COM FTF08-A

COMPOSITION
FIRST THINGS FIRST
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Dr. David F. Maas

(01) Many people think that writing consists of a motor activity involving writing
cursive letters with the fingers or typing letters onto the typewriter or word processor.
Actually writing consists of primarily a thinking and reasoning skill in which one puts
ideas and thoughts into a logical order. Consequently, writing of necessity involve
training in reasoning skills and learning to recognize flaws or errors in reasoning which
we have come to call logical fallacies. The purpose of this unit consists of training the
writer to spot lapses of reasoning in his own reasoning and in other peoples’ writing.
(02) In this unit we will learn to identify the typical logical fallacies in order to avoid
them in our own reasoning and to detect them in the articles we use for our research,
keeping them from contaminating our research. In order to master the contents of this
chapter it will become necessary for the student to define the several kinds of fallacies
and provide examples of each kind of fallacy. The student will have mastered fully the
content of this chapter when he or she can define, provide a text example and then
provide one of his or her own.
(03) The first group of logical fallacies we will investigate we classify as linguistic
fallacies because they primarily involve tampering with language or the language
structure.
Emotive Language

(04) The first linguistic fallacy we call emotive language. The sole purpose of
emotive language consists of the arousal of unreasoned feeling, depending on the
stimulation of the emotions. Emotive words lack clear meaning but they can really raise
the blood pressure.
Example: When people use such words as Communist, Socialist, Fascist Pig,
obstructionist, reactionary, racist, bigot, welfare cheat, union goon, etc. they don’t intend
to convey information, but instead to get a rise out of the reader.

(05) Some kinds of language we use to present information. We call this pointer
function of language a denotation. A denotation we may refer to as an agreement
between two or more people to restrict what a word can mean. Many have referred to the
denotation as the dictionary definition of a word. Other words we use to evoke powerful
feelings.
(06) If we see a policeman standing on the corner, we could reach for some neutral
words to describe the policeman such as law enforcement officer, constable, or
patrolman. These words strike us as emotionally neutral, pointing to the object but not
conveying or associating any feelings. Other language people primarily use to evoke
powerful feelings. This associative function we call connotation. S.I. Hayakawa refers
to feeling words as snarl words and purr words.

(07) Example: People who have come to despise policemen may use angry
expressions such as: Pig, Gestapo, SS, Nazis.
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(08) On the other hand, some people who have learned to respect law enforcement
officers may choose to use purr words to describe them such as: Servant of the people,
Guardian of the people’s rights, the long blue line, etc.

(09) Both purr and snarl words tend to cloud meaning by putting the feelings into the
foreground. During the Second World War, Hitler’s Propaganda Minister Joseph
Goebbels used emotive language to instill pride in the German people and to create
hatred for Jews and other Non-Aryans. Stuart Chases in his Tyranny of Words
discusses Goebbels’ use of emotive language.

(10) Bad language (Emotive Language) is now the mightiest weapon in the arsenal of
despots and demagogues. Witness Dr. Goebbels. Indeed it is doubtful if a people
learned in semantics would tolerate any sort of supreme political dictator. Ukases
would be met with a flat “no comprendo” or with roars of laughter. A typical
speech of an aspiring Hitler would be translated into its intrinsic meaning, if any.
Hitler would be translated into its intrinsic meaning, if any, Abstract words and
phrases without discoverable referents would register a semantic blank, noises
without meaning. For instance:

(11) The Aryan Fatherland, which has nursed the souls of heroes, calls upon you for
the supreme sacrifice which you, in whom flows heroic blood, will not fail, and
which will echo forever down the corridors of history.

This would be translated:

The blab blab, which has nursed the blabs of blabs, calls upon you for the blab
blab which you, in whom flows blab blood, will not fail, and which will echo
blab down the blabs of blab.

(12) The “blab’ is not an attempt to be funny; it is a semantic blank. Nothing comes
through. The hearer, versed in reducing higher order abstractions to either nil or a
series of roughly similar events in the real world of experience, and protected
from emotive associations with such words, simply hears nothing comprehensible. The
demagogue might as well have used Sanskrit.

