularywhichservesthesameobfuscatingfunctionasDeweyscategoryofthespectator
theoryofknowledge,wouldbeanaffronttomanyculturesthathavemuchtoteachusaboutliving
lessconsumercenteredandtechnologydependentlives.Insteadofjuxtaposingthefinal
vocabularywiththeironistindividualwhoworriesthatshehasbeeninitiatedintothewrongtribe,
andtaughttoplaythewronglanguagegames.7Rortyshouldhaveexplainedwhythewestern
assumptionsunderlyinghisvisionofaliberalsocietyaremoreworthythantheassumptionsthat
haveenabledmanyculturestodevelopcomplexsymbolicsystemsforgoverningmoralrelationships
withintheircommunitiesandwiththeenvironment.Hisassumptionsaboutequatingchangewith
progress,theautonomousindividualwhosemajorfocusisonselfcreation,andanextreme
anthropocentismthatappearsrootedinnineteenthcenturyClassicalLiberalismarealsothe
assumptionsthatwerethebasisoftheIndustrialRevolution.WhileEldrigedoesnotarguefor
Rortysversionofrelativism,thesubtitleofhisbook,JohnDeweysCulturalInstrumentalism
incorrectlysuggeststhatdifferencesinculturalepistemologieswillbeamajorfocusofhisanalysis.
WhatEldridgedoesistoappropriatethewordculturewithoutanyrecognitionoftheepistemological
differencesbetweencultures.Indeed,hefailstoconsiderthedeeperimplicationsofreferringto
Deweysepistemologyasaculturalinstrumentalism.Thatis,hefailstoexplaintheculturally
specificassumptionsitisbasedupon,andtoacknowledgethattherelativismthatisatthecenterof
Deweysepistemologyisguaranteedbyanotherculturallyspecificassumption:namely,that
experimentalintelligencewillalwaysleadtoprogressivechanges.
2. MythopoeticNarrativesandRootMetaphors:
ThefailuretosituateDeweysphilosophywithinthecontextoftheworldsothercultural
epistemologiesrepresentsaseriouslimitation.Evenmoreseriousisthefailureofthecontributorsto
EnvironmentalPragmatismtoacknowledgetheculturalepistemologiesofecologicallycentered
cultures,andthustoexplainwhythesharedcharacteristicsoftheseepistemologiesshouldbe

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replacedbyDeweysexperimentalmodeofinquiry.Acomparisonwiththeculturalepistemologyof
theBalinese9,,WesternApache10,andtheindigenousAndeanculturalgroups11,oranynumberof
otherculturesthathavenotadoptedthewesternmodeofproductionandconsumptionwouldhave
helpedtohighlightDeweysfailuretounderstandthatthebasisofmoralreciprocitygoverningthe
relationshipandpracticesofthesecultureswithintheNaturalworldisgroundedintheir
mythopoeticnarratives.TheBalinesetemplesystem,whichregulatestheallocationofwatertothe
ricepaddiesonanecologicallysustainablebasis,isrootedintheirmythopoeticnarrativesthat
explainhowthetempleceremoniesbalancetheforcesofgoodandevilwhichinturnleadstoa
culturethathasmadetheartsofpoetry,dance,andtheatreacentralaspectofeverydaylife.The
mythopeoticnarrativesthatconnectthespecificphysicalfeaturesoftheWesternApachebioregion
withthestoriesofancestralexperiences,whichareencodedintheplacenames,connecta
knowledgeofplacewiththemoralinsightsoftheancestors.Learningthenamesofthelandscape
alsoinvolveslearningthemoralcodesthataretoguidethebehaviorandthoughtoftheWestern
Apache.InthecaseoftheQuechuamythopoeticnarrative,thespiritworld,humancommunities,
andnaturalworldareinterconnectedand,accordingtoFrederiqueApffelMarglin,formaliving
whole.Assheexplainsit,thethreerealmsmeetatthesiteofthechacra,thefieldwherethe
peasantsraisetheircropsbutalsoanysitewherethehumancommunity,thenaturalcommunity,and
thecommunityofdeitiesconverseandreciprocateinordertoregeneratelife.12Beforedismissing
theseculturesasbeingbackward,andmyreferencetothemastheexpressionofnaveromanticism,
itshouldbekeptinmindthattheBalinesetriedandrejectedtheGreenRevolutionasunworkable
eventhoughitwasbasedonanexperimentalmodeofinquiry,andthattheQuechuaculturegoes
backatleast10,000yearsandistheeighthmostproductivecenterofcultivatedplantspeciesin
humanhistory.
ForDeweyandhispresentinterpreters,mythopoeticnarrativesarethebasisofignorance,and
aretobereplacedbythemethodofintelligence.Thatis,ideasandvaluesaretobeassessedinterms
ofconsequencesthatfollowfromactinguponthem.AsDeweysuccinctlyputit,experimental
empiricisminthefieldofideasofgoodandbadisdemandedtomeettheconditionsofthepresent
situation.13Inplaceofwisdomaboutrelationships,firstencodedinstoriesofcreationthat
representhumansandNatureaspartofthesamespiritual/moralworldandtestedandrefinedover
generationsofcommunalexperience,Deweyandhisenvironmentallyorientedinterpreterswantthe

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immediateexperienceofeachgenerationtobethebasisofmoralinsight.AsKellyParkerputsit,
Forthepragmatists,participatorydemocracyisapoliticalexpressionofthemetaphysicalideathat
realityisinvolvementandtransformation.Becausethepublicconsistsofavastpluralityofpeople
andthingsvalued,andbecausetheworldischangingateverymoment,thewaysandmeansof
providingfortheindividualandthecommongoodhavetobeexperimentallydetermined(italics
added).14MichaelEldridge,whofailseventomentiontheenvironmentalcrisis,explainsDeweys
approachtoreconstructingthemoralvaluesthatguiderelationshipsinthefollowingway:Criticism
wastheinstrumentofhishumanisticnaturalism.ButitwasnotjustameansforDewey;itwasalso
anendawayofassociatedlivingthatwouldallowustoconstantlyrevisethepresentintermsof
projectedbetterpossibilitiesandensuingresultsassimultaneouslycritical,intelligent,democratic,
humanistic,andsecular.15AndRortysrevisionistinterpretationofDeweyledhimtoclaimthat
therearenononhumanforcestowhichhumansshouldberesponsible.16
Whilemanyoftheworldsculturesarebasedonmythopoeticnarrativesthathavehadan
environmentallydestructiveimpact,andareusedtojustifythedenialofbasichumanrightstomany
oftheirmembers,thefactremainsthatthereareotherculturesthathavedevelopedmoralvaluesand
technologicalpracticesthatrepresentanunderstandingoftheinterdependenceofhumansandthe
naturalworld.Insomecases,theyevenregardthenaturalworldassacred,andthusnotreducibletoa
naturalresource.Giventheexistenceoftheseecologicallycenteredcultures,andthefactthatmany
ofthemareactivelyresistingbeingfurthercolonizedbywesterntechnologiesandmodesofthinking,
thequestionarisesastowhetherthecurrentfollowersofDeweyhaveconsideredwhetheran
ecologicallysustainablefuturewouldbebetterassuredbypromotingDeweysexperimentalismona
worldwidebasis.Thereisalsothequestionofwhetherhisfollowersunderstandthatthe
experimentalmethodofproblemsolvinginvolvesapoliticalprocessthatdoesnotalwaysleadtoa
newandhigherlevelofconsensus,andthattheoutcome,whenpracticedinthereallifesituations,is
notalwaysdemocraticallydetermined.Oneoftheconsequencesofrecognizingonlyonemethodof
intelligenceisthatwhatDeweytermedtherecalcitrantminoritymightdecidetoignorethe
importanceofparticipatorydecisionmakingandhowthemajorityperceivethecommongood.
RecentpoliticaleventsbringhomeapointthatDeweyandhisfollowershaveneveracknowledged:
namely,thatinsomeareasofpublicdecisionmakingthepositiontakenbytherecalcitrantminority
wastheonethatshouldhaveprevailed.Initially,itwasaminorityofAmericanswhoresistedthe

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VietNamWar;anditcontinuestobeaminoritythatisresistingadvancesinbiotechnologythat
promisetochangethebasisoflifeasweknowit.Ineffect,Deweysepistemologyleadstoopening
allaspectsofeverydaylifetothepoliticalprocess,andthus,ifuniversalized,wouldunderminethose
cultureswheredecisionmakingiscarriedoutwithintheframeworkofmorallycoherentmythopoetic
narratives.Inthecaseofmanyindigenouscultures,themythopoeticnarrativesunderlietheir
ecologicallysustainablepractices.Itwouldalsounderminethemoralauthoritythatunderliesthe
effortsofvariousgroupsinAmericansocietywhoareattemptingtoaddressenvironmentalandsocial
justiceissues.Deweysepistemologywouldrequirethatthemoralvaluesusedtolegitimatevarious
politicaldecisionsemergefromthesameexperimentalprocessofinquirythatistodeterminethe
ideasthataretobeactedupon;thusthemoralvalueswouldbetreatedasrelativeuntilvalidatedby
decisionmakingprocessofthegroup.
ThereisanotherproblemwithDeweysepistemologythathiscurrentinterpretershavefailedto
address.Deweydidnotunderstandhowlanguageencodesandcarriesforwardovertimeearlier
patternsofmetaphoricalthinking.EdwardSapir,acontemporaryofDewey,waswritingaboutthe
connectionsbetweenlanguageandculturalwaysofknowingduringthesameperiodoftime(thelate
nineteentwentiesandearlythirties)thatDeweywaswritinghismostimportantbooksona
naturalisticviewofintelligence.ItisinterestingtospeculateonwhetheraknowledgeofSapirs
writingsmighthaveledDeweytoaltertheargumentshemadeinKnowingandtheKnown(1947)
thatthenamingoftheobservationandnamingadoptedistopromotefurtherobservationwhichin
turnwilladvanceandimprove.Thisconditionexcludesallnamingsthatareassertedtogive,orthat
claimtobe,finishedreportsonreality.17Simplystated,Deweywasproposingthatwordsshouldbe
emptiedoftheirhistoricalcontentinordertoavoiddistortingtheconnectionsbetweendirect
experienceandtheexerciseofintelligence.AtthesametimeDeweywaswritingTheQuestfor
Certainty,whichwasbasedontheassumptionthatthemethodofintelligenceisfreeofhidden
culturalinfluences,Sapirwasgivingapaperatthe1929jointmeetingoftheLinguisticSocietyof
AmericaandtheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationinwhichheexplainedthattherealworld
istoalargeextentunconsciouslybuiltupinthelanguagehabitsofthegroup.Hewentontosay
thattheworldsinwhichdifferentsocietieslivearedistinctworlds,notmerelythesameworldwith
differentlabelsattached.Weseeandhearandotherwiseexperienceverylargelyaswedobecause
thelanguagehabitsofourcommunitypredisposecertainchoicesofinterpretations(italicadded).18

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Rortywasmoreawareofthereproductivecharacteristicsoflanguage,butmistakenlyincorporated
DonaldDavidsonsmisunderstandingofthemetaphoricalnatureoflanguagewhenheshouldhave
takenseriouslythewritingsofRichardBrown,MarkJohnson,andGeorgeLakoffonthe
connectionsbetweenthemetaphoricallylayerednatureoflanguageandthought.19
InspiteofHickmansattempttoestablishthatDeweywasnotananthropocentricthinker,and
theattemptsbytheothercontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatismtoputenvironmentalphilosophy
onapragmaticfooting,theyallcontinuetheDewey/Rortytraditionofignoringtherolethatlanguage
playsinreproducingtheculturestakenforgrantedwaysofunderstandingrelationshipsincluding
howtothinkabouttheattributesoftheparticipantsintherelationship..AsIpointoutinmyearlier
critiqueofRortysmisunderstandingofthemetaphoricalnatureoflanguage,therootmetaphorsofa
culture,whichareoftenbasedonitsmythopoeticnarratives,frametheprocessofanalogicthinking,
andovertimebecomeencodedintheiconicorimagemetaphorsthatlargelyareatakenforgranted
partofdailythoughtandbehavior.20Examplesofrootmetaphorsderivedfromwesternmythopoetic
narrativesincludepatriarchy,anthropocentrism,andtheautonomousindividualism.Rootmetaphors
thathadtheiroriginsinpowerfulevocativeexperiencesandphilosophicalwritings(whichwere
themselvesinfluencedbytakenforgrantedrootmetaphors)includelinearprogress,mechanism,
economism,and,now,evolution.Rootmetaphorsprovidethemetacognitiveschemataor
interpretativeframework,whichcanbeseeninDeweysthinking.Hechallengedtheprevailing
assumptionaboutindividualism,andwhetherhisthinkingisbasedontherootmetaphorof
anthropocentrismisnowbeingdebatedbythecontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatism.However,
therootmetaphorsoflinearchangeandevolutionprovidedthemetacognitiveschematathatenabled
Deweytoassumethattheexperimentalmethod,andthepolitical/educationalprocessthatisrequired
tocarryitoutinaparticipatorysetting,wouldalwaysleadtomoreprogressiveandintelligentlybased
relationships.Deweysgenderizeduseoflanguagealsoindicatesthathetookforgrantedtheschema
orinterpretativeframeworkdictatedbytherootmetaphorofpatriarchy.
ThereisyetanothercharacteristicoflanguagethatbringsintoquestionDeweysunderstandingof
howmoralnormscanbebasedonthemethodofintelligence.Italsohasspecialrelevancetoany
discussionofenvironmentalethics.Notonlydoeslanguageencodeacognitiveschematathatframes
howwethink,,italsocarriesforwardtheculturesunderstandingofthemoralnormsthatgovern
relationships.Therootmetaphorofpatriarchyframedhowtheattributesofmenandwomenwereto

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beunderstood.Theseattributeswere,inturn,encodedintheprocessofanalogicthinkingandinthe
iconicmetaphorswhereitwasautomaticallyunderstoodthattheengineer,scientist,historian,and
carpenterweremaleactivities.Similarly,anthropocentrismwasencodedinthelanguageinwaysthat
ledtothinkingoftheenvironmentasaresource,asawildernessthathadtobebroughtunderhuman
control,andaspropertythatcanbeindividuallyowned.Therecentemergenceofecologyasan
alternativerootmetaphornowleadstothinkingofwildernessasthenaturalconditionofdiversityand
selfregenerationthatneedstobepreservedandrecovered.Tociteanotherexample,theuseof
evolutionasarootmetaphorpossessesimportantexplanatorypowerintheareaofnaturalphenomena,
butleadstoexceedinglyproblematicthinkingwhenextendedtoareasofculturalbeliefsandpractices
asthewritingsofE.O.WilsonandRichardDawkinsdemonstrate.
Theimplicationsofnotunderstandinghowthemetaphoricalnatureoflanguagecarriesforward
earlierculturallyspecificformsofintelligencedeservesmoreextendedtreatmentinanyassessmentof
Deweyasanenvironmentalphilosopher.However,Iwanttoconcludethispartofthediscussionby
pointingoutthedoublebindintryingtomakethecasethatDeweyisabiocentricthinkerwhenhis
thinkingisbasedontwooftherootmetaphorsthatweretakenforgrantedbythepromotersofthe
IndustrialRevolution:theinterpretativeframeworkthatrepresentedchangeasthelinearexpressionof
progress,andevolutionaswayofjustifyingthecolonizationofnonwesternculturesdeemedtobe
backwardand,intodayslanguage,undeveloped.Thequestionthatneedstobeaddressedby
philosophersarguingthatDeweyisanenvironmentalphilosophyisthis:willtheadoptionofDeweys
epistemology,anditsunderlyingrootmetaphors,byculturesbasedonmoreecologicallycentered
mythopoeticnarratives(rootmetaphors)contributetoamoresustainablefuture?
3.Tradition:
InassessingDeweyscontributiontolivingmoreecologicallysustainablelifestylesitis
importanttoemphasizethathisepistemologylaysoutamethodofexperimentalinquirythatistobe
appliedineveryaspectofadailylifethatisconstantlycaughtinthecrosscurrentsofchange.No
valuesorbehaviorsrootedinintergenerationalexperiencearetobeunderstoodasbeingmore
inherentlyecologicallysoundthanothers.Ineffect,theongoingexperiencesofthepresentgeneration,
guidedbyexperimentalinquiry,istodeterminewhatconstitutesthevaluesandideasthataretobethe
basisofbehavior.Toputitanotherway,Deweysmethodofintelligence,aswellaswhatthe
contributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatismproposeasthepragmaticbasisofanenvironmental

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philosophy,involvesthecontinualexperimentationwiththeconceptualandmoralfoundationsof
experiencewiththeresultthattheimmediateexperienceofexperimentalinquirybecomesthetestof
newlyformedideasandvalues.Ireiteratethispointbecauseitiscrucialtounderstandingtheformsof
knowledgethataremarginalizedorrepresentedastheresidueofoppressivetraditions.Knowledge
refinedovergenerationsoflivinginabioregion,andencodedinceremonies,inthewisdomofelders,
inthevernaculararchitectureandagriculturalpractices,andinthetakenforgrantedlinguisticand
behaviorpatternsofeverydaylifedonotmeetthestrictcriteriaofexperimentalinquiryandthusare
toberegardedastraditionsorhabitsthatlimitthemethodofintelligence.Ineffect,bynotchallenging
thelimitedapproachDeweytakestowhatconstitutesknowledge,theefforttorepresentDeweyasan
environmentalphilosophymarginalizesthevariousformsofknowledgethatcharacterizemany
indigenousculturesthathavelearnedtolivewithinthesustainablelimitsoftheirbioregions.
ThedoublebindthatcharacterizestheeffortstorepresentDeweyspragmaticnaturalismasa
guidingenvironmentalphilosophy,whichwouldrequireecologicallycenteredculturessuchasthe
Hopi,Cree,andZapotectorejecttheirtraditionalformsofknowledgeinfavorofDewey'sapproach
togrowingintheabilitytoreconstructexperience,canbetracedtohismisunderstandingoftradition.
EldridgeandRortyreproduceDeweysmistakeofequatingtraditionswithhabits,whichDewey
describesasbehavior(that)isconfinedbychannelsestablishedbypriorbehaviorandmonotonous
regularity.21Deweyfurtherexplainsthelimitationsofhabits(traditions)inthefollowingway:
habitsreducethemselvestoroutinewaysofacting,ordegenerateintowaysofactiontowhichweare
enslavedjustinthedegreeinwhichintelligenceisdisconnectedfromthem.Routinehabits,he
continues,areunthinkinghabits.23Habits,asdispositions,mustbecontinuallyreconstructed
throughtheuseofintelligence(experimentalinquiry).Itisimportanttonotethatheplacedthe
emphasisontheformationofnewideas.AshewroteinTheQuestforCertainty,knowledgewhichis
merelyareduplicationofideasofwhatexistsalreadyintheworldmayaffordusthesatisfactionofa
photograph,butthatisall.24
RortyreproducesDeweysmisunderstandingofthenatureoftraditioninhisargumentsfora
liberaldemocracywhereironistindividualsengageintheprocessofselfcreation.25Traditions,or
whatRortyreferstoascommonsense,areviewedaslimitationsonthisprocess.Repeatinganother
mistakeofDeweys,whichistoplacehabitsandintelligenceinopposingcategories,Rortystatesthat
theoppositeofironyiscommonsense,whichishiscodewordfortradition.Commonsense,ashe

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putsit,isthecatchwordforthosewhounselfconsciouslydescribeeverythingimportantintermsof
thefinalvocabularytowhichtheyandthosearoundthemarehabituated26
MichaelEldridgesummarizesDeweysviewoftraditionbystatingthatDeweyheldthatour
inheritedwaysofknowinganddoingareinadequatetothetaskofrelatingexistenceandvalue,and
thatDeweysprimaryaimwastomakeoutpresentbeliefs,attitudes,andorganizationmore
intelligentthantheywouldotherwisebe.(italicadded)27ThechapterswrittenbyKellyParker,Larry
Hickman,andtheothercontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatismomitanyreferencetothenatureof
traditionanditsroleincarryingforwardintergenerationalknowledgeandvaluesthathaveasmaller
ecologicalimpact.
Thewordtraditionencompassesallaspectsofculturallifethatarereenactedoverfour
generations.IttookEdwardShils330pagestodescribethecharacteristicsoftraditionsthatare
largelyatakenforgrantedpartofdailyexperience:themanypatternsandtechnologiesthatwerely
upon,howtraditionschangefromwithinandfromoutsideforces,howsometraditionsshouldnothave
beenconstitutedinthefirstplacewhileotherschangetooslowlytofitcurrentsensibilities,howother
traditionsdisappearandareonlyrecognizedinhindsightasimportanttocivilsocietyandthe
impossibilityofrecoveringtraditionsoncetheyaregone,theantitraditiontraditionsthathaveasone
oftheirchiefgoalstheoverturningofalltraditions..28ThepointofbringingShilsmorecomplexand
accurateaccountofourdependencyontraditions,aswellasthedependencyofDewey,Rorty,
Eldridge,andthecontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatismontakenforgrantedtraditions,isthatit
helpsclarifyhowDeweyandhisfollowersoverstatetheefficacyofexperimentalinquiry.Italso
foregroundstheimportanceofintergenerationalknowledgethat,inmanyinstances,represents
alternativestotheconsumerandtechnologydependentlifestylenowbeingglobalized.Tocitejustone
exampleoftheimportanceofintergenerationalknowledgethathasspecialsignificanceintermsof
ecologicallysustainablecommunities,thevastknowledgethatindigenouscultureshaveoftheplants
andanimalswithintheirbioregion,particularlytheirknowledgeofthemedicinalqualitiesofplants,
canonlybeexplainedasbeingaccumulatedandrefinedovergenerationsofexperience.Itisalsothe
outcomeofcarefulobservationofhowtheplantsarepartoflargerecosystems,andtheconsequences
ofingestingthemwhichinvolvesintergenerationalknowledge(traditions)thatdonotfitDeweys
moretruncatedandprogressivelyorientedexperimentalmethodofinquiry.JaredDiamondspersonal
accountofexpressinghisdoubtsaboutthesafetyofthemushroomsthathisForecompanions(atribe

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inNewGuinea)gatheredinordertostaveoffhunger,whichledtohimbeinglecturedaboutthe25
varietiesofediblemushroomsandwhereintheforesttheycouldbefound,isagoodexampleofthe
importanceofwhattheForeconsideredcommonsenseknowledge.29Indeed,thetestofDeweys
epistemology,aswellasthecopingskillsofRortysidealironistindividual,wouldbetotestthemina
similarsituation,butwithoutthebenefitoflocalindigenousknowledge
AsthewordtraditionoftenevokesakneejerkresponsenotdissimilartohowDeweyandRorty
refertoit,itisimportanttociteafewexamplesoftraditionssharedwithinthedominantculture.For
Dewey,Rorty,andthecontributorstoEnvironmentalPragmatism,aswellasotherpeopleinthe
literatetraditionofencodingknowledge,writingfromlefttorightonthepage,spellings,useof
paragraphsandcapitallettersareexamplesoftraditions.Othertraditionsthataremoreeasilyrevised
includerecipesforthepreparationoffood,legalprocedures,waysofpreservingprivacyin
communicatingmessagestoothers,rulesthatregulategames,andthewritingofpoetrytocitejusta
fewofthetraditionswereenact,modify,andcarryforwardthroughaprocessofbeingsocializedby
thepreviousgeneration.Evencuttingedgetechnologiesrepresenttheextensionoftraditionsbuiltup
overgenerations,andtherateofthistechnologicalchangeindicateshowtraditionsofknowledgeare
sourcesofempowermentjustasDeweywasempoweredbytraditionalpatternsofformingwords
intosentencesonapage,ratherthanhavingtorelyuponhismethodofexperimentalintelligencein
ordertoavoidtheconstraintsofhabitsorcommonsenseasRortywouldputit.
BeyondExperimentalism:WhyEcoJusticeShouldbeattheCenterofanEnvironmental
Philosophy:
Thedoublebindinherentintheglobalizationoftheindustrialmodeofproductionand
consumptionisnowwidelydocumentedbystudiesofrapidchangesoccurringintheEarths
ecosystems.Themeltingofpolaricecaps,globalwarmingthatisalteringhabitatsandweather
systems,collapsingmarineecosystems,lossoftopsoil(nowestimatedonaworldwidebasisat37
percent),andchemicalsthatarechangingthereproductiveratesofspecies,areonascalethatrequires
askingadifferentsetofquestionsthanwhatconcernedDeweyandhispresentinterpreters.The
assumptionthatthechieftaskistouseDeweymethodofintelligenceinparticipatorysettingsto
reconstructtheproblematicsourcesofexperiencewillnotinitselfreversethedownwardtrendlinesin
theviabilityofnaturalsystems.Indeed,therootmetaphorsthatDeweyreliedupontojustifyhis
argumentsthatexperimentallygroundedideasalwaysleadtoaprogressiveformofchangealso

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underliestheIndustrialRevolutionthat,initsdigitalphaseofdevelopment,isnowbeingglobalized
andwhichwillonlyacceleratethedeepeningcrisis.Deweysmethodofexperimentalinquiry,withits
emphasisonthewidestpossibleparticipationofthepeopleaffectedbytheproblem(suchashealth
problemsresultingfromchemicallycontaminatedworkplacesandneighborhoods),hasalimited
usefulness.Itcanalsobeusedinecomanagementapproachestoidentifyingthecausalrelationships
betweenhumanactivitiesandchangesinnaturalsystemssuchasthedeclineinsalmonpopulations
andthecontaminationofgroundwater.
ButDeweysepistemologyistotallyinadequateforaffectingthedeepculturalchangesthatmust
bemadeifwearetoreversetheunsustainablehumanimpactonnaturalsystems.Infact,the
globalizationofhisepistemology,whichappearsasanaturalextensionoftheargumentsofDeweyand
followerssuchasRorty,willexacerbatetheecologicalcrisisbyunderminingculturaldiversityand
thustheformsofknowledgeandvaluesthatarethebasisoflessconsumerdependentlifestyles.The
basisforthiscriticismcanbeseenmoreclearlyifweconsiderwhetherDeweysviewofthe
educationalprocesscanbeusedtoaddresswhatIshallcallecojusticeissues.First,however,itwould
behelpfultoreiterateseveralkeyfeaturesofhisthinkingabouteducation.Hisprimaryconcernwasto
educatestudentsandadultsinthemethodofintelligence,andthustoincreasetheirefficiency(growth)
intheongoingprocessofreconstructingexperience.Thisrequiredreplacingculturaldiversitywithhis
synthesisofdemocraticdecisionmakingandexperimentalinquiry.Toreiterateanotherpointignored
byDeweyandhisfollowers,Deweysviewofdemocracyrequiresaprocessofcolonization,withhis
interpretationofintelligenceandparticipatorydecisionmakingbecomingthenewstandardof
progressivecitizenship.
Oneoftheprimarychallengestodayistoreduceourdependencyuponconsumerismand
technologiesthathaveanenvironmentallydisruptiveimpact.Thiscanalsobeunderstoodastheneed
toreducethecommodificationofknowledge,skills,andrelationswhichrepresentstherelentless
spreadofindustrialculture.Theindustrialapproachtoeducation,agriculture,entertainment,healthcare,
aswellaseveryotheraspectofdailylifefrompersonalgroomingtocomputermediatedthoughtand
communicationispartofacyclethatturnsnatureintoaeconomicresourcetobeextracted,
processed,packagedandsoldinshoppingmalls,andreturnedafteralimitedusetotheenvironmentas
toxicwasteandlandfill.

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Globalizingtheconsumerlifestyle,whichisrepresentedasenhancingtheindividualsmaterial
standardofliving,isactuallybasedonexperimentalmodesofinquirylearnedinuniversitiesandpublic
schools,andwhichisthebasisofthenewtechnologiesincludingthetechnologiesusedtomanipulate
consciousnesssothatyoungpeopleturnagainsttheirculturaltraditionsinordertoembracethenew
consumerfads.Therapidmergingofscientificresearchandcorporatevaluesisonlythelatest
manifestationthatthemethodofexperimentalinquirythatDeweyplacedsomuchfaithincanbeused
indestructiveways.Makingecojusticetheprimaryfocusoftheeducationalprocessrequiresan
entirelydifferentmindsetthanwhatwenowfindbeingpromotedinouruniversitiesandpublic
schools.Theneedtotakeecojusticeissuesseriouslyisbasedonbothmoralconcernsaswellas
ecologicalimperatives.Thatis,ifwedonotundertakeradicaleducationalreformsthatreplacethe
currentemphasisonpromotingformsofeducationthatexpandtheeconomywithregeneratingthe
capacityofculturalgroupstoliveinmoreselfsufficientandinterdependentwayswewillcontinueto
experiencetherapidlydiminishingcapacityofecosystemstosupportlifeasweknowit.
Thefouraspectsofecojusticemostrelevanttoconsideringthenatureoftheeducationalreforms
thatmustbeundertakenincludethefollowing:(1)theneedtoeliminateecoracismthatoccursatthe
levelofneighborhoodsandcommunities,aswellasacrossnationalboundaries;(2)theneedtoreduce
thedisparityofwealthbetweentheNorthandSouth,andwhichresults,inpart,fromresource
extractionandthepoliciesoftheWorldBankandotherinternationalagenciesthataredesignedto
integratenonWesternculturesintotheworldeconomy;(3)theneedtostrengthentheattenuated
traditionswithincommunitiesandculturalgroupsthatenablethemtolivelessconsumerdependent
lives;(4)theneedtopursuelifestylesthatensuresthatfuturegenerationswillinhabitviable
environmentsthatallowthemtolivemorallycoherentandsymbolicallyrichlives.
Deweyrecommendededucationalreformsthatreflectedthechallengesofhiseraashe
understoodthem.Hisfollowersarerecommendingessentiallythesameeducationalreforms,
supplementedbythesmallgroupwhoareaddressingtheecologicalcrisisbymakingthecasethat
Deweyisnotananthropocentricthinker.However,ifwetakeseriouslytheargumentthatconsumerism
andtherelentlesssearchtoexploitnewmarketsforthenewtechnologiesaremajorcontributorstothe
ecologicalcrisis,thenatureofeducationalreformbecomesradicallydifferentfromhowDewey
understoodit.Reducingdependenceonconsumerismwillleadtoareductioninthetoxicwasteand
thustoareductioninlevelsofillnessamongmarginalizedethnicgroupswhohavehadchemicalplants

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andwastedumpsplacedinorclosetotheirneighborhoods.Itwillalsoleadtoareductioninthe
extractionofresourcesfromThirdWorldcultures,andinthepressuretointegratethemintotheglobal
economicsystem.Anditwillimprovetheprospectsoffuturegenerations.
Thealternativetothepresentcycleofcreatinggreaterdependenceuponconsumerism,asIvan
Illichandothershavebeentellingus,istofostertheskills,knowledge,andrelationshipsthatenable
individuals,families,andcommunitiestobemoreselfreliant.Butthisinvolvesnurturingtheformsof
knowledgethatourpublicschoolsanduniversitieshaverelegatedtolowstatusbyomittingthemfrom
thecurriculum.ItalsoinvolvesrecognizingthatDeweysexperimentalformofintelligenceisonlyone
ofamongmanyandnotnecessarilythemostimportantone.Knowinghowtogrowvegetablesand
prepareamealalongwiththeceremonialpracticesthattransformthemealfromanordinary
individuallycenteredexperienceintoonethatcreatesasenseofconnectednesstoalargerwhole,
possessingtheskillstomakeorrepairsomething(e.g.,clothes,furniture,dwelling),developing
personaltalentsintheexpressiveartsandsports,knowingthemedicinalqualitiesofplantsandthe
spiritualdisciplinesthathaveproventobeaneffectivepartofhealing,andsoforth,haveasmaller
ecologicalimpactthantheindustrialapproachesglamorizedinthemediaandinoureducational
institutions.Thekeypointisthatknowledgeofmeaningfulactivitiesandthedevelopmentofskillsthat
contributetomoreselfsufficientlifestylesareexamplesoftraditionsthatarepassedonthroughface
tofacerelationships.Theyarekeptaliveandmodifiedaspartoftheintergenerationalexperienceof
thefamilyandcommunity.Recipesarehandeddownaspartofanintergenerationalstockof
knowledge;soisknowledgeofhowtomaintainagarden,playagame,writeapoem,usecertainplants
toeaseanillness,buildadwelling(especiallyavernaculardwellingthatuseslocalmaterials,skills,and
meetstheneedsofthecommunity),mentoringachild,andcarryingonaconversationthatmaybe
raisedtothelevelofdialogue.Thesetraditions,aspointedoutearlier,arenotstatic.Ifweobserve
thembeingpassedalongwewillnoticehowtheyareadaptedinwaysthatfittheindividualsskillsand
wayofinterpretingthem.Thesetraditionsrepresentencodedknowledge,insomecaseswisdom,that
hasbeentestedandrefinedovergenerationsofexperienceofteninwaysthatreflecttheinfluenceof
thelocallandscapeandlifeforms.Someofthesetraditionsmaybecomerigidandoutoftouchwith
changesintheenvironmentandcommunitybutthisisbecausepeoplefailtoadaptthemtothe
changingcircumstancesorfindspecialadvantageinperpetuatingtraditionsthatwerewrongly

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constitutedinthefirstplace.AsShilspointsout,traditionsneverperpetuatethemselves;rathertheyare
perpetuatedbylivinghumanbeingswhichopensthedoortoallkindsofabuseandmisinterpretations.
Thechallengeistoidentifythetraditionsthatcontributetomorallycoherentcommunitiesand
culturalidentitiesandthathaveasmallerecologicalimpact.Manyofthenoncommodifiedformsof
knowledge,skills,andrelationshipswithinfamiliesandcommunities,andwhichvaryamongcultures,
donotfitDeweysnarrowcriteriaforwhatconstitutestheexerciseofintelligence.Where
intergenerationalknowledgeinvolvesrefiningandupdatingwhathasbeenproveninthepast,Dewey
wantseachgenerationtoviewideasasanticipatoryplansanddesignswhichtakeeffectinconcrete
reconstructionsofantecedentconditionsofexistence.30Thisisareasonableexpectationfortraditions
thatarenolongerusefulorhaveservedaspartofanetworkofoppression.ButDeweysemphasison
reconstructingtraditionsdoesnottakeaccountofthemultiplewaysinwhichthenoncommodified
aspectsofdailylifearepassedalongandrenewed.TheproblemwithDeweysnarrowdefinitionof
whatconstitutesknowledgecanbeseenbycomparingsuchstatementsasknowledgewhichismerely
areduplicationinideasofwhatexistsalreadyintheworldmayaffordusthesatisfactionofa
photography,butthatisall31withtheprocessofmentoring.Mentoringisusuallyanintergenerational
relationshipwithmanydimensionspassingonknowledgerefinedovergenerationsofexperience,the
accompanyingnarrativesthatcontributetothedevelopmentofidentitiesandcharacter,demonstrating
thedifferencebetweenahighlevelofskillandmoreformulaicwork.Italsoinvolvesgoingbeyond
masteringwhatthementorhastoteachtoexpressingahigherleveloftalentthathaselementsof
originality.Itisnot,inshort,arelationshipthatfitsthenegotiatingprocessthataccompaniesDewey
experimentalapproachtoreconstructingexperience.
Deweysmethodofintelligence,aspointedoutearlier,wouldbehighlyusefulineducational
settingswherethesourcesofenvironmentalpollutionneedtobeidentifiedandcorrectedthrough
democraticprocedures.WhileincorporatingDeweysapproachtoproblemsolvingintheareaofeco
racismandinexaminingsuchissuesastheconnectionsbetweencorporatevaluesandthedestructionof
localeconomies,aneducationalprocessthataddressesotherecojusticeissueswouldneedtobebased
onanunderstandingofthedifferentwaysknowledgeisencodedandrenewedinthelifeofthe
communityand,mostimportantly,thedifferencesinculturalwaysofknowing.Perhapsthemost
criticallyimportantecojusticeissuethatcanbeaddressedthrougharadicallyreformedapproachtothe
curriculumistheneedtoreducethecurrenttrendtowardgreaterdependenceuponconsumerismto

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meetdailyneeds,Thishasseveralcurriculardimensions.Thefirstwouldbetohavestudentsdocument
themanywaystheyaredependentuponconsumerproductsinthecourseofaday,andtoalso
documentthemultiplewaysconsumerismispromotedthroughthemediaandthroughsuchother
channelsofcommunicationasthelayoutofshoppingmallsanddesignofbuildings.Studentswould
alsobeencouragedtodocumentthemonetizedrelationshipstheyhaveduringaday.Thisapproach
soundsveryDeweyian;buttheotherpartofhelpingstudentsunderstandtheculturalalternativesto
commodifiedactivitiesandrelationshipsrequiresanunderstandingandappreciationoftraditionsthat
goesagainstthegrainofDeweysbasicepistemologicalbiases.Thesecondaspectofcurriculum
reformwouldbetohavestudentssurveywithintheirownneighborhoodsandcommunitiestherangeof
facetoface,intergenerationallybasedactivities,relationships,andformsofknowledgethathavenot
beencommodified.Thefocusofthissurveywouldincludethedominantculture,aswelltheminority
culturalgroupsthatmanystudentsarestillrootedin.Thereareseveralpurposesforlearningaboutthe
noncommodifiedaspectsofthediversegroupsfoundinmostneighborhoodsthatstillretaintraditions
distinctiveoftheirmotherculture,whichrangefromLatino,Indigenous,andJapaneseAmericanto
Mennonites,Mormons,andotherfaithbasedgroups.Thefirstistounderstand,and,inmanyinstances,
tovalorizetheirtraditionsofintergenerationalresponsibilitythatcontributetomorallycoherent
communities,andthatrepresentexamplesofindividual,family,andcommunalselfsufficiency.The
senseofbeingmarginalinrelationtothedominantmateriallyorientedcultureunderminesthe
intergenerationalconnectednesswithinmanyofthesegroups;thustheneedtocommunicatea
recognitionthattheirapproachestocommunitythatcontributetoreducingtherateofenvironmental
degradationisvitallyimportant.Thesecondreasonforlearningaboutthenoncommodifiedformsof
knowledge,relationships,andactivitiescarriedonwithinthesediversegroupsisthatitwillassist
studentsinrecognizingalternativepossibilitiesforlivinglessconsumerdependentlives.Learningwho
thementorsareindifferentculturalgroupsandthenatureofactivitiesthatdeveloppersonaltalents
whilecreatingasenseofcommunityareessentialtoparticipatingintheintergenerationallifeofa
community.
Theemphasisoninvolvingstudentsinthenoncommodifiedactivitieshasanotherimplicationthat
cannotbetakenintoaccountbythefollowersofDeweysnarrowlyconceivedepistemology.As
pointedoutearlier,Deweydidnotrecognizetheprofounddifferencesinculturalwaysofknowingand
mythopoeticnarratives.Hedividedtheworldsculturesintotwocategoriesthosethatadheredto

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fixedideasandvalues,andrelieduponaspectatorapproachtoknowledge;andthosethatreliedupon
anexperimentalmodeofinquiry.Foraphilosopherwhoplacedsomuchemphasisontheexperiential
groundofinquiry,itisimportanttonotethathedidnottakeseriouslytheformsofcommunity,moral
reciprocity,andwisdomofhuman/Naturerelationshipsamongtheindigenousculturesthatsharedthe
bioregionhegrewupin.Nordidheconcernhimselfwithwhetherhiscategoryofculturesmiredina
spectatorapproachtoknowledgereallymadesenseintermsoftheJapanese,Chinese,andIslamic
cultureshevisited.
ContrarytoDeweysposition,whichhasnotbeencorrectedbyRortyorEldridg,nurturingexisting
differencesinculturalwaysofknowingbecomesvitallyimportanttoreversingthedownwardtrendline
intheviabilityofnaturalsystems.Oneoftheeffectsofglobalizationistoundermineculturesthat
developedcomplexsymbolicsystemsforunderstandingrelationshipswithinthehumancommunity,
andbetweenthehumanandnaturalcommunities.However,manyoftheseculturesarenowactively
resistingbeingdrawnintothewesternsystemoftechnologicaldependencyandcorporatevalues.On
thelocallevelthatispartofthestudentsdailyexperience,therearemanyculturalgroupsthathavenot
entirelyassimilatedintothemainstreamindividuallycentered,consumerdependentlifestyle.These
culturalgroups,manyofwhichhavebeeneconomicallyandpoliticallymarginalized,haveasenseof
identityasacommunitybecausetheycarryontheintergenerationaltraditionsofknowledgeandmoral
values.Thesetraditionsmaybesoattenuatedthattheynowexistonlyintheformoftraditionalfoods,
ceremonies,andusesofherbalmedicines.Butmanyoftheseculturesarestrugglingtokeepalivetheir
languageandthustheirbasicwayofunderstandingrelationshipsandtheattributesoftheparticipants
intheserelationships.Manyofthelanguagesofindigenousculturesencodewaysofunderstanding
relationshipswiththenaturalworldthatpredatedbythousandsofyearsAldoLeopoldslandethic.32
Anecojusticecurriculumshouldintroducestudentstotherangeofculturalgroupsthatarenow
mixedtogetherinurbanandruralsettings.Inadditiontolearningaboutdifferencesinintergenerational
formsofknowledge,andhowtheseformsofknowledgeinfluencepatternsofmoralreciprocitywithin
theircommunities,studentsalsoneedtoconsiderthetraditionsthatrepresentalternativestothehyper
consumerismthatpermeateeveryfacetofthedominantculture.Valorizingthenoncommodified
traditionsofthesediverseculturalgroupsmayhelpstrengthenminoritystudentsidentificationwiththe
traditionsoftheirparents,aswellasprovidestudentsfromthedominantculturewithanunderstanding
ofthealternativestoenvironmentallydestructiveactivitiesandvalues.Thepurposewouldnotbeto

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borrowfromthesecultures,whichtoooftenturnsintotheeconomicappropriationoftheirtraditions.
Rather,itistoenablestudentstogainadifferentperspectiveonwhatremainsofthenoncommodified
traditionswithinthedominantculture.
ThefailureofDeweysfollowerstorecognizehowtakenforgrantedrootmetaphorsthathadtheir
originshundreds(eventhousandsofyearsagointhecaseofanthropocentrismandpatriarchy)frame
currentthinkingcanbeseeninhowaDeweyianapproachtocurriculumisunderstood.Inadditionto
Deweysemphasisonthecurriculumemergingfromtheongoingexperiencesofthecommunity,his
insistencethatinquirybeginswithaproblematicsituation(whichheunderstoodintermsofexplicit
awareness)furtherlimitswhatshouldbethefocusofthecurriculum.Therootmetaphorsthat
unconsciouslyinfluencethoughtandbehaviorarenotlikelytobeexaminedinaneducationalprocess
basedonDeweysepistemologyandtakenforgrantedassumptions.Agoodexampleofhowa
Deweyianviewoflearningrepresentsasurfaceapproachtoproblemsolvingcanbeseenintheprocess
ofecomanagementwherethescientificmethodand,insomeinstance,participatorydecisionmaking
arethemodusoperandi.Thisapproachseldominvolvesanexaminationoftherootmetaphorsof
anthropocentrism,mechanism,progress,andeconomismthataretheprimarysourcesoftheproblem.
Whentheserootmetaphorsarenotchanged,theproblemsimplyreoccursatalaterdate,andonalarger
scale
Anecojusticeorientedcurriculumneedstoencouragestudentstoexaminehowthetakenfor
grantedrootmetaphorsinfluencetheareasofculturalexperiencethatcreatethedoublebindwhereour
approachestoprogressunderminetheviabilityofnaturalsystems.Inaddition,studentsneedto
examinehowtheserootmetaphorsinfluenceourunderstandinganduseofscienceandtechnology.
Questionsthatwillcontributetodemocratizingtheusesofscienceandtechnologyincludethe
following:Howdoesmodernscienceandtechnologydifferfromthewaysofexplaining,predictingand
controllingnaturalphenomenainoralcultures?Howdodifferenttechnologiesinfluencerelationships
andtheabilitytolivemoreselfsufficientlives?Howdotheprevailingculturalassumptionsinfluence
thekindsoftechnologythataredeveloped?Whobenefitsmostfromdifferentformsoftechnology?
Whattraditionsaredisplacedbydifferenttechnologies,anddothedisplacedtraditionsresultinnew
formsofdependency?Whatistheformofindividualismrequiredbydifferentformsoftechnology?
Whichtechnologiescontributetoglobalizinganecologicallyunsustainablelifestyle?

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Asimilarsetofquestionscanbeaskedabouttheculturallyspecificrootmetaphorsthatunderliethe
practiceofwesternscienceanditlegitimatingideology:Whataretheassumptionsthatunderliethe
scientificmethod?Whatformsofknowledgeandaspectsofhumanexperienceisitunabletoaddress?
Doestheuseofthescientificmethodtoestablishmoralnormsandtodelegitimatethemythopoetic
narrativesthatarethebasisofmoralvaluesexceedtheexplanatoryofthescientificmethodofinquiry?
WhatwastheroleofscienceinthedevelopmentoftheIndustrialRevolution,andisitnowatthecenter
ofcurrenteffortstobringthemostbasicbiologicalprocessesunderthecontrolofanindustrialmodeof
productionandconsumption?Whataretheappropriatelimitsofscientificinquiry,andhowcanitbe
determinedwhenscientistscrossthelinethatseparatescompetentjudgmentandbeinganideologue
andfuturistthinker?Whatcanbelegitimatelyexplainedbythetheoryofevolution,andwhendoesit
becomeanideologythatgivestheappearanceofscientificlegitimacytoprocessesofcolonizationand
therightofelitegroupstofurtheradvantagethemselves?
Thesearedifficultbutnecessaryquestionsthatalsoneedtobepartofanecojusticecurriculum.
Addressingthesequestionswillhelpstudentsgainabetterunderstandingofhowthehighstatus
knowledgethatleadstogreaterdependencyupontheproductsandprocessesoftheindustrialsystem
nowmovingintoitsdigitalphaseunderminesthefacetoface,intergenerationalknowledgethat
representsthealternativepathwaythatwemustrediscoverifwearetoreducetheimpactofhumanson
theenvironment.Itwillalsohelpstudentsrecognizethatscienceandtechnologycannotaddressissues
ofpersonalmeaning,moralrelationships,andrenewingpatternsofselfsufficiencywithincommunities
andculturalgroups.Studentsmayalsogaininsightintotherolethatmythopoeticnarrativesplayin
helpingpeopleunderstandtheirplaceinthecyclesoflife,andinrecognizingthelimitsofalifebased
onhubrisandmisrepresentationsoffundamentallifesustainingrelationships.Deweyandhis
followersmightclaimthathisapproachtoeducationwouldalsoleadtodeepinquiryintothese
questions,butunfortunatelyhisapproachtoproblemsolvingneverreachesthelevelofexaminingthe
guidingculturalassumptions;andhisemphasisondemocratizingtheprocessofinquirytookfor
grantedthatthescientificmodeofinquiryitselfdidnotneedtobeproblematized.Itshouldalsobe
keptinmindthatDeweyarguedagainstthemythopoeticnarrativesthatcouldprovideanalternative
perspectiveonthelimitsofscience,technology,andthehubrisofexperts.Ineffect,healignedhimself
withtheprogressiveculturalforcesthatare,inthenameofhighervaluesofdemocracy,experimental
inquiry,andprogress,acceleratingtherateofenvironmentaldegradation.Toarguethatheisan

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environmentalphilosophyisamisguidedeffortthatreflectsthefailuretoquestiontheassumptionsthat
Deweytookforgranted.
References
ApffelMarglin,Frederique.1997.CounterDevelopmentsintheAndesTheEcologist.Vol.27,No.
6,pp.221224.
______________________,withPRATEC(editors).1998.TheSpiritofRegeneration:AndeanCulture
AgainstWesternNotionsofDevelopment.London:Zed.
Basso,Keith.1996.WisdomSitsinPlaces;LandscapeandLanguageAmongtheWesternApache.
Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress.
Bowers,C.A.1993.CriticalEssaysonEducation,Modernity,andtheRecoveryoftheEcological
Imperative.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.
Dewey,John.1916.DemocracyandEducation.NewYork:Macmillan.
___________.1929.ExperienceandNature.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
___________.1957edition.ReconstructioninPhilosophy.Boston:BeaconPress.
___________.1958edition.ArtAsExperience.NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons.
___________.1960edition.TheQuestforCertainty.NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons.
Dewey,John,andArthurBentley,1949.KnowingandtheKnown.Boston:BeaconPress.
Diamond,Jared.1999.Guns,Germs,andSteel:TheFatesofHumanSocieties.NewYork:W.W.
Norton.
Eldridge,Michael.1998.TransformingExperience:JohnDeweysCulturalInstrumentalism.
Nashville:VanderbiltUniversityPress.
Lansing,Stephen,J.PriestsandProgrammers:TechnologiesofPowerintheEngineeredLandscapeof
Bali.Princeton:UniversityofPrincetonPress.
Lawlor,Robert.1991.VoicesoftheFirstDay:AwakeningintheAboriginalDreamtime.Rochester,
VT.:InnerTradition.
Light,Andrew,andEricKatz.1996.EnvironmentalPragmatism.London:Routledge.
Nelson,Richard.1983.MakePrayerstotheRaven:AKoyukanViewoftheNorthernForest.
Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Rorty,Richard.1989.Contingency,Irony,andSolidarity.Cambridge:UniversityofCambridgePress.

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Sachs,Wolfgang.1992.TheDevelopmentDictionary:AGuidetoKnowledgeasPower.London:Zed.
Shils,Edward.1981.Tradition.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Sapir,Edward.1970edition.Culture,Language,andPersonality.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia
Press.
Walens,Stanley.1881.FeastingwithCannibals:AnEssayonKwakiutalCosmology.Princeton,NJ.:
UniversityofPrincetonPress.
Wilson,E.O.1998.Consilience:TheUnityofKnowledge.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.

Chapter7WhyaCriticalPedagogyofPlaceisanOxymoron

Therearemanyassumptionsandvaluesthatscienceandenvironmentaleducatorssharewiththe
proponentsofcriticalpedagogyandplacebasededucators.Thecriticalpedagogytheoristsemphasis
onsocialjusticeissuesandtheplacebasededucatorsstressonstudentsbecomingactive
participantsintheinterplayoftheirlocalcommunitiesandbioregionscaneasilybeinterpretedby
science/environmentaleducatorsasnaturalalliesincreatingamoresustainablefuture.Thatallfour
groupshavelearnedtotakeforgrantedmanyofthesameculturalassumptionsaswellasthesilences
promotedintheiruniversityeducationisyetanotherreasonthattheagendaofacriticalpedagogyof
placeappearssoappropriateforsupplementingthepedagogyandcurriculuminenvironmentaland
scienceeducationclasses.Amongthekeyassumptionstheyshareincommonincludethinkingof
changeasaninherentlyprogressiveforce(whatthecriticalpedagogytheoristsrefertoas
transformationsandtransformativelearning),adeepseatedethnocentrismthatisnowmaskedby
abstractreferencestovaluingculturaldifferences,aviewoflanguageasaconduitwhich
marginalizesanawarenessthatwordshaveahistoryandthattheirmeaningneedstobecontinually
updatedthroughwhattheanthropologist,CliffordGeertz,referredtoasthickdescription(1973),
andthatcriticalthinkingalwaysleadstoovercomingoppressionandenvironmentallydestructive
practices.
Theotherkeyassumptionsreinforcedinauniversityeducationtaketheformofprejudicesthat
canbetracedbacktotheideasofPlatothatwere,inturn,reinforcedbyEnlightenmentthinkersand
mostcontemporaryWesternphilosophers.Theseprejudicesrelatetothewaytraditionsarenow

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representedinmostuniversityclassesandespeciallyinscienceorientedclasses.Anotherprejudice
isthatindigenousculturesareessentiallybackwardandthusmustbemodernizedbyadoptingthe
Westernmodelofdevelopmentincludingmodernscience.Oneofthemajorsilencesinthe
universityeducationofcriticalpedagogytheorists,placebasededucators,andscienceoriented
educatorsisaboutthenature,importance,anddiversityoftheworldsculturalcommonsforlivinga
lessconsumer,morecommunityorientedlifestyle.Tomakethepointmoredirectly,scienceand
environmentaleducatorssharemanyofthesameassumptionsthataretakenforgrantedbythe
proponentsofacriticalpedagogyofplaceandthusdonotrecognizethatcombiningcritical
pedagogywithplaceisaoxymoron.Accordingtothedictionary,anoxymoronisarhetorical
figureinwhichincongruousorcontradictorytermsarecombined.Whenbothgroupsthe
proponentsofcriticalpedagogyofplaceandthescience/environmentaleducatorsfindineach
othersapproachtoeducationalreformthelanguagethatappearstorepresentcommoninterests,they
maythinkthatitisunnecessarytoquestionwhethertheconceptualbaggage(includingtheprejudices
andsilences)ofbothgroupsleadstobasiccontradictionsorwhatIwouldprefertocallconceptual
doublebinds.
PartoftheconceptualbaggagethatcriticalpedagogytheoristsnevermentionisthatPauloFreire
wasadeeplySocialDarwinianthinker,whichcanbeseenifthereadergoestohisdescriptionofthe
threestagesofhuman(cultural)developmentinEducationforCriticalconsciousness(1974aEnglish
languageedition).TherehedescribestheindigenouscultureslivingintheinteriorofBrazilasmenof
semiintransitivityofconsciousnesswhocannotapprehendproblemssituatedoutsideoftheirsphereof
biologicalnecessity.Hiscategoriesforotherculturesthathaveevolvedtoahigherstageof
developmentincludetransitivityofconsciousness,navetransitivity,andfinallycritically
transitivityofconsciousnesswhichheidentifiesasthemostevolvedconsciousnessofcritical
pedagogytheorists(pp.1719).JohnDewey,theotherlessquotedsourceofthinkingthat
environmental/scienceeducatorsaremorelikelytohavestudiedintheirteachereducationcourses,is
alsoaSocialDarwinianthinker.Hisstagesofculturalevolutioncanbeseeninhismanyreferencesto
savages,peoplelockedinaspectatorapproachtoknowledge,andthemoreevolvedthinkerswho
relyupontheexperimentalmodeofinquiryforcontinuallyreconstructingexperience.BothFreireand
Deweyassumedthatchangeisinherentlyprogressiveinnature,andbothignoredtheenvironmental
damageoftheirtimes.Dewey,forexample,referstotraditions(habits)asroutinewaysofacting,or

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degenerateinwaysofactiontowhichweareenslaved(1916,p.5).Freiresmostfamous
injunctionforovercomingoppressioncanbefoundinPedagogyoftheOppressedwhereheurgeseach
generationtorenametheworldofthepreviousgeneration(1974b,p.76).AndinThePoliticsof
Education,hestatesthathistorymakesuswhilewemakeit.Again,mysuggestionisthatweattempt
toemergefromthisalienatingroutinethatrepeatsitself(1985,p.199).Theirmisunderstandingofthe
natureandcomplexityoftraditionsisreproducedinthethinkingoftheadvocatesofacritical
pedagogyofplace,andisoneofthereasonsthelattergroupareunabletorecognizetheecologicaland
communitystrengtheningcharacteristicsofmanyoftheworldsculturalcommons.
Astrongcasecanbemadethateventhoughthecurrentgenerationofcriticalpedagogytheorists,
suchasHenryGirouxandPeterMcLaren,nowsuggestthatthemulticulturalnatureoftheworldmust
betakenintoaccount,andthatwemustaddresstheeconomicbasisoftheecologicalcrisis,wecanstill
seeintheirwritingsthemainthemesofbothFreireandDeweywhichistheneedtotransformthe
worldbyrelyinguponanabstractWesternepistemologythatcarriesforwardanumberof
misconceptionsandprejudicesthatcanbetracedbacktoPlatosRepublic.Theiremphasisonthe
efficacyofabstracttheoryinleadingtoabetterworldreproducesPlatosassumptionthatrational
thought,whichonlyanelitecaneffectivelyengagein,isamorereliablesourceofknowledgethan
narratives,embodiedexperiences,andtheachievementsofothercultures(Bowers,2007a).For
McLaren,theepistemologicalframeworkthatshouldserveasauniversalguideforaddressingthe
ecologicalcrisesistheMarxistanalysisthatheisnowattemptingtogreen(2005).Thesilencesand
prejudicesfoundinthetheoriesofDeweyandFreireparticularlytheirindifferencetotheimportance
oftheculturalcommonsassourcesofresistancetotheglobalizationofmarketforcesaswellastheir
prejudicetowardotherculturalwaysofknowingalsocontinuetobereproducedinthethinkingof
GirouxandMcLarenandtoalesserextentinthethinkingofDavidGruenewald.Theproblemfor
science/environmentaleducatorsisthatthesearethesamesilencesandprejudicesthatwerepartof
theirownuniversityeducation.Thesesharedsilencesandprejudices,alongwiththesharedcultural
assumptions,arethemostlikelyreasonsthatscience/environmentaleducatorsdonotrecognizethata
criticalpedagogyofplaceisanoxymoron.
IfonereadsthewritingsofGirouxand,moreimportantly,McLaren,onefindsrecommendations
foreducationalreformsthatarebasedonaclearunderstandingofhowcapitalismiscontributingtothe
developmentofaworldmonoculture,andtodestroyingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.

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McLarengetsthispartcorrect.Whethertheculturallydiverseeducatorsoftheworldwilladopthis
greenrevolutionarycriticalpedagogythatistoleadtoanecologicallysustainablesocialistfutureis
moreproblematic.TheimportantpointisthatneitherGirouxsvisionoftheteacherasa
transformativeintellectual,McLarensrevolutionaryMarxistorientedcriticalpedagogy,norJoel
Kovelsecosocialistpedagogy(2002)addressthespecificcurriculumreformsthatshouldbe
undertaken.Theirwritingscontainsweepinggeneralizationsaboutsocialjustice,theneedfor
overturningoppressivepracticesincludingcapitalism.Buttheyfailtoexplainhowtointroducethese
reformsintheworldsdiversityofculturesthatrangefromtheEurocentrictotheMuslim,Hindu,and
thethousandsofindigenousculturethatmakeupthemajorityoftheworldspopulation.Asmanyof
thesenonWesternculturesarewellrepresentedinurbanareasacrossAmerica,Canada,GreatBritain,
aswellasotherWesterncountries,thereisaneedforthesecriticalpedagogyandecosocialist
theoriststoexplainhowtheseculturalgroupsaretobeeducatedtoabandontheirnonWesternforms
ofconsciousness,andtoadoptthesupposedlyemancipatedconsciousnessofFreire,Giroux,and
McLaren.
Ifweweretodoanempiricalstudyofwhomscience/environmentaleducatorsrelyuponmostfor
theirunderstandingofhowtoadaptacriticalpedagogyofplacetotheirapproachtoteachingand
curriculum,IsuspectthatthepersontheywouldciteasthemostinfluentialwouldbeDavid
Gruenewald.Theessaytheyarelikelytociteasprovidingthebestunderstandingofacritical
pedagogyofplacewouldbeaTheBestofBothWorlds:ACriticalPedagogyofPlace(2003).Ifthe
readerlacksaknowledgeofthehistoricalrootsofdoublebindthinkingencodedinthelanguaging
processesthatarelargelytakenforgranted,includinghowthesilencesandprejudicesthathave
characterizedWesternphilosophysincethetimeofPlatoarestillbeingperpetuatedinuniversities,
theyarelikelytothinkthatGruenewaldhasachievedasynthesisthatavoidstheproblemofcritical
pedagogyofplacebeinganoxymoron.

AkeywordthathasbeenmissinginthewritingsofFreire,andhismanyfollowersaroundthe
world(includingMcLarensreductionistandthusnonculturallygroundedandnonembodieduseof
theword)isconservatism.Gruenewaldattemptstosoftentheemphasisofcriticalpedagogyon
continualtransformation,whichisthegoalofFreirescriticalpedagogy,bystatingthatthequestion
ofwhatneedstobeconservedtakesonaspecialsignificancetoapedagogyofplace(p.10).His
acknowledgementthatnoteverythingneedstobetransformedanddecolonizedwasaresultofanhour

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andahalftelephoneconversationwithme,whichheacknowledgestheNotessectionofthepaper.
Hadhenothadthisconversation,hisefforttoexplaintheneedforplacebasededucatorstobalance
decolonizationwithhelpinglocalcommunitiestolearnhowtoreinhabittheirplacewouldhave
leftthereaderwiththeideathatbothcriticalpedagogyandplacebasededucationhaveessentiallythe
samereformagenda.Hisreferencetotheneedtobeawareofwhatneedstobeconservedputshim
outsidethemainstreamofcriticalpedagogythinking.Unfortunately,Gruenewalddoesnot
acknowledgethatconservinginvolves,amongotherthings,anawarenessoftheecologicalimportance
ofthemanyformsofintergenerationalknowledge,skills,andpatternsofinterdependenceandsupport
thatcanalsobeunderstoodastraditions.Aspointedoutabove,aconstantthemeinwritingsofFreire,
Giroux,McLaren,andPeterRobertsisthattraditionsneedtobethemainfocusoftheuniversal
projectofdecolonizationandemancipation.Gruenewaldsreferencetoconservingthusrepresentsa
radicaldeparturefromtheemancipatoryagendaofcriticalpedagogytheorists,buthefailstorecognize
thatmanyofhisreaderswillimposetheirstereotypicalandreductionistunderstandingonhisuseofhe
word.
WhileGruenewaldmakesaverbalgenuflectioninthedirectionofmakingawarenessofwhat
needstobeconservedpartofhisunderstandingofapedagogyofplace,henevergoesontoidentify
whatneedstobeconserved.Thatis,liketheothercriticalpedagogytheorists,thereisnospecificityto
therecommendationandthissilencehastodowiththeircollectivelackofadeepunderstandingof
cultures.Toputitanotherway,Gruenewaldshareswiththeothercriticalpedagogytheoristsalackof
awarenessofhowathickdescriptionofthelocalintergenerationalknowledgeshouldbeacore
creatureofplacebasededucation.Theresultisthatthereferencetoknowingwhatneedstobe
conserveddoesnoteliminatetheproblemofareformagendathatisbasedonoxymoronthinking.
AcarefulreadingofGruenewaldsessayrevealsthattheagendaofcriticalpedagogy,whichhe
referstoasdecolonization,ishisprimaryconcernandthatreinhabitationturnsouttobea
contextfreemetaphorthathasGodwordstandingthatisbeyondquestioning.Unfortunately,he
adoptsfromothersanexplanationofreinhabitationthatjustifiesthetransformativemissionof
criticalpedagogy.HequotesthedefinitiongivenbyBergandDasmann,thatreinhabitationmeans
learningtoliveinplaceinanareathathasbeendisruptedandinjuredthroughpastexploitation.He
alsoquotesDavidOrrsexplanationthatthestudyofplacehassignificanceinreeducatingpeoplein
theartoflivingwellwheretheyare(Gruenewald,p.9).Whatisimportanttonoteisthatboth

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quotationsfailtoacknowledgethatthereareaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthatdonotrequirere
educationandlearningtoliveinnonenvironmentallydestructiveways.Gruenewaldsrelianceon
thewordreinhabitationfurtherstrengthensthelikelihoodthatscience/environmentaleducators
continuetoignoretheimportanceoftheculturalcommonsthathaveasmallerecologicalimpact.
Unfortunately,educatorsareillpreparedtoreeducatethepeoplewhopossesstheeconomicand
politicaladvantagesthathaveallowedthemtoexploittheenvironmentthoughrecentexperiencehas
demonstratedthatstudentscanparticipatewithotherenvironmentallyactivistsinforcingcorporations
andotherenvironmentalmalefactorstomodifytheirbehavior.
Learningtoparticipateinthesecollectiveenvironmentalrestorationeffortsshouldbeakeypart
ofplacebasededucation.However,whatisnotrecognizedinGruenewaldsideologicallydriveneffort
tomakeplacebasededucationdependentuponthecriticalpedagogyofdecolonization(awordthat
hasitsrootsinaMarxistanalysis)isthatmostenvironmentalactivistsrelyuponamoregeneral
understandingofcriticalreflectionthatcanbetracedbacktotheideasofSocrates.Indeed,critical
reflection,overthecenturies,asnotalwaysbeenusedtoachievesocialjustice.Ithasbeenreliedupon
tosolveawiderangeofproblems,suchashowtoidentifyandpunishpeoplewhoweredriftingfrom
theorthodoxiesoftheCatholicChurch,howtointroducesocialreformsthatwouldcontributeto
greatersocialjusticeinsociety,howtomarketproductsthatthepublicwasunawareofneeding,and
howtoensurethattheadoptionofanewtechnologywouldnotunderminetheintergenerational
knowledgeessentialtoamorallycoherentandmutuallysupportiveculture.Aspecificexampleofthe
exerciseofcriticalreflectionthatwasnotinformedbythechangeorientedinterpretationthatthe
criticalpedagogywriterstakeforgranted(exceptfortheBowersinfluencedqualificationthat
Gruenewaldmakes)ishowaFirstNationcultureinCanadarelieduponcriticalreflectioninsorting
outtheculturalissuesinvolvedinadoptingcomputersintheirapproachestoeducation.Forthem,
criticalreflectioninvolvedexaminingwhatneededtobechangedandwhatneededtobeconserved
anditwasaprocessthatcombinedcriticalreflectionanddemocraticdecisionmakingthattooktwo
yearstoworkthrough.
Gruenewaldseffortstoincorporateaconcernwithbalancingadecolonizatingeducationalagenda
withanawarenessthatconservingmustalsobetakenintoaccountinplacedbasededucationbrings
intofocusanotheraspectoftheconceptualbaggagethatispartofcriticalpedagogythinkingthatfew
educatorsthinkcriticallyabout.Gruenewald,likeFreire,McLaren,andMoacirGadotti(Directorof

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thePauloFreireInstituteinBrazil)reproduceatraditionthatcanbetracedbacktooneofPlatos
contributionsthatWesternphilosophershavebeenhappytosustain:namely,theideathatthereissuch
athingaspurethinking.Thatis,theideathatthinking,whenrationallybased,isfreeofthe
influenceoftheculturalepistemologyencodedinthemetaphoricallanguageoftheculturalgroup
anduponwhichthethinkerreliesandgenerallytakesforgranted.

ThecurrentmanifestationofthisphenomenonwasbestdescribedbyAlvinGouldnerwhenhe
wrotethatthecultureofcriticaldiscourseischaracterizedbyspeechthatisrelativelymoresituation
free,morecontextorfieldindependent.Thisspeechculturethusvaluesexpressivelylegislated
meaningsanddevaluestacit,contextlimitedmeanings.Itsidealisoneword,onemeaningfor
everyoneandforever(1979,p.28).Thisproclivityofrelyinguponabstractionsthathavebeen
meldedtogetherintoatheorycanbeseennotonlyinGruenewaldsrelianceonthewords
decolonizationandreinhabitationbutalsoinGadottisclaimthatenvironmentaleducatorsshould
fosteraplanetaryconsciousnessandthatthisformofconsciousnesscanonlybecreatedasthe
environmentaleducatordisruptstheprocessofculturaltransmissionbyencouragingstudentsto
discoverthisconsciousnessforthemselves.Thisistobeachieved,accordingtoGadotti,by
encouragingstudentstoundertakethegrandjournalofeachindividualintohisinterioruniverseand
theuniversethatsurroundshim(2000,p.9).WhileFreirewouldnotgoalongwiththissubjective
approachtoemancipationfromtheprocessesofculturaltransmission,Gadottisproposalisnot
fundamentallydifferentfromFreire'sargumentthateachgenerationcanonlyachievethefullest
expressionoftheirhumanityastheyrenametheworldofthepreviousgenerationaproposalthat
ignoresthedifferencesinculturalwaysofknowingthatoftenwereandstillarethebasisofliving
withinthelimitsandpossibilitiesoftheirbioregion.

McLarenalsoreproducesthePlatonicpatternofrepresentingabstractthinkingandtheoryas
morelegitimatethancontextdependentformsofknowledgewhichIwillexplainmorefullyinterms
ofGeertzsideaofthickdescription.Forexample,McLarenreducesthediscussionofwhatneedsto
beconservedinAmericaspoliticalandenvironmentallydegradedcircumstancesintoawordgame
whereoneabstractdefinitionisplayedoffagainstanotherabstractionandintheprocessreproduces
anotherpartofthePlatoniclegacythatWesternphilosophershaveperpetuated.Namely,the
marginalizationofotherculturalwaysofknowing,includingthenatureandecologicalimportanceof
theirculturalcommons.Inhisusualstyleofmisrepresentingtheideasofpeoplewithwhomhe

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disagrees,McLaren(alongwithDonnaHouston)writesthatwemayhavefoundsomemorecommon
groundwithBowersifnotforhisinsistenceonboilingeverythingdowntoalinguisticstruggleover
whetherthewordtransformorthewordconservativeisthemoreappropriatepoliticalterm(2005),p.
204).Byignoringtheextendeddiscussioninmyearlierbook,MindfulConservatism(2001)thatwas
basedonathickdescriptionofthebiological,linguistic,cultural,psychological,andenvironmental
processesthatareunavoidablyconserving,andthatrepresenttheconservativeideasofEdmundBurke,
MichaelOakshott,andsuchenvironmentalconservativewritersasWendellBerry,VandanaShiva,
andMasanobuFukuoka,herepresentsboththewordsconserveandtransformashavingauniversal
meaningandthusfreeofculturalcontexts.IfoneexaminesthekeywordsinGruenewaldsarticle,we
findthesameproclivityofassumingthatwordshaveauniversalmeaning.
Letmebemorespecifichere.Thecontextfreeuseoflanguagethatcharacterizesbothhow
criticalpedagogyandplacebasededucationaresupposedlycomplementaryprocessesiskeyto
understandingwhy,whenfusedtogether,acriticalpedagogyofplaceisanoxymoron.Thequotations
thatGruenewaldborrowsfromBerg,Dasmann,andOrrrepresentonlyapartialunderstandingofhow
peopleinhabitplace.Andtheirrepresentationofhowpeopleneedtobereeducatedintheartofliving
wellrepresentsanexampleofcontextfreethinking.IfBerg,Dasmann,Orr,and,forthatmatter,
Gruenewald,hadengagedinathickdescriptionofwhatallisconstitutedininhabitingplacethey
wouldhavefoundthatthenatureofplacebasededucationhasamorecomplexagendathanthatof
decolonizationandreinhabitation.