Equivocation

(13) According to S. Morris Engel, to commit the fallacy of equivocation consists of

allowing a key word or phrase to shift its meaning in the course of the argument. The
etymology or origin comes from the Latin Equi or equal and Vox or voice, If we use the
word the same way throughout the discussion we use it univocally but if we shift its
meaning we use it equivocally.
(14) Example: Only man is rational.
No woman is a man.
Therefore no woman is rational.

(15) We can see that an argument becomes fallacious if it uses the same term with
different meanings. Especially susceptible are abstract terms like democracy, (applying
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the same term to the Greek city states, the American republic, or the Democratic people’s
republic of China), The term liberal ( meaning in today’s parlance the centralization of
governmental power but in Thomas Jefferson’s time the moving away from centralized
power to states rights), or the term freedom (which means to one set of politicians
freedom of choice freedom of religion, or freedom from government intervention, but to
another group of politicians it means freedom from hunger, freedom from poverty, and
perhaps freedom from responsibility). We see that the real problem consists in using the
term in more than one sense, while one gives the impression that it has one and only one
meaning throughout the argument.

(Consider this example: The things which have real educational value should
obviously be the core of a college curriculum. Nobody who has ever tried to get a
job will deny that typing is valuable. Certainly, then all students should be
required to take typing.

(16) Example: Practice makes perfect. Physicians have practiced the art of healing
for thousands of years. My physician, therefore, who studied at one of our
greatest medical schools, should be perfect in this field.

(17) Example: As far as I’m concerned, we need pay no attention to the president of
the college when it comes to educational matters because he has no authority in
education. He doesn’t even have enough authority to prevent students from
staging protest rallies.

Ambiguity

(18) Ambiguity occurs when we use terms which are ill-defined, vague in meaning,
signifying a variety of ideas, none of which can be made clear or precise either by
definition or by the context.
(19) Consider this example of a well-known biblical passage, drained of all its life-
blood by George Orwell’s high-level bureaucratize or governmental abstractions, a
favorite technique of the IRS:

(20) Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that

success in competitive activities is in no way commensurate with innate capacity,
but a considerable amount of the unpredictable must be taken into account.

(21) What Orwell has given us consists of an ambiguous paraphrase of Ecclesiastes

9:11-
(21) I returned and saw under the sun that-
The race is not to the swift,
Nor the battle to the strong,
Nor bread to the wise,
Nor riches to men of understanding,
Nor favor to men of skill;
But time and chance happen to them all.
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Accent

(22) According to S. Morris Engel, the fallacy of accent when

1. A statement is spoken in a tone of voice not intended for it.

2. Certain words in it are wrongly accented or stressed.
3. Certain words (or even sentences or paragraphs) are taken out of context
and thus given an emphasis ( and therefore a meaning) they were not
meant to have.

(23) Aristotle applied the term accent to misinterpretations resulting from words that
differ in syllabic accent.

(24) Consider:

In’ valid refers to someone ill.

Inva’lid refers to a faulty argument.

(25) The fallacy of accent occurs less frequently in oral speech, where tone is easily
conveyed by voice and gestural cues, than in written language.
(26) We commit the fallacy of accent when we try to deceive by changing the part of
the phrase to be emphasized. The meaning changes depending upon which parts of the
phrase we emphasize or accent.
(27) Consider the following phrase:

We should not speak ill of our friends.

(28) By changing the emphasis I get all kinds of differing meanings.

(29) We should not speak ill of our friends.

(But other people may speak ill of them)

(30) We should not speak ill of our friends.

(But we do anyway.)
(31) We should not speak ill of our friends.
(But we can think or write ill of them.)

(32) We should not speak ill of our friends.

( But we can speak good of them.)

(33) We should not speak ill of our friends.

( But we can speak ill of your friends)

(34) We should not speak ill of our friends.

( But we can speak ill of our enemies.)

(35) Or consider this group of sentences:

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(36) I never said he hit his wife.
(But Fred may have said it.)

(37) I never said he hit his wife.

(Under no circumstances did I ever say that)

(38) I never said he hit his wife.

(But I may have thought or written it.)

(39) I never said he hit his wife.

(But his friend may have hit her.)

(40) I never said he hit his wife.

(But he may have hit Harry’s wife.)

(41) I never said he hit his wife.

(But he could have hit his girlfriend or mistress.)

(42) Much Yiddish humor results from a fallacy of accent. Consider Leo Rosten’s
word play on the following sentence:

(43) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.

(44) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.

( I’m having enough trouble buying one.)
(45) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.
(You mean she isn’t giving away free passes.)

(46) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.

( After she didn’t come to my son’s recital.)
(47) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.
(She calls that hideous racket and noise a concert?)

(48) Two tickets for concert I should buy.

(What about the other office members?)

(49) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.

(Are you giving me a lesson in ethics?)

(50) Two tickets for her concert I should buy?

(Why isn’t she giving them away free?)

Amphiboly

(51) S. Morris Engel claims the fallacy of amphiboly occurs as the result or
product of poor structure. It results when words are incorrectly or loosely grouped in a
sentence, giving rise to a meaning not intended by the author. The etymology of the
word derives from the Greek: Ampho, meaning double or “on both sides”
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(52) We should remember that amphibolous arguments produce a two-fold
interpretation because of its awkward structure (or the awkward way in which its words
are combined), and not from any deliberate attempt to deceive.

(53) Consider the amphibolous consequences of the following sets of sentences:

(54) Eat here and get gas.

( 55) The Longview Committee on Public Decency is looking into

plunging necklines.

(56) There are some things that one should not eat, especially children.

(57) Church Sign: Do You Know What Hell Is? Come Hear Our New
Organist.

(58) Clean and decent boxing every night except Sunday.

(59) Apartment for rent: View takes in 4 counties. 2 bedrooms.

(60) For Sale: 1969 Cadillac hearse. Body in good condition.

(61) Lost cat: owner worried, neutered and declawed.

(62) Church Sign: Is there a God

who cares?

(63) Sign in druggists window:

We dispense with accuracy.

Composition

(64) We commit the fallacy of composition when we attempt to apply what is true of
the part or individual to the whole group.
(65)Example: If we say Jones is the best quarterback in the country.
Smith is the best Quarterback in the country. Davis is the best
receiver in the country. Putting them together on the Aggie
team will not necessarily make the Aggies the best team
in the country. Prima Donnas do not always make good
choir members.

(66) A statement about an integral part of something is not necessarily true about the
composite whole.
(67) Consider the story of the six blind men and the elephant.
The one holding the tusk said, “An elephant is sharp like a spear.”
The one holding the trunk said, “No it is flexible like a rope.”
The one holding the ear said, “No it is soft like a palm leaf.
The one feeling its side said, “It feels like a wall.”
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None of them described the elephant in its totality.

(68) Consider: The atomic bombs dropped during W.W.II did more
damage than the ordinary bombs dropped. (Collectively, more
conventional types were dropped. Collectively, the conventional
bombs did more damage.)

Division

(69) This fallacy occurs when an individual assumes that what is true of a composite
whole is true for each component part considered separately.

(70) Example: Texas A&M is a world famous institution.

Carl Jones attends Texas A&M.
Carl Jones is a world famous student.

(71) The fallacy of division takes place when one makes the assumption that what
holds true about a collection of elements must hold true for each of the individual
elements themselves.

(72) Example: American Indians are disappearing.

Jim Big Crow is an American Indian.
Jim Big Crow is disappearing.

(73) What holds true of the composite - the group as a whole - is not necessarily true
of the individual parts.

(74) Example: The Chicago Symphony Orchestra is the best symphony

orchestra in the country. That doesn’t mean that the
concert master is best violinist in the country.
(75) Example: Critics have hailed the Mormon Tabernacle Choir as one of
the best choirs in the world. The choir is composed of
amateurs (housewives, laborers, farmers, and
merchants - not exactly conservatory trained singers).
Consequently, the best choir may not be made up of
the best individual singers in the country.

Vicious Abstraction

(76) We commit the fallacy of vicious abstraction when we remove a statement from
its context, thereby changing the meaning of an argument.