Accordingtotheanthropologist,CliffordGeertz,thickdescriptioniswhatenablesonetoknowthe
differencebetween(tousehisexample)aninvoluntarywinkofeyeandawinkthatisintendedtosend
amessage.Thatis,thickdescriptioninvolvesexaminingthehistoryofpriorrelationships,issuesof
genderandclass,personalbiography,andalltheotherbackgroundculturalpatternsthatmayhave
influencedthenatureofthemessagethatwasbeingsent.Anotherexampleiswhenfeminists
challengedtheprejudicesinherentingenderizedlanguagebydoingathickdescriptionoftheirhistory
ofachievements,patternsofdiscrimination,variousformsofexploitationandeventhemythopoetic
narrativesthatrepresentedthemasinferiortomen.Thickdescriptioninvolveschallengingthe
abstractionsthatcarryforwardpastmisconceptions,prejudices,silences,andstereotypesthatare
encodedinmetaphorssuchasdecolonization,criticalinquiry,emancipation,individualism,tradition,
woman,planetarycitizen,American,Canadian,British,Muslim,andsoforth.

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Whyacriticalpedagogyofplaceisanoxymoroncanbeseenifathickdescriptionofhow
differentculturalgroupsinhabitplaceisundertaken.Thiswouldrequireathickdescriptionofthe
culturaltraditionsandpracticesofthenearly6000linguisticgroupsstillsurviving(withmanyonthe
vergeofextinction),aswellasalltheethnicgroupsthatmixandminglewithothergroupsinurban
areas.Recognizingthishugetask,whichcanbeundertakenifthescience/environmentaleducatorfocus
onlocalpeopleandlocalplaces,canleadtoprofoundlydifferentpedagogicalpracticesthatgobeyond
theassumptionthatallpeopleneedtoinlearnhowtoreinhabitonasustainablebasisthelocal
bioregion.Athickdescriptionoftherelationshipbetweenpeopleandplacemayrevealthepatternsof
environmentalabuse,aswellastheideologyandtechnosciencedevelopmentsthataremajor
contributorstodegradingtheenvironment.Butitmayalsoleadtoanawarenessofmanyaspectsofthe
localculturalcommonsthathavebeencarriedonforgenerations,andthatrepresentalternativestothe
consumer/industrialculturethatisbeingglobalized.Theintergenerationalknowledgethatsustains
manyoftheculturalcommonsthatstrengthenpatternsofmutualsupportwithincommunitiesandthat
haveasmallerecologicalimpactrepresentpatternsofhabitationthatdonotneedtobedecolonized.
Adifferentvocabularythanthatofcriticalpedagogytheoristsisrequiredindescribing(doinga
thickdescriptionof)themanyexpressionsofthelocalculturalcommonsthatrepresentsitesof
resistancetothehyperconsumerdependentlifestylerequiredbytheindustrialsystemofproductionand
theincessantpursuitofprofits.Athickdescriptionoftheculturalcommonscarriedforwardbydifferent
ethnicgroups,suchastheirapproachtothepreparationandsharingoffoodortheirtraditionsofmutual
support,wouldbringoutthecomplexityexistingwithinthecommunitysmutualsupportsystemsas
wellastheirhistoricalcontinuities.Makingexplicitthesetraditions(someofwhichmayperpetuate
formsofdiscrimination)mayalsobeingoutthedegreetowhichthereisanawarenessofhowthe
culturalcommonsarebeingenclosedthatis,beingincorporatedintothemarketsystemofproduction
andconsumption.WomeninThirdWorldcultureswhohavehadthetraditionalresponsibilityof
identifyingtheseedsforthenextyearsplantingareawareofhowtheintroductionoftheGreen
Revolution,withitsrelianceonchemicalsandexcessiveuseofwater,areclearlyawareofhowtheir
traditionalknowledgewasthebasisofasubsistenceexistencethatisnowbeingthreatenedbythe
doublebindofbecomingincreasinglydependentuponamoneyeconomywhentheirincomeisso
severelylimited.

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Otheraspectsofthetraditionsoftheculturalcommons,whatcanbereferredtoasthe
intergenerationalknowledge,skills,andsystemsofmutualsupport,includethenarratives,approachesto
thecreativearts,ceremonies,civillibertiesandsystemsofreintegrationintocommunity,craft
knowledge,andsoforth.Theculturalcommonsofsomegroupsincluderacist,gender,andagerelated
formsofdiscriminationandexploitationwhichshouldbereformedbyrecoveringthesocialjustice
traditionsofthecultureratherthandrivenbyaWesternideology.Weneedtorememberthatthe
WoodrowWilsonidealofmakingtheworldsafefordemocracy,whichcorporationsandtheWorld
TradeOrganizationhavereframedasmakingtheworldsafeforachievingaglobalcapitalisteconomy,is
partoftheWestsmessianictraditionthathasitsrootsbothinmessianicChristianity,andinliberating
ideologiesthatperpetuatethesamedisregardthatPlatoandotherWesternthinkerssuchasJohnLocke,
Descartes,AdamSmith,JohnDewey,PauloFreirehaveshowntowardthepossibilitythatothercultures
mayhavedevelopedinwaysthatdonotdegradetheenvironmentstheydependupon.
Overcomingtheoxymoronagendaofancriticalpedagogyofplacecanbedoneif
science/environmentaleducatorsunderstandtheirroleasmorecomplexthaneducatingstudentsto
transformthelocalpracticesthataredegradingthenaturalsystemsthatfuturegenerationswilldepend
upon.Insuggestinghowthickdescriptionshouldbeanintegralpartoftheeducationalprocess,itis
importanttoidentifyanotherproblemthatisrootedinmostapproachestoeducatingscienceand
environmentaleducators.Thatis,whilethereisadifferencebetweenthescientificmethodandthe
scientistswhothinkandcommunicateinthelanguageoftheirculturalgroup,theprofessorswhocontrol
thecoursesthatscienceandenvironmentaleducatorstakeaspartoftheirprofessionalstudiestoooften
donotthemselvespossessadeepknowledgeofcultureandthusdonotrequirethisoftheirstudents.
Thedoublebindhereisthatifscienceandenvironmentaleducatorsadoptapedagogybasedonacritical
pedagogyofplace,theywillbedealingwithculturalissuesforwhichtheyhavelittleorno
understanding.
Andwhenbecominganagentofculturaldecolonizationandreinhabitationtheymaybemoving
downtheslipperyslopeofscientismthatwenowfindbeingpromotedbyhighlyacclaimedscientists.I
amreferringheretoE.O.WilsonwhoclaimsinConsilience:TheUnityofKnowledge(1998)that
beforetheriseofWesternsciencepeoplewerelockedinacognitiveprison,thatthebrainisamachine,
thatreligionsareadaptivebehaviorsandshouldnowbereplacedbythetheoryofevolution,andthat
scientistsarebestpreparedtodeterminewhichculturalpracticesandvaluesshouldbeallowedtoexist.

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FrancisCrick,inTheAstonishingHypothesis(1994)promisesthatscientistswillsoonbeableto
explainthenatureofhumanconsciousnessincludingwhysomepeoplebecomeoutstandingmusicians
andmathematicians.AndLeeSilver,inRemakingEden(1997)claimsthatthenextchallengefacing
scientistswillbetocreateaclassofGeneRichhumanswhowillovertimeoccupytheirownnichein
theprocessofhumanevolution.Thelessknownscientistsresponsibleforintelligencetestsandthe
eugenicsmovementalsomustbekeptinmindwhenconsideringhowscientistsoftenreproducethe
misconceptionsoftheirculture.Theexampleofthemanyscientistswhointroducedintothe
environmentthousandofchemicalswithoutknowinghowtheywouldinteractoneachotheroronthe
reproductivesystemsofhumansandotherorganismsallinthenameofprogressmustalsobekept
inmind.Thescientistslackofadeepknowledgeofcultures,includinghowthelanguagingsystemsof
differentculturescarryforwardthemisconceptions(andinmanyinstancesthewisdom)ofthepast
shouldbeamajorconcernofscience/environmentaleducatorswhotakeontheroleofthatacritical
pedagogyofplaceassignsthem.
Giventhiswarning,Iwouldliketosuggestanapproachthataddresseswhatismissinginthe
criticalpedagogyapproachtoplacebasededucation.Assuggestedearlier,theculturaland
environmentalcommonsbeganwiththefirsthumanswalkingthesavannasinwhatisnowcalledAfrica.
Whileenvironmentalscientistsandvariousconservationgroupsareattemptingtoconserveandrestore
whatremainsoftheenvironmentalcommons,thereareculturalcommonsthatalsoexistinevery
communitybutagaininhighlyattenuatedconditionswherewhatremainsareunderconstantthreatof
beingenclosed(beingprivatizedbyindividualsandcorporations,monetized,turnedintoanew
consumerproductorservice).
Thepedagogythatstrengthensthelocaltraditionsofintergenerationalknowledge,skills,and
patternsofmutualsupportthatenablemembersofthecommunitytobelessdependentupon
consumerism,andthustohaveasmallerecologicalfootprint,requirestheteacherandprofessortoadopt
theroleofthemediator,andtoengagestudentsinthickdescriptionsofthedifferencesbetweentheir
experiencesinvariousculturalcommonsactivitiesandexperiencesintheindustrial/consumerculture.
Themediator,unlikethecriticalpedagogyorientedteacher,doesnotsetouttodecolonizeoremancipate
studentsfromtheintergenerationalknowledgeandskillsthatthecriticalpedagogytheoristhasrelegated
totherealmofsilenceorhasprejudgedasbackward.Rather,itistoencouragestudentstoidentifyand
togivevoicetotheirexperiencesinthevariousculturalcommonsintheircommunityaswellasthe

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correspondingindustrial/consumeractivities.Themediatordoesnotgivetheanswersinadvanceand
doesnotassumeattheoutsetthattheteachingmomentisalsoamomentoftransformation.Ratherthe
purposeofthemediatoristoengagestudentsintheprocessofthickdescriptionthatleadstoacquiring
thelanguagenecessaryforexercisingthecommunicativecompetencerequiredinthedemocraticprocess
ofdecidingwhatneedstoberesisted,fundamentallychanged,orconservedandintergenerationally
renewed.
Thickdescriptioncanbeginintheearlygradesbyhavingstudentsdiscussthedifferencesthey
experienceinoralandprintbasedthinkingandcommunication.Encouragingstudentstoengageina
thickdescriptionwouldleadtogivingvoicetothedifferencesinrelationships,patternsofmoral
reciprocity,feelings,patternsofthinking,whatcannotbemadeexplicitinbothmodesof
communication,andsoforth.Ineffect,itleadstomakingexplicitwhatmayotherwisebetakenfor
grantedandthusnotrecognizedaseitherproblematicorasalifeandcommunityenhancingpattern.
Later,thickdescriptionmayfocusonthedifferencesbetweenanassemblylineexperienceandacraft
endeavor,betweendevelopingatalentthatleadstoparticipatingwithothersinoneofthecreativearts
andbecomingaconsumerofartistswhoseworksarepartofthemarketsystem,betweenpossessingthe
languagenecessaryforidentifyingonescivillibertiesandtheexperienceofacceptingtherightof
governmentandcorporationstokeepeveryaspectofdailylifeunderconstantsurveillance,between
growingagardenandbeingdependentuponfoodsflowninfromthefarreachesoftheworld,between
acquiringtheskillsnecessaryforhelpinganeighborandworkingatanunfulfillingjobinordertohire
someoneelsetomaketherepair,betweenworkthatisreturnedandworkthatispaid,betweenrelying
uponintergenerationalknowledgeofhealingpracticesandrelyinguponindustrializedmedicine,
betweenlivingmoreselfreliantandcommunitycenteredlivesandbeingtheautonomousindividual
requiredbythemarketsystemsofproductionandconsumption,andsoforth.Thedifferencesbetween
theculturalcommonsandthemarketdictatedrelationshipsexistinbothruralandurbanenvironments.
Afulleraccountofhowdifferentaspectsoftheculturalcommonsandformsofenclosurecanbe
introducedatdifferentstagesintheeducationalprocesscanbefoundintheonlinebook,Transforming
EnvironmentalEducation:MakingtheCulturalandEnvironmentalCommonstheFocusofEducational
Reform,whichcanbeaccessedbygoingto<www.http://cabowers.net>.TheonlineHandbook
(Bowers,2007b)thatcanbefoundatthesameonlineaddressexplainsingreaterdetailthe

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teachers/professorsroleasamediatorbetweenthesubcultureofthelocalculturalcommonsandthe
subcultureofthemarket/consumerdependentlifestyle.
Themediator,regardlessoflevelofschooling(includinghomeschooling),needstoencourage
studentstodoathickdescriptionofhowdifferentaspectsoftheculturalcommonimpactnatural
systemsaswellasathickdescriptionofnarrativesandotheraspectsoftheculturalcommonsthat
contributetodegradingnaturalsystemsandtooppressing,marginalizing,andexploitingothermembers
ofthecommunity.Thelattermaytaketheformofdoingathickdescriptionofthehighervaluesto
whichthecommunityalsosubscribes(perhapsthesocialgospelorothersacredtexts)andthe
communitypracticesthatcontradictthesehighervalues.
Toreiteratethekeyreasonthatacriticalpedagogyofplaceisanoxymoronisthatthelinguistic
traditionofrelyinguponabstractions,includingabstracttheoriesthatencodemanyofthesametaken
forgrantedassumptionsthatunderlieboththeideaofuniversaldecolonizationandthemarketliberals
effortstouniversalizetheWestsconsumerdependentlifestyle,failtotakeaccountofthe
intergenerationaltraditionsofhabitationthatstillexistincommunities.Placeshavealongand
culturallyvariedhistory,whilethelanguageofacriticalpedagogyofplacehasaspecifichistorythat
carriesforwardthetraditionofignoringthediversewaysinwhichmoreecologicallycenteredcultures
andcommunitypracticeshavecontributedtolongtermhabitationofplace.
OnehasonlytorecallthegeneralizationsofDewey,Freire,andGadottithatrevealtheirrespective
onetrueapproachestoreconstructingexperience,emancipation,andachievingaplanetary
consciousnesstorecognizethattheirprescriptionsforchangearebasedonaculturallyuninformed
theorythatisintendedtobeuniversalized.Unlessscience/environmentaleducatorsareknowledgeable
abouthowuniversalprescriptionstoooftenbecomeaculturalcolonizingagendatheyshouldbewary
ofignoringtheinherentcontradictioninatheorythatleadstounderstandingdecolonizationonlyin
termsofWesternculturalassumptions,andthatrepresentsreinhabitationasanexcuseforeducators
toignorethedifferentexpressionsofthelocalculturalcommonsthatstudentsneedtohelprevitalize.
EventhoughGruenewaldmakesanefforttobalancethetransformativeagendaofcriticalpedagogy
withanawarenessofwhatneedstobeconserved,hestillfallsshortofclarifyingthenatureand
importanceofthelocalculturalcommonsandthepedagogythatisrequiredforhelpingstudents
recognizethedifferencesbetweencommonsandmarketbasedexperiences.Unfortunately,the
assumptionsunderlyingcriticalpedagogyarenowsowidelytakenforgrantedamongeducatorsin

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nearlyallsubjectareasthatthesilenceabouttheneedtoacquireadeepknowledgeofculture,thatof
theteacheraswellasthecultureofothersthataretobedecolonized,islikelytobeignoredby
science/environmentaleducatorswhoidentifywithacriticalpedagogyofplace.

References

Bowers,C.A.2001.MindfulConservatism:RethinkingtheIdeologicalandEducationalBasisofa
SustainableFuture.Lanham,Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.
___________.2006.TransformingEnvironmentalEducation:MakingtheCulturalandEnvironmental
CommonstheFocusofEducationalReform.Eugene,Oregon.
<www.http://cabowers.net>
___________.2007a.Philosophy,Language,andtheTitanicMindSet.LanguageandEcology.
Vol.2,No.2.pp.115.<www.ecoling.net/journal.html>
___________.2007b.HandbookforFacultyonHowtoIntroduceCulturalCommonsandEcojustice
IssuesintoTheirCourses.Eugene,Oregon.<www.http://cabowers.net>
Crick,Francis.1994.TheAstonishingHypothesis:TheScientificSearchfortheSoul.NewYork:
CharlesScribnersSons.
Dewey,John.1916.DemocracyandEducation.NewYork:Macmillan.
Freire,Paulo.1974a.EducationforCriticalConsciousness.NewYork:TheSeaburyPress.
__________.1974b.PedagogyoftheOppressed.NewYork:TheSeaburyPress.
__________.1985.ThePoliticsofEducation:Culture,Power,andLiberation.SouthHadley,MA.:Bergin
&Garvey.
Gadotti,Moacir.2000.PedagogyoftheEarthandCultureofSustainability.SaoPaulo,Brasil.Instituto
PauloFreire.
Geertz,Clifford.1973.InterpretationofCultures.NewYork:BasicBooks.
Gouldner,AlvinW.1979.TheFutureofIntellectualsandtheRiseofaNewClass.NewYork:Seabury
Press.
Gruenewald.David.May,2003.TheBestofBothWorlds:ACriticalPedagogyofPlace.Educational
Researcher.Vol.32,No.4.pp.312.

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Kovel,Joel.2000.TheEnemyofNature:TheEndofCapitalismortheEndoftheWorld?London:Zed.
Books.
McLaren,Peter.2005.Capitalists&Conquerors:ACriticalPedagogyAgainstEmpire.Lanham,
Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.
McLaren,Peter,andHouston,Donna.2005.TheNatureofPoliticalAmnesia:AResponsetoC.A.
(Chet)Bowers.EducationalStudies.Vol.37,No.2.pp.196204.
Roberts,Peter.2000.Education,Literacy,andHumanization:ExploringtheWorkofPauloFreire.
Westport,CT.:Bergin&Garvey.
Silver,Lee.1997.RemakingEden:HowGeneticEngineeringandCloningWillChangetheAmerican
Family.NewYork:AvonPress.
Wilson,E.O.1998.Consilience:TheUnityofKnowledge.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.

Chapter8TheDoubleBindofEnvironmentalistsWhoIdentifyThemselvesasLiberals

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PaulKrugmansendshisnewbook,TheConscienceofaLiberal,withastartlingstatement.While
claimingtobeanactivistwiththeenergyofaprogressive,hemakestheclaimthattobealiberalisina
sensetobeaconservative(p.70).Thereaderispartlypreparedforthisseemingcontradictionbythe
openingparagraphofhislastchapter,TheConscienceofaLiberal,wherehestatesthatoneofthe
seemingparadoxesofAmericaintheearlytwentyfirstcenturyisthattheagendaofliberalsisessentially
aconservativeone:torestorethemiddleclass,todefendsocialsecurityandMedicare,theruleoflawand
democraticprinciples.Theagendaoftodaysconservatives,asheputsit,istoreversetheachievements
ofRooseveltsNewDealandtopromotethefreeenterprisesystemnomatterwhatthehumancost.
WhatGeorgeLakoffreferredtoastheEssentialGuideforProgressives,whichisthesubtitleofhis
bookDontThinkofanElephant,alsocontainsthesameviewofconservatives.ButunlikeKrugman,he
seesnoparadoxinidentifyingasliberalprogressivestheadvocatesofconservingourtraditionsofcivil
liberties,andtheenvironment.
Unfortunately,bothKrugmanandLakoffreproducetodaysformulaicthinkingthatrepresents
theantidemocraticandantisocialjusticeagendaofPresidentGeorgeW.Bushastheexpressionof
modernconservatism.AndbothreinforcethewidelyheldmisconceptionthatAdamSmiths
principleoflaissezfaire,withitsmagicalinvisiblehand,isoneoftheconceptualandmoral
foundationsoftodaysconservativeswhenitisafoundationalbeliefoftodaysmarketliberals.
WhilebothKrugmanandLakoffalsoagreethatthesuccessofconservativescanbetracedtowhat
theyrefertoastheconservativethinktanks,suchastheCATO,AmericanEnterprise,andHoover
Institutes,theyfailtoquestionwhethertheyhavecorrectlylabeledthepoliticalagendaofthese
institutes.
ForanyonewhohasreadthewritingsofearlytheoristsofclassicalliberalismsuchasJohnLocke,
AdamSmith,andJohnStuartMillaswellasthewritingsofphilosophicalconservativessuchas
EdmundBurke,SamuelColeridge(pejorativelyidentifiedasoneoftheRomanticswhenhewas
actuallyacriticofthedehumanizingimpactoftheIndustrialRevolution),theauthorsofThe
FederalistsPapers,MichaelOakeshottandT.S.Eliot,thecurrentuseofpoliticallabelsbyself
identifiedliberalsandconservativesisevidenceofsomethingfundamentallywrongwithour
educationalsystemespeciallyouruniversities.NottobeoutdonebyKrugman,Lakoff,andother

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commentatorswhoaremislabelingAmericasretreatintothehellholeoffriend/enemypolitics,is
thehandyworkofselfidentifiedconservativessuchasRushLimbaughwhodemonstratesasimilar
disregardforthefactthatwordshaveahistory.
AsmostAmericansarealsounawarethatwordshaveahistory,andthattheycancarry
forwardovermanygenerationsboththemisconceptionsaswellasthewisdomofpastthinkers,they
areeasilyinfluencedbyLimbaughandtheotherfauxconservativevoicesthathavegainedastrong
footholdinthemedia.Thus,manypeoplereadilyacceptthattherecentSupremeCourtJustice
appointmentsbentonreversingpreviousSupremeCourtdecisionsareconservativesbecausethat
iswhatjournalistsandpoliticalpunditstellthem.Thatthedoctrineoforiginalintentisreallypart
ofthemarketliberalstrategyforreversinglawsthatregulatebusinesspracticesonthegroundsthat
thisfunctionofgovernmentwasnotprovidedforbythemenwhowrotetheConstitutionwillalsogo
unrecognized.Ineffect,thefauxconservativemediavoices,includingotherwiseintelligent
observersoftheAmericanpoliticalscenesuchasBillMoyerswhoalsomisidentifiesthemarket
liberalagendaofPresidentGeorgeW.Bushandhisbaseofsupporters,havetakenontheroleof
educatorsofthenationastowhichagendafitsunderwhichpoliticallabel.Unfortunately,
universitieslargelyhaveabdicatedtheirresponsibilityforintroducingstudentstothehistoryof
liberalandconservativethought.Withoutthisbackgroundknowledge,whichmanyacademicsalso
lack,themeaningofwordssuchasliberal,progressive,tradition,conservative,becomecontextfree
metaphorsthatcanbereframedwithoutanyformofaccountabilityotherthanwhatfitstheinterests
ofgroupsseekingtoimposetheiragendaonothers.
Ironically,whileliberalssuchasKrugmanandLakoffareunconsciouslycomplicitin
reinforcingthecurrentmisuseofourpoliticalvocabulary,theinstitutestheyidentifyastheseedbeds
ofmodernconservativethinkingsuchastheCATO,AmericanEnterprise,andHooverInstitutes,
identifythemselvesinawaythatacknowledgestheirclassicalliberallineage.Accordingtothe
missionstatementoftheHooverInstitute,itsprimarypurposeistopromotetheprinciplesof
individual,economic,andpoliticalfreedomandprivateenterprise.TheAmericanEnterprise
Institutemakesanidenticalclaimonitswebsitetodefendthesameclassicalliberalprinciples;but
putstheminthisorder:theinstitutionsofAmericanfreedomanddemocraticcapitalismlimited
government,privateenterprise,individualfreedomandresponsibility,vigilantandeffectivedefense
andforeignpolicies,politicalaccountability,andopendebate.ThemissionstatementoftheCATO

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Institute,whichhadabudgetlastyearof22.4milliondollars,includeswhattheinstituteexplicitly
acknowledgesasitsmarketliberalagendaofpromotinglimitedgovernment,individualliberty,
freemarkets,andpeace.Itsmissionstatementincludestheobservationthatseemstohaveescaped
theattentionofliberalcommentatorswhocontinuetoidentifytheCATOinstituteasaconservative
thinktank.Toquotedirectly:Conservativesmacksofanunwillingnesstochange,ofadesireto
preservethestatusquo.OnlyinAmericadopeopleseemtorefertofreemarketcapitalismthemost
progressive,dynamic,andeverchangingsystemtheworldhaseverknownasconservative.

Theuseofthelabelneoconservativeandnowneoconsisyetanotherexampleof

formulaicwordplay.Awarenessofthehistoryofthisgroup,whichnowjustifiestheinvasionof
Iraq,defendsextraordinaryrenditionandtheuseoftorture,andispromotingwarwithIran,should
originallyhaveledtotheirbeingtaggedwiththelabelofmarketliberaland,morerecently,asanti
democraticextremists.Giventheircurrentpoliticalandeconomicagendalabelingthemasneo
Fascistswouldnotbetoofaroffthemark.Twoearlybooksthatweremislabeledasexamplesof
neoconservativethinkingincludedGeorgeGildersWealthandCapitalism(1981)andMichael
NovaksTheSpiritofDemocraticCapitalism(1982).Neitheroneaddressedtheideasof
philosophicconservativethinkerssuchasBurkeandOakeshott.Otherearlyspokespersonsforwhat
wasmistakenlyreferredtoasneoconservatism,suchasIrvingKristol,GertrudeHimmelfarb,and
NormanPodhoretz,attackedwhattheyconsideredasthesocialengineeringapproachoftheirformer
liberalcolleagues.Theyrevivedthelaissezfaireliberalargumentforreducingtheroleof
governmentinprovidingprogramsthatenabledpeopletoescapefrompovertyandlimited
opportunities.Thetrueresponsibilityofgovernment,asWilliamKristolwouldlaterputit,isto
promotethepoliticsoflibertyandthesociologyofvirtue.Whatheandotherneoconservatives
meantbythesehighsoundingphrasesisthatthegovernmentshouldeliminatetheantipoverty
programsand,intheirplace,promotethesocialupliftingpotentialofcapitalism.
Theinabilityofourleadingintellectualstorecognizethetravestyinlabelingthisgroupas
neoconservativesisnowbeingrepeatedonadailybasisinthemedia.EveryeffortoftheBush
Administrationtodismantleourchecksandbalancessystemofgovernment,andtoturntheprevious
functionsofgovernmentovertocapitalistswhoplacetheirowninterestsabovethoseofthepublic,
isidentifiedwithconservatism.ThepracticesofextraordinaryrenditionandPresidentialsigning
statements,alongwithputtinginplacethetechnologyforachievingatotalsurveillancesociety,are

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similarlyrepresentedascarryingoutthetruemissionofconservatisminaneraoftotalwarfarewith
theexternalenemiesoftheAmericanwayoflife.
ThiscurrentOrwellianpoliticaldiscourseservestwopurposes.FormanyAmericanswho
experiencetherapidrateofculturalchangeasathreattolifeastheyknowit,theconstantreferences
totheconservatismofthepresentadministrationisreassuringeveniftheydonotunderstandthe
politicalsystemthatisattheendoftheslipperyslopePresidentBushandVicePresidentCheneyare
leadingthemdown.Ineffect,themarketliberalandantidemocraticextremistsgainmuchoftheir
supportfromthislargelynonreflectivesegmentofsociety.Andasthetermconservativebecomes
increasinglyassociatedwithanantisocialandantiecojusticeagenda,advocatesofsocialjustice
continuetoidentifythemselvesasliberalswithoutquestioningthedoublebindthisputsthemin.
Thedoublebindthatfewliberalsrecognizeisthatthedeep,largelytakenforgranted
culturalassumptionsthatunderlieWesternliberalismare,withonlyafewexceptions,thesame
assumptionsthatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytotheIndustrialRevolutionthat
hasnowenteredthedigitalphaseofglobalization.Theseassumptionsunderlietheliberals
penchantforequatingchangewithprogress,forrepresentingtheautonomousindividualasthe
highestexpressionofhumandevelopment,forthinkingoftheenvironmentasneedingtobebrought
underrationalcontrol,andforimposingtheirwayofthinkingonwhattheyregardastheless
developedculturesoftheworld.WhatisseldomrecognizedisthattheIndustrialRevolutionrequired
theautonomousindividualwho,inlackingtheintergenerationalknowledgeandsupportof
community,wouldbedependentuponconsumerismtosurvive.Similarly,thedrivingforceofthe
IndustrialRevolutionwastheconstantquestforprogressindevelopingnewtechnologiesand
markets.TheIndustrialRevolutionalsodependeduponadvancesinscienceandtechnologyinorder
tofurtherexploittheEarthsnaturalsystems..Theliberalviewofotherculturesasneedingtoadopt
theWesternmodelofdevelopmentalsofitswhattheIndustrialRevolutionrequired.
Yettherecontinuetobedifferencesbetweenhowliberalsunderstandthenatureofprogress.
Ausefulwayofidentifyingthesedifferencesistoidentifyliberalsworkingtoalleviatepovertyand
variousformsofexploitationassocialjusticeliberals.Liberalswhousecriticalinquirytodevelop
newtechnologiesandtoexploitnewmarketsshouldbelabeledasmarketliberals.Theformerwere
andcontinuetobecriticaloftheexploitivenatureofthefreeenterprisesystem,whilethelatterwere
andstillarewillingtolettheinvisiblehandsupposedlyoperatinginthefreemarketsystem

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distributethebenefitstothedeservingwhichusuallymeansthosewhoarealreadyprivileged.
Giventhesedifferences,andtheyarehugelyimportant,thetwogroupsofliberalsneverthelessshare
acommonsetofsilencesandprejudices.Alreadymentionedistheirsharedprejudiceofthe
knowledgesystemsofotherculturesparticularlyindigenouscultures.Theyalsoshareavery
narrowandthusbasicmisunderstandingofthenatureandimportanceofculturaltraditions.In
effect,theybothfailtorecognizethemisconceptionsoftheEnlightenmentthinkerswhoonly
identifiedoppressivetraditions,anddidnotunderstandtheintergenerationalknowledgeandskills
thatenabledcommunitiestobemoreselfsufficientandtohavecomplexsymboliclives.Andboth
socialjusticeandmarketliberalsfailtounderstandthatlanguageisnotsimplyaconduitina
sender/receiverprocessofcommunication,butinsteadismetaphoricallylayeredinwaysthat
reproducepastmisconceptionsintodaystakenforgrantedpatternsofthinking.Thislatter
oversightaccountsforhowbothsocialjusticeandmarketliberalsarecontinuallyembracing
whateverisrepresentedasaprogressivestepforwardandnotaskingaboutwhichtraditionsvital
tothewellbeingofcommunityandtoasustainablefuturearebeinglost.
Therearemanyunrecognizedassumptionsthataresharedbystudentsonuniversity
campuseswhoidentifythemselvesasconservativesandtheprofessorswhomtheyregardas
subvertingtheAmericanwayoflife.Again,thefailuretorecognizethesharedassumptionsand
silencescan,inpart,betracedtothefailureofuniversitiestoengagestudentsinadiscussionofthe
writingsoftheearlypoliticaltheoristswhoseinfluencecontinuestotoday.Themisunderstandings
resultingfromthislackofhistoricalknowledgeareparticularlyevidentwhenthebeliefsandvalues
oftheselfidentifiedconservativestudentsarecomparedwiththemarketliberalagendapromotedby
theCATOandAmericanEnterpriseInstitutes.Indeed,theyturnouttobenearlyidenticalthough
someofthesestudentsbalkattheideaofopendebateasadvocatedbytheAmericanEnterprise
Institute.Asmostuniversityfacultyembracesocialjusticeliberalismtheyseenoreasonto
introducestudentstothethinkingofphilosophicalconservativesortotheideasofclassicalliberal
thinkers.Andthefewsocialjusticefacultywhoareintroducingtheirstudentstothewritingsof
environmentalwriterssuchasRachelCarson,AldoLeopold,WendellBerry,andVandanaShivafail
toclarifyforstudentsthattheseareessentiallyconservativeenvironmentalthinkers.Bynot
engagingstudentsindiscussionsofthedifferentformsofconservatism,includingthefaux
conservatismofPresidentGeorgeW.Bushandhisreligious,corporate,andmilitarybaseofsupport,

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studentsaremorelikelytoacceptwithoutquestionLakoffsdesignationofenvironmentalistsas
liberalprogressiveactivists.Andtheywillcontinuetoperpetuatethesilencesandprejudicesthat
havebeenanaspectofliberalthinkingsincethetimeoftheEnlightenmentwhichwillkeepthem
fromrecognizingthatrevitalizingthediversityoftheworldsculturalcommonswillbeanecessary
partofachievingasustainablefuture.
ThereportsoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateControl,whichreflecttheconsensus
thinkingof600scientistsfrommorethan100countriesonthenatureandcausesofglobalwarming,
bringsintofocusanotheraspectoftheslipperyslopethatboththemarketandsocialjusticeliberals
aregreasing.Asthemeltingofthepermafrostinthenorthernlatitudesreleasethevastquantityof
methanegasthatisanevengreatercontributortoglobalwarmingthancarbondioxide,asthe
glaciersthatarethesourceoffreshwaterforhundredsofmillionsofpeopledisappear,asthe
temperatureoftheworldsoceansriseandastheoceansabsorbmoreCO2thatcontributetotheir
increasedacidity,asdroughtsandchangesinweatherpatternsforcesthemigrationofplants,
animals,andpeople,andasmoreoftheworldsmajorfisheriesnearcollapse,theconvergenceofthe
slipperyslopeleadingtoenvironmentalcatastrophewiththeslipperyslopeleadingtoafascistform
ofgovernmentbecomeamorelikelypossibility.Whatisnotusuallyrecognizedisthatthe
emergenceoffascismbetweenthetwoworldwarsresultedwhendemocraticinstitutionsbecameso
weakenedthattheywerenolongerabletoaddressthesourcesofeconomicandsocialunrest.
Peoplehavedemonstratedtimeandagainthattheypreferorderoverchaos,andtheyhaveoften
embracedthestrongpoliticalleaderwho,asthesupremedecider,doesawaywiththeseemingly
endlessdebateswhichareatthecenterofthedemocraticprocess.Theconvergenceofeconomic
unrestresultingfromtheglobalizationofthemarketliberalagendawiththedeepeningecological
crisescouldeasilyleadtoarepeatofthisearlierhistory.
Bothmarketandsocialjusticeliberalscarryforwardthesilencesandprejudicesthathave
beenpartofthelegacyofEnlightenmentthinkersindeedsomeofthesesilencesandprejudicescan
betracedbacktothethinkingofPlatowhoinventedtheideaofpurethinkingthatsupposedlyisfree
theofculturalinfluencescarriedforwardthroughnarratives.Theseincludetheintergenerational
knowledge,skills,andactivitiesthatenablemembersofcommunitiestolivemoreselfsufficientand
thuslessmoneyandconsumerdependentlives.Workingtoconservethediversityoftheworlds
languagesandthusthediversityofknowledgeoflocalecosystemsisyetanothercriticalareaof

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concernthatisnotbeinggivenadequateattentionbysocialjusticeliberalswho,unlikeKrugman,
refusetoconsideranythingthatisassociatedwiththewordconservatismpartlybecausetheylack
knowledgeofthemanyformsofconservingthatareaninescapablepartofdailylifeandpartly
becausethewordconservatismisnowassociatedwithauthoritarianpoliticsandthepursuitof
economicselfinterest.
Therearemanyotheranalogsthanthoseassociatedwiththeideasandpoliciesofmarket
liberalsthatneedtobeconsideredindeterminingthedifferentmeaningsofthewordconservatism.
Briefly,learningtothinkandcommunicateinthelanguageofonesculturalgroupsconservesits
manytakenforgrantedpatternsofthinkingandvalues.OurDNAisalsoapowerfulconserving
forcethatinfluencesthemostfundamentalaspectsofourbiology.Thetakenforgrantednatureof
mostofourculturalknowledgeandvaluesisalsoaninescapableaspectofwhatcanbereferredtoas
embodiedconservatism.Andthenthereistemperamentalconservatismwhichisexpressedina
preferenceforcertainfoods,wearingcertainclothes,havingcertainfriends,andsoforth.These
differentexpressionsofconservatismarelargelypartofourembodiedexperiences,andaredifferent
infundamentalwaysfromconservativeideasofhowsocietiesshouldbeorganizedandgoverned.In
ordertoconservethegainsinsocialjusticeandcivillibertiesitisimportanttokeepinmindthatnot
allofconservativeideas,suchasthoseadvocatingtherightofstatestoenforceracistpolicies,the
culturaltraditionofchildbrides,honorkillings,andpolltaxes,shouldbecarriedforward.Onthe
otherhand,thecurrentpracticeofusingthewordtostigmatizeindividualsandgroupswhoaremore
awareofthetraditionsthatarethebasisoftheirmutuallysupportiveandintergenerationally
connectedcommunitiesshouldnotbecontinued.
Inordertomakemoreinformedjudgmentsofaboutthedifferentexpressionsof
conservatismjudgmentsaboutwhatshouldbesupportedandwhatshouldberesistedweneedto
expandourpoliticalvocabulary.Inadditiontorectifyingouruseofpoliticalterminologysothat
labelsaccuratelyreflectthebeliefsandpracticesofdifferentgroups,weneedtofollowthepractice
ofdifferentreligiousgroupswhouseadjectivesthatidentifythereligiousgroupsspecific
orientationorthetraditionitispartof.ExamplesincludethedistinctionbetweenOrthodoxand
ReformJudaism,GreekOrthodoxChristiansandEvangelicalChristians,moderateand
fundamentalistsMuslims,andsoforth.Theadjectivesarenotalwaysasaccurateaswewouldlike,
buttheyavoidtheproblemofincludingawiderangeofinterpretationsandagendasunderasingle

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rubric.Thedistinctionbetweenmarketandsocialjusticeliberalsisanexamplethathasbeen
introducedhere.Otherexamplesmightincludeenvironmentalconservativesandindigenous
conservatives.TheproblemofrelyinguponasinglerubriccanbeseeninThomasFranksreference
totheChristiansinKansaswhosupportPresidentGeorgeW.Bushseffortstodismantlethe
separationofpowersandtheConstitutionasconservative.Referringtothemasmembersofthe
religiousrightwouldhavebroughtintofocustheirpoliticalagenda,whichincludedabolishing
abortion,gays,separationofchurchandstate,andequalopportunitiesforwomenandother
previouslymarginalizedgroups.Journalistsandmediapunditsneedtousethelabelofextremistsif
itaccuratelyrepresentsthepoliticalagendaofcertainindividualsandgroups.Forexample,Vice
PresidentRichardCheneyandDavidAddingtonneedtobeidentifiedasextremists.Andthereisa
needtousethelabeloffascistwhenitaccuratelyfitstheideasandpoliticalagendaofanindividual
orgroup.Itisimportanttonotethatfewgraduatesofouruniversitiespossessaknowledgeofthe
coreideasandpracticessharedbydifferentfascistregimes,andthusareunabletorecognizepolitical
trendsthataremovingthesocietyinthatdirection.
Mostofall,weneedtoavoidtheintellectuallazinessthatcharacterizessomuchofour
formulaicuseofconservativeandliberal.Thereisanurgentneedforthemorereflectivepeopleto
criticizeouruniversitiesfortheirfailuretoeducatestudentsaboutthehistoryofideaswenowrefer
toasideologiesincludingtheneedforthemtounderstandwhichideologiesarecontributingto
overshootingthesustainingcapacityoftheEarthsnaturalsystems.Ifwecantgetthisfiguredout
wewillcontinuetobecaughtinthedoublebindofpromotingtheglobalizationoftheconsumer
dependentlifestylewhileatthesametimesearchingforthetechnologiesthatwillslowtherateof
globalwarmingpartlybeingcausedbyconsumerism.Andourdifficultieswillbefurther
exacerbatedifthecurrentmisuseofourmostprominentpoliticallanguagecontinuestomarginalize
theawarenessthatinthiseraofpoliticaluncertaintiesanddeepeningecologicalcrisesweneeda
politicaldiscoursethataddresseswhatneedstobeconserved.
References
Gilder,George.1881.WealthandCapitalism.NewYork:BasicBooks.
Krugman,Paul.2007.ConscienceofaLiberal.NewYork:W.W.Norton.

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Lakoff,George.2004.DontThinkofanElephant:KnowYourValuesandFrametheDebate.
WhiteRiverJunction.VT.:ChelseaGreen.
Novak,Michael.1982.TheSpiritofDemocraticCapitalism.NewYork:SimonandSchuster.

Chapter9TheRealFailureofUniversityFaculty
Thecurrentdebateaboutwhetheruniversityfacultyindoctrinatestudentswithliberalideas,as
wellasthelackofapublicoutcryabouttherecentattacksonjudgesfornotmakingdecisionsinline
withtheWhiteHousespoliticalagenda,suggestthattherealfailureofuniversityfacultyisbeing
overlooked.Abasicmisunderstandingaboutwhatthetermsconservatismandliberalismstand
for,bothhistoricallyandintodayscontext,issharedbystudentswholabelthemselvesas
conservatives,aswellasbytheselflabeledliberalfacultywhoareconcernedaboutconserving
species,habitats,andthethreatstoourtraditionsthatarethebasisofademocraticformof
government.Thismisunderstandingalsounderliesthepublicsmislabelingofconservativethink
tanksandorganizationsthatarefundingthecurrentattackonhighereducation,aswellasthemedia
punditsandjournalistswhoare,intheirreporting,passingonthemisconceptionstheyacquired
duringtheiryearsinuniversityclassrooms.LabelingVicePresidentRichardCheneyasa
conservativeand,inanothernewspaperaccount,asamarketliberalconservativearejustoneof
manyexamplesthatcouldbecited.
Therealfailureofuniversityfacultyhasbeeninnotenablingstudentstounderstandthatwords
haveahistoryespeciallythewordsthatmakeupourpoliticalvocabulary.Wordssuchas
conservativeandliberalcarryforwardinahighlycondensedmannerideas,values,andsilencesthat
earlieremergedfromcomplexdebatesandwritings.Thecurrentchargesaboutindoctrinationinthe
classroommightserveamoreusefulpurposeifstudentshadbeenaskedtoreadandreflectonthe
writingsofsuchconservativethinkersasEdmundBurke,SamuelColeridge,T.S.Eliot,Michael
Oakeshott,JamesMadison,andClintonRossiter.Writersconcernedaboutconservingspecies,
habitats,andthediversityoftheworldsculturalcommonsthatrepresentalternativestoaconsumer
dependentlifestyle,suchasWendellBerry,VandanaShiva,andG.BonfilBatalla,shouldalsoberead

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anddiscussed.Studentsshouldalsobeknowledgeableaboutthesocalledconservativethinkerswho
supportedmoreproblematicagendas,suchasJohnCalhounandLeoStrauss.
Inaddition,studentsshouldhavebeenaskedtoreadthewritingsofclassicalliberalthinkers
suchasJohnLocke,AdamSmith,JohnS.Mill,aswellasthewritingsofHerbertSpencerwhoused
SocialDarwinismtoexplainthesignificanceofwinnersinafreemarketsystem.Morecontemporary
liberalandlibertarianthinkerssuchasFriederichHayek,MurrayRothbard,andtheselfmislabeled
neoconservativewriterssuchasWilliamKristolandMichaelNovakshouldbeevaluatedintermsof
whattheywanttoconservebeyondthatofthefreemarketsystemsandareducedroleforgovernment
whichareclassicalliberalpriorities.
Thelistofconservativeandliberalthinkersmightvary,buttheexposuretothecoreideas
andvaluesofbothtraditionswouldleadtoamoreinformedandthuslessformulaicwayofthinking
and,hopefully,toareducedlevelofrecriminationintodayspoliticaldebates.Theselfidentified
conservativestudents,mediapundits,andthinktankintellectualsmightthenberecognizedas
pursuingapoliticalagendahasitsrootsintheliberaltraditionthatgoesbacktoLockeandSmith.
Theirrealgoal,whichisnottoconservethediversityoftheworldstraditionsofcommunityself
sufficiency,buttochangetheminwaysthatenablecorporationstoexpandmarketsandtoexploit
furthertheenvironment,mightalsobemorewidelyrecognized.
Widelysharedknowledgeofwhatseparatesthetraditionofconservatismfromthetradition
ofliberalismthatsomanyprofessorsidentifywithandpromoteintheirclasses(e.g.,theassumption
thattheindividualisthebasicsocialunit,thatchangeisprogressive,thattheWesternwayofthinking
isthemostculturallyadvanced,etc.)mightleadmorefacultytobeawareofthemixedmessagesthey
conveytotheirstudents.Whiletheirliberalismisbasedonmanyofthesameassumptionsthat
underlietheexcessesoftheindustrialculturetheycriticize,theyalsocommunicatetotheirstudents
theirconcernsaboutthecurrenteffortstooverturnthetraditionsthatgenuineconservativeshave
historicallyviewedasessentialtothecivilrightsofthecurrentandfuturegenerations.The
underminingoftheseparationofchurchandstate,anindependentjudiciary,keyprovisionsofthe
Constitution,aswellastheeffortstoreversethegainsintheareasofcivilrights,economicsupportfor
marginalizedsocialgroups,thelegalprotectionswonbyenvironmentalists,andwhatremainsof
civiliancontrolofthemilitary,aresourcesofdeepconcernonthepartofmanyfacultywhoidentify
themselvesasliberals.Solittleisunderstoodaboutthecomplexandvariedhistoryofconservative

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thinkingthattheseprofessorsusethelanguageofliberalismtoargueforconservingwhatisnowunder
threatfrompowerfulpoliticalgroupswhocallthemselvesconservativesbutareworkingtobringmore
aspectsofdailylifeunderthecontrolofmarketforcesevenasthesemarketforcesareoutsourcing
jobs,cuttingbackandeveneliminatingretirementandhealthbenefits.
Thewordconservativehasapejorativemeaningformostliberalfaculty,whilemanyofthe
facultywhoidentifythemselvesasconservativesareeitherreactionary(wantingtogobacktoan
ethnocentriccurriculumthatwasproblematicinthefirstplace)orareproponentsoftheinvisible
handthatsupposedlygovernsthewinnersandlosersinfreemarkets,aswellaswhichideaswill
prevail.Themisuseofthetermconservative,aswellasthewidespreadinclinationtoassociateitwith
Europeantraditionsofconservatism,makeitdifficultfortheseliberalfacultytoasktheirstudentsto
considerwhatneedstobeconservedinthiseraofecologicaluncertaintyandpoliticalregressionas
wellaswhatneedstoreformedorchangedentirely.
Theironythatcharacterizesthecurrentfuroroversocalledconservativeconcernsaboutliberal
indoctrinationintheclassroomsofAmericaisthatboththemajorityofliberalfacultyaswellasthe
selflabeledconservativestudentssupportdifferentfacetsofthemodernsocialagendawiththe
liberalssupportingthesocialjusticeagendathatemphasizesindividualopportunityinasecular
consumerdependentsocietywhilethefauxconservativessupportaneconomicagendathatrequires
thedestructionofintergenerationallyconnectedandculturallydiversecommunities.Theaspectsof
themodernagendathesetwogroupsshareincommonarenowcomingunderattackbyreligious
extremistswhoarealsocaughtinthedoublebindofsupportingtheeconomicsystemthatis
underminingthemoralabsolutestheyhaveextrapolatedfromthewrittenaccountsofnarratives,
experiences,andspiritualinsightsofancienttribalcultures.AtleastthelibertarianCATOInstitute
recognizedthemindlessnessthatissowidespreadinourpoliticaldebateswhenitputonitswebsite
thatonlyinAmericaisitspoliticalagendaidentifiedwithconservatism.
OnemorefailurethatcharacterizesauniversityeducationinAmericaisthatfewstudents
willgraduatewithanunderstandingofthecharacteristicsofafascistsocietyandhowfascismhas
emergedwithinweakeneddemocraticsocieties.

Chapter10RethinkingSocialJusticeIssuesWithinanEcoJustice
ConceptualandMoralFramework

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Asthesocialjusticeissuesofclass,race,andgenderhavebeenthedominantconcernofmany
educationalstudiesfacultyoverthelastdecades,itisnowtimetoaskwhethertherecentevidenceof
globalwarming,changesinthechemistryoftheworldsoceans,andtheincreasingshortageofpotable
watershouldleadtodevelopinganewstrategyforamelioratingtheselongstandingsourcesof
injusticeandpoverty.Giventheamountoftimedevotedtodiscussingclass,race,andgenderissues,
aswellasthenumberofbooksthatfocusontheseissues,littlehasactuallybeenachievedineffecting
thesystemicchangesrequiredformarginalizedsocialgroupstoparticipateonmoreequaltermsinthe
publicarenasofpolitics,economics,andeducationalopportunities.CorporationsintheUnitedStates
continuetoshapegovernmentalpoliciesthatdeepentheeconomicplightofmarginalizedgroupswho
liveatthebottomofthewagescale,whileraisingthecostofdrugsandmedicalcarebeyondwhatthey
canafford.Overall,thedemocraticprocessitselfhasbecomedegradedbycorporateandotherspecial
intereststothepointwheremillionsofpeoplecontinuetobemiredinpovertyandhopelessness.
Therecentaccelerationofeconomicglobalizationandthedeepeningoftheecologicalcrisisthat
arenowimpactingpeoplesdailylivessuggestthataradicalrethinkingofhowtoaddresssocialjustice
issuesisneeded.Thegrowingawarenessoftheseglobaldevelopments,whichincludestheneartotal
collapseofthefreemarketsystem,aweakenedlabormovementandrapidriseinunemployment,the
declineinthesizeofthemiddleclass,andaneedtochangetheecologicalimpactofallcitizens(even
thatofthepoorwhohavenotbeeneducatedabouthowtolivelessenvironmentallydestructivelives),
meansthattheoldassumptionsaboutachievingamoresociallyjustsocietyhavetobereexamined.
Socialjusticethinkinghaslargelybeenframedintermsofmiddleclassassumptionsabout
individualism,progress,aworldofunlimitedexploitablenaturalresources,andeducationasa
sourceofindividualempowerment.Theultimategoalofachievinggreatersocialjusticefor
marginalizedgroupshasbeentoenablethemtoparticipateonequaltermsintheareasofwork,
politics,andthecultureofconsumerism.Theguidingprioritiesofecojusticebasededucational
reformsare,ontheotherhand,bothmoreglobalintermsofanalysisandaccountability,andmore
localintermsofeducationalstrategiesthatreversetheprocessofdeskillingthatispartofthe
destructionofcommunitysystemsofmutualsupportthatbeganwiththeriseofthetechnoscientific
basedindustrialculture.Theseprioritiescanbesummarizedaseliminatingenvironmentalracism,

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resistingtheforcesthatarecolonizingThirdWorldculturesandexploitingtheirnaturalresources,
revitalizingthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsthataresitesofresistancetothe
expansionoftheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestyle,adoptingalifestylethatdoesnotdegrade
theprospectsoffuturegenerations,anddevelopinganecologicalconsciousnessthatrespectsthe
rightofnaturalsystemstorenewthemselves.
Basingdailylifeonecojusticecriteriameanstakingaccountoftheimpactoftheconsumer
dependentlifestylethatisbeingpromotedinourpublicschoolsanduniversitiesbyaskingwhetherit
islargelyresponsiblefortheeconomicandculturalcolonizationofThirdWorldsocieties,aswellas
theenvironmentalracismthatexposesminoritygroupstothetoxicchemicalsthatthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturereliesupon.Ecojusticethinkingalsobringsintofocustheneed
toconsidertheexistingcommunitycenteredalternativestothedeskilledindividuallifestylethatis
increasinglydependentuponconsumerismevenasthesourcesofemploymentbecomemore
uncertainbecauseofoutsourcingtolowwageregionsoftheworld,andthedrivetoincreaseprofits
byreplacingworkerswithcomputerdrivenmachines.Asthelifesustainingecosystemsbecome
moredegraded,thereisalsothequestionofwhetherthecurrentindustrial/consumeroriented
lifestylethatistakenforgrantedbymanyeducationaladvocatesofsocialjusticeisunderminingthe
prospectsoffuturegenerations.Otherconcernsofecojusticethinkingincludetheneedtoundertake
educationalreformsthataddressourresponsibilityforleavingfuturegenerationswithsustainable
ecosystems,whichalsomeansrecognizingtherightofnonhumanformsoflifetoreproduce
themselvesinsustainableways.
Whiletheenvironmentisbeingdegradedtothepointwherethescarcityofprotein,water,
andenergyisdrivingupprices,thusfurtherimpoverishingthealreadypoor,theadvertisingindustry
isspendingbillionsofdollarsayearinordertoperpetuatethepublicsaddictiontoconsumingthe
latestfashions,technologies,andformsofentertainment.Publicawarenessoftheenvironmental
changesthatscientistsarewarningaboutisfurtherobfuscatedbythebigboxstoresandshopping
mallsthatstocktheirshelveswithasuperabundanceofconsumerproductsthusfurther
perpetuatingtheillusionofplenitude.Glitz,easycreditandanindifferencetothedangersofgoing
deepintodebtarejustpartoftheculturethatnowdominatesthemajorityofthepeopleslivesthat
is,thosewhohavenotlosttheirwellpayingjobs,healthandretirementbenefits,andarenow
reducedtoaminimumwagelifestyle.Thepoorandmarginalized,rangingfromsinglemothers,

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urbanminorityyouth,migrantfarmworkers,andawiderangeofpeoplewhoseskincolorandlack
ofeducationalbackgrounddisqualifythemfromotherthanmenialformsoflaborinindustrialfood
outletsandotherlowpayingserviceindustryjobs,aretoofocusedonmeetingthemostbasicneeds
offoodandsheltertobeawarethattherearecommunitycenteredalternativestothe
industrial/consumerlifestyletheyhavebeenexcludedfromparticipatingin.AsBarbaraEhrenreich
pointedoutinarecentinterviewwithBillMoyers(2007),thepoorlivesoclosetotheedgethat
goingwithoutpayforthecoupleofweeksittakestofindamorehighpayingjobisunthinkable.In
effect,povertyrestrictseventhismostbasicoptionthatthemiddleclasscantakeforgranted.
Thecentralprioritiesofecojusticeadvocatesdonothavetheirrootsinabstracttheory.
Rather,thetraditionsofintergenerationalknowledgeandpatternsofmutualsupportthatenable
peopletoliveinwayswheremarketforcesdonotdominateeverydaylifehavebeenaroundsincethe
beginningofhumanhistory.TheyarestillpresentineverycommunityacrossNorthAmericaandin
otherpartsoftheworld.Historically,thesetraditionswereknownasthecommons;thatis,whatis
freelysharedbythemembersofthecommunity,whichalsoincludeslocaldecisionmaking.The
normsthatgovernedtheculturalandenvironmentalcommonswerepassedalongorallyanddiffered
fromculturetoculture.TheRomanswerethefirsttoestablishawrittenrecordofthecommons,
whichtheyidentifiedasthelocalstreams,woods,fields,animals,andsoforth.Thecultural
commons,whichincludetheintergenerationalknowledgeandskillsnecessaryforgathering,
preparing,andsharingfood,themedicinalpropertiesofplantsandwheretofindthem,narrativesof
courageandofhubris,therulesthatgovernedcommunitymemberswhoviolatedlocalnormsof
justice,thesharingoftechnologicalskillsandcraftknowledge,themythologiesandprejudicesthat
regulatedwhohadprivilegedpositionsinthecommunity,andsoforth,haveonlyrecentlybeen
identifiedaspartofthecommons.Theculturalcommonsalsoincludethevoluntaryassociations
thataresourcesofmutualsupportwithinthecommunity,aswellasgroupsthatcometotogetherto
promoteagendasthatrangefromprovidingsafebicyclelaneswithinthecommunitytosupporting
thepeaceeffortsofnationalpoliticiansandprovidingaidtopeopleinotherpartsoftheworldthat
haveexperiencedanaturaldisaster.Unfortunately,theintergenerationalsourcesofempowerment
andcommunityselfsufficiencyarenowbeingthreatenedbythemarketliberaltraditionsofprivate
property,anomicindividualism,theexpansionoftheindustrialapproachtoproductionand
consumption,thegrowinghegemonyofthecapitalistethos,andtheriseofcorporatepower.

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Whilethecausesoftheeconomiccrisisthatisspreadingaroundtheworldaresystemicas
wellasafunctionofhumangreed,itisimportanttonotethatthemainfocusofthemedia,
politicians,andpublicisonregainingthejobsthatwillenablepeopletoreturntotheirprevious
consumerdependentlifestyles.Thatis,thereislittlediscussionofcommunitycenteredalternatives
thatareherebeingreferredtoastheculturalcommonsandthuslittlediscussionofhowthe
politicaleconomyofthelocalculturalcommonscanbecomepartofthebasisformeetingthedaily
needsforfood,housing,medicalcare,education.Ifattentionweretobegiventothelifestylesof
peoplewhoaremorefullyengagedintheirlocalculturalcommonsitwouldbecomeclearerthatthey
relylessuponamoneyeconomyandthusarelessexposedtotheexploitiveforcesthatareinherent
intheindustrialgovernedmarketplace.Thevoluntarysimplicitymovementhasdemonstratedthat
thepoliticaleconomyoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsleadstoadifferentunderstanding
ofwealthonthattakesaccountofskills,mutualsupportsystems,andcommunitywellbeing.Yet,
itisimportanttorecognizethatthereisstillaneedformeaningfulformsofworkthatcontributetoa
livingwage.Thecombinationoflocaldecisionmaking,whichisakeyfeatureofmanylocal
culturalcommons,andthespreadofsuchdevelopmentsasmicrobanksandthepoolingoflocal
resourcesforhousingprojectsandothercommunityinfrastructureneeds,arealsoevidenceofthe
needtocombinethinkingaboutlocalselfsufficiencyandecologicalsustainability.
Therelationshipsbetweenthelocalculturalcommonsfoundineverycommunitytodayand
theindustrial/consumerculturehavenotbeenmutuallysupportive.Indeed,thepeoplewhopromote
theexpansionoftheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestyle,andthustheaccumulationofcapital,
viewthelargelynonmonetizedculturalcommonsaspotentialmarketstobeexploited.Theirgoalis
toreplaceintergenerationalskillsandpatternsofmutualsupportwithnewtechnologiesthatmustbe
privatelyownedandwithexpertsystemsthatrepresentassourcesofbackwardnessthetraditional
valuesandformsofknowledgesuchascivilliberties,patternsofreturninglabor,mentoring,and
knowledgeofhowtolivelightlyontheland,thathavebeenthestrengthofmanyculturalcommons.
AtthetimetheenvironmentalcommonsinruralEnglandwerebeingtransformedduringtheearly
stagesoftheIndustrialRevolution,theprocessoflimitingfreeaccessanduseonanonemonetized
basis,aswellasoverturningoflocaldecisionmaking,wasreferredtoasenclosure.Thatis,the
enclosureoftheenvironmentalcommonsinvolvedtheintroductionofprivateownershipand
integrationintoamoneyeconomy,whichoftenledtodecisionmakingbeingtransferredtodistant

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ownersandlatertocorporationsthatmadeincreasingprofitstheprimarycriterionforexploiting
thenaturalenvironment.
Nowthatwecanrecognizetheculturalbeliefsandpractices,whichnowincludecyberspace,
aspartoftheculturalcommonsthatenablecommunitymemberstobelessdependentuponamoney
economy,itispossibletorecognizethemanywaysinwhichdifferentaspectsofthelocalcultural
commonsarebeingenclosedbytodaysmarketforcesaswellasbyideologies,technologies,
prejudices,andsilences.Publicschoolsanduniversitiescontinuetobecomplicitinreinforcingthe
culturalassumptionsthatfurtherunderminetheviabilityoftheculturalcommonsevenas
environmentalscientistsareworkingtoconservewhatremainsoftheenvironmentalcommons.
Manysocialjusticeorientedfacultycontinuetoreinforcemanyofthesameculturalassumptions
thatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytotheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestyle
evenastheycriticizetheexploitivenatureofcapitalism.Thesesharedassumptionsincludetheidea
oftheautonomousindividual,theprogressivenatureofchange,ananthropocentricviewof
human/naturerelationships,andthedrivetoimposetheseassumptionsonotherculturesunderthe
rubricofdevelopment,aswellasthesamesilencesaboutthelocalcommunitysourcesofself
sufficiencyandmutualsupport.(Sachs,1992).
Whilethediversityoftheworldsculturalcommonscurrentlyrepresentssitesofresistanceto
economicglobalization,itisimportanttoavoidromanticizingtheculturalcommons.Inmany
cultures,includingthelocalcommunitiesacrossNorthAmerica,theculturalcommonsalsoinclude
narrativesandtraditionsthatperpetuatedifferentformsofdiscriminationandeconomicexploitation.
Thatis,thestoningtodeathofthewomanwhoseekstomarryoutsideofhertribe,themarketliberal
ideologythatequatessocialprogresswithaneconomythatmakessurvivalofthefittesttheultimate
testofindividualsuccess,andthevariousformsofracial,class,andgenderprejudicesalsohave
theirrootsinthetraditionsofsomeculturalcommons.Ironically,thesenonmonetizedtraditional
beliefsandpractices(whichhavedireeconomicandsocialconsequencesforthosewhoarethe
subjectsofdiscrimination)wereandstillaregenerallysustainedincommunitieswhichmayalso
possessnetworksofmutualsupportthatreducerelianceonconsumerismandthathaveasmaller
ecologicalfootprint.
Thelocalculturalcommonsshouldnotberegeneratedandsupportedjustbecausethey
representalternativestotheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatisbeingglobalizedandthat

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putatfurtherriskthepossibilityofachievingasustainablefuture.Rather,thedifferenttraditionsof
theculturalcommonsneedtobeexaminedintermsofwhethertheysupporttraditionsofcivil
liberties,aswellasmoralreciprocityinthetreatmentofallmembersofthecommunityasdeserving
therighttoanequalopportunitytodeveloptheirpersonaltalentsandtomaketheircontributionsto
regeneratingthelifesupportingculturalcommons.Challengingthetraditionsofthecultural
commonsthataresourcesofexploitationandmarginalizationshouldalsobepartofamoreglobal
andecologicallyinformedecojusticepedagogy.
AspointedoutinC.A.BowersonlineHandbookforFacultyWorkshopsonHowto
IntroduceCulturalCommonsandEcojusticeIssuesIntoTheirCourses,(2007),theunique
characteristicsoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsrequirearadicallydifferentapproach
thanthecurrentemphasisonmakingindividualemancipation,promotingthestudentsconstruction
oftheirownknowledge,andmakinghighertestscorestheprimaryfociofeducationalreform.
Thereareanumberofuniquecharacteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthatanecojusticepedagogy
needstotakeintoaccount.Thefirstisthatmostofthetraditionsthatmembersofacommunity
participateinonadailybasisaretakenforgranted,suchasthetraditionofEnglishspeakersusing
thesubjectverbobjectpatternoforalandwrittencommunication,assumingtheyareinnocentuntil
provenguiltybeforeajuryofpeers,andusinglanguageasaconduitinasender/receiverprocessof
communicationtocitejustafewofthetakenforgrantedpatternsofdailylife.Thetakenfor
grantedstatusofmostaspectsofthelocalculturalcommonsisimportantforseveralreasons.In
beingpartoftacit,contextual,andlargelytakenforgrantedexperience,theyaremostlyexcluded
fromthecurriculumofpublicschoolsanduniversities.Inbeingexcludedfromthecurriculumatall
levelsoftheformaleducationprocess,andinbeinglargelytakenforgrantedbymembersofthe
communitywhoareatthesametimebeingconstantlyindoctrinatedwiththemessagethatchangeis
essentialtoprogress,theloss(thatis,enclosure)ofdifferenttraditionsoftheculturalcommonsgo
unnoticedexceptforthepeoplewhoareconsciouslycarryingforwardoneofthetraditionsofthe
culturalcommons,suchasweaving,protectingcivilliberties,utilizingcraftknowledgeandskill,
participatinginlocaltheater,andsoforth.
Thetakenforgrantednatureoftheindividualsembodiedexperienceofthecultural
commons,whichmayincluderacistandgenderformsofdiscrimination,isjustoneofthe
characteristicsofdailyexperiencethatrequireadifferentapproachtoteachingandlearningthanis

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foundincurrentapproachesthatarebasedonmanyofthesameculturalassumptions(orwhatIhave
referredtoelsewhereasrootmetaphors)thatunderlietheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatis
overshootingthelifesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.Theemphasisonexplicitformsof
knowledge,whichisreinforcedbyrelianceonprintbasedknowledge,testing,andsupposedly
objectiveknowledge,marginalizestheimportanceofhelpingstudentsrecognizethedifferences
betweentheirexperiencesintheculturalcommonsandinthemarket/consumerorientedculture.
AnotherbiasincurrentapproachestoeducationthatcanbetracedbacktoPlatosargument
thatpurethinkingleadstouniversaltruthsthataremorereliablethanthinkinggroundedin
embodied/culturallyinfluencedexperiences.TheWesterntheoristswhofollowedinthistraditionof
assumingthatabstractwordsareamoreaccuratesourceofknowledgealsowereunawareofthe
natureandecologicalimportanceoftheirlocalculturalcommons.Indeed,theyheldincontemptthe
formsoffacetoface,intergenerationallysharedknowledgeandskill,andrelegatedthemtolow
statusknowledge.Thistraditionisstillevidentinthethinkingofcurrenteducationalreformerswho
assumethatwordssuchasindividualism,democracy,tradition(whichreproducestheEnlightenment
assumptionsofbeingasourceofbackwardnessandspecialprivileges),intelligence,andprogress
haveuniversalmeanings.Theseeducationalreformerscontinuetoignorehowtheanalogsthat
framethemeaningofthesemetaphorscarryforwardthemisconceptionsofearlierthinkers(P.
Freire,1974;H.Giroux,1988;D.Gruenewald,2008).Thispatternofthinkingfurthermarginalizes
anawarenessoftheembodiedexperiencesinthedifferentcommunitytraditionsthatarebeing
referredtohereaspartoftheculturalcommons.Oneoftheconsequencesofthesilencesaboutthe
natureandcomplexityoftheculturalcommons,aswellastheconstantreminderthattraditionsare
impedimentstoprogress,whicharebeingreinforcedinmostareasofthepublicschooland
universitycurriculum,isthatstudentsenteradulthoodwithoutanawarenessofthedifferent
economicandideologicalforcesthatareenclosingwhatremainsoftheculturalcommons.Formost
ofthem,theindustrial/consumercultureisthearenainwhichtheywillpersonallysucceedorfail
andtheoutcomeoftheirindividualquestsremaindisconnectedintheirthinkingfromtherapidrate
ofdegradationoftheworldsecosystems.
Thereisnowamajorbodyofwritingthataddressesboththevariouswaysinwhichpublic
schoolsreproducetheculturestraditionsofclassandotherformsofdiscrimination,aswellasthe
reformsthatneedtobeundertakeninordertoachieveamoreequitablesociety.Criticismof

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prejudiciallanguage,silencesinthecurriculum,preconceptionsaboutthepotential(orlackthereof)
ofalreadymarginalizedstudents,trackingandothersystemicformsofdiscrimination,havebeenthe
mainstaysofeducationalfoundationsandeducationalstudiescoursesforthepastseveraldecades.
Whiletherehavebeensomesocialjusticegains,particularlyintheareasofraceandgender,there
remainsmuchtobedoneespeciallysincethechangesresultingfromeconomicglobalizationand
theglobalwarmingwillhavethegreatestimpactonminoritygroupswhoseeconomicgainshave
been,atbest,bothminimalandfragile.Critiquesofthebeliefsandvaluesthathavekeptpeopleof
color,women,andotherpeoplerestrictedbyotherclassbarriershaveactuallybeencritiquesofthe
reactionarytraditionsfoundwithinsomeculturalcommons.Unfortunately,thetheoriesthatframed
thesecritiqueswerenotinformedaboutthecomplexnatureoftheculturalcommons.Indeed,the
phraseculturalcommonshasnotbeenused(D.GruenewaldandG.Smith,2008).Themain
consequenceofthislackofunderstandingisthattheaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthatholdout
theprospectoffindingcommunitycenteredalternativestothenegativeimpactoftheindustrial
culturehavenotbeenpartofthewellintendedeffortstousetheschoolstoeliminatethesourcesof
povertyandinjustice.
Theuseofasociologicalinterpretativeframeworkseemedideallysuitedtobringinginto
focuseconomic,political,andeducationalinequities.Unfortunately,ithasledtoignoringthe
questionsthatwouldhavearisenifamoreanthropologicallyinformedinterpretativeframeworkhad
beenreliedupon.Awarenessofadeepunderstandingofculturaldifferencescouldeasilyhave
broughtintoquestionhownotionsofindividualfreedomandequalitycouldbereconciledwiththe
importancethathasbeengiveninrecentyearstoavoidingculturalcolonization.Forexample,the
WesternidealofindividualfreedomandthediversityofnonWesternculturesdonoteasilyfit
together.Anotherlimitationofthesociologicalinterpretativeframeworkisthatitkeepsthefocusof
analysisandrecommendationsforreformonhumantohumanrelationships,withthehumanto
naturerelationshipsbeingignored.Theevidenceforthisclaimcaneasilybesubstantiatedbyreading
educationalwriterswhohavemostinfluencedhowtheanalysisofclass,race,andgenderhasbeen
framedwriterssuchasSamuelBowles,HerbGintis,MichaelApple,HenryGiroux,andPeter
McLaren.RecentlyBowlesandGintishavebeenwritingaboutthecommons,andMcLarenhasnow
turnedattentiontoexplaiinghowMarxismcanguideeducationalreformsthataddressissuesof
sustainability(P,McLaren,2005).Thekeypointisthattodayseducationaldiscourseonclass,race,

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andgendercontinuestoignore,withonlyafewexceptions,theimplicationsoftheecologicalcrises
fortheverysocialgroupstheywanttoemancipate.
Theuseoftheculturalcommonsastheconceptualframeworkforanalyzingthevarious
formsofdiscrimination,aswellasforguidingeducationalreforms,hasseveraladvantagesthata
sociologicalframeworklacks.Toreiterate,theculturalcommonsrepresentalloftheformsof
knowledge,values,practices,andrelationshipsthathavebeenhandeddownovergenerationsthat
havebeenthebasisofindividualandcommunityselfsufficiencyandthathaveenabledmembers
ofthecommunitytobelessdependentuponamoneyeconomy.Whilethepreviousdiscussionof
thereactionaryand,insomecases,horrificpracticesofsomeoftheworldsculturalcommonsneeds
bekeptinmind,thereareothercharacteristicsofselfsufficiencythatexistedpriortowhatKarl
PolanyicalledtheGreatTransformation,whentheemergenceoftheindustrialsystemof
productionledtotheenclosureoftheenvironmentalcommons(Polanyi,2002).InRebelsAgainst
theFuture:TheLudditesandTheirWarontheIndustrialRevolution,(1995),KirkpatrickSale
summeduphowthesurvivalandglobalexpansionoftheindustrialsystemofproductionand
consumptiondependedupontheenclosureoftheculturalcommons.Asheputit,
Allthatcommunityimpliesselfsufficiency,mutualaid,moralityinthemarketplace,
stubborntradition,regulationbycustom,organicknowledgeinsteadofmechanisticscience
hadtobesteadilyandsystematicallydisruptedanddisplaced.Allthepracticesthatkept
theindividualfrombeingaconsumerhadtobedoneawaywithsothatthecogsandwheels
ofanunfetteredmachinecalledtheeconomycouldoperatewithinterference,influenced
merelybyinvisiblehandsandinevitablebalancesp.38.
Saledoesnotrefertothecommunitytraditionsofselfsufficiencyastheculturalcommons,buthe
accuratelymakesthepointthattheindustrial/consumerdependentculturerequiresthedestructionof
thedifferentformsofintergenerationalknowledge,skillsandmutuallysupportiverelationshipsthat
enabledpeopletolivelessmoneyandthuslessconsumerdependentlives.Ineffect,heisdescribing
howthesuccessoftheindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumptionrequiredthedestructionof
thelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Whatisironicisthatthekindofindividualrequired
bytheindustrial/consumerdependentcultureistheautonomousindividualbeingpromotedbymany
oftodayseducationalreformers.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthelackofintergenerational
knowledgethatreducesdependenceuponconsumerismcontributestoanimportantaspectofpoverty