(77) Example: Paul “The love of money is the root of all evil.
(78) Emerson: “ A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.”
(79) Pope: “A little learning is a dangerous thing.”
(80) Bacon “A little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism, but
depth in philosophy bringeth men’s mind about to religion.”
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COMFTF 08-B
Fallacies of Irrelevance
Dr. David F. Maas
(81) The next set of fallacies we will term fallacies of relevancy or fallacies of
irrelevance. The first fallacy we will examine is called the irrelevant thesis. S. Morris
Engel refers to the fallacy of irrelevant thesis as an argument in which an attempt is
made to prove a conclusion that is not the one at issue.
(82) While seeming to refute another s argument, the writer or speaker advances a
conclusion different from the one at issue in the other’s argument. Some synonyms for
irrelevant thesis include: Irrelevant Conclusion, Ignoring the Issue, Befogging the
Issue, Diversion, Red Herring. The red herring refers to a practice in which prison
escapees would smear themselves with a herring ( which turns brown or red when it
spoils) in order to throw dogs off their track.
(83) The irrelevant thesis succeeds in proving a point, but it is not the one at issue.
Engel suggests that the fallacy has two forms:
1. Attacking someone else’s claim irrelevantly.
2. Defending a claim of one’s own irrelevantly.

(84) Example: “The advocates of conversation contend that if we adopt their

principles we will be better off than if we did not adopt
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them. They are mistaken, for it is easy to show that
conservation will not produce an Eden on earth.”

(85) Example: “I fail to see why hunting should be considered cruel when it
gives tremendous pleasure to many people and
employment to even more.”

(86) This argument simply avoids what it attempts to prove(that hunting is cruel to
animals) and attempts to prove what has not been argued( that hunting is advantageous
for people.) This resembles the prosecutor who thinks he has proved to the jury the
defendant’s guilt by proving that murder is a horrible and a horrible crime.

(87) Example: Darwin conclusively proved the principle of anatomical

similarity, but he did not prove evolution to be anything more than a
hypothesis.

(88) Example: Professor: Roger, You have missed 11 classes in a row. What is
your problem ?
Roger: Well, The professor last year spoke with a foreign
accent.

(90) Example: Professor: I noticed you haven’t been to class for over eight
times.
Student: “Well, This class isn’t like other English classes
I’ve attended. I’ve never heard some of those
terms before.

(91) Both students may have made some truthful statements, but neither argument had
anything to do with the question at hand.

Appeal to Ignorance ( Argumentum ad Ignorantium)

(92) In the classic appeal to ignorance the assumption becomes made that something
must be true or correct merely because no one can prove it incorrect. As S. Morris Engel
has suggests, we don’t emphasize the evidence for a thesis, but the lack of evidence
against. often these arguments are made in matters of psychic phenomena. telepathy , and
the like.

(93) Example: “There is bound to be life on other planets.”

“Really, can you prove it?”
“ Well, can you prove there isn’t”

(94) This fallacy has sometimes been called shifting the burden of proof.
In a logical argument it is always the obligation of those who propose the argument to
furnish the proof.
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(95) Example: “ Bush was a lousy president.”
“ Why. what was so bad about him?”
“ You tell me what was so good about him?”

(96) Example: On good Friday of each year, while the congregation bowed
in prayer, the statue on the altar would kneel and shed tears. But if
even one member of the congregation looked up from
prayers in order to see the tears, the miracle would not occur.

(97) Example: The chiropractors have failed entirely in their attempts to

establish a scientific basis for their concepts. Consequently,
chiropractic has no basis in science.

Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordium)

(98) In this fallacy, we appeal to pity for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted..
Engel adds that his fallacy seeks to persuade not by presenting evidence but by arousing
pity.

(99) Example: Please officer, don’t give me a ticket. My parents will take the car away
from me and my life will be miserable. The fallacy shamelessly exploits a single
emotion- that of sympathy. Misericordium ( meaning Mercy) is the Latin name for this
fallacy.

(100) Several years ago , when a n entrepreneur laid out plans for a corporate farm. One
Midwestern senator tearfully whined to a farm group meeting:
“Would you want to put all these people out in the cold or working in drab
factories?”
Appeal to Prestige ( Argumentum Ad Verecundium)

(100) The appeal to prestige could be considered a variety of misplaced authority.

This fallacy equates prestige with evidence. When an authority is appealed to out of his
field-using a movie or recording star to peddle clothing, perfume, or automobiles we are
guilty of using appeal to prestige.
(101) Engel suggests that this argument can take several forms including:
1. Appeal to the one.
( If you like people , be sure you brush with Colgate. Charles Frasier
wouldn’t think of brushing with anything else.)
2. Appeal to the many.
(Everybody’s wearing it.”)
3. Appeal to the select few.
(Infiniti- to set you apart from the crowd.)