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thatisseldomdiscussedeventhoughitleadstotheformsofpovertythatthreatentheindividuals
healthandleadstootherformsofinsecurity.
Unlikethelimitedconceptualpossibilitiesofasociologicalinterpretativeframeworkand
vocabulary,theculturalcommonsisthephrasethatencompassesthetraditionsofcommunitythat
arenestedinlargersocialandecologicalsystems.Thesetraditions,asmentionedearlier,rangefrom
localapproachestogrowingandpreparingfoodasalternativestoanindustrializedsystemthatisso
damagingtoecosystemsandtointergenerationalapproachestohealingthatdifferfromthehighly
monetizedandindustrialapproachesoftodaysmedicine(whichareincreasinglybecoming
dependentuponpatentingindigenousknowledgeofthemedicinalpropertiesofplants)(V,Shiva,
1996).Dependinguponthelocalcommunityandculturaltraditions,theintergenerationalknowledge
alsoincludesthecreativeartspassedonthroughmentoringthatdifferfromthestarsystemof
commercializedmusicandvisualarts,aswellasnarrativesofthelabor,feminist,andcivilrights
movementsratherthanthemindnumbingtelevisionsitcomsthatservetohookviewerstothe
multibillionadvertisingindustry.ThetraditionsofcivilrightsthatgobacktotheMagnaCartaof
1215arealsopartoftheculturalcommons.Unfortunately,theyarenowbeingenclosedbythe
growingalliancebetweenmarketliberaldominatedgovernments,corporations,universities,andthe
militaryestablishment.Amorefinegrainedanalysisofthedifferencesbetweenthecultural
commonsandtheindustrial/consumerdependentculturethatisnowbeingglobalizedwouldinvolve
adiscussionofthedifferencesbetweencommunitymentorsanduniversitytrainedexpertswhohave
anegoandeconomicinvestmentinimposingtheorybasedsolutionsonpeopleslives,betweenface
tofaceandcomputermediatedcommunication,betweencommunitytraditionsofreciprocitywhere
workisreturnedandworkthathastobepaidfor,betweendevelopingpersonalinterestsandskills
andbeingaconsumerofotherpeoplestalents,aswellasbetweentheembodiedexperiencesof
beinginthenaturalenvironmentandthedisembodiedexperienceofsittinginfrontofacomputer
screenwithitsoftenviolentsimulationgamesthatdeadenthecapacityforempathyandmoral
responsibility.
Therearetwoothercharacteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthathavespecialsignificance.
Thefirstisthattheyexistineverycommunityandcanbefullyrecognizedonlybyanindepth
descriptionoftheculturalpatternsthatunconsciouslyinfluencetheembodiedexperienceof
preparingandsharingameal,playingagame,tellingastory,writingpoetry,marchinginanantiwar

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demonstration,protestingexperimentationsandotherformsofanimalexploitation,workingwith
othersinrenewinghabitats,andsoforth.Theculturalcommonsarelargelytakenforgrantedand
thusunrecognizedaspectsofdailylifeandcanbestbebroughttoattentionthroughactual
participationandethnographic/phenomenologicaldescriptionsratherthanthroughabstracttheory
andprintbaseddescriptions.Thesecondcharacteristicthatneedstobereiterated,especiallyinlight
oftherateofglobalwarming,isthatwhattheindustrialculturehadtodestroy,asSaleputit,arethe
intergenerationaltraditionsthathavesmalleradverseimpactsontheecologicalsystems.
MostaspectsoftheculturalcommonsinWesterncountriesrelytosomedegreeonwhathas
tobepurchased.However,eventhissmalldegreeofdependencemakesagreatdealofdifferencein
termsofmeetingthecriteriaofecojustice.Bybeingmoreintergenerationallyconnected,a
revitalizedculturalcommonsreducestheneedforasystemofproductionthathastodisposeofvast
amountsoftoxicwastes(usuallyintheneighborhoodsofthepoorandmarginalized).Italsoreduces
theneedtoexploittheresourcesofThirdWorldculturesandtointegratethemintoaglobalmarket
system.Astheseculturesareabletoregeneratetheirownculturalcommonstheyareabletoresist
moreeffectivelytheWestseffortstocolonizetheminthenameofdevelopment,democracy,and
modernizationgodwordsthatarebasedonWesternassumptionsaboutindividualism,progress,
andthemessianicdrivetoimposeaconsumerdependentlifestyleonothercultures.Thelifestyle
thatismoreorientedtowardculturalcommonsskillsandactivitiesofmutualsupport,andlesson
consumerismthatdegradestheenvironmentandthustheprospectsoffuturegenerations,meetsyet
anotherconcernofecojusticeadvocates.Inpossessingtheskillsandparticipatinginthecommunity
systemsofmutualsupport,theindividualismorelikelytoresistthemarketorientedideologythat
equatestheexploitationofspeciesandhabitatswithprogress.Thischaracteristicofthecultural
commonsmeetsthelastcriteriaofrecognizingthatnaturalsystemshavearighttoreproduce
themselvesaspartofthelayerednestingofinterdependentecosystemsandnottobereducedtoan
economicresource.
Thislistoftheecologicallysustainableandmorallycoherentcharacteristicsofthecultural
commonsbringsoutwhatismissinginmostoftheeducationaldiscourseonhowtoeliminate
discriminationintheareasofclass,race,andgender.Italsobringsintofocustheviablealternatives
foraddressingtheestimatedonebillionlivesthatexistononedollaraday,andaremiredinthe
cultureofpovertymarkedbyalackoffoodsecurityandadequatehousing.Asglobalwarming

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acceleratesinthenextfewdecades,astheworldsoceansbecomelessreliablesourcesofprotein,
andasdroughtsandsevereweathersystemscontributetomassmigrationsofpeople,thelivesofthe
poorwillbecomemoredesperateastheyexpandinnumber.Thedoublebindofrelyingupon
sourcesofenergytokeeptheindustrialsystemexpanding(thusacceleratingtherateofglobal
warming)willintensifythewillingnessofcorporationstooutsourceproductionfacilitiesnotonlyto
lowwageregionsbutalsotoregionsthatstillhaveeasilyaccessedsourcesofenergy.Asthe
ecologicalcrisisdeepens,andtheseeminglyunrelentingdrivetocontinueexpandingprofitsinan
increasinglystressedworldbecomesmoredifficult,itwillbethepeoplewhocontinuetooccupythe
bottomrungoftheeconomic/political/educationalhierarchywhowillcontinuetosufferthemost.
Theironyisthattheancientpathwayofhumandevelopmentthatstillexistsinruraland
urbancommunities,andthatrepresentsanessentialpartofapostindustrialalternative,continuesto
beignoredevenbythefeweducationaltheoristswhoarebeginningtorecognizetheecological
crisis.Whatnowhastobeavoidedistheendlessrepetitionthatthereisanecologicalcrisisandthat
capitalismisprimarilyresponsible.Thoughtfulpeoplealreadyunderstandtheconnectionsbetween
thetwophenomena.Instead,advocatesofsocialjusticeneedtoexplorethepedagogicaland
curricularimplicationsofhowtointroducestudents,includingthealreadymarginalizedstudents,to
thelifeenhancingpossibilitiesthatexistintheculturalcommonsoftheirlocalcommunitiesand
thatarepartoftheculturalcommonsofthedominantculturethatprotectstherightsofvarious
minoritycultures.Thereisadirectconnectionbetweentheenclosureofthetraditionsofcivil
libertiesthatarethebasisofdemocracyandthegrowingdominanceofcorporations,marketliberal
politicians,religiousfundamentalists,andthemilitaryestablishmentthatviewsitsmissionas
protectingtheglobalinterestsofmarketliberals.ThereisalsoaconnectioninAmericabetweenthe
numberofmarginalizedgroupswhosufferthemostdeathsandcatastrophicinjuriesfrommilitary
actionsthatresultfromthelogicofeconomicglobalization.Knowledgeofhowtoprotestagainst
thevariousformsofeconomicandpoliticaloppressionisalsopartoftheculturalcommonswhich
includesthenarrativesofpastprotestmovements,strategiesthathaveprovedmostsuccessful,and
evensongsandtheiconographyassociatedwithpastpeacemovements.Thecurrentdrivetoinstall
totalsurveillancesystemsofacountryscitizensasadefenseagainstterrorismfurtherundermines
theircivilliberties,andwillbeusedbypolicetoidentifytheleadersofmovementsprotesting
variousformsofsocialinjusticeincludingenvironmentalactivists.

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PedagogicalandCurricularImplications
Thefutureprospectsofthepoorandmarginalizedareinextricablytiedtothefutureprospects
oftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Withtheoutsourcingofwork,automationthatreduces
theneedforworkers,anddownsizinginordertoimprovecorporateprofits,theprospectsofupward
mobilitythathavebeenthehallmarksofpastgenerations,thoughunevenlyrealized,arebeing
rapidlydiminished.Giventhisreality,placinggreateremphasisoneducationalreformsthathelpto
regeneratetheculturalcommonsshouldnotbeinterpretedasmeaningthatallstudents,regardlessof
socialclassandracialbackground,shouldnotacquiretheknowledgethatwillenablethemtofind
meaningfulworkthatsupportsabasicstandardofliving.Justasmostaspectsofthecultural
commonsrequiresomedegreeofdependenceupontheindustrialsystemofproductionand
consumption,publicschoolsanduniversitiesneedtoensurethatthestudentsatthebottomof
economicandsocialpyramidhavetheopportunitytolearnwhatisrequiredforcareersand
employmentthatarenonexploitive.Atthesametime,changesneedtobeintroducedatalllevelsof
theeducationalsystemthatwillenablestudentstolearnaboutthecommunitycenteredalternatives
thatcontributetothetransitiontoapostindustrialfuturenamely,theculturalcommons.In
discussingtheuniquecharacteristicsofapedagogyandcurriculumthatintroducestudentstothe
ecologicalandcommunitysustainingimportanceoftheculturalcommons,itisimportanttokeepin
mindthatweareinatransitionphaseofculturaldevelopment.Thus,thefollowingdiscussionof
pedagogicalandcurriculumreformsmustalsobeviewedinthislight.
Ifweconsiderthebasictensionbetweentheindustrial/consumerorientedcultureandthe
characteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthatstrengthenmutualsupport,developskillsandpersonal
talents,andensuremoralreciprocityamongallmembersofthecommunity,itbecomesclearwhat
theroleoftheclassroomteacher/professorshouldbe.Insteadofpromotingthehighstatusformsof
knowledgeandvaluesthatcontributetothefurtherexpansionoftheindustrial/consumeroriented
culture,theroleoftheclassroomteacheranduniversityprofessorshouldbethatofamediatorwho
helpsstudentsbecomeawareofthefundamentaldifferencesbetweenparticipationinthecultural
commonsandthecultureofindustrialproductionandconsumption.Beingamediatorrequiresan
understandingofwhatstudentsaremostlikelytotakeforgrantedastheymovedailybetween
participationinthetwosubcultures.Thepedagogicaltaskistoencouragestudentstonamewhat
wouldotherwisebetakenforgranted.Namingtakenforgrantedpatternsofthinkingandbehavior,

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aswelearnedfromboththefeministandcivilrightsmovements,isthefirststeptomakingthem
explicit,whichisessentialfordevelopingcommunicativecompetence.Likethemediatorinlabor
disputes,theteachersmediatorroleprecludesgivingstudentstheanswersaboutwhichaspectsof
theculturalcommonsandtheindustrial/consumerorientedcultureneedtoberejectedorrenewed.
Thetechnoscientificbasisoftheindustrialculturehasmademanyimportantcontributionsto
improvingthequalityofhumanlife,andnowhasthepotentialtohelpreduceourcarbonfootprint.
Thus,thetaskofbeingamediatorshouldnotbereducedtothatofanideologuewhohaspre
conceivedanswers,andwhoenforcesthesilenceaboutwhather/hisideologycannotexplain.
Similarly,ideologyshouldnotguidehowthestudentsaretothinkabouttheirembodiedexperiences
withintheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.
Theinitialstepinteachingandlearningthatfitsthemodelofamediatoristoencourage
studentstodescribetheirembodied/culturallyinfluencedexperiencesastheymovebetweenthetwo
subcultures.Therearespecificquestionsthatstudentsneedtoberemindedtoask:Doesthe
experienceinaculturalcommonsactivitycontributetothedevelopmentofpersonalskillsandthe
discoveryoftalents?Doesitcontributetoasenseofcommunityselfsufficiencyandmutual
support?Doesitrequireexploitingotherswhoarelessadvantaged?Whatisitsimpactonnatural
systems?Doesitcontributetoanawarenessofwhatneedstobeintergenerationallyrenewedandof
theneedtobeabletomentorothers?Doesitleadtodifferentformsofempowerment,suchasthe
abilitytoexercisecommunicativecompetenceinresistingfurtherformsofenclosureofskillsand
patternsofmutualsupportthatresultinanincreaseddependencyuponamoneyeconomy?Whatis
itsecologicalfootprint?Thesesamequestionsneedtobeexploredbystudentsastheyparticipatein
variousaspectsoftheindustrial/consumerorientedculture.
Inexaminingtheexperiencesbetweenpreparingandsharingamealwithothersandeatingin
afastfoodoutlet;betweenfacetofacecommunicationandreading;betweengardeningandbeing
dependentuponindustriallypreparedfood;betweenparticipatinginoneofthecreativeartsand
beingaconsumerofcommerciallypromotedartisticperformances;betweendevelopingskills
associatedwithacraftthatextendsonestalentsandpurchasingwhathasbeenindustriallyproduced
(increasinglyinalowwageregionoftheworld),thedifferenceswillquicklybecomeapparent.And
thisawarenessofdifferences,ifframedinlightoftheecologicalcrisisandthechangesresulting
fromeconomicglobalization,isessentialtotherecoveryoflocaldemocracythathasbeenoneofthe

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hallmarksofthediverseculturalcommonsthathavenotbeenbasedonideologiesandmythologies
thathaveprivilegedthefewoverthemany.
Anotherresponsibilityoftheteacher/professorsmediatingroleistoensurethatstudents
becomeawareofthenarrativesthatprovideanaccountofvarioussocialjusticemovements,starting
withtheearliestbeginningsofthetraditionsofcivillibertiesintheWestsuchashabeascorpus,the
righttoafairtrialbyajuryofpeers,separationofpowers,andanindependentjudiciary.The
narrativesthatprovideanunderstandingofthelabormovementsthatstruggledtoachievesafe
workingconditions,alivingwage,andtherightofworkerstoorganizepolitically,shouldalsobe
partofthecurriculum.Thefeministmovementaswellasthecivilrightsmovementsalsoshouldbe
partofacommonsorientedcurriculum.Againthetensionsbetweentheculturalcommonsandthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturethatarenowbeingglobalized,andthataremajorcontributorsto
theecologicalcrises,willinevitablycomeoutandbeamajorfocusofclassdiscussions.
Theecologicalcrisis,aswellastheincreasingnumberoftheworldspopulationthatis
movingfromasubsistenceexistenceintooneofdirepoverty,makeitparticularlyimportantthatthe
teacher/professorintroducestudentstothehistoryofdifferentwaysinwhichtheculturalcommons
arebeingenclosedThefollowingquestionswillbringintofocusdifferentformsofenclosure:How
didtheWesternphilosophersrelianceonunacknowledgedculturallyinfluencedinterpretative
frameworks(whichcanalsobeunderstoodasrootmetaphorsthatframethehistoricallylayered
processofanalogicthinking)contributetotheenclosureoftheculturalcommons?Howhastherise
ofWesternsciencecontributedtotheenclosureoflocalknowledgeofhealing,agriculturalpractices,
relianceonlocalmaterials,andsoforth?Whatrolehavevariousreligionsplayedinstrengthening
theculturalcommonsand,ontheotherhand,inrepresentingtheexploitationofthecommonsby
marketforcesascarryingoutGodsplanforthosewhoaretobesaved?Whatweretheintellectual
influencesthatmarginalizedtheimportanceoftheworkersskills,theircontrolofthetempoofwork
anduseoftechnologies?Whatarethecurrenttechnoscientificandmarketforcesthatare
threateningsuchthingsasthediversityofseeds,andlocalknowledgeofhowtoadaptagricultural
practicestothecharacteristicsoflocalsoilsandweatherpatterns?
Inadditiontointroducing,particularlyasthestudentsmoveintotheuppergradesandonto
theuniversity,thevarioushistoriesofdifferentformsofenclosure,theroleofbeingamediatoralso
requiresthatstudentsbeintroducedtohowdifferentcultureshavesustainedtheirculturaland

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environmentalcommonswhileatthesametimeensuringthattheirlocalmarketsdidnotdominate
thepatternsandvaluesofeverydaylife(W.Sachs,1992;W.Sachs,1993).Knowledgeofthe
intergenerationaltraditionsofotherculturalapproachestotheculturalandenvironmentalcommons
willenablestudentstogainabetterperspectiveonwhetherthecurrentmyththatequatesthe
Westernscientifictechnologicalandmarketdrivenapproachestocreatinggreaterdependenceon
whatisindustriallyproducedandconsumedshouldbethebasisofdevelopmentinothercultures.
Thereisaneedtoenablealargepercentageoftheworldspopulationthatismiredinpovertyto
obtainadecentstandardoflivingandtoenablethemtoexperiencemorethanalifeofdrudgeryand
stunteddevelopment.Thecriticalquestioniswhetherthefurtherenclosureofthediversityofthe
worldsculturalcommonswillachievethisend.
Tothispoint,thediscussionoftheteacher/professorsroleasamediatorbetweenthe
studentsembodied/culturallynestedexperiencesinthelocalculturalcommonsandintheworkplace
andshoppingmallsoftheindustrialculturehasbeengeneralinnature.Itisnownecessaryto
addresshowtoengagestudentsfromavarietyofbackgroundsthatmakethemespeciallyvulnerable
totheprejudicescurrentlyperpetuatedbytheeducationalsystemsemphasisonthehighstatus
knowledgethatperpetuatespovertyanddeepenstheecologicalcrisis.Asmentionedearlier,every
culturehasitsdistinctintergenerationaltraditionsofpreferredfoods,approachestothecreativearts,
healingpractices,waysofunderstandingmoralreciprocity,craftknowledge,narrativesofpast
achievementsandleaders,mentorsinvariousartsandcrafts,understandingofwhatconstitutes
socialjustice,andsoforth.Forexample,inthelargelyHispaniccommunityinSanFranciscoone
willfindthatmanyofthewallsofbuildingsthatpreviouslywereusedtoadvertisecigarettesand
liquorhavebeenreclaimedaspartoftheculturalcommons.Giantmuralsnowdepictpaststruggles,
importantculturalleaders,andvisionsofwhatthefutureshouldholdforHispaniccommunities.
ThesamereclaimingofthispartoftheculturalcommonscanbefoundinDetroitandothermajor
cities.Otherexamplesoftheculturalcommonscanbeseeninthecommunitygardenswhere
traditionalfoodsaregrown,inthelocalpoets,artists,writers,andmusicianswhoarewillingmentors
ofthecommunitysyouth.Thereareeldersandpeoplewhotakeresponsibilityforkeepingalivethe
oralhistoryofthegroup,justastherearelivingtraditionsofhowassisttheespeciallyvulnerableto
theproblemsofextremepoverty,oldage,andhopelessness.Thenatureoftheseculturalcommons
variesfromcommunitytocommunity,fromethnicgrouptoethnicgroup.Astheculturalcommons

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oftheseethnicandmarginalizedgroupsarenestedintheculturalcommonsofthelargersociety,
withitstraditionsofcivilliberties,ofachievinglegalredressofdiscriminatorypractices,andof
effectingchangesthroughanadmittedlyflaweddemocraticprocess,itisimportantthatthese
traditionsalsoberecognizedasessentialaspectsofwhatmarginalizedstudentsshouldclaimastheir
culturalcommons.
Thestartingpointinacommonsorientedcurriculumistohavestudentsconductasurveyof
theirlocalculturalcommons,aswellastheaspectsofthelargerculturalcommonsthattheyhavea
right(inspiteofpastexclusions)toparticipatein.Thesurveyshouldinvolvelearningwhothe
eldersandmentorsare,whothekeepersofthecommunitymemoryare,whatformsofcultural
commonsactivitiesexistsuchasplayingchess,painting,writingpoetry,musicalperformances,
gardening,workingwithwoodandmetal,volunteerism,andpoliticalactiongroups.Inaword,the
surveyshouldcovertheactivitiesandrelationshipswithinthecommunitythatarelessreliantupona
moneyeconomyandthatleadtothedevelopmentofskillsandintereststhatcontributetoaless
damagingecologicalfootprint.
Afterthesurveyhasbeenundertaken,theprocessoflearningtomakeexplicitthedifferences
betweentheirembodied/culturallynestedexperienceswithdifferentactivitieswithinthecultural
commonsandintheworldofindustrialworkandconsumerismcanbegin.Thisprocessoflearning
torecognizedifferencesthatotherwisearetakenforgrantedasthestudentsmovebetweenthetwo
subcultures,andtonamethem,providesthelinguisticandconceptualbasisforthecommunicative
competencenecessaryforresistingfurtherformsofenclosurebymarketandscientific/technological
forces.Resistancemaytaketheformofovercomingthesilencesaboutthenatureandimportanceof
thelocalculturalcommonsbeingperpetuatedbypublicschoolsanduniversities.Italsomaytake
theformofresistingthefalsepromisesofdeveloperswhowanttoattractthelargecommercial
enterprisesthatwilleliminatethesmallshopkeepersandserviceproviders,aswellastheopen
physicalspacesthatenablemembersofthecommunitytoconnectwiththenaturalworld,tohave
communitygardensandplacesforchildrenandotherstoplayandtoescapethepressuresofthe
mediaandthetemptationsoftheshoppingmalls.Communicativecompetenceisalsonecessaryto
givingvoicetowhataspectsofthetechnoscientific/industrialcultureneedtobeabandonedas
ecologicallyunsustainableandwhichaspectscanmakeacontributiontoimprovingthelivesof
peoplewhilestillhavingasmallerecologicalfootprint.

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Oneofthefailuresoftheeducationaltheoristswhohavebeenwritingabouttheneedfor
educationalreformsthataddresstheseeminglyintractableproblemsofclass,race,andgender
discriminationisthattheyhavecontinuedtousethemetaphorsofindividualism,progress,
emancipation,intelligence,tradition,andsoforth,thatcarryforwardtheanalogsformedinthe
distantpastbytheoristswhoignoredculturaldifferences,thenatureandimportanceofthecultural
andenvironmentalcommons,andtheexistenceofecologicallimits.Ineffect,theargumentsfor
addressingtheissuesofrace,class,andgenderhavebeenbasedonametaphoricallanguagethathas
beenfrozenovertime,andthatcontinuestoputoutoffocustheintergenerationalrelationshipsand
knowledgethatprovidealternativestotheformofindividualismthatisdependentupon
consumerismtomeetdailyneeds.Relianceuponthemetaphoricallanguagethatgaveconceptual
legitimacytotheriseandcurrentglobalizationofanindustrial/consumerdependentlifestylecanalso
beunderstoodasyetanotherunrecognizedexampleofhowlanguagecontinuestocolonizethe
presentbypastwaysofunderstanding(Bowers,2008).
Learningtoparticipateinwhatremainsofthelocalculturalcommons,andindeveloping
newskillsandnonmonetizedrelationshipswillhavetheeffectofexpandinghowintelligenceis
understoodfromthatofanindividualattributethatissubjectivelycenteredtounderstandingthat
intelligenceiscommunal,intergenerational,andenhancedthroughparticipationwithothers,and
withtheenvironment.Asthecommunalandintergenerationalnatureofintelligencemaybethe
sourceofprejudicesandenvironmentallydestructivelifestyles,itisimportantforteachers/professors
helpstudentsrecognizetheformsofintelligencethataredestructiveofhumanpossibilities,aswell
asthewaysofthinkingthatareinformedbytodaysunderstandingofsocialandecojustice.Thishas
beenpartofthecurriculumthataddressesvariousformsofdiscriminatoryrelationshipsandpatterns
ofthinking.Toooftenthisprocessofclarificationhas,atthesametime,reinforcedtheideathat
criticalthinkingistheexpressionofindividualautonomy.Makingthestudentsculturallyinfluenced
embodiedexperiencesinthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsanintegralpartofthe
curriculumwillhelptoreconstitutehowindividualismisunderstoodfromthatofbeing
autonomousandessentiallyalonetorecognizingthatoneoftheuniquecharacteristicsoflifeisbeing
inrelationshipsthatconstantlyleadtoaredefinitionofselfthatreflectchangesinthesocialand
environmentalcontext.Tradition,whichstillcarriesforwardthereductionistthinkingofthe
Enlightenmentwriters,willalsoceasetobeanabstractionthatmisrepresentsthecomplexityofdaily

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experienceinboththeculturalcommonsandintheindustrial/consumerorientedculture.Insteadof
thinkingthatchangealwaysisaprogressiveforce,theembodiedexperienceswithinthecultural
commonswillleadtoamorecomplexandcriticallyinformedunderstandingofwhichtraditions
needtobecarriedforwardandrenewed,andwhichtraditionsneedtoberejectedasenvironmentally
destructiveandassourcesofinjustice.
Oneofthemetaphorsthatisinspecialneedofbeingassociatedwithnewanalogsis
environment,whichisnowunderstoodeitherasthebackgroundwithinwhichhumanexperience
takesplaceorasanexploitableresource.Iftheteacher/professorexplains,andhasstudentstestout
intermsoftheirownembodiedexperiences,howdifferentenvironmentscanbeunderstoodas
ecologiesandthatecologiesincludeboththeinteractionsandinterdependencieswithinnatural
systemsaswellaswithincultures(andtheinterdependenciesbetweencultureandnature)students
aremorelikelytobeawareofthedifferentwaysinwhichtheiractivitiesimpactthesustainable
characteristicsofnaturalsystems.Studentsstillrootedinthebeliefsoftheirindigenousheritage
alreadypossessthisawareness,butstudentswhohavebeenuprootedfromtheirculturaltraditions,
whichmaynothavebeenecologicallycenteredinthefirstplace,willneedtodevelopthis
awareness.Andthisawarenesswillbeessentialtoslowingtherateofenvironmentaldegradation
thatwillimpactthemthehardestincomingyears.
Thechallengenowisfortheproponentsofeducationalreformsthataddresstheissuesof
class,race,andgendertorecognizethatanapproachtoachievingsocialjusticeforthemillionsof
marginalizedstudentscannotbebasedonthesamedeepculturalassumptionsthatcreatedthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturethatislargelyresponsiblefortheinjusticesthatcontinueto
stuntthepotentialofstudents.Thischallengewillbeparticularlydifficulttoaddressasfewof
todaysproponentsofeducationalreformhavegivenattentiontohowlanguagehelpstoorganize
theirpatternsofthinkinginwaysthatreproducethesilencesandculturalassumptionsofpast
theoristswhocontributedtotodaysdoublebindpatternsofthinking.Theproblemisthatthe
doublebindthinkingoftheseselfproclaimedsocialjusticetheoristscontinuestoequateprogress
withachievinggreaterequalityofopportunityformarginalizedgroupstoliveamiddleclass
consumerdependentlifestylewhiletheworldismovingclosertotheecologicaltippingpoint
scientistsarewarningabout.

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References
Bowers,C.A.(2007)HandbookforFacultyWorkshopsonHowtoIntroduceCulturalCommons
andEcojusticeIssuesintoTheirCourses.Eugene,OR.:EcoJusticePress.
http://cabowers.net.
__________.(2008)TowardaPostIndustrialConsciousness:UnderstandingtheLinguisticBasisof
EcologicallySustainableEducationalReforms.Eugene,OR.:EcoJusticePress,
http://cabowers.net
Freire,Paulo.(1974)PedagogyoftheOppressed.NewYork:SeaburyPress.
Giroux,Henry.(1988)TeachersasIntellectuals:TowardaCriticalPedagogyofLearning.Granby,
MA.:Bergin&Garvey.
Gruenewald,David.(June,2008)TheBestofBothWorlds:ACriticalPedagogyofPlace
EnvironmentalEducationResearch.Vol14,No.3.pp.308324.
Gruenewald,David,andGregorySmith(editors,2008,)PlaceBasedEducationintheGlobalAge.
NewYork:LawrenceErlbaum.
McLaren,Peter.2005)CapitalistsandConquerors:ACriticalPedagogyAgainstEmpire.
Lanham,Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.
Moyers,B.(2007)BillMoyersjournal,August3,2007.Availableat
www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/08032007/transcripts1.html.
Polanyi,Karl.(2001edition)TheGreatTransformation.Boston:BeaconPress.
Sachs,Wolfgang.(editor)(1992)TheDevelopmentDictionary:AGuidetoKnowledgeasPower.
London:ZedBooks.
_____________.(editor,1993)GlobalEcology:TheNewArenaofPoliticalConflict.London:Zed
Books.
Sale,Kirkpatrick.(1995)RebelsAgainstTheFuture:TheLudditesandTheirWarontheIndustrial
Revolution.Reading,MA.:AddisonWesley.
Shiva,Vandana(1996)ProtectingOurBiologicalandIntellectualHeritageintheAge
ofBiopiracy.NewDelhi:ResearchFoundationforScience,TechnologyandNatural
ResourcePolicy.

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Asthesocialjusticeissuesofclass,race,andgenderhavebeenthedominantconcernof
manyeducationalstudiesfacultyoverthelastdecades,itisnowtimetoaskwhethertherecent
evidenceofglobalwarming,changesinthechemistryoftheworldsoceans,andtheincreasing
shortageofpotablewatershouldleadtodevelopinganewstrategyforamelioratingtheselong
standingsourcesofinjusticeandpoverty.Giventheamountoftimedevotedtodiscussingclass,
race,andgenderissues,aswellasthenumberofbooksthatfocusontheseissues,littlehasactually
beenachievedinaffectingthesystemicchangesrequiredformarginalizedsocialgroupsto
participateonmoreequaltermsinthepublicarenasofpolitics,economics,andeducational
opportunities.CorporationsintheUnitedStatescontinuetoshapegovernmentalpoliciesthat
deepentheeconomicplightofmarginalizedgroupsthatliveatthebottomofthewagescale,while
raisingthecostofdrugsandmedicalcarebeyondwhattheycanafford.Overall,thedemocratic
processitselfhasbecomedegradedbycorporateandotherspecialintereststothepointwhere
millionsofpeoplecontinuetobemiredinpovertyandhopelessness.
Therecentaccelerationofeconomicglobalizationandthedeepeningoftheecologicalcrises
thatarenowimpactingpeoplesdailylivessuggestthataradicalrethinkingofhowtoaddresssocial
justiceissuesisneeded.Thegrowingawarenessoftheseglobaldevelopments,whichincludesthe
neartotalcollapseofthefreemarketsystem,aweakenedlabormovementandrapidrisein
unemployment,thedeclineinthesizeofthemiddleclass,andaneedtochangetheecological
impactofallcitizens(eventhatofthepoorwhohavenotbeeneducatedabouthowtoliveless
environmentallydestructivelives),meansthattheoldassumptionsaboutachievingamoresocially
justsocietyhavetobereexamined.
Socialjusticethinkinghaslargelybeenframedintermsofmiddleclassassumptionsabout
individualism,progress,aworldofunlimitedexploitablenaturalresources,andeducationasa
sourceofindividualempowerment.Theultimategoalofachievinggreatersocialjusticefor
marginalizedgroupshasbeentoenablethemtoparticipateonequaltermsintheareasofwork,
politics,andthecultureofconsumerism.Theguidingprioritiesofecojusticebasededucational
reformsare,ontheotherhand,bothmoreglobalintermsofanalysisandaccountability,andmore
localintermsofeducationalstrategiesthatreversetheprocessofdeskillingthatispartofthe
destructionofcommunitysystemsofmutualsupportthatbeganwiththeriseofthetechnoscientific
basedindustrialculture.Theseprioritiescanbesummarizedaseliminatingenvironmentalracism,

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resistingtheforcesthatarecolonizingThirdWorldculturesandexploitingtheirnaturalresources,
revitalizingthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsthataresitesofresistancetothe
expansionoftheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestyle,adoptingalifestylethatdoesnotdegrade
theprospectsoffuturegenerations,anddevelopinganecologicalconsciousnessthatrespectsofthe
rightofnaturalsystemstorenewthemselves.
Basingdailylifeonecojusticecriteriameanstakingaccountoftheimpactoftheconsumer
dependentlifestylethatisbeingpromotedinourpublicschoolsanduniversitiesbyaskingwhetherit
islargelyresponsiblefortheeconomicandculturalcolonizationofThirdWorldsocieties,aswellas
theenvironmentalracismthatexposesminoritygroupstothetoxicchemicalsthatthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturereliesupon.Ecojusticethinkingalsobringsintofocustheneed
toconsidertheexistingcommunitycenteredalternativestothedeskilledindividuallifestylethatis
increasinglydependentuponconsumerismevenasthesourcesofemploymentbecomemore
uncertainbecauseofoutsourcingtolowwageregionsoftheworld,andthedrivetoincreaseprofits
byreplacingworkerswithcomputerdrivenmachines.Asthelifesustainingecosystemsbecome
moredegraded,thereisalsothequestionofwhetherthecurrentindustrial/consumeroriented
lifestylethatistakenforgrantedbymanyeducationaladvocatesofsocialjusticeisunderminingthe
prospectsoffuturegenerations.Otherconcernsofecojusticethinkingincludetheneedtoundertake
educationalreformsthataddressourresponsibilityforleavingfuturegenerationswithsustainable
ecosystems,whichalsomeansrecognizingtherightofnonhumanformsoflifetoreproduce
themselvesinsustainableways.
Whiletheenvironmentisbeingdegradedtothepointwherethescarcityofprotein,water,
andenergyisdrivingupprices,thusfurtherimpoverishingthealreadypoor,theadvertisingindustry
isspendingbillionsofdollarsayearinordertoperpetuatethepublicsaddictiontoconsumingthe
latestfashions,technologies,andformsofentertainment.Publicawarenessoftheenvironmental
changesthatscientistsarewarningaboutisfurtherobfuscatedbythebigboxstoresandshopping
mallsthatstocktheirshelveswithasuperabundanceofconsumerproductsthusfurther
perpetuatingtheillusionofplentitude.Glitz,easycreditandanindifferencetothedangersofgoing
deepintodebt,arejustpartoftheculturethatnowdominatesthemajorityofthepeopleslivesthat
is,thosewhoarehavenotlosttheirwellpayingjobs,healthandretirementbenefits,andarenow
reducedtoaminimumwagelifestyle.Thepoorandmarginalizedrangingfromsinglemothers,

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urbanminorityyouth,migrantfarmworkers,andawiderangeofpeoplewhoseskincolorandlack
ofeducationalbackgrounddisqualifiesthemfromotherthanmenialformsoflaborinindustrial
foodoutletsandotherlowpayingserviceindustryjobs,aretoofocusedonmeetingthemostbasic
needsoffoodandsheltertobeawarethattherearecommunitycenteredalternativestothe
industrial/consumerlifestyletheyhavebeenexcludedfromparticipatingin.AsBarbaraEhrenreich
pointedoutinarecentinterviewwithBillMoyers,thepoorlivesoclosetotheedgethatgoing
withoutpayforthecoupleofweeksittakestofindamorehighpayingjobisunthinkable.Ineffect,
povertyrestrictseventhismostbasicoptionthatthemiddleclasscantakeforgranted.
Thecentralprioritiesofecojusticeadvocatesdonothavetheirrootsinabstracttheory.
Rather,thetraditionsofintergenerationalknowledgeandpatternsofmutualsupportthatenabled
peopletoliveinwayswheremarketforcesdonotdominateeverydaylifehavebeenaroundsincethe
beginningofhumanhistory.TheyarestillpresentineverycommunityacrossNorthAmericaandin
otherpartsoftheworld.Historically,thesetraditionswereknownasthecommons;thatis,whatis
freelysharedbythemembersofthecommunitywhichalsoincludeslocaldecisionmaking.The
normsthatgovernedtheculturalandenvironmentalcommonswerepassedalongorallyanddiffered
fromculturetoculture.TheRomanswerethefirsttoestablishawrittenrecordofthecommons,
whichtheyidentifiedasthelocalstreams,woods,fields,animals,andsoforth.Thecultural
commons,whichincludetheintergenerationalknowledgeandskillsnecessaryforgathering,
preparing,andsharingfood,themedicinalpropertiesofplantsandwheretofindthem,narrativesof
courageandofhubris,therulesthatgovernedcommunitymemberswhoviolatedlocalnormsof
justice,thesharingoftechnologicalskillsandcraftknowledge,themythologiesandprejudicesthat
regulatedwhohadprivilegedpositionsinthecommunity,andsoforth,haveonlyrecentlybeen
identifiedaspartofthecommons.Theculturalcommonsalsoincludethevoluntaryassociations
thataresourcesofmutualsupportwithinthecommunity,aswellasgroupsthatcometotogetherto
promoteagendasthatrangefromprovidingsafebicyclelaneswithinthecommunitytosupporting
thepeaceeffortsofnationalpoliticiansandprovidingaidtopeopleinotherpartsoftheworldthat
haveexperiencedanaturaldisaster.Unfortunately,theintergenerationalsourcesofempowerment
andcommunityselfsufficiencyarenowbeingthreatenedbythemarketliberaltraditionsofprivate
property,anomicindividualism,theexpansionoftheindustrialapproachtoproductionand
consumption,thegrowinghegemonyofthecapitalistethos,andtheriseofcorporatepower.