(101) We could call Appeal to the select few as snob appeal, exploiting our desire to act
like aristocrats, that we belong not to the masses but to the select few.
(102) Examples: Camel Filters. They’re not for everybody.
(103) Only one grape in 50 grows up to be great champagne.
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(104) Guerlain is pleased to announce that only one man in 10,000 wears
Imperials.
(105) The Marine Corps is looking for a few good men.

Appeal to Force (Argumentum Ad Baculum)

(106) The appeal to force ( or fear) is the threat of force to cause acceptance of That
conclusion. If X isn’t done, a bad thing will happen.

(107) Example“ If you don’t buy this Viper car alarm, don’t be surprised if you
walk out to the parking garage some night and find
your wife raped, beaten and murdered.’

(108) Example: The Gay -Lesbian Lobbyist reminds the representative that he has
thousands of voters in his constituency who will vote
against him if he doesn’t vote for the Gay
rights bill.

(108) Example “ If you won’t listen to our demands when we speak softly ,
you’ll feel our violent demands later.”

(109) Example: The congressman who warns his colleagues, “ If you

don’t vote for this Federal Jobs programs for young people, don’t
blame me if there are riots in our large cities during the long hot
summer.”

(110) The etymology (source) for Baculum means stick or club, implying that the user
will swing a big stick or club to get his or her conclusions accepted.. Consider this little
gentle hint:
Mr. Editor, I hope you will agree that this little escapade has no real news
value. I know that you’ll agree that my firm buys thousands of
dollars worth of advertisement space in your paper every year. I suppose
we could consider another paper.

Argument from Ridicule (Argumentum Ad Hominem)

(111) The English translation of Ad Hominem becomes “Against the Man” (or a
personal attack). When someone attacks the character or personal quirk rather than his or
her thesis he uses a form of Ad Hominem attack.
(112) Example: He should clearly not be our leader. He has admitted having a
drinking problem.

(113) Example: This theory about a new cure for cancer has been introduced by a
woman known for her Atheistic tendencies. I don’t see why we
should extend her the courtesy of our attention.

(114) Example: Dan Quayle would make a lousy candidate for president. He
can’t even spell potato.
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(115) Example: We have to discount Linda Tripp’s testimony in the Starr report.
She is overweight and has a double chin.

Argumentum Ad Populum ( Fallacy of Mob Appeal)

(116) The fallacy of mob appeal or the Ad populum appeal we can also refer to as the
Band Wagon or “ Everybody is doing it” argument. Someone tries to persuade that a
position should be accepted because a large number of people have endorsed it.
(117) Example: You ought to buy your car from Cal Worthington Ford. We’re the
largest dealer in southern California.
(118) Example: Join the Catholic Church- 800 million people can’t be wrong.
(119) Example: A campaigning politician argues that he should receive our vote
because “everybody” is voting that way.
(120) Example: The child who begs his parents to let him see an R- rated movie
because “all the other kids’ parents are allowing
their friends to see it.”

(121) The Appeal to the people has proved the favorite device of the demagogue,
propagandist, and advertiser. George Bernard Shaw seemed to sum it up best:
“If 50 million people say a foolish thing-- it is still a foolish thing.”

Fallacy of Accident (Sweeping Generalization)

(122) The fallacy of accident consists of applying a general law or rule to a special case
for which it is not appropriate.
(123) Example: When the robber asked me to tell him where the safe was,
I told him, because the Bible says we should not lie.
(124) Example: Since horseback riding is healthful exercise, Harry Brown
ought to do more of it because it will be good for his
heart condition.

(125) Example: If we believe that everyone should have the freedom of

speech in this country then we had better stop forbidding
judges from speaking out about cases they are handling.

(126) Example: I believe in the golden rule as an inherent duty to do unto

others as I would have them done unto me. If I were
puzzled by a question on an examination, I would
want my neighbor to help me. So it is my duty to help
the person next to me who has asked me to give her
the answer to a question on this exam.

Fallacy Of Converse Accident ( Hasty Generalization)

(127) The Fallacy of Converse accident or the Hasty Generalization we could consider
the reverse of the sweeping generalization. In this fallacy an isolated or exceptional case
is used as the basis for a general conclusion which is unwarranted.
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(128) Example: Marijuana was used experimentally to alleviate pain in

cancer victims, therefore marijuana should be used by
everybody.