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Whilethecausesoftheeconomiccrisesthatisspreadingaroundtheworldaresystemicas
wellasafunctionofhumangreed,itisimportanttonotethatthemainfocusofthemedia,
politicians,andpublicisonregainingthejobsthatwillenablepeopletoreturntotheirprevious
consumerdependentlifestyles.Thatis,thereislittlediscussionofcommunitycenteredalternatives
thatareherebeingreferredtoastheculturalcommonsandthuslittlediscussionofhowthe
politicaleconomyofthelocalculturalcommonscanbecomepartofthebasisformeetingthedaily
needsforfood,housing,medicalcare,education.Ifattentionweretobegiventothelifestylesof
peoplewhoaremorefullyengagedintheirlocalculturalcommonsitwouldbecomeclearerthatthey
relylessuponamoneyeconomyandthusarelessexposedtotheexploitiveforcesthatareinherent
intheindustrialgovernedmarketplace.Thevoluntarysimplicitymovementhasdemonstratedthat
thepoliticaleconomyoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommonsleadstoadifferentunderstanding
ofwealthonthattakesaccountofskills,mutualsupportsystems,andcommunitywellbeing.Yet,
itisimportanttorecognizethatthereisstillaneedformeaningfulformsofworkthatcontributetoa
livingwage.Thecombinationoflocaldecisionmaking,whichisakeyfeatureofmanylocal
culturalcommons,andthespreadofsuchdevelopmentsasmicrobanksandthepoolingoflocal
resourcesforhousingprojectsandothercommunityinfrastructureneeds,arealsoevidenceofthe
needtocombinethinkingaboutlocalselfsufficiencyandecologicalsustainability.
Therelationshipsbetweenthelocalculturalcommonsfoundineverycommunitytodayand
theindustrial/consumerculturehavenotbeenmutuallysupportive.Indeed,thepeoplewhopromote
theexpansionoftheindustrial/consumerdependentlifestyle,andthustheaccumulationofcapital,
viewthelargelynonmonetizedculturalcommonsaspotentialmarketstobeexploited.Theirgoalis
toreplaceintergenerationalskillsandpatternsofmutualsupportwithnewtechnologiesthatmustbe
privatelyownedandwithexpertsystemsthatrepresentassourcesofbackwardnessthetraditional
valuesandformsofknowledgesuchascivilliberties,patternsofreturninglabor,mentoring,
knowledgeofhowtolivelightlyontheland,etc.thathavebeenthestrengthofmanycultural
commons.AtthetimetheenvironmentalcommonsinruralEnglandwerebeingtransformedduring
theearlystagesoftheIndustrialRevolution,theprocessoflimitingfreeaccessanduseonanone
monetizedbasis,aswellasoverturningoflocaldecisionmaking,wasreferredtoasenclosure.
Thatis,theenclosureoftheenvironmentalcommonsinvolvedtheintroductionofprivateownership
andintegrationintoamoneyeconomy,whichoftenledtodecisionmakingbeingtransferredto

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distantownersandlatertocorporationsthatmadeincreasingprofitstheprimarycriteriafor
exploitingthenaturalenvironment.Nowthatwecanrecognizetheculturalbeliefsandpractices,
whichnowincludecyberspace,aspartoftheculturalcommonsthatenablecommunitymembersto
belessdependentuponamoneyeconomy,itispossibletorecognizethemanywaysinwhich
differentaspectsofthelocalculturalcommonsarebeingenclosedbytodaysmarketforcesaswell
asbyideologies,technologies,prejudices,andsilences.Publicschoolsanduniversitiescontinueto
becomplicitinreinforcingtheculturalassumptionsthatfurtherunderminetheviabilityofthe
culturalcommonsevenasenvironmentalscientistsareworkingtoconservewhatremainsofthe
environmentalcommons.Manysocialjusticeorientedfacultycontinuetoreinforcemanyofthe
sameculturalassumptionsthatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytothe
industrial/consumerdependentlifestyleevenastheycriticizetheexploitivenatureofcapitalism.
Thesesharedassumptionsincludetheideaoftheautonomousindividual,theprogressivenatureof
change,ananthropocentricviewofhuman/naturerelationships,andthedrivetoimposethese
assumptionsonotherculturesundertherubricofdevelopment,aswellasthesamesilencesabout
thelocalcommunitysourcesofselfsufficiencyandmutualsupport.(Sachs,1992).
Whilethediversityoftheworldsculturalcommonscurrentlyrepresentsitesofresistanceto
economicglobalization,itisimportanttoavoidromanticizingtheculturalcommons.Inmany
cultures,includingthelocalcommunitiesacrossNorthAmerica,theculturalcommonsalsoinclude
narrativesandtraditionsthatperpetuatedifferentformsofdiscriminationandeconomicexploitation.
Thatis,thestoningtodeathofthewomanwhoseekstomarryoutsideofhertribe,themarketliberal
ideologythatequatessocialprogresswithaneconomythatmakessurvivalofthefittesttheultimate
testofindividualsuccess,andthevariousformsofracial,class,andgenderprejudicesalsohave
theirrootsinthetraditionsofsomeculturalcommons.Ironically,thesenonmonetizedtraditional
beliefsandpractices(whichhavedireeconomicandsocialconsequencesforthosewhoarethe
subjectsofdiscrimination)wereandstillaregenerallysustainedincommunitieswhichmayalso
possessnetworksofmutualsupportthatreducerelianceonconsumerismandthathaveasmaller
ecologicalfootprint.
Thelocalculturalcommonsshouldnotberegeneratedandsupportedjustbecausethey
representalternativestotheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatisbeingglobalizedandthat
putatfurtherriskthepossibilityofachievingasustainablefuture.Rather,thedifferenttraditionsof

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theculturalcommonsneedtobeexaminedintermsofwhethertheysupporttraditionsofcivil
liberties,moralreciprocityinthetreatmentofallmembersofthecommunityasdeservingtheright
toanequalopportunitytodeveloptheirpersonaltalentsandtomakingtheircontributionto
regeneratingthelifesupportingculturalcommons.Challengingthetraditionsofthecultural
commonsthataresourcesofexploitationandmarginalizationshouldalsobepartofamoreglobal
andecologicallyinformedecojusticepedagogy.
AspointedoutintheonlineHandbookforFacultyWorkshopsonHowtoIntroduceCultural
CommonsandEcojusticeIssuesIntoTheirCourses,(2007),theuniquecharacteristicsofthecultural
andenvironmentalcommonsrequirearadicallydifferentapproachthanthecurrentemphasison
makingindividualemancipation,promotingthestudentsconstructionoftheirownknowledge,and
makinghighertestscorestheprimaryfocusofeducationalreform.Thereareanumberofunique
characteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthatanecojusticepedagogyneedstotakeintoaccount.The
firstisthatmostofthetraditionsthatmembersofacommunityparticipateinonadailybasisare
takenforgranted,suchasthetraditionofEnglishspeakersusingthesubjectverbobjectpatternof
oralandwrittencommunication,assumingtheyareinnocentuntilprovenguiltybeforeajuryof
peers,andthatlanguageisaconduitinasender/receiverprocessofcommunicationtocitejusta
fewofthetakenforgrantedpatternsofdailylife.Thetakenforgrantedstatusofmostaspectsof
thelocalculturalcommonsisimportantforseveralreasons.Inbeingpartoftacit,contextual,and
largelytakenforgrantedexperience,theyaremostlyexcludedfromthecurriculumofpublicschools
anduniversities.Andinbeingexcludedfromthecurriculumatalllevelsoftheformaleducation
process,andinbeinglargelytakenforgrantedbymembersofthecommunitywhoareatthesame
timebeingconstantlyindoctrinatedwiththemessagethatchangeisessentialtoprogress,theloss
(thatis,enclosure)ofdifferenttraditionsoftheculturalcommonsgounnoticedexceptforthe
peoplewhoareconsciouslycarryingforwardoneofthetraditionsoftheculturalcommons,suchas
weaving,protectingcivilliberties,utilizingcraftknowledgeandskill,participatinginlocaltheater,
andsoforth.
Thetakenforgrantednatureoftheindividualsembodiedexperienceofthecultural
commons,whichmayincluderacistandgenderformsofdiscrimination,isjustoneofthe
characteristicsofdailyexperiencethatrequiresadifferentapproachtoteachingandlearningthanis
foundincurrentapproachesthatarebasedonmanyofthesameculturalassumptions(orwhatIhave

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referredtoelsewhereasrootmetaphors)thatunderlietheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatis
overshootingthelifesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.Theemphasisonexplicitformsof
knowledge,whichisreinforcedbyrelianceonprintbasedknowledge,testing,andsupposedly
objectiveknowledge,marginalizestheimportanceofhelpingstudentsrecognizethedifference
betweentheirexperiencesintheculturalcommonsandinthemarket/consumerorientedculture.
AnotherbiasincurrentapproachestoeducationthatcanbetracedbacktoPlatosargument
thatpurethinkingleadstouniversaltruthsthataremorereliablethanthinkinggroundedin
embodied/culturallyinfluencedexperiences.TheWesterntheoristswhofollowedinthistraditionof
assumingthatabstractwordsareamoreaccuratesourceofknowledgealsowereunawareofnature
andecologicalimportanceoftheirlocalculturalcommons.Indeed,theyheldincontempttheforms
offacetoface,intergenerationallysharedknowledgeandskill,andrelegatedthemtolowstatus
knowledge.Thistraditionisstillevidentinthethinkingofcurrenteducationalreformerswho
assumethatwordssuchasindividualism,democracy,tradition(whichreproducestheEnlightenment
assumptionsofbeingasourceofbackwardnessandspecialprivileges),intelligence,progress,andso
forth,haveauniversalmeaning.Theseeducationalreformerscontinuetoignorehowtheanalogs
thatframethemeaningofthesemetaphorscarryforwardthemisconceptionsofearlierthinkers(P.
Freire,1974;H.Giroux,1988;D.Gruenewald,2008).Thispatternofthinkingfurthermarginalizes
anawarenessoftheembodiedexperiencesinthedifferentcommunitytraditionsthatarebeing
referredtohereaspartoftheculturalcommons.Oneoftheconsequencesofthesilencesaboutthe
natureandcomplexityoftheculturalcommons,aswellastheconstantreminderthattraditionsare
impedimentstoprogress,whicharebeingreinforcedinmostareasofthepublicschooland
universitycurriculum,isthatstudentsenteradulthoodwithoutanawarenessofthedifferent
economicandideologicalforcesthatareenclosingwhatremainsoftheculturalcommons.Formost
ofthem,theindustrial/consumercultureisthearenainwhichtheywillpersonallysucceedorfail
andtheoutcomeoftheirindividualquestremainsdisconnectedintheirthinkingfromtherapidrate
ofdegradationoftheworldsecosystems.
Thereisnowamajorbodyofwritingthataddressesboththevariouswaysinwhichpublic
schoolsreproducetheculturestraditionsofclassandotherformsofdiscrimination,aswellasthe
reformsthatneedtobeundertakeninordertoachieveamoreequitablesociety.Criticismof
prejudiciallanguage,silencesinthecurriculum,preconceptionsaboutthepotential(orlackthereof)

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ofalreadymarginalizedstudents,trackingandothersystemicformsofdiscrimination,havebeenthe
mainstaysofeducationalfoundationandeducationalstudiescoursesforthepastseveraldecades.
Whiletherehavebeensomesocialjusticegains,particularlyintheareasofraceandgender,there
remainsmuchtobedoneespeciallysincethechangesresultingfromeconomicglobalizationand
theglobalwarmingwillhavethegreatestimpactonminoritygroupswhoseeconomicgainshave
been,atbest,bothminimalandfragile.Critiquesofthebeliefsandvaluesthathavekeptpeopleof
color,women,andotherpeoplerestrictedbyotherclassbarriershaveactuallybeencritiquesofthe
reactionarytraditionsoffoundwithinsomeculturalcommons.Unfortunately,thetheoriesthat
framedthesecritiqueswerenotinformedaboutthecomplexnatureoftheculturalcommons.Indeed,
thephraseculturalcommonshasnotbeenused(D.GruenewaldandG.Smith,2008).Themain
consequenceofthislackofunderstandingisthattheaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthatholdout
theprospectoffindingcommunitycenteredalternativestothenegativeimpactoftheindustrial
culturehavenotbeenpartofthewellintendedeffortstousetheschoolstoeliminatethesourcesof
povertyandinjustice.
Theuseofasociologicalinterpretativeframeworkseemedideallysuitedtobringinginto
focuseconomic,political,andeducationalinequities.Unfortunately,ithasledtoignoringthe
questionsthatwouldhavearisenifamoreanthropologicallyinformedinterpretativeframeworkhad
beenreliedupon.Awarenessofadeepunderstandingofculturaldifferencescouldeasilyhave
broughtintoquestionhownotionsofindividualfreedomandequalitycouldbereconciledwiththe
importancethathasbeengiveninrecentyearstoavoidingculturalcolonization.Forexample,the
WesternidealofindividualfreedomandthediversityofnonWesternculturesdonoteasilyfit
together.Anotherlimitationofthesociologicalinterpretativeframeworkisthatitkeepsthefocusof
analysisandrecommendationsforreformonhumantohumanrelationships,withthehuman/nature
relationshipsbeingignored.Theevidenceforthisclaimcaneasilybesubstantiatedbyreadingthe
mostinfluentialeducationalwriterswhohaveinfluencedhowtheanalysisofclass,race,andgender
hasbeenframedwriterssuchasSamuelBowles,HerbGintis,MichaelApple,HenryGiroux,and
PeterMcLaren.RecentlyBowlesandGintishavebeenwritingaboutthecommons,andMcLaren
hasnowturnedattentiontoexplaiinghowMarxismcanguideeducationalreformsthataddress
issuesofsustainability(P,McLaren,2005).Thekeypointisthattodayseducationaldiscourseon

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class,race,andgendercontinuestoignore,withonlyafewexceptions,theimplicationsofthe
ecologicalcrisesfortheverysocialgroupstheywanttoemancipate.
Theuseoftheculturalcommonsastheconceptualframeworkforanalyzingthevarious
formsofdiscrimination,aswellasforguidingeducationalreforms,hasseveraladvantagesthata
sociologicalframeworklacks.Toreiterate:theculturalcommonsrepresentalloftheformsof
knowledge,values,practices,andrelationshipsthathavebeenhandeddownovergenerationsthat
havebeenthebasisofindividualandcommunityselfsufficiencyandthathaveenabledmembers
ofthecommunitytobelessdependentuponamoneyeconomy.Whilethepreviousdiscussionof
thereactionaryand,insomecases,horrificpracticesofsomeoftheworldsculturalcommonsneeds
bekeptinmind,thereareothercharacteristicsofselfsufficiencythatexistedpriortowhatKarl
PolanyicalledtheGreatTransformationwhentheemergenceoftheindustrialsystemof
productionledtotheenclosureoftheenvironmentalcommons(K.Polanyi,2002edition).InRebels
AgainsttheFuture:TheLudditesandTheirWarontheIndustrialRevolution(1995)Kirkpatrick
Salesummeduphowthesurvivalandglobalexpansionoftheindustrialsystemofproductionand
consumptiondependedupontheenclosureoftheculturalcommons.Asheputit,
Allthatcommunityimpliesselfsufficiency,mutualaid,moralityinthemarketplace,
stubborntradition,regulationbycustom,organicknowledgeinsteadofmechanisticscience
hadtobesteadilyandsystematicallydisruptedanddisplaced.Allthepracticesthatkept
theindividualfrombeingaconsumerhadtobedoneawaywithsothatthecogsandwheels
ofanunfetteredmachinecalledtheeconomycouldoperatewithinterference,influenced
merelybyinvisiblehandsandinevitablebalancesp.38.
Saledoesnotrefertothecommunitytraditionsofselfsufficiencyastheculturalcommons,buthe
accuratelymakesthepointthattheindustrial/consumerdependentculturerequiresthedestructionof
thedifferentformsofintergenerationalknowledge,skillsandmutuallysupportiverelationshipsthat
enabledpeopletolivelessmoneyandthuslessconsumerdependentlives.Ineffect,heisdescribing
howthesuccessoftheindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumptionrequiredthedestructionof
thelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Whatisironicisthatthekindofindividualrequired
bytheindustrial/consumerdependentcultureistheautonomousindividualbeingpromotedbymany
oftodayseducationalreformers.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthelackofintergenerational
knowledgethatreducesdependenceuponconsumerismcontributestoanimportantaspectofpoverty

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thatisseldomdiscussedeventhoughitleadstotheformsofpovertythatthreatentheindividuals
healthandleadstootherformsofinsecurity.
Unlikethelimitedconceptualpossibilitiesofasociologicalinterpretativeframeworkand
vocabulary,theculturalcommonsisthephrasethatencompassesthetraditionsofcommunitythat
arenestedinlargersocialandecologicalsystems.Thesetraditions,asmentionedearlier,rangefrom
localapproachestogrowingandpreparingfoodasalternativestoindustrializedsystemthatisso
damagingtotheecosystemstointergenerationalapproachestohealingthatdifferfromthehighly
monetizedandindustrialapproachesoftodaysmedicine(whichareincreasinglybecoming
dependentuponpatentingindigenousknowledgeofthemedicinalpropertiesofplants)(V,Shiva,
1996).Dependinguponthelocalcommunitiesandculturaltraditions,theintergenerational
knowledgealsoincludesthecreativeartspassedonthroughmentoringthatdifferfromthestar
systemofcommercializedmusicandvisualarts,aswellasnarrativesofthelabor,feminist,and
civilrightsmovementsratherthanthemindnumbingtelevisionsitcomsthatservetohookviewers
tothemultibillionadvertisingindustry.ThetraditionsofcivilrightsthatgobacktotheMagna
Cartaof1215arealsopartoftheculturalcommons.Unfortunately,theyarenowbeingenclosedby
thegrowingalliancebetweenmarketliberaldominatedgovernments,corporations,universities,and
themilitaryestablishment.Amorefinegrainedanalysisofthedifferencesbetweenthecultural
commonsandtheindustrial/consumerdependentculturethatisnowbeingglobalizedwouldinvolve
adiscussionofthedifferencesbetweencommunitymentorsanduniversitytrainedexpertswhohave
anegoandeconomicinvestmentinimposingtheorybasedsolutionsonpeopleslives,betweenface
tofaceandcomputermediatedcommunication,betweencommunitytraditionsofreciprocitywhere
workisreturnedandworkthathastobepaidfor,betweendevelopingpersonalinterestsandskills
andbeingaconsumerofotherpeoplestalents,aswellasbetweentheembodiedexperiencesof
beinginthenaturalenvironmentandtheembodiedexperienceofsittinginfrontofacomputer
screenwithitsoftenviolentsimulationgamesthatdeadenthecapacityforempathyandmoral
responsibility.
Therearetwoothercharacteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthathavespecialsignificance.
Thefirstisthattheyexistineverycommunityandcanonlybefullyrecognizedbyanindepth
descriptionoftheculturalpatternsthatunconsciouslyinfluencetheembodiedexperienceof
preparingandsharingameal,playingagame,tellingastory,writingpoetry,marchinginanantiwar

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demonstration,protestingexperimentationsandotherformsofanimalexploitation,workingwith
othersinrenewinghabitats,andsoforth.Theculturalcommonsarelargelyatakenforgrantedand
thusanunrecognizedaspectofdailylifeandcanbestbebroughttoattentionthroughactual
participationandethnographic/phenomenologicaldescriptionsratherthanthroughabstracttheory
andprintbaseddescriptions.Thesecondcharacteristicthatneedstobereiterated,especiallyinlight
oftherateofglobalwarming,isthatwhattheindustrialculturehadtodestroy,asSaleputit,arethe
intergenerationaltraditionsthathavesmalleradverseimpactontheecologicalsystemsthatallforms
oflifedependsupon.
MostaspectsoftheculturalcommonsinWesterncountriesrelytosomedegreeonwhathas
tobepurchased.However,eventhissmalldegreeofdependencemakesagreatdealofdifferencein
termsofmeetingthecriteriaofecojustice.Bybeingmoreintergenerationallyconnected,a
revitalizedculturalcommonsreducestheneedforasystemofproductionthathastodisposeofvast
amountsoftoxicwastes(usuallyintheneighborhoodsofthepoorandmarginalized).Italsoreduces
theneedtoexploittheresourcesofThirdWorldculturesandtointegratethemintoaglobalmarket
system.Astheseculturesareabletoregeneratetheirownculturalcommonstheyareabletoresist
moreeffectivelytheWestseffortstocolonizetheminthenameofdevelopment,democracy,and
modernizationgodwordsthatarebasedonWesternassumptionsaboutindividualism,progress,
andthemessianicdrivetoimposeaconsumerdependentlifestyleonothercultures.Thelifestyle
thatismoreorientedtowardculturalcommonsskillsandactivitiesofmutualsupport,andlesson
consumerismthatisdegradingtheenvironmentandthustheprospectsoffuturegenerations,meets
yetanotherconcernofecojusticeadvocates.Inpossessingtheskillsandparticipatinginthe
communitysystemsofmutualsupport,theindividualismorelikelytoresistthemarketoriented
ideologythatequatestheexploitationofspeciesandhabitatswithprogress.Thischaracteristicof
theculturalcommonsmeetsthelastcriteriaofrecognizingthatnaturalsystemshavearightto
reproducethemselvesaspartofthelayerednestingofinterdependentecosystemsandnottobe
reducedtoaneconomicresource.
Thislistoftheecologicallysustainableandmorallycoherentcharacteristicsofthecultural
commonsbringsoutwhatismissinginmostoftheeducationaldiscourseonhowtoeliminate
discriminationintheareasofclass,race,andgender.Italsobringsintofocustheviablealternatives
foraddressingtheestimatedonebillionlivesthatexistononedollaradayandaremiredinthe

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cultureofpovertymarkedbyalackoffoodsecurityandadequatehousing.Asglobalwarming
acceleratesinthenextfewdecades,astheworldsoceansbecomelessreliablesourcesofprotein,
andasdroughtsandsevereweathersystemscontributetomassmigrationsofpeople,thelivesofthe
poorwillbecomemoredesperateastheyexpandinnumber.Thedoublebindofrelyingupon
sourcesofenergytokeeptheindustrialsystemexpanding(thusacceleratingtherateofglobal
warming)willintensifythewillingnessofcorporationstooutsourceproductionfacilitiesnotonlyto
lowwageregionsbuttoregionsthatstillhaveeasilyaccessedsourcesofenergy.Astheecological
crisesdeepens,andtheseeminglyunrelentingdrivetocontinueexpandingprofitsinanincreasingly
stressedworldbecomesmoredifficult,itwillbethepeoplewhocontinuetooccupythebottomrung
oftheeconomic/political/educationalhierarchywhowillcontinuetosufferthemost.
Theironyisthattheancientpathwayofhumandevelopmentthatstillexistsinruraland
urbancommunities,andthatrepresentsanessentialpartofapostindustrialalternative,continuesto
beignoredevenbythefeweducationaltheoristswhoarebeginningtorecognizetheecological
crises.Whatnowhastobeavoidedistheendlessrepetitionthatthereisanecologicalcrisesandthat
capitalismisprimarilyresponsible.Thoughtfulpeoplealreadyunderstandtheconnectionsbetween
thetwophenomena.Instead,advocatesofsocialjusticeneedtoexplorethepedagogicaland
curricularimplicationsofhowtointroducestudents,includingthealreadymarginalizedstudents,to
thelifeenhancingpossibilitiesthatexistintheculturalcommonsoftheirlocalcommunitiesand
thatarepartoftheculturalcommonsofthedominantculturethatprotecttherightsofvarious
minoritycultures.Thereisadirectconnectionbetweentheenclosureofthetraditionsofcivil
libertiesthatarethebasisofdemocracyandthegrowingdominanceofcorporations,marketliberal
politicians,religiousfundamentalists,andthemilitaryestablishmentthatviewsitsmissionas
protectingtheglobalinterestsofmarketliberals.ThereisalsoaconnectioninAmericabetweenthe
numberofmarginalizedgroupswhosufferthemostdeathsandcatastrophicinjuriesfrommilitary
actionsthatresultfromthelogicofeconomicglobalization.Knowledgeofhowtoprotestagainst
thevariousformsofeconomicandpoliticaloppressionisalsopartoftheculturalcommonswhich
includesthenarrativesofpastprotestmovements,strategiesthathaveprovenmostsuccessful,and
evensongsandtheiconographyassociatedwithpastpeacemovements.Thecurrentdrivetoinstall
totalsurveillancesystemsofacountryscitizensasadefenseagainstterrorismfurtherundermines

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theircivilliberties,andwillbeusedbypolicetoidentifytheleadersofmovementsprotesting
variousformsofsocialinjusticeincludingenvironmentalactivists.
PedagogicalandCurricularImplications
Thefutureprospectsofthepoorandmarginalizedareinextricablytiedtothefutureprospects
oftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons.Withtheoutsourcingofwork,automationthatreduces
theneedforworkers,anddownsizinginordertoimprovecorporateprofits,theprospectsofupward
mobilitythathasbeenthehallmarkofpastgenerations,thoughunevenlyrealized,arebeingrapidly
diminished.Giventhisreality,placinggreateremphasisoneducationalreformsthathelpto
regeneratetheculturalcommonsshouldnotbeinterpretedasmeaningthatallstudents,regardlessof
socialclassandracialbackground,shouldnotacquiretheknowledgethatwillenablethemtofind
workthatismeaningfulandthatsupportsabasicstandardofliving.Justasmostaspectsofthe
culturalcommonsrequiresomedegreeofdependenceupontheindustrialsystemofproductionand
consumption,publicschoolsanduniversitiesneedtoensurethatthestudentsatthebottomof
economicandsocialpyramidhavetheopportunitytolearnwhatisrequiredforcareersand
employmentthatarenonexploitive.Atthesametime,changesneedtobeintroducedatalllevelsof
theeducationalsystemthatwillenablestudentstolearnaboutthecommunitycenteredalternatives
thatcontributetothetransitiontoapostindustrialfuturenamely,theculturalcommons.In
discussingtheuniquecharacteristicsofapedagogyandcurriculumthatintroducestudentstothe
ecologicalandcommunitysustainingimportanceoftheculturalcommons,itisimportanttokeepin
mindthatweareinatransitionphaseofculturaldevelopment.Thus,thefollowingdiscussionof
pedagogicalandcurriculumreformsmustalsobeviewedinthislight.
Ifweconsiderthebasictensionbetweentheindustrial/consumerorientedcultureandthe
characteristicsoftheculturalcommonsthatstrengthenmutualsupport,thedevelopmentofskillsand
personaltalents,andensuresmoralreciprocityamongallmembersofthecommunity,itbecomes
clearwhattheroleoftheclassroomteacher/professorshouldbe.Insteadofpromotingthehigh
statusformsofknowledgeandvaluesthatcontributetothefurtherexpansionofthe
industrial/consumerorientedculture,theroleoftheclassroomteacheranduniversityprofessor
shouldbethatofamediatorwhohelpsstudentsbecomeawareofthefundamentaldifferences
betweenparticipationintheculturalcommonsandthecultureofindustrialproductionand
consumption.Beingamediatorrequiresanunderstandingofwhatstudentsaremostlikelytotake

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forgrantedastheymovedailybetweenparticipationinthetwosubcultures.Thepedagogicaltask
istoencouragestudentstonamewhatwouldotherwisebetakenforgranted.Namingtakenfor
grantedpatternsofthinkingandbehavior,aswelearnedfromboththefeministandcivilrights
movements,isthefirststeptomakingthemexplicitwhichisessentialfordeveloping
communicativecompetence.Likethemediatorinlabordisputes,theteachersmediatorrole
precludesgivingstudentstheanswersaboutwhichaspectsoftheculturalcommonsaswellasthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturethatneedtoberejectedorrenewed.Thetechnoscientificbasis
oftheindustrialculturehasmademanyimportantcontributionstoimprovingthequalityofhuman
life,andnowhasthepotentialtohelpreduceourcarbonfootprint.Thus,thetaskofbeinga
mediatorshouldnotbereducedtothatofanideologuewhohaspreconceivedanswers,andwho
enforcesthesilenceaboutwhather/hisideologycannotexplain.Similarly,ideologyshouldnot
guidehowthestudentsaretothinkabouttheirembodiedexperienceswithintheculturaland
environmentalcommons.
Theinitialstepinteachingandlearningthatfitsthemodelofamediatoristoencourage
studentstodescribetheirembodied/culturallyinfluencedexperienceastheymovebetweenthetwo
subcultures.Therearespecificquestionsthatstudentsneedtoberemindedtoask:Doesthe
experienceinaculturalcommonsactivitycontributetothedevelopmentofpersonalskillsandthe
discoveryoftalents?Doesitcontributetoasenseofcommunityselfsufficiencyandmutual
support?Doesitrequireexploitingotherswhoarelessadvantaged?Whatisitsimpactonnatural
systems?Doesitcontributetoanawarenessofwhatneedstobeintergenerationallyrenewedandof
theneedtobeabletomentorothers?Doesitleadtodifferentformsofempowerment,suchasthe
abilitytoexercisecommunicativecompetenceinresistingfurtherformsofenclosureofskillsand
patternsofmutualsupportthatresultinanincreaseddependencyuponamoneyeconomy?Whatis
itsecologicalfootprint?Thesesamequestionsneedtobeexploredbystudentsastheyparticipatein
variousaspectsoftheindustrial/consumerorientedculture.
Examiningthedifferencesbetweenpreparingandsharingamealwithothersandeatingina
fastfoodoutlet,betweenfacetofacecommunicationandreading,betweengardeningandbeing
dependentuponindustriallypreparedfood,betweenparticipatinginoneofthecreativeartsand
beingaconsumerofcommerciallypromotedartisticperformances,betweendevelopingskills
associatedwithacraftthatextendsonestalentsandpurchasingwhathasbeenindustriallyproduced

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(increasinglyinalowwageregionoftheworld)willquicklybecomeapparent.Andthisawareness
ofdifferences,ifframedinlightoftheecologicalcrisesandthechangesresultingfromeconomic
globalization,isessentialtotherecoveryoflocaldemocracythathasbeenoneofthehallmarksof
thediverseculturalcommonsthathavenotbeenbasedonideologiesandmythologiesthathave
privilegedthefewoverthemany.
Anotherresponsibilityoftheteacher/professorsmediatingroleistoensurethatstudents
becomeawareofthenarrativesthatprovideanaccountofvarioussocialjusticemovements
startingwiththeearliestbeginningsofthetraditionsofcivillibertiesintheWestsuchashabeas
corpus,therighttoafairtrialbyajuryofpeers,thefranchise,separationofpowers,andan
independentjudiciary.Thenarrativesthatprovideanunderstandingofthelabormovementsthat
struggledtoachievesafeworkingconditions,alivingwage,andtherightofworkerstoorganize
politically,shouldalsobepartofthecurriculum.Thefeministaswellasthecivilrightsmovements
alsoshouldbepartofacommonsorientedcurriculum.Againthetensionsbetweenthecultural
commonsandtheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatarenowbeingglobalized,andthatare
majorcontributorstotheecologicalcrises,willinevitablycomeoutandbeamajorfocusofclass
discussions.
Theecologicalcrises,aswellastheincreasingnumberoftheworldspopulationthatis
movingfromasubsistenceexistenceintooneofdirepoverty,makeitparticularlyimportantthatthe
teacher/professorintroducestudentstothehistoryofdifferentwaysinwhichtheculturalcommons
arebeingenclosedThefollowingquestionswillbringintofocusdifferentformsofenclosure:How
didtheWesternphilosophersrelianceonunacknowledgedculturallyinfluencedinterpretative
frameworks(whichcanalsobeunderstoodasrootmetaphorsthatframethehistoricallylayered
processofanalogicthinking)contributetotheenclosureoftheculturalcommons?Howhastherise
ofWesternsciencecontributedtotheenclosureoflocalknowledgeofhealing,agriculturalpractices,
relianceonlocalmaterials,andsoforth?Whatrolehavevariousreligionsplayedinstrengthening
theculturalcommonsand,ontheotherhand,inrepresentingtheexploitationofthecommonsby
marketforcesascarryingoutGodsplanforthosewhoaretobesaved?Whatweretheintellectual
influencesthatmarginalizedtheimportanceoftheworkersskills,theircontrolofthetempoofwork
anduseoftechnologies?Whatarethecurrenttechnoscientificandmarketforcesthatare