(129) Example: LSD was used experimentally at UCLA to test recall and
association, therefore LSD ought to be made available
for everybody.

(130) Example: I had a bad time with my former husband. From that
experience I’ve learned that all men are no good.

(131) Example: I know one union representative and he’s a terrible

person. I wouldn’t trust any of them.

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

(After This , Therefore Causes This)

(132) This fallacy suggests that just because A preceded B , A must have caused B.
Many superstitions stem from this fallacy.
(133) Example: After I touched the toad I got warts. Touching toads
causes warts.
(134) Example: After Hoover was elected we had a Depression. Hoover’s
economic policies caused the Depression.
(135) Example: Every time we’ve had a Democrat in office we’ve had a
war. Democrats cause wars.

Non-Sequitur ( It Doesn’t Follow)

(136) In the non-sequitur fallacy , no logical connection can be found between the
conclusion and its premises. The individual statements may be true and relevant, but not
logically connected.

(137) Example: If it takes a man 20 minutes to walk a mile, a women

should be able to live longer than men.

Compound Questions

(138) This fallacy also goes under the name the loaded question, trick question,
leading question, fallacy of the false question, fallacy of many question, or poisoning
the wells. This error consists of combining several questions in such a manner as to
preclude all opposing arguments. We assume that a single question has been asked ,
whereas the wording implies that prior questions have been asked (and answered)

(139) Example: Has your mother had any normal children?

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(140) Example: When did you stop beating your wife?
(141) Example: Are you bragging or complaining?

(142) S. Morris Engel suggests that the Complex Question consists of the interrogative
form of Begging the Question. it leads one to believe that a particular answer to a prior
question has been answered in a certain way when this may not be the case. Engels
suggests that before rushing to answer a complex question, it is best to question the
question.
(143) Example: Did John ever give up his bad habits?
(144) Example: Are you still a heavy drinker?
(145) Example: Are you still following that goofy cult?
(146) Example: What did you use to wipe your fingerprints from the gun?
(147) Example: How long had you contemplated this robbery before you
carried it out?
(148) Example: What are your views on the token effort made by the
government to deal with this monstrous oil crisis?
(149) Example: Was it through stupidity or through deliberate dishonesty
that the administration hopelessly botched our
relations with Cuba?
(150) Example: When should you buy your first Cadillac? ( An
assumption has already been made on the positive merit
of the product.)
(151) Example: What is the explanation for mental telepathy.(An
assumption has been made that it exists.)

Begging The Question

(152) According to Engel, “the fallacy of begging the question is committed when,
instead of offering proof for its conclusion, an argument simply asserts the conclusion in
another form.”

(153) Example: Free trade will be good for this country. The reason is
patently clear. Isn’t it obvious that unrestricted relations
will bestow on all sections of this nation the benefits which
result in an unimpeded flow of goods between
countries.
( Free trade will be good for the country because free trade
will be good for the country.)

(154) Example: “People can’t help doing what they do.”

“Why not?”
“Because they always follow the strongest motive.”
“But what is the strongest motive?”
“It is, of course, the one that people follow.”

(155) In Engel’s estimation, “the repetition of a conclusion in another form should

never be mistaken for proof of that conclusion.”
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Tu Quoque ( You Yourself Do It)

(156) Tu Quoque is a fallacy of relevance because one person answers a charge against
himself by leveling the same charge against his opponents. In the recent presidential sex
scandal, the president’s supporters attempted to deflect the attack by pointing out moral
faults in their accusers. Also known as the double standard charge, the individual
suggests that the opponent’s argument is worthless because he failed to follow through on
the same advice.
(157) Example: The son tells his father, “Look who’s telling me to stop smoking.
You smoke more than I do.”

(158) Example: Far too much fuss has been made over our Central Intelligence
Agency’s espionage abroad. Other countries are just as deeply
engaged in spying as we are.

Genetic Fallacy

(159) The genetic fallacy we call a fallacy of relevance because the source for an idea or
statement is not relevant in determining its truth. A person may hold a true belief even
though it may have developed for poor reasons. According to S. Morris Engel, the
Genetic fallacy is a variety of Argumentum Ad Hominem ( argument against the man) in
which an attempt is made to prove a conclusion false by condemning the source. The
source of the idea is irrelevant to its viability, truthfulness, or accuracy.