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threateningthediversityofseeds,andlocalknowledgeofhowtoadaptagriculturalpracticestothe
characteristicsoflocalsoils,weatherpatterns,andsoforth?
Inadditiontointroducing,particularlyasthestudentsmoveintotheuppergradesandonto
theuniversity,thevarioushistoriesofdifferentformsofenclosure,theroleofbeingamediatoralso
requiresthatstudentsbeintroducedtohowdifferentcultureshavesustainedtheirculturaland
environmentalcommonswhileatthesametimeensuringthattheirlocalmarketsdidnotdominate
thepatternsandvaluesofeverydaylife(W.Sachs,1992;W.Sachs,1993).Knowledgeofthe
intergenerationaltraditionsofotherculturalapproachestotheculturalandenvironmentalcommons
willenablestudentstogainabetterperspectiveonwhetherthecurrentmyththatequatesthe
Westernscientifictechnologicalandmarketdrivenapproachestocreatinggreaterdependenceon
whatisindustriallyproducedandconsumedshouldbethebasisofdevelopmentinothercultures.
Thereisaneedtoenablealargepercentageoftheworldspopulationthatismiredinpovertyto
obtainadecentstandardoflivingandtoenablethemtoexperiencemorethanalifeofdrudgeryand
stunteddevelopment.Thecriticalquestioniswhetherthefurtherenclosureofthediversityofthe
worldsculturalcommonswillachievethisend.
Tothispoint,thediscussionoftheteacher/professorsroleasamediatorbetweenthe
studentsembodied/culturallynestedexperiencesinthelocalculturalcommonsandintheworkplace
andshoppingmallsoftheindustrialculturehasbeengeneralinnature.Itisnownecessaryto
addresshowtoengagestudentsfromavarietyofbackgroundsthatmakethemespeciallyvulnerable
totheprejudicescurrentlyperpetuatedbytheeducationalsystemsemphasisonthehighstatus
knowledgethatperpetuatespovertyanddeepenstheecologicalcrises.Asmentionedearlier,every
culturehasitsdistinctintergenerationaltraditionsofpreferredfoods,approachestothecreativearts,
healingpractices,waysofunderstandingmoralreciprocity,craftknowledge,narrativesofpast
achievementsandleaders,mentorsinvariousartsandcrafts,understandingofwhatconstitutes
socialjustice,andsoforth.Forexample,ifonegoestothelargelyHispaniccommunityinSan
Franciscotheywillfindthatmanyofthewallsofbuildingsthatpreviouslywereusedtoadvertise
cigarettesandliquorhavebeenreclaimedaspartoftheculturalcommons.Giantmuralsnowdepict
paststruggles,importantculturalleaders,andvisionsofwhatthefutureshouldholdforHispanic
communities.ThesamereclaimingofthispartoftheculturalcommonscanbefoundinDetroitand
othermajorcities.Otherexamplesoftheculturalcommonscanbeseeninthecommunitygardens

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wheretraditionalfoodsaregrown,inthelocalpoets,artists,writers,andmusicianswhoarewilling
mentorsofthecommunitysyouth.Thereareeldersandpeoplewhotakeresponsibilityforkeeping
alivetheoralhistoryofthegroup,justastherearelivingtraditionsofhowassisttheespecially
vulnerabletotheproblemsofextremepoverty,oldage,andhopelessness.Thenatureofthese
culturalcommonsvaryfromcommunitytocommunity,fromethnicgrouptoethnicgroup.Asthe
culturalcommonsoftheseethnicandmarginalizedgroupsarenestedintheculturalcommonsofthe
largersociety,withitstraditionsofcivilliberties,traditionsofachievinglegalredressof
discriminatorypractices,andofaffectingchangesthroughanadmittedlyflaweddemocraticprocess,
itisimportantthatthesetraditionsalsoberecognizedasessentialaspectsofwhatmarginalized
studentsshouldclaimastheirculturalcommons.
Thestartingpointinacommonsorientedcurriculumistohavestudentsconductasurveyof
theirlocalculturalcommons,aswellastheaspectsofthelargerculturalcommonsthattheyhavea
right(inspiteofpastexclusions)toparticipatein.Thesurveyshouldinvolvelearningwhothe
eldersandmentorsare,whothekeepersofthecommunitymemoryare,whatformsofcultural
commonsactivitiesexistsuchasplayingchess,painting,writingpoetry,musicalperformances,
gardening,workingwithwoodandmetal,volunteerism,politicalactiongroups,etc.Inaword,the
surveyshouldcovertheactivitiesandrelationshipswithinthecommunitythatarelessreliantupona
moneyeconomyandthatleadtothedevelopmentofskillsandintereststhatcontributetoaless
damagingecologicalfootprint.
Afterthesurveyhasbeenundertaken,theprocessoflearningtomakeexplicitthedifferences
betweentheirembodied/culturallynestedexperienceswithdifferentactivitieswithinthecultural
commonsandintheworldofindustrialworkandconsumerismcanbegin.Thisprocessoflearning
torecognizedifferencesthatotherwisearetakenforgrantedasthestudentsmovebetweenthetwo
subcultures,andtonamethem,providesthelinguisticandconceptualbasisforthecommunicative
competencenecessaryforresistingfurtherformsofenclosurebymarketandscientific/technological
forces.Resistancemaytaketheformofovercomingthesilencesaboutthenatureandimportanceof
thelocalculturalcommonsbeingperpetuatedbypublicschoolsanduniversities.Italsomaytake
theformofresistingthefalsepromisesofdeveloperswhowanttoattractthelargecommercial
enterprisesthatwilleliminatethesmallshopkeepersandserviceprovidersaswellastheopen
physicalspacesthatenablemembersofthecommunitytoconnectwiththenaturalworld,andto

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havecommunitygardensandplacesforchildrenandotherstoplayandtoescapethepressuresofthe
mediaandthetemptationsoftheshoppingmalls.Communicativecompetenceisalsonecessaryto
givingvoicetowhataspectsofthetechnoscientific/industrialcultureneedstobeabandonedas
ecologicallyunsustainableandwhichaspectscanmakeacontributiontoimprovingthelivesof
peoplewhilestillhavingasmallerecologicalfootprint.
Oneofthefailuresoftheeducationaltheoristswhohavebeenwritingabouttheneedfor
educationalreformsthataddresstheseeminglyintractableproblemsofclass,race,andgender
discriminationisthattheyhavecontinuedtousethemetaphorsofindividualism,progress,
emancipation,intelligence,tradition,etc.,thatcarryforwardtheanalogsformedinthedistant
pastbytheoristswhoignoredculturaldifferences,thenatureandimportanceoftheculturaland
environmentalcommons,andthatthereareecologicallimits.Ineffect,theargumentsforaddressing
theissuesofrace,class,andgenderhavebeenbasedonametaphoricallanguagethathasbeen
frozenovertime,andthatcontinuestoputoutoffocustheintergenerationalrelationshipsand
knowledgethatprovidealternativestotheformofindividualismthatisdependentupon
consumerismtomeetdailyneeds.Relianceuponthemetaphoricallanguagethatgaveconceptual
legitimacytotheriseandcurrentglobalizationofanindustrial/consumerdependentlifestylecanalso
beunderstoodasyetanotherunrecognizedexampleofhowlanguagecontinuestocolonizethe
presentbypastwaysofunderstanding(Bowers,2008,pp.3339).
Learningtoparticipateinwhatremainsofthelocalculturalcommons,andindeveloping
newskillsandnonmonetizedrelationshipswillhavetheeffectofexpandinghowintelligenceis
understoodfromthatofanindividualattributethatissubjectivelycenteredtounderstandingthat
intelligenceiscommunal,intergenerational,andenhancedthroughparticipationwithothers,and
withtheenvironment.Asthecommunalandintergenerationalnatureofintelligencemaybethe
sourceofprejudicesandenvironmentallydestructivelifestyles,itisimportantforteachers/professors
helpstudentsrecognizetheformsofintelligencethataredestructiveofhumanpossibilitiesandwell
asthewaysofthinkingthatareinformedbytodaysunderstandingofsocialandecojustice.Thishas
beenpartofthecurriculumthathasbeenaddressingvariousformsofdiscriminatoryrelationships
andpatternsofthinking.Toooftenthisprocessofclarificationhas,atthesametime,reinforcedthe
ideathatcriticalthinkingistheexpressionofindividualautonomy.Makingthestudentsculturally
influencedembodiedexperiencesinthelocalculturalandenvironmentalcommonsanintegralpart

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ofthecurriculumwillhelptoreconstitutehowindividualismisunderstoodfromthatofbeing
autonomousandessentiallyalonetorecognizingthatoneoftheuniquecharacteristicsoflifeisbeing
inrelationshipsthatconstantlyleadtoaredefinitionofselfthatreflectchangesinthesocialand
environmentalcontext.Tradition,whichstillcarriesforwardthereductionistthinkingofthe
Enlightenmentwriters,willalsoceasetobeanabstractionthatmisrepresentsthecomplexityofdaily
experienceinboththeculturalcommonsandintheindustrial/consumerorientedculture.Insteadof
thinkingthatchangealwaysisaprogressiveforce,theembodiedexperienceswithinthecultural
commonswillleadtoamorecomplexandcriticallyinformedunderstandingofwhichtraditions
needtobecarriedforwardandrenewed,andwhichtraditionsneedtoberejectedasenvironmentally
destructiveandassourcesofinjustice.
Oneofthemetaphorsthatisinspecialneedtobeingassociatedwithnewanalogsis
environmentwhichisnowunderstoodasthebackgroundwithinwhichhumanexperiencetakes
placeorasanexploitableresource.Iftheteacher/professorexplains,andhasstudentstestoutin
termsoftheirownembodiedexperiences,howdifferentenvironmentscanbeunderstoodas
ecologiesandthatecologiesincludeboththeinteractionsandinterdependencieswithinnatural
systemsaswellaswithincultures(andtheinterdependenciesbetweencultureandnature)theyare
morelikelytobeawareofthedifferentwaysinwhichtheiractivitiesimpactthesustainable
characteristicsofnaturalsystems.Studentsstillrootedinthebeliefsoftheirindigenousheritage
alreadypossessthisawareness,butstudentswhohavebeenuprootedfromtheirculturaltraditions
(whichmaynothavebeenecologicallycenteredinthefirstplace)willneedtodevelopthis
awareness.Andthisawarenesswillbeessentialtoslowingtherateofenvironmentaldegradation
thatwillimpactthemthehardestincomingyears.
Thechallengenowisfortheproponentsofeducationalreformsthataddresstheissuesof
class,race,andgendertorecognizethatanapproachtoachievingsocialjusticeforthemillionsof
marginalizedstudentscannotbebasedonthesamedeepculturalassumptionsthatcreatedthe
industrial/consumerorientedculturethatislargelyresponsiblefortheinjusticesthatcontinueto
stuntthepotentialofstudents.Thischallengewillbeparticularlydifficulttoaddressasfewof
todaysproponentsofeducationalreformhavegivenattentiontohowlanguagehelpstoorganize
theirpatternsofthinkinginwaysthatreproducethesilencesandculturalassumptionsofpast
theoristswhocontributedtotodaysdoublebindpatternsofthinking.Theproblemisthatthe

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doublebindthinkingoftheseselfproclaimedsocialjusticetheoristscontinuestoequateprogress
withachievinggreaterequalityofopportunityformarginalizedgroupstoliveamiddleclass
consumerdependentlifestylewhiletheworldismovingclosertotheecologicaltippingpoint
scientistsarewarningabout.

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http://cabowers.net
Freire,Paulo.(1974)PedagogyoftheOppressed.NewYork:SeaburyPress.
Giroux,Henry.(1988)TeachersasIntellectuals:TowardaCriticalPedagogyofLearning.Granby,
MA.:Bergin&Garvey.
Gruenewald,David.(June,2008)TheBestofBothWorlds:ACriticalPedagogyofPlace
EnvironmentalEducationResearch.Vol14,No.3.pp.308324.
Gruenewald,David,andGregorySmith(2008,editors)PlaceBasedEducationintheGlobalAge.
NewYork:LawrenceErlbaum.
McLaren,Peter.2005)CapitalistsandConquerors:ACriticalPedagogyAgainstEmpire.
Lanham,Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.
Polanyi,Karl.(2001edition)TheGreatTransformation.Boston:BeaconPress.
Sachs,Wolfgang.(editor)1992.TheDevelopmentDictionary:AGuidetoKnowledgeasPower.
London:ZedBooks.
_____________.(editor,1993)GlobalEcology:TheNewArenaofPoliticalConflict.London:Zed
Books.
Sale,Kirkpatrick.(1995)RebelsAgainstTheFuture:TheLudditesandTheirWarontheIndustrial
Revolution.Reading,MA.:AddisonWesley.

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Shiva,Vandana(1996)ProtectingOurBiologicalandIntellectualHeritageintheAgeofBiopiracy.
NewDelhi:ResearchFoundationforScience,TechnologyandNaturalResourcePolicy.

Chapter11SuggestionsforaStateSystemWideApproachtoEcologicallySustainable
ReformsofPublicSchools
Asmoreandmorescientistsarewarningabouttheurgencyofaddressingtheenvironmental
crisespublicschoolteachersandfacultyincollegesofeducationneedtobemotivatedtointroduce
reformsinpedagogyandcurriculumthatwillcontributetoslowingtherateofenvironmental
change.Mostareunawareofthedepthofthecrises.Noraremanyawarethattheculturalvalues
andpatternsofthinkingtheyreinforceintheirclassesarepartofthesamemindsetthatisdeepening
thecrises.Scientistsarenowreferringtoatippingpointwherechangesinhumanbehaviorwillnot
reverseorslowtheincreasingrateofenvironmentaldegradation.Educationalreformsmustgo
beyondthatofencouragingstudentstorecycleandtothinkofthemselvesasstewardsoftheearth.
Educationalreformsthatfocusonboththeculturalrootsoftheecologicalcrisesandreformsthat
willstrengthencommunitiesinwaysthatreducethehumanimpactonnaturalsystemsmustbegiven
legitimacyatalllevelsofgovernmentfromtheGovernorsOffice,theStateBoardofEducation,
theStateDepartmentofEducation,tothecollegesofeducationthroughoutthestate.Onlywhen
theselevelsofgovernmentsignalthateducationalreformsforasustainablefutureareatoppriority
willprofessorsandclassroomteachersrecognizetheneedtocommitthemselvestothiscollective
effort.

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Conceptualissuesthatshouldguidereformintheareasofcurriculumandpedagogy(Einstein
identifiedthekeyproblemofouragewhenhesaidthatyoucannotusethesamemindsettofixthe
problemthatcreatedit)

Professorsofeducationandclassroomteachersmustbeabletorecognizehowthelanguage
inthecurriculumandinotherlearningsituationscarriesforwardthemisconceptionsand
biasesofearlierthinkerswhowereunawareofenvironmentallimits.Theyhave
demonstratedtheabilitytorecognizehowlanguageinthecurriculumreinforcedracialand
genderbiases.Nowtheyneedtobeabletorecognizethelayeredmetaphoricalnatureofthe
languageincludinghowrootmetaphorssuchasmechanism,progress,andindividualism
providetheconceptualframeworkthatfailstorepresenttheinterdependentrelationships
withincommunitiesandbetweenhumansandtheregenerativecapacityofnaturalsystems.
Theyalsoneedtorecognizethatwordsdonothaveauniversalmeaningandthatthe
diversityoftheworldsculturesarebasedondifferentassumptionsaboutthenatureof
community,decisionmaking,andhuman/naturerelationships.

Studentsneedtobeintroducedtoamorecomplexunderstandingofcomputers,onethat
highlightstheformsofknowledgeandrelationshipsessentialtolessenvironmentally
destructivelifestylesthatcannotbedigitized.Thus,teachereducationprogramsshould
providefutureteacherswithaknowledgeoftheformsofknowledgeandrelationships,which
willvaryfromculturetoculture,thatcannotbedigitized.Thiswillrequireunderstandingthe
culturaldifferencesbetweenthespokenandprintedword,aswellashowtheprintedword
fostersanabstractwayofthinkingthattoooftenfailstotakeaccountofdifferencesin
culturalcontextsandwaysofthinking.

Professorsofeducationandclassroomteachersmustbeabletointroduceintotheirrespective
curriculaanunderstandingofhowtoengagestudentsinrevitalizingtheintergenerational
culturalcommonsoftheircommunity.Thisisvitaltostrengtheninglocaltraditionsofmutual

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support,selfsufficiency,andpatternsofdecisionmaking,whilealsoreducingdependence
uponalevelofconsumerismthatisamajorcontributortotheecologicalcrises.Itis
especiallyimportantthatteachersenablestudentstorecognizehowparticipatinginvarious
aspectsoftheculturalcommonsleadstothediscoveryanddevelopmentofpersonalskills
andinterestsandhowthesementoringrelationshipsdifferfrombeingaconsumerof
industriallyproducedproductsandservices.Enablingstudentstorecognizethedifferences
betweenthegenuinecontributionsoftheindustrial/scientific/technologicallybasedprocess
ofproductionandconsumptionandwhatisdestructiveofcommunityandnaturalsystemsis
alsoessentialtodemocratizingthechangesthatwillcontributetoamoresustainablefuture.

Thecurriculumreformsmustincludeanhistoricalunderstandingofthedifferentwaysthat
thelocalculturalcommons,aswellasthediversityoftheworldsculturalcommons,are
beingenclosed(thatis,beingintegratedintotheworldeconomythatrequiresparticipationin
amoneyeconomyatthesametimethatautomationandoutsourcingaremakingemployment
alessreliableasasourceofincome).

Localsustainabilitycouncilsmadeupofmembersofthecommunitywhopossessknowledge
ofsustainablelivingpracticesrangingfromorganicgardening,conservingwater,
sustainableforestrypractices,relyinguponalternativesourcesofenergy,plantingedible
yards,carbonneutralpractices,tohowtoprovideenvironmentsforhoneybeesandother
pollinatorsneedtobecreatedandorganizedinwaysthatthatenablethemtomentor
studentsintheknowledgeandskillsnecessaryforsustainableandtoxicfreeliving.These
councilswillbeabletopassonknowledgeandskillsthatreflectthedifferencesinthelocal
culturalcommonsaswellasthedifferencesinthelocalbioregions.

Organizationalstructureforimplementingeducationalreformsthatwillcontributetoan
ecologicallysustainablefuture.
Asasystemwideapproachtointroducingreformsinteachereducationandrelatedprograms
involvesawiderangeofinnovationsthatmustbeadaptedtotheuniquenessoflocalcommunitiesit
isimportantthatafulltimecoordinatorwhohasresponsibilityforpromotingecologically

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sustainablereformsneedstobehired.Whilethefundingforthispositionmightcomefromoutside
sources,thecoordinatorneedstobelocatedintheStateDepartmentofEducation.The
responsibilitiesofthecoordinatorwouldinclude:
1. Overseethedevelopmentanddisseminationofcurriculummaterialsthataddress
reformsintheareaoflanguage,knowledgeoflocalculturalcommons,increasing
awarenessofculturallyandenvironmentallydestructivepractices,andthe
developmentofcommunicativecompetenceessentialtodemocraticdecisionmaking.
2. Scheduleworkshopsindifferentregionsofthestateforprofessorsofeducation,
schooladministrators,andclassroomteachersthatintroducethemtothecurriculum
reformsaswellashowtocoordinateschoolactivitieswithlocalsustainability
councilsandtoenlistthesupportofcommunitymemberswhoarealreadyengagedin
culturalcommonsactivities.
3. Developanetworkofretiredteacherswhowillserveasmentorstoclassroom
teachers,andwhowillhelpthemunderstandhowtointroducestudentstoan
understandingofthemanywaysthatthelanguageinthecurriculumandinthelarger
societyoftencarriesforwardthepatternsofthinkingthatwereconstitutedbefore
therewasanawarenessofenvironmentallimits.
4. Providetrainingsessionsforsustainabilitymentorswhowillhelpclassroomteachers
intheareasofpedagogyandcurriculumthatwillintroducestudentstothedynamics
ofhowlanguagereproducesearlierwaysofthinkingandvaluing,aswellasan
understandingboththenatureoftheculturalcommonsandtheculturalforcesthatare
underminingthem.
Apersonshouldbehiredasanassistanttothecoordinator.Theresponsibilitiesofthisperson
wouldbetoestablishandmaintainawebsiteandanetworkforemailcommunicationthatwould
enableparticipantsinthestatewidesystemtoshareideasonsustainableeducationalpractices

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thatothersmightfinduseful.Anessentialpurposeofthisnetworkwouldbetosharewithdeans,
schooladministrators,andclassroomteachersscientificreportsonchangesoccurringinthe
Earthsecosystems,aswellashowthesechangesareaffectingthelivesofpeople.

CautionaryObservation:
Governmentleadershippromotingeducationalreformsthataddresshowtolivemore
ecologicallysustainablelives,andthatwillensuretheprospectsoffuturegenerations,mayappear
initiallyasinconflictwiththelongheldtraditionofacademicfreedom.Thescaleofchangesthatthe
Earthsnaturalsystemsareundergoing,andthehumandislocationsandfurtherimpoverishmentthat
willresultforhundredsofmillionsofpeopleisunprecedentedinhumanhistory.Thus,itis
importanttorecognizethatcontemporaryeducationalideasandtraditionsthatwereconstitutedwhen
itwasassumedthatthequestforconstantchangewasamoralandprofessionalresponsibilityofall
membersoftheacademiccommunityhasledtotheideathatprofessorsshouldpursuetheirown
scholarlyinterests,andtoteachwhattheypersonallybelievein.Thistraditionnowneedstobe
refocusedinwayswhereacademicfreedomandcriticalreflectionaddresshowtoreducethe
human/culturalimpactonnaturalsystemswhileatthesametimeworkingforamoresociallyjust
future.Intherecentpastmostmembersoftheeducationalcommunityrefocusedtheirfreedomof
inquiryinwaysthataddressedsocialjusticeissuesaswellastheneedtoeliminateracismand
genderbias.Nowitistimetorefocustheboundariesofacademicfreedominwaysthatcontributeto
abroadstakeholderbasedeffortforensuringanecologicallysustainableandculturallydiverse
future.
Fundingforastatewideapproachtoeducatingforanecologicallysustainablefuture
Asindividualeffortstointroduceeducationalreformsforanecologicallysustainablefuture
havehadlittleinfluencewithincollegesofeducationandwithinpublicschoolsystemsacrossthe
country,thereisaneedforleadership.Hoepfully,thegovernorshavealreadymadeecological
sustainabilityapriorityforgovernmentsupportedinstitutions.Therealityisthatcurrentstateof
inertiawillonlybeovercomeasgovernors,thestatelegislatures,StateDepartmentsofEducation,
andStateBoardsofEducationsupportacloseralignmentofeducationalreformswiththeoverall
goalofachievingasustainableandsociallyjustfutureforthediversepopulation.Fundsnecessary
forimplementingtheaboveproposalshouldbegiventhehighestpriority.Thecostwouldinclude

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thesalariesforthecoordinatorandthepersonmanagingthewebsiteandinternetcommunication,
workshopsforavarietyofgroupsindifferentregionsofthestate(includingtravelandother
expensesconnectedwithconductingtheworkshops),andthedevelopmentofcurriculummaterials.
Retiredclassroomteachersanduniversityprofessorscanbereliedupontohelpwiththeseefforts.It
islikelythatdeansandsuperintendentsofschooldistrictswillbeabletofindwithintheirlimited
budgetssomeleveloffinancialsupport.Ifthestateweretoput$250,000overatwoyearperiodinto
astatewideapproachtoecologicallysustainableeducationalreforms,itshouldbepossiblewithin
thisperiodoftimetodemonstratetheefficacyoftheapproachoutlinedabove.Morespecifically,it
shouldalsobepossiblewithinthisperiodoftimetolearnhowtoengagelocalsourcesofsupportin
adaptingcurriculumreformtoachievinggreaterselfsufficiencyoflocaleconomiesandmutual
supportsystemswithincommunities,aswellastheneedforstrengtheningtheknowledgebaseof
educatorswholeadworkshopsonhowtointroduceecologicallysustainableeducationalreforms.It
shouldalsoprovideaclearerunderstandingofthefutureresourcesthatwillbeneededfor
introducingreformsintospecificareasofthecurriculumthatsupportthegainsalreadymadein
raisingacademicstandards.
Thisinitialefforttopromotereformonastatewidebasiswould,inturn,attractthesupport
offoundationsaswellastheinterestofotherstatesinadoptingthismodel.Toreiteratethepoint
thatEinsteinmakes:notonlydoweneedtoavoidpassingontothenextgenerationthemindsetthat
hascontributedtoovershootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems,wealsoneedtokeepin
mindthatwedonothaveavailabletousthehundredsofyearsthatittooktoovercomethe
misconceptionsofthepastrelatedtogenderandracialbiases.Globalwarming,changesinthe
chemistryoftheworldsoceans,andamyriadofotherenvironmentalchangesthatarealready
contributingtothespreadofpovertyandtodisruptionsintheviabilityoflocalcommunities,are
occurringataratethatisaffectingthequalityoflifeofthecurrentgenerationandwillhavea
muchgreaterimpactontheprospectoffuturegenerations.Environmentalchanges,ineffect,are
challengingustofacetherealitythatourworldisataturningpoint,andthatourindustrialsystemof
productionandconsumptioncannolongerprotectusfromtheenvironmentalconsequencesof
holdingontotheoldculturalmythsincludingthemyththateducationalreformsdonothaveto
addressculturalrootsofthedeepeningecologicalcrises.

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Chapter12ARationaleandGuideforDeansofCollegesofEducationonHowtoIntroduce
EcologicallySustainableReformsin
TeacherEducationandOtherPrograms

Collegesofeducationacrossthecountrywillshortlybeheldaccountableformeetingthe
certificationgoalsbeingpromotedbytheAmericanAssociationforSustainabilityinHigher
Education.TheratingsystemforcertifyingcollegesanduniversitiesiscalledSTARS
(Sustainability,Tracking,Assessment,andRatingSystem).Itisaselfevaluationsystemfor
determiningprogresstowardsustainabilitygoalsindifferentsectorsoftheuniversity:
administration,finance,education,research,andoperations.Ninetycollegesanduniversitieshave
alreadyagreedtoparticipateinthispilotprogram.OneoftheoutcomesoftheSTARSsystemof
certificationwillbethegrowingnumberofstudentsconcernedaboutenvironmentaldegradation
whowillenrollininstitutionswiththehighestStarsrating.Thesestudentswillbetomorrows
leadersinsustainableliving.
Thefollowingguidefordeanswillfacilitatetheabilityofcollegesofeducationto
demonstrateleadershipinmeetingtheSTARScertificationgoalsoftheuniversity,waswellasthe
potentialcertificationcriteriaofothernationalorganizationssuchastheHigherEducation
AssociationsSustainabilityConsortium,theAmericanCollegeandUniversityPresidentsClimate
Commitment,andtheDisciplinaryAssociationsNetworkforSustainability.
EnvironmentalChallenges
Deansanddepartmentchairpersonsincollegesofeducationarenowbeingconfrontedwitha
newsetofchallenges.Theneedtoreducetheenvironmentalimpactofourcultureisbeing
documentedbythesteadystreamofscientificreportsonthedecliningstateofnaturalsystems.
Thesenewenvironmental/culturalchallengeswillnotreducetheimportanceofaddressing
traditionalsocialjusticeissuesincludingthepressuresfromlocalcommunitiesandthefederal
governmentThesewillremainimportantchallenges,butthechallengeswenowarebecoming
increasinglyawareof,giventheconsensusofscientists,isentirelydifferentandhave
consequencesthatarealreadysetinmotiononaglobalscale.

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Leadershipisneededinpreparingclassroomteacherswiththenecessaryknowledgeand
pedagogicalskillsthatwillenablestudentstolivealessconsumerandthuslessindividualisticand
changeorientedlifestyle.Oneoftheparadoxesthatfewfacultyrecognizeisthattheidealofthe
autonomousindividualwhohasnotlearnedthevalueoftheintergenerationalknowledge,skills,and
mutuallysupportiverelationshipsthatarethebasisofgreatercommunityselfreliance,isthekindof
individualrequiredbytheindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption.Overcomingfaculty
resistancetorecognizinghowmanyoftheideasandvaluesthathaveguidedtheirownapproachesto
educationcontributetotheconsumerdependentlifestylethatisoneofthemajorcontributorsto
degradingtheabilityofnaturalsystemstorenewthemselveswillbeadifficultchallengeespecially
sincemanywillclaimthatacademicfreedomprotectstheirrighttopromoteeducationalreforms
eventhoughthereformscontributetoovershootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems.The
dawningofanewconsciousness,whichthecivilrightsandfeministmovementsarestillstruggling
toachieve,requiresbothconceptualandmoralleadership.Thesameconceptualandmoral
leadershipwillberequiredintransformingthelongheldtraditionsofthinkingincollegesof
education.
Beforespellingoutthebroaderimplicationsofbasingeducationalreformsinteacher
educationandotherareasofstudyonecologicallysustainableideasandvalues,itisnecessaryto
summarizethenatureofthechangesthattheEarthsnaturalsystemsareundergoing.Itisimportant
tokeepinmindthatthissummarymusttakeaccountoftherealitiesoftheworldinwhichwenow
live.Changesinnaturalsystems:Theindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption,along
withthedeclineintheabilityofspeciesandhabitatstoregeneratethemselves,areincreasingtherate
ofglobalwarmingaswellaschangingthechemistryoftheworldsoceans.Degradedhabitatsin
oceansandindifferentregionsoftheworldareleadingtothedisappearanceofspecies(includinga
rapiddeclineintheviabilityoftheworldsfisheries).Otherenvironmentalchangesincludethe
spreadofdeserts,themeltingofglaciersthatarethesourceofwaterforhundredsofmillionsof
people.Thelossoftopsoil,depletionofmajoraquifers,andthedestructionofforests,arealsomajor
sourcesofchangealreadyinfluencingtheprospectsofthecurrentandfuturegenerations.Increase
inworldpopulationandthespreadofpoverty:Overthelasthundredyearstheworldpopulation
hasincreasedbyfiveandahalfbillionpeopleatthesametimethenaturalresourceshavebeen
exploitedinwaysthathaveledtotheimpoverishmentofmorepeople.Thecurrentestimateisthat

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over2billionpeopleliveonlessthantwodollarsaday.ForthedifferentgroupsinAmerican
society,theeraofcheapfoodisoverwhich,alongwiththerisingcostoffuelandotherbasic
serviceswillforcemanypeoplefurtherintopoverty.ChangesinLifetimeEmployment:
Economicglobalization,alongwiththespreadofthemorallyunrestrainedcultureofcorporations,
willcausemorepeopletooutlivetheirsavingsintheincreasinglyprivatizedretirementprograms.
ThelackofhealthinsurancenowexperiencedbynearlyfortysevenmillionAmericansistheleading
causeofbankruptcyandhomelessness.Youthenteringthejobmarketwillfindthattheoutsourcing
ofworktolowwageregionsoftheworld,eveninhighlyskilledoccupations,willlimittheir
possibilitiesandthustheirabilitytoeducatetheirchildren,toownadecenthouse,andtosavefor
retirement.Thepresentplightofolderworkerswillalsobetheplightofyoungerworkersasthe
governmentsafetynetsbecomefurtheroverwhelmedbythecurrentshiftinthedistributionofwealth
insociety.
Thefutureismadeevenmoreuncertainbythecurrentglobalizationofanindustrial/consumer
orientedlifestyle.Whileeconomicglobalizationisbeingviewedastheexpressionofprogress,itis
increasingtherateofglobalwarmingandthedepletionoftheEarthsnaturalresources.
Unfortunately,scientistsandotherexpertshavenowayofknowingtheregenerativecapacityofthe
naturalsystemsthatarebeingexploitedatanacceleratingrate.Howlongwithittakeforvarious
fishstocks,suchasthecodfishoncesoabundantandthebluefintunanowonthevergeof
extinction,torecover?Cantheaquifersthatarebeingminedasthoughtheyareaninfiniteresource
regeneratethemselveswithinourlifetimesoreventheseventhgenerationfromnow?Canthe
worldsoceansreversetheacidiclevelsandwarmertemperaturesthatarenowcontributingtothe
deathofcoralreefsthatnearly25percentoffishspeciesdependupon?Whatisthetimeframefor
regeneratingtheglaciersthatarethesourceoffreshwaterforhundredsofmillionsofpeople?Even
thoughwedonothavetheanswerstothesequestions,moreoftheworldsgovernmentshavemade
theadoptionoftheAmericanconsumerlifestyletheirgoal.Manyregionsoftheworldarealready
experiencingthedegradationofnaturalsystemsthatwereassumedtobeinexhaustiblesuchas
potablewater,forestcover,topsoil,fisheries,petroleum,andothernaturalminerals.