(160) Example: This scholarship aid proposal is calculated to exploit poor students,
for it was written by a committee composed only of members of
the faculty and administration. No scholarship students
were on that committee.

(161) Example: We must take Schopenauer’s famous essay denouncing women

with a grain of salt. Any psychologist would at once explain this
essay by reference to the strained relationship between
Schopenhauer and his mother.

(162) Example: Let’s examine this suggestion that prisons should be made a
better place to live. Where does that idea come from? Its source
is mostly men who have been in prison before, convicted
felons and criminals.

Surely we can reject this idea just by knowing its source.

False Analogy

(163) In an analogy , it is assumed that since two things are alike in one respect, they
might be alike in other respects. But any major difference between the propositions
destroys the analogy.
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(164) Example: Women should make better Congressional
Representatives than men, for government is merely good
housekeeping.

(165) Example: Why should we sentimentalize over a few hundred

thousand Native Americans who were ruined when our
great civilization was being built? It may be that
they suffered injustices, but, after all, you can’t
make an omelet without breaking a few eggs.

(166) Example: What is taught on this campus should depend entirely on

what students are interested in. After all, consuming
knowledge is like consuming anything else in
society, The teacher is the seller, the student is the
buyer. Buyers determine what they want to buy, so
students should determine what they want to learn.

( The buyer knows the goods he purchases before he

purchases them. But does the student know the subject
before learning it.)

Insufficient Evidence

(167) Insufficient evidence consists of accepting inadequate data as a basis for a

conclusion.

(168) Example: Proving the murder weapon belonged to the defendant

does not in itself prove that he used it to commit a crime.

(169) Example: The missing 18 minutes on the audio tape may lead to
speculation as to what may have been on the tape, but does
not constitute evidence.

Pathetic Fallacy ( Anthropomorphism)

(170) The pathetic fallacy consists of ascribing human feelings to non-human or

inanimate objects. The arguer uses poetic license to try to get his conclusion accepted.

(171) Example: Colonizing the wilderness is a bad idea. The very rocks
threatened us, warning us to go back.

(172) Example: The forest was gloomy and sinister, full of evil.

(173) Example: The day John Kennedy was shot ,a climate of

hatred enveloped Dallas. One could just feel it in
the air.
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Contrary to Fact Conditional Error

(174) This fallacy alters historical facts and then draws conclusions from them.

(175) Example: If Nixon had been allowed to continue in the

Whitehouse, the morals of this nation would have
gone bankrupt.

(176) Example: If Goldwater had been in the Whitehouse, there

would have been no Viet Nam conflict.

(177) Example: If the South had won the Civil War, slavery would
have existed in the North.

Contradictory Premises

(178) This fallacy contains premises which contradict each other. We can reach no
conclusion because one premise cancels out another.

(179) Example: “ Is God All Powerful?”

“Yes”
“Could God make a rock so big He couldn’t lift it?”
“ I doubt it. Why would He want to do that?”
“ How can you say He is all powerful then?”
(180) Example: What happens when an irresistible force meets an
immovable object?
Nothing- one cancels the other.
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Key Terms / Glossary / Index