GlobalizationisdependentuponanincreasedrelianceonWesterntechnologiesespecially

technologiesthatrelyonmicrochips.Whiletherehavebeengenuinebenefitsfromthedevelopment
ofcomputerbasedtechnologiestheincreasedrelianceonthesetechnologieshasledtolossesthatgo

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unnoticed.Manyofthelossesaretheverytraditionsthatwouldenableustoslowtherateof
environmentaldegradationandthedepletionofnaturalresources.Forexample,asyouthbecome
increasinglydependentuponcellphones,andonInternetbasedrelationships,learning,andgaming,
itisassumedthattheyaregainingmorecontrolovertheirlivessuchasparticipationinapeer
cultureoftheirchoice,directingtheirownlearning,andinpursuingtheirownformofentertainment.
Themoretimeyouthspendintheonlineculturethelesslikelytheywillbecomeawareofthelocal
culturalcommonsthatprovidealternativestobeingdependentupontheindustrial/consumerbased
culture.Insteadofbecomingincreasinglyempowered,theyare,ineffect,becomingmoredependent
uponaneconomicsystemthatisunderstressfromoutsourcing,theincreasingcostofbasicmaterials
andtransportation,andcompetitionfromregionsoftheworldwherewagesarelowand
environmentalregulationsnonexistent.Astheecologicalcrisesdeepentheywillbeunawareof
howmuchoftheintergenerationalknowledgeofhowtolivemoremutuallysupportiveandless
moneydependentliveswillhavebeenlost.WhilelivingintheInternetcocoonwillcontinueto
isolatethemfromengagingintherenewaloftheintergenerationalknowledge,skills,andmutually
supportiverelationshipsofthelocalculturalcommons,theywillstillexperiencetheshortagesand
dislocationsresultingfromthetwincrisescausedbyglobalwarmingandeconomicglobalization
Briefly,theculturalcommonsencompassthoseaspectsofcommunitylifethatareless
dependentuponamoneyeconomyandthusarelessenvironmentallydestructive.Thecultural
commonsincludetheintergenerationalknowledge,skills,andrelationshipsthatarerelieduponin
theareasofgrowingandpreparingfood,expressivearts,craftknowledgeandskills,narrativesand
ceremonies,civilliberties,healingpractices,games,andevenlanguageitself.Communitiesinevery
culturearesustainedinpartbytheintergenerationalrenewaloftheirculturalcommonswhichmay
alsoincludetraditionsthatdonotmeettodayssocialjusticestandards.Theimportantpoint,
however,isthatthelocalculturalcommonsincluderelationshipscharacterizedbymutualsupport,
mentoring,andthedevelopmentofpersonaltalentsandskillsallofwhicharefundamentally
differentfrombeingdependentuponwhatisindustriallyproducedorthatinvolvemonetized
relationships.Toreiterateakeypoint,asyouthbecomeincreasinglydependentuponthenew
Internettechnologiesthelesslikelytheyaretoparticipateintheculturalcommonsoftheir
communitiesinwaysthatenablethemtodiscoverpersonaltalentsandskillsthatstrengthenthe
bondsofcommunity.Andthelesslikelytheyaretobeawareofhowideologies,technologies,and

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economicforcesareenclosingmoreaspectsoftheculturalcommonsthusforcingthemtobecome
increasinglydependentuponamoneyeconomythatisbecominglessandlessreliable.
InitialAwakeningtotheImportanceoftheEcologicalCrises
Increasingattentionisbeinggiventoreducingthehumanimpactonthenaturalsystemsatall
levelsofgovernmentfromtheUnitedNations,federal,state,andeventocitygovernment,.While
primarilymotivatedbythepossibilityofincreasingtheirprofitmargins,businessesrangingfrom
megacorporationstosmallonepersonoperationsareattemptingtouseenergymoreefficientlyand
tobemoremindfulofreducingexcessivewaste.Universitypresidentsacrossthecountryaresigning
declarationspromisingtoexerciseleadershipinpromotingecologicallysustainablereformsthough
mostofthereformsarelimitedtorecyclingprogramsandtotheintroductionofmoreenergyefficient
technologies.Whilesciencefacultyhavemadetheenvironmentalcrisesamajorfocusoftheir
researchandteachinginthesciences,thesituationisquitedifferentinotherareasoftheuniversity.
Forexample,inthesocialsciencesandthehumanitiesthereformsarebeingundertakenbyadistinct
minorityoffaculty,andmostlyconsistofaddingreadingsbyenvironmentalauthorstoexisting
coursesinthetraditionaldisciplines.Exposuretoenvironmentalwritersraisesawarenessofthemany
waysinwhichtheenvironmentisbeingdegraded,butitdoesnotprovidestudentswiththepractical
knowledgeofthecommunitycenteredalternativestoconsumerismandthesocalledprogressive
forcesthatareenclosingtheworldsdiverseculturalcommons.Thesustainabilityinitiativeslistedon
thewebsiteoftheAmericanAssociationforSustainabilityinHigherEducationbulletin@aashe.org
demonstrateonceagainhowrelyingupontechnologicalsolutionsisbeingviewedasmoreimportant
thantheneedforafundamentalchangeinconsciousness.Whatishappeningincollegesand
departmentsofeducationistypicaloftherestoftheuniversity.Justasinthesciences,the
environmentaleducatorsengagestudentsinlearninghowtointroducesuchenvironmentalissuesas
thedegradationoflocalhabitats,thelossofspecies,andtheindustrialsourcesofenvironmental
damageintotheirpublicschoolclasses.Introducingstudentstoenvironmentalauthorscanonlybe
foundincoursestaughtbyafewfacultyintheareaofeducationalfoundations.Thelimitedinterest
inenvironmentalissuesbyfacultyincollegesanddepartmentsofeducationisillustratedbythefact
thatoftheover10,000facultywhoattendedthe2007meetingofAERAinChicagotherewereless
than20papersthatfocusedonenvironmentalissues,andlessthan5papersthataddressed
educationalreformsrelatedtointroducingstudentstothemutuallysupportivenatureofthelocal

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culturalcommons.TheironyisthateventhoughsuchgroupsasRealEstateorganizationsare
requiringtheiragentstopassatestcertifyingtheirknowledgeoftheecologicallysustainable
characteristicsofhouses,themajorityoffacultyincollegesanddepartmentsofeducationcontinueto
framethecontentoftheircoursesandresearchintermsofthesocialjusticeprioritiesand
interpretativeframeworksthatwereconstitutedbeforetherewasanawarenessofthegrowing
ecologicalcrises.
Thetraditionofdepartmentalautonomyhaslededucationfacultytorefrainfromencouraging
colleaguesinotherdepartmentstobeginintroducingecologicallyinformedcurriculumreforms,
particularlyintheteachereducationprograms.However,thereisevidencethatafewenvironmental
educatorsarebeginningtorecognizethatthedestructionoftheculturalcommonshasadirect
relationshiptotheenvironmentaldamagetheyareworkingtoreverse,andarejoiningwhatcanbe
calledtheecojusticenetwork.Theenvironmentaleducatorsandeducationalstudiesfacultythat
makeupthisnetworkarespreadacrossthecountryandnumberlessthana100members.Aneven
smallernumberhaveparticipatedinworkshopsthataddressedhowthelanguageinvariousareasof
teacherpreparation,andusedbyclassroomteachersincludingpublicschoolcurriculacarries
forwardthemisconceptionsofearliertimeswhentherewasnoawarenessofenvironmentallimits.
Theseworkshopshelpedtoclarifyhowthedeeptakenforgrantedculturalassumptionsthatstill
underliethecurrentdigitalphaseoftheindustrialrevolutionthatisnowbeingglobalizedarealsothe
takenforgrantedassumptionsthatunderliewhatisbeinglearnedinmosteducationclasses.These
assumptions,inturn,arebeingpassedontopublicschoolstudents.
Theseworkshopsdemonstratewhyreformsinteachereducationandotherareasofeducational
studythatarebasedonadifferentparadigmcannotbeinitiatedinanybroadandlastingwayby
individualfacultymembers.Participantsintheworkshops,whichwerefartooshorttoprovidethe
indepthknowledgerequiredtounderstandtheconnectionsbetweenlanguage,variousformsof
culturalcolonization,andtheforcesthataretransformingtheworldsdiversityofculturalcommons
intonewmarkets,returnedtotheirdepartmentstofindthatfewoftheircolleaguesunderstoodtheir
newinsightsandapproachestocurriculumreforms.Insomeinstances,theyweremetwithhostility
astheywereseenasnolongerreinforcingthevaluesandideasthattheircolleaguesassociatedwith
progressiveeducationalreforms.Ineffect,theecojustice/culturalcommonsorientationofthe
workshopsandpublicationsbroughtintofocusthedifficultyofengagingindiscussionswith

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colleagueswhostilltakeforgrantedthesameculturalassumptionsthatunderliethemodern
individualistic,progressorientedmindset.
Thedifficultyofanindividualfacultymembertobringaboutamajorshiftinthethinkingof
colleagueshasitsrootsintheuniquecultureofacademia.Perhapsthetwomostpowerful
impedimentstomakingthisparadigmshiftarethetraditionsofacademicfreedomandthe
specializedlanguageandvaluesassociatedwithdifferentfieldsofstudysuchasschool
administration,educationalpsychology,curriculum,teachereducation,educationalstudies,andso
forth.Thespecializedlanguageandinterpretativeframeworksthathavetheirrootsinapastwhen
environmentallimitswerenotunderstoodmakeitdifficultforfacultytocommunicatewithothers
whoareaccustomedtothinkingwithinspecifictraditionsofinquiry.Theneedtoadheretowhatis
deemedpoliticallycorrectinthelargersocietyandacrossthefieldsofstudyineducationgenerally
havelimitedtheintroductionofnewwaysofthinking.Inspiteoftheimportantrolethatacademic
freedomhasplayedinthepast,thistraditionremainsoneofthechiefobstaclestoengaging
colleaguesinaseriousandprolongeddiscussionoftheeducationalreformsthatmustbeundertaken.
Academicfreedomshouldnotbeusedasanexcusefordismissingtheneedtoaddresstheecological
challengesweface.Thereareothermajorimpedimentstorecognizingthatwhatisbeinglearnedin
teacherpreparationprograms,andinthesupportingareasofresearchandteaching,mustundergo
fundamentalchanges.Theseincludethedemandsmadebystateandfederalgovernmentsandthe
constantquestforinnovationsthatfurtherstrengthenthemodernparadigmthatisecologically
uniformed.Timetothinkdeeplyandtoengageinsustaineddiscussionsofwhichtraditionsof
thinkingwithincollegesofeducationneedtobecarriedforward,reformed,orabandonedentirelyis
severelylimitedbyheavyteachingloads,committeemeetings,pressuretopublish,advising
students,andkeepingcurrentwiththeirspecialfieldofinterest.
UnderstandingtheLeadershipRoleofDeansandDepartmentChairpersonsinInitiatingand
SustainingEcologicallyInformedReformsinTeacherEducation
Reformofeducationcoursesgenerally,andespeciallyteachereducationprograms,willrequire
deansanddepartmentchairpersonstoprovidebothconceptualleadershipaswellastheabilityto
holdfacultyaccountableforworkingthroughthedifficultiesinmakingtheparadigmshiftthatis
nowrequired.Themajordifficultythatbothadministratorsandfacultyfaceisthattheywere,with
fewexceptions,educatedtothinkwithintheconceptualparadigmthatwasbasedonassumptions

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thatdidnottakeaccountofenvironmentallimits.ToparaphraseAlbertEinstein,wecannotrely
uponthesamemindsetthatcreatedtheproblemtofixit.Understandingtheshiftinthinkingthat
musttakeplaceincollegesanddepartmentsofeducationrequiresthinkingagainstthegrainofso
manyoftheconceptualorthodoxiesheldbybotheducationfacultyandfacultyinthesciences,social
sciences,andhumanities.Theneedformakingaparadigmshiftis,ineffect,auniversitywide
problem.Thefollowingisabriefsketchofthedifferencesbetweenthetwoparadigms.
Key ideas and assumptions that underlie the paradigm that most academics were
socialized to accept as leading to a socially just and progressive future.

Theindividualisthebasicsocialunit,andprogressisdefinedinpartbyempowering
individualstothinkforthemselvesandtocreatetheirownvalues.

Change,especiallywhenbasedonscientificallyinformedtechnologiesandnewideas,is
inherentlyprogressive.Oneofthegoalsoftheeducationalprocessistocontributetomore
change.

Thisisahumancenteredworld,andoneofthepurposesofrationalthoughtistocontroland
exploitthenaturalenvironmentinwaysthatimprovethehumancondition.

Languageisaconduitinasender/receiverprocessofcommunication,thusmakingitpossible
toshareobjectiveknowledge.

Individualsarecapableofexercisingrationalthoughtinwaysthatareuninfluencedbythe
assumptionsofthecultureintowhichtheywereborn.

Traditions,exceptforholidaysandreligiousceremonies,aregenerallyimpedimentsto
progressandtotherealizationoftheindividualsfullestpotential.

Computersareaculturallyneutraltechnologythatenablesstudentstoaccesstheworldof
informationnecessaryfortheconstructionoftheirownideasandvalues.

Multiculturalawarenessshouldbeoneoftheprimarygoalsinteachereducationandother
areasofeducationalstudiesandthereisnoconflictbetweenunderstandingand
appreciatingculturaldifferencesandpromotingthekeyvaluesandassumptionsthatunderlie
themodernizingmainstreamcultureoftheWest.

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Thesocialjusticeagendainherentinteachereducationprograms,andinotherareasofstudy,
preparesstudentstoexperienceequalityofopportunityintheareasofwork,politics,and
consumerism.

Key ideas and assumptions of that will lead to more ecologically sustainable cultures, and that
will help reframe approaches to teacher education, curriculum, learning theory, adminstration,
environmental education, and educational studies.

Theindividualisnestedinculture,andcultureisnestedinnaturalsystemsthusthe
individualmustbeunderstoodaspartoftheinteractingecologiesofinterdependent
relationships.Ineffect,theidea(andideal)oftheautonomousindividualisawestern
culturalmyth.

Languageismetaphoricalinnatureandcarriesforwardthepatternsofthinking(theanalogies
settleduponinthedistantpast)thatwereconstitutedbeforetherewasanawarenessof
environmentallimitsandthediversityofculturalwaysofknowing.Astherootmetaphors
underlyingWesterncultureinfluencedtheselectionofmanyoftheanalogieswestillrely
upon,suchasthinkingofchangeasprogressiveinnatureandahumancenteredworld,
todayseducationalprocesscontinuestoreinforcestudentsforadoptingthelevelof
intelligence(orunintelligence)ofpastthinkers.

Intelligence,fromanecologicalperspective,isrelational,participatoryinwaysinfluencedby
theinformationexchangeswithinthenaturalenvironment,influencedatatakenforgranted
levelbythelayerednatureofmetaphoricalthinking,embodied,andexpressiveofthe
culturesbasicnarratives.

TraditionisametaphorthatcarriesforwardthemisconceptionsofEnlightenmentthinkers.
Actually,traditionsrepresentallthewaysofthinking,practices,andvaluesoftheculturethat
havesurvivedoverfourgenerations.Traditionsaresourcesofempowerment,special
privilegesandformsofexploitation,andareconstantlychangingsometimesbeforethereis
anawarenessoftheimportanceofwhatislost,andsometimestooslowly.Peoplewhohold
theideathattraditionsdonotchangeshouldbereferredtoastraditionalists.

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Theculturalcommons,whichexistinalloftheworldscommunities,includethe
intergenerationalknowledge,skills,andpatternsofmutualsupportthatenablepeopletolive
lessconsumerdependentlivesandthustohaveasmalleradverseimpactonthenatural
environment.Ifstudentslearntothinkoftraditionsasasourceofbackwardnessandof
themselvesasgrowingmoreautonomous,theywillcontinuetoignorehowtheir
embodied/culturallymediatedexperiencesofparticipatinginthelocalculturalcommons
differfromtheirexperiencesintheindustrial/consumerorientedculture.

Socialjusticeissuesneedtobeunderstoodwithinthecontextofwhatreducesthe
exploitationoftheresourcesofothercultures,ofwhatenablespeopletoparticipateinthe
culturalcommonsthatstrengthenmutualsupportwhilereducingtheirdependenceupona
moneyeconomy,andoflearningtodeveloppersonaltalentsandskillsthroughmentoring
relationships.

Teachereducationprogramsneedtoprepareclassroomteacherstorecognizethatwordshave
ahistoryandthattheyoftencarryforwardthemisconceptionsandbiasesoftheculturethatis
overshootingthesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystems,toplaytheroleofamediatorwho
helpsstudentsrecognizethedifferencesintheirculturalcommonsandconsumerbased
experiencesandtohelpthemacquirethelanguagenecessaryforcommunicative
competenceinresistingthefurtherenclosure(monetizingandprivatizing)oftheculturaland
environmentalcommons.

Ineffectbothfacultyandadministratorswillbechallengedtorethinktheconceptual
frameworkstheyacquiredaspartoftheirowngraduatestudiesandsubsequentsocializationwithin
theirspecializedareasofinquiryandteaching.Thischallengeisnotanexpressionofmyownbiases
andsubjectivejudgments.Rather,itisbeingdictatedbythedifferentecosystemsthatarebeing
degradedtothepointwheretheycannolongersustaintheNorthAmericanconsumerlifestyle
muchlesstheconsumerdependentlifestylethatthehundredsofmillionsofpeopleinsuchcountries
asIndiaandChinaarenowpursuing.
Ifthereeverwasatimeforleadershipitisnow!Butthequestionthatneedstobeaddressedis:
Howcanthedeananddepartmentchairpersonsprovidethisleadershipwhentheythemselvesmay
nothaveasolidunderstandingoftheecologicallyandculturallyproblematicnatureofmanyofthe

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deepculturalassumptionsthataresowidelytakenforgrantedbytheircolleaguesacrossthe
country?Theycanbeginbyconveningameetingoftheentirefacultyforthepurposeofhearinga
scientistexplainthechangesoccurringintheworldsoceans,whenhumankindislikelytoreachthe
tippingpointwheretherateofglobalwarmingcannotbeslowedbyhumaneffort,theconsequences
thataccompanythemeltingofglaciersandthereleaseofmethanenowfrozeninthepermafrostthat
isnowbeginningtomelt,thelossofspecies,habitats,andtopsoil,theshiftsinweatherpatternsthat
arecontributingtodroughtsandthedesertificationofpreviouslyfertilelands.Thistalkshouldsend
themessagethatifthereisgoingtobeasustainablefuturefortheirchildren,andfortheirchildrens
children,fundamentalchangesmustbeintroducedintheeducationofteachersandincontentof
curriculummaterials.
Thenextstepistoscheduleaseriesoffacultydiscussionsforthepurposeofconsideringhow
thebasicassumptionsthatunderlietheindividualistic/progressiveagendacontributetoovershooting
thesustainingcapacityofnaturalsystemsandtounderminingtheculturalcommons.These
discussionsalsoshouldconsidernotonlytheimplicationsoftheecologicallyinformedassumptions
forintroducingreformsinteachereducationprogramsbutleadtobasicchangesinpedagogyand
curriculardecisionmaking.
Althoughsomefacultywillembracethisapproachandwillwanttomoveforwardby
revisingtheircoursesaccordinglytherewillbeformsofresistancethatneedtoberecognized.For
example,manyfacultywillbeunwillingtoengageinindepthdiscussions,andwilldismissthe
issuesasirrelevant.Othersmaythinkthatthepedagogicalandcurricularimplicationsofthe
assumptionsthatunderlieanecologicalwayofthinkingcanbefullyunderstoodbyparticipationin
onlyacoupleofsessions.Afterafewdiscussionsessions,theywillreturntotheirtraditional
patternsofthinking.Oneofthecharacteristicsexhibitedbyevenhighlyintelligentfacultyisthe
tendencytoreducethecomplexityofissuesandideastosimplisticrepresentationsthatquicklycan
bedismissed.Anotherproblemthatoftenariseswhennewideasareintroducedisthattoooften
facultywilllimittheirinteresttolearningthenewvocabularyandthenshownointerestin
understandingitsfullerimplications.
Iffacultyincollegesofeducationwerealreadywellinformedaboutactualchangestaking
placeintheworldsecosystemstheirresponseswouldbeoflessconcern..Andiftheyweremore
accustomedtothinkingwithinanecologicallyandculturallyinformedparadigmtheywouldbeless

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likelytoengageinsuperficialdiscussions.Thefollowingintroductiontothecomplexityofissues
relatingtoanecologicallyandculturallyinformedunderstandingoflanguage,intelligence,andthe
culturalcommons,tocitejustthreeexamplesfromtheprecedinglist,ismeanttohighlightthe
dangerofsuperficialandreductionistthinkingthatwillensurethatnosubstantiveeducational
reformswillresult.
Forexample,ifeducationfacultybegintorethinktheassumptionthatlanguageisaconduit
inasender/receiverprocessofcommunicationtheywillfindthemselvesaddressingsomeofthe
mostcriticallyimportantmisconceptionssharedbymanyclassroomteachersandprofessors.For
example,learningthatlanguageisnotaconduit,butisbasedonmetaphorswhosemeaningswere
framedbyearlierprocessesofanalogicthinkingthatwere,inturn,framedbytheprevailingtaken
forgrantedrootmetaphorsoftheculture,hasbroadandvitallyimportantimplicationsforboth
teachersandthepeoplewhoproducecurriculummaterials.Theimplicationsareevenmore
profoundforstudentswhoarebeingtoldthatcomputermediatedlearning(whichreinforcesthe
conduitviewoflanguage)facilitatestheconstructionoftheirownknowledge.Themyththat
languageisaconduithideshowlanguagecarriesforwardtheinsightsand,moreoften,the
misconceptionsofearlierthinkers.Whenteachersfailtoclarifythatwordshaveahistory,andthat
theircurrentmeaningwasframedbyearlierprocessesofanalogicthinkingthatreflectbotha
culturallyspecifictraditionofthinkingandthepoliticalstrugglesofanearliertime,studentsare
likelytoassumethatwordsprovideafactualaccountofeventsandthusarethesourceofobjective
knowledge.
Toputitmoresuccinctly,notonlydoeslanguagecarryforwardthepatternsofthinkingthat
bothteachersandstudentsmaytakeforgranted,itcanalsobeunderstoodasoneofthemore
powerfulexpressionsoflinguisticcolonizationofthepresentgenerationbypastgenerations.
Relyingupontheanalogiessettleduponatanearliertimemayalsoreducethestudentsabilityto
makeanintelligentresponsetocurrentrelationships,suchasthinkingofwomeninthesamelimited
waythatwastakenforgrantedoverthecenturies.Thediscussionoflanguagepresentedhereonly
touchesthesurfaceofwhatteachersneedtounderstandastheymediatebetweenthepast,present,
andfuture.
Otherconceptualorthodoxiesthatdonottakeaccountofenvironmentallimits,andthatneed
toberevisedifpedagogicalandcurriculardecisionsaretobepartofthesolutionratherthana

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continuationoftheproblem,includehowtounderstandintelligenceinawaythatnotonlytakes
accountoftheinfluenceoflanguage,butalsoitsparticipatoryandrelationalnature.Mostthinking
aboutintelligence,whichisincreasinglybeingbasedonamechanisticmodel,isstillpredicatedon
theassumptionsoftheFrenchphilosopher,ReneDescartes,andotherwesternphilosopherswhodid
notunderstandthedeepsymbolicfoundationsoftheirowncultureandtheradicallydifferent
symbolicsystemsofothercultures.Theideathatintelligenceisanattributeofanautonomous
individual(autonomousinthesenseofbeinguninfluencedbytheculturalassumptionscarried
forwardinthelanguageshe/helearnstothinkandcommunicatein)assumesthatthethinkerisan
objectiveobserverofanexternalworld.Italsoassumesthatideasoriginatealongwithother
mental/emotionalprocessesinthebrain.Anecologicalinterpretationofintelligencetakesaccount
ofavarietyofrelationshipsthatinfluencethestudentsintelligence.Theseincludetheongoing
relationshipswithotherpeopleandtheenvironment,thewordsandinterpretativeframeworksfrom
thepastthatcarryforwardthemisconceptionsthatilluminateandhidewhattheindividualwillbe
awareof,andahostofembodiedandpsychologicalinfluences.Theseinfluencesonintelligence
varyfromculturetocultureandinnowaycorrespondwiththeorthodoxviewthatintelligenceis
exercisedbyanautonomousindividualwhoisthesourceofideas,andsoforth.Thepedagogical
implicationsofthismorerelationalwayofunderstandingintelligence,areinturn,complexandnot
fullygraspedinashortdiscussionsession.
Similarly,understandingthenatureofthelocalculturalcommonsandtheforcesthatare
transformingitintonewmarketopportunitiesthatareecologicallydestructiveisalsounattainableif
educatorsthinkitcanbeaddressedinacoupleofsessions.Facultyparticipatedailyindifferent
aspectsoftheirlocalculturalcommons.Unfortunatelythefailureoftheirownprofessorstomake
explicitthemanyformsofmutualsupport,aswellastheintergenerationalknowledgethatenables
peopletobelessdependentuponconsumerism,hascontributedtotheirlackofawarenessofthe
needtoincludeinthecurriculumanindepthunderstandingofwhyrevitalizingthecultural
commons,aswellasconservingtheculturalcommonsofothercultures,areessentialtoasustainable
future.Again,understandingthecomplexityoftheculturalcommons,includingthoseaspectsthat
aresourcesofinjustice,canbeviewedasacareerlongendeavorespeciallyifstudentsaretobe
introducedtothehistoryoftheforcesthatareprivatizingandmonetizingwhatremainsofthe
culturalandenvironmentalcommons.Howshouldteachershelpstudentsbecomeawareofthe

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differencesbetweentheirexperiencesintheculturalcommonsandtheirexperiencesasaconsumer
ofwhatisreadymadeandthatrequiresparticipationinamoneyeconomy?Whatdostudentsneed
tounderstandaboutthenatureoftraditionsinordertorecognizetheimportanceofsomeformsof
intergenerationalknowledgeandskill?Howdoestheteacherhelpthemtodevelopthelinguistic
basisofcommunicativecompetencethatwillenablethemtoresisttheenclosureofsuchareasofthe
culturalcommonsasthetraditionsofcivillibertiesandthenarrativesofpastsocialjustice
achievements?Whatarethedifferentsilencesinthecurriculumthatrepresenttheprocessof
enclosurethatarenotbeingrecognized?
Thesearejustafewofthequestionsthatdemonstratetheneedforfacultytomakealongterm
commitmenttorethinkingwhethertheculturalassumptionstheyarereinforcingintheircourseswill
leadtotheculturalchangesthatwillhelpslowtherateofenvironmentaldegradation.This
commitment,ifitistosucceedmustbeacollaborativeeffortoftheentiredepartmentandbetween
departments.Ifnot,studentswillbetakingcoursesthatarebasedonthesameassumptionsthatgave
risetotheindustrial/consumerorientedculturethatisovershootingenvironmentallimits,andin
othercoursestheywillbeencouragedtobeginthinkingofanecologicallyinformedapproachto
pedagogyandcurriculumincludingtheplaceofcomputersinthelearningprocess.Thetensions
thatwillarisewithindepartmentsasitbecomesmoreevidentthattheecologicalcrisesareimpacting
peopleslivesbothhereandinotherpartsoftheworldwillrequireleadershipfromdeansand
departmentchairpersons.Thefollowinglistsuggeststhewayleadershipcanbeexpressedwithout
becomingdictatorialandaninterferencewiththefacultymembersacademicfreedom.Leadership
canactuallyfacilitatefacultycollaboration,especiallywhenthefacultyhaveaclearerunderstanding
thatthedeepeningecologicalcrisesnotonlythreatenstheirownfuturebutalsothatofalready
marginalizedgroups.Asthereislittlepossibilitythatfacultywillbegintointroduceecologically
informedchangesintheircoursesandprogramsiftheydonottaketheecologicalcrisesseriously,it
isnecessarytoemphasizeagainthatthefirststepinexercisingleadershipistohaveascientist
presenttheconsensusoverviewofthedegradedconditionofdifferentecosystems,aswellasthe
evidenceofhowthesechangesareimpactingpeopleslives.Takingthisstepwillalsocommunicate
tothefacultytheprioritiessupportedbythevariouslevelsofadministrationwithinthecollegeand
university,andthatthesealsoaretheprioritiesbeingpromotedonanationalbasisbyAmerican

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AssociationofSustainabilityinHigherEducationandtheHigherEducationAssociations
SustainabilityConsortium,

LegitimateandNecessaryExpressionsofLeadership:

Announcethatamajorpriorityofthecollegeofeducationistocollaboratewithother
divisionsoftheuniversityinintroducingcurriculumreformsthatcontributetoan
ecologicallysustainablefuture(seethewebsiteoftheAmericanAssociationfor
SustainabilityinHigherEducationbulletin.@aashe.org).

Conveningtheentirefacultyforthepurposeoflisteningtothescientificevidenceof
naturalsystemsthatarenolongerregeneratingthemselvesatalevelnecessaryfor
sustaininglife,orareundergoingchanges,suchasglobalwarming,thatarealready
affectingthequalityoflifeofbillionsofpeople.

Convenetheentireeducationfacultyforadiscussionoftheculturalrootsofthe
ecologicalcrises.Thissessionshouldprovideanoverviewofhowcurrentthinkingand
practicesbeingreinforcedinthevariousprogramsinthecollegearebasedon
assumptionsthatdonottakeaccountofenvironmentallimitsorhowtolivemore
communitycenteredandthuslessconsumerdependentlives.

Usediscretionaryfundsinthebudgetforthepurposeofcollaboratingwithother
collegesofeducationinsharingthemosteffectiveecologicallyinformedapproachesto
teachereducationandtowaysofthinkingwithinotherdepartmentsofthecollege.

Askthatdepartmentchairpersonsprovideregularreportsontheprogressfacultyare
makinginengagingindiscussionsofthereformsthatcontributetomoreecologically
andculturallyinformedcoursesandpublications.

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Remindfacultythatinconductingsearchesfornewfacultyattentionshouldbegivento
thecandidateseducationalbackgroundspecificallywhethershe/heshowsevidenceof
beingabletoquestioncurrentlyheldassumptionsandtoengageindialogueaboutthe
reformsthatneedtobeundertaken.

Iffacultyinadepartmentfailtoconsidertheculturallyandecologicallyrelated
challengesinrecommendingthehiringofacandidate,thenasalastresortthedean
shouldencouragethatafurthersearchbeconducted.

Encouragefacultywhopossessabetterunderstandingofculturallyandecologically
informededucationalreformstoestablishcollaborativerelationshipswithfacultyin
otherpartsoftheuniversitywhoareaddressingsimilarconcerns.Theeducationof
mostfacultyinthesciences,socialsciences,andhumanitieswasbasedonthesamedeep
culturalassumptionsthatareecologicallyproblematicandmaywelcomediscussionsof
pedagogicalandcurriculumreformsthataddressthelimitationsintheirowneducation
.

Summary
Whilemanyindigenouscultureshaveunderstoodforhundredsofyearstheneedtoadapt
culturalpracticestowhatissustainableoverthelongterm,ithasonlybeeninthelastthirtyorso
yearsthattheexploitationoftheenvironmenthasbecometheconcernoftheAmericanpublic.Aldo
LeopoldandRachelCarsonwereamongthefirsttosoundthealarm.Leopoldexplainedthenature
ofalandethicbutwasunawareofthelandethicoftheindigenousculturesthatstillinhabitedthe
regionwherehehadhislifechanginginsight.RachelCarsonsconcernwiththelifedestroying
effectsofthechemicalsbeingintroducedintotheenvironmentinthenameofscientificprogress
wasyetanotherwakeupcallofmajorimportance.ThevariousEarthDaycelebrationsand
internationalenvironmentalconferencesthatfollowedfocusedmainlyonissuesofexcessive
consumption,variousformsofenvironmentaldegradation,andenvironmentaljusticeissues.Only

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recentlyhasattentionbeengiventothetakenforgrantedculturalassumptionsincludinghowthey
arelinguisticallypassedonthatgaveconceptualdirectionandmorallegitimacytothe
industrial/consumerorientedculturethatisamajorcontributortoglobalwarmingandtothedecline
intheviabilityofothernaturalsystems.Thisneedstobetakenintoaccountwhenunderstanding
whyfewdeansanddepartmentchairpersonspossessanindepthknowledgeofthe
conceptual/linguisticissuesthatneedtobeaddressedinanyefforttoinitiatereformsthatarenot
basedontheold(ironicallyprogressive)mindsetthatisnowbeginningtoberecognizedaspart
oftheproblem.
Deansanddepartmentchairpersons,liketherestofus,shouldviewthemselvesas
participantsinthebeginningstagesofdiscoveringapostindustrialpathwaythatwillavertwhat
JaredDiamonddocumentsinhisbook,Collapse:HowSocietiesChoosetoFailorSucceed(2005).
Othercultureshavefoundtheirownpathways.Unfortunately,theintergenerationalknowledgethat
hassustainedthemforthousandsofyearsisnowbeingthreatenedbyeconomicandideological
globalization.Wecanlearnfromtheirculturalcommonswithoutcopyingthem,andlearningfrom
themwillhelptoremindusthatmakingecologicalsustainabilityapriorityofeducationalreform
needstobeacollaborativeeffort.Theonlythingthatcanbeuniversalizedisthedangerof
ecologicalcollapsenowfacedbyallculturesanditneedstoberecognizedthatresponsible
scientistsareincreasinglyusingthewordcollapse.Whatdeansanddepartmentchairpersonscan
do,eveniftheirowneducationalbackgroundsdonotprovideforanunderstandingofthe
cultural/linguisticissuesthatalsoarebeingignoredbyfacultyinotherdepartmentsofthe
university,istokeepremindingthefacultythatboththeecologicalcrisesthatscientistsare
documentingandtheculturaltraditionsthataremajorcontributorstoovershootingenvironmental
limits,mustbeintheforegroundofreformingteachereducationandinthesupportingfieldsof
studiesincollegesofeducation.
Chapter12WhatShouldbeIncludedinTeacherEducationProgramsinan
EraofGlobalWarming
(Explanationsoftheconnectionsbetweentheoryandclassroompracticeforthefollowingcanbefoundin
chaptersavailableintheotheronlinebooksbyC.A.Bowers.TypeC.A.BowersinGoogle,gotoonline

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articlesandbooks,andthentotheEcoJusticePress.Thechaptersalsoincludealistofbooksthatprovided
thetheoryfromwhichthepedagogicalandcurricularrecommendationswereextrapolated)
Basictheoryinthefollowingareasthatwillinformclassroompractices:
1. Anunderstandingoftheculture/language/thoughtconnections,suchastheculturaloriginsof
metaphoricalthinking,howmetaphorscarryforwardearlierformsofintelligence,andhowto
reframekeyaspectsofthedominantvocabularyinwaysthatareconsistentwithanecologicalway
ofthinkingandacting.
2. Anunderstandingoftheoverlookedcharacteristicsofcultureitstakenforgrantednature
(includingtheconnectionsbetweencontextandtacitunderstandings),thenatureoftradition,the
diversityofwaysofknowing,theculturaldifferencesbetweenoralityandprint,thedifferences
betweenculturesthatareecologicallycenteredandthosethatarebasedonmythsofprogressand
possessingaspecialdestiny.
3. Anunderstandingoftheculturalandenvironmentalcommons,includingthediversityofthelocal
culturalandenvironmentalcommons,howtomakethemexplicitthroughethnographic
descriptions,howtorecognizethecommunityenhancingcharacteristicsaswellassourcesof
discrimination,howtoassesstheirecologicalfootprintandconsumerreductioncharacteristics.
4. Anunderstandingofthedifferentwaysinwhichthecommonsarebeingenclosedthatis,
transformedintocommoditiesandmarkets,oreliminatedentirely.Inadditiontounderstandingthe
differentformsofenclosure,teachersshouldbeabletoengagestudentsinadiscussionofhow
differentformsofenclosurecontributetopoverty,tounderminingthecommunitystraditionsof
selfsufficiency,andtodegradingnaturalsystems.
5. Anunderstandingoftheteachersmediatingroleinhelpingstudentsrecognizethedifferences
betweenparticipatingintheintergenerationallyconnectedculturalcommonsandbeingaconsumer
andworkerintheindustrialsystemofproductionandconsumption.
6. Understandingcurriculardecisionsintermsofhowtheyrelatetoaddressingsocialandecojustice
issues.

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Understanding how earlier ways of thinking that were constituted before there was
an awareness of other cultural ways of knowing and environmental limits continue to
be reinforced in todays classrooms. This includes understanding the nature and
historical origins of the following root metaphors (interpretative frameworks that
have influenced cultural practices in a variety of areas and over hundred, even
thousands of years).
1.Individualism
2. Progress
3. Mechanism
4. Economism(reducingeverythingandrelationshiptoaneconomicunit)
5. Anthropocentrism(ahumancenteredworld)
6. Patriarchy
7. Languageasaconduitinasender/receiverprocessofcommunication
8. Evolution
9. Ecology
Understanding the how these interpretative frameworks (root metaphors) marginalize the
ability to recognize different aspects of culturally mediated experiences that are
especially critical today.
1. Ecologicallimitsandthepracticesthatareovershootingthem
2. Otherculturalwaysofknowingandvaluesystems
3. Traditions,includingpastachievementsintheareasofcivillibertiesandsocialjustice
4. Intergenerationalknowledgeandskillsthatreducedependenceuponconsumerismandthus
theecologicalfootprintofdailylife

Understandingthedynamicsofhowanalogsestablishedinthepastframethewidelyaccepted
meaningofthefollowingwords,andhowtoengagestudentsintheprocessofestablishing

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analogsthatareinformedbythestudentsculturalbackgroundandinformedbyan
awarenessofecologicallysustainablepracticesandvalues.Studentsshouldbeencouragedto
identifyanalogsthatareconsistentboththewithrootmetaphorofecologyandtheirown
culturaltraditions.
1. Intelligence
2. Individualism
3. Freedom
4. Community
5. Tradition
6. Wealth
7. Environment
8. Ecology
9. Culturalcommons
10. Environmentalcommons
11. Sustainable
12. Progress
13. Poverty
14. Subsistence
15. Conservatism
16. Liberalism
17. Globalization
18. Technology
19. Orality
20. Literacy
21. Wisdom
Theexplanationofhowtoidentifytheanalogsthatframethecurrentmeaningofwordssharedbya
widesegmentofthemainstreamculture,howtotracebackintimethesourcesoftheanalogsthat
continuetoframethecurrentmeanings,howtoidentifytheanalogsofdifferentculturalgroupsthat
havenotbeenentirelyassimilatedintothemainstreamculture,andhowtoassesswhetherthenew

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analogsthatareculturallyinformedleadtoecologicalthinkingandbehaviors,canbefoundinthe
chaptertitledTowardanEcologicallySustainableVocabularywhichisintheonlinebookToward
aPostIndustrialConsciousness.

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