Accent 04-26 Occurs when we try to deceive by changing the part of the
word or phrase to be emphasized.
Accident 13-122 The fallacy of accident consists of applying a general law or
rule to a special case for which it is not appropriate.
Ambiguity 03-18 Occurs when we use terms which are ill-defined, vague in
meaning, signifying a variety of ideas, none of which can be
made clear or precise either by definition or by the
context.
Amphiboly 06-51 It results when words are incorrectly or loosely grouped in a
sentence giving rise to a meaning not intended by the author.
Appeal to Force 11-106 The threat of force is used to cause the acceptance of a
conclusion.
Appeal to Ignorance 10-92 The assumption becomes made that something must be true
or correct merely because no one can prove it incorrect.
Appeal to Pity 10-98 Seeks to persuade not by presenting evidence by
arousing pity.
Appeal to Prestige 11-100 When an authority is appealed to out of his field.
Argumentum 12-100 Latin for appeal to force - from baculum - meaning club.
Ad Baculum
Argumentum 12-111 Synonym for argument from ridicule. When someone
Ad Hominem attacks the character or personal quirk rather than
his or her thesis, he uses this form of attack.
Argumentum 10-92 See Appeal to Ignorance.
Ad Ignorantium
Argumentum 10-98 Synonym (Latin root) for appeal to pity.
Ad Misericordium
Argumentum 12-116 Occurs when someone tries to persuade that a position
Ad Populum should be accepted because a large number of
people have endorsed it.
Argument 12-111 The English translation of Ad Hominem “Against the Man”
from Ridicule
Associative Function 01-06 Language used to evoke powerful feelings.
Befogging the Issue 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
Begging the Question 15-152 This fallacy is committed when instead of offering proof for its con-
clusion, an argument simply asserts the conclusion in another form.
Complex Question 14-142 Another name for compound question
Composition 07-64 Occurs when we attempt to apply what is true of the part or
individual to the whole group.
Compound Questions 14-138 This error consists of combining several questions in such a manner
as to preclude all opposing arguments. We assume that a single
question has been asked, wherein the wording implies that prior
questions have been asked (and answered).
Connotation 01-06 Language used to evoke powerful feelings.
Contradictory Premises 18-178 This fallacy contains premises which contradict each other. We can
reach no conclusion because one premise cancels out another.
Contrary to Fact 18-174 Alters historical facts and then draws conclusions from them.
Conditional Error
Converse Accident 13-127 An isolated or exceptional case is used as the basis for a
general conclusion which is unwarranted.
Denotation 01-05 Refers to an agreement between two or more people to
restrict what a word can mean.
Division 07-71 Occurs when an individual assumes what is true of a composite whole
is true for each component part considered separately.
Diversion 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
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Double Standard 15-156 Another name for the Tu Quoque or you yourself do it.
Charge
Emotive Language 01-04 The sole purpose of emotive language consists of the arousal of
unreasoned feeling, depending on the stimulation of the emotions.
Equivocation 02-13 Allowing a key word or phrase to shift its meaning in the
course of the argument.
Fallacy of the 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
False Question
Fallacy of 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
Many Questions
Fallacy of Mob Appeal 12-116 Someone tried to persuade that a position should be accepted because a
large number of people have endorsed it.
False Analogy 16-163 It is assumed in an analogy that since two things are alike in other
respects, they might be alike in other respects. But any major
difference between the propositions destroys the analogy.
Genetic Fallacy 16-159 An attempt is made to prove a conclusion false by condemning the
source.
Hasty Generalization 13-127 Another name for fallacy of converse accident.
Ignoring the Issue 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
Insufficient Evidence 17-167 Consists of accepting inadequate date as a basis for a conclusion.
Irrelevant Conclusion 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
Irrelevant Thesis 09-81 An argument in which an attempt is made to prove a conclusion that is
not the one at issue.
Leading Questions 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
Linguistic Fallacies 01-03 Fallacies which primarily involve tampering with language or the
language structure.
Loaded Questions 14-138 Another name for Compound Questions.
Non-Sequitur 14-136 No logical connection can be found between the conclusion and its
premises. The individual statements may be true and relevant, but not
logically connected.
Pathetic Fallacy 17-170 Ascribing human feelings to non-human or inanimate objects.
Pointer Function 01-05 The kinds of language we use to present information.
Poisoning the Wells 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
Post Hoc Ergo 14-132 This fallacy suggests that just because A preceded B,
Propter Hoc A must have caused B.
Purr Words 01-06 Associative words used to evoke pleasant feelings.
Red Herring 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis. Refers to a practice in which prison
escapes would smear themselves with a herring (which turns brown
or red when it spoils) in order to throw dogs off their track.
Shifting the Burden 10-94 Synonym for Appeal to Ignorance.
of Proof
Snarl Words 01-06 Associative words used to create ill-will.
Sweeping 13-122 Another term for Fallacy of Accident.
Generalization
Trick Question 14-138 Another name for Compound Questions.
Tu Quoque 15-156 One person answers a charge against himself by leveling the same
charge against his opponents.
Vicious Abstraction 08-76 Occurs when we remove a statement from its context, thereby
changing the meaning of an argument.
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Logical Fallacies
Objectives
COMFTF08

1. Define and provide examples of the emotive language fallacy. 01-04

2. Define and provide examples of the equivocation fallacy. 02-13
3. Define and provide examples of the ambiguity fallacy. 03-18
4. Define and provide examples of the accent fallacy. 04-22
5. Define and provide examples of the fallacy of amphiboly. 06-51
6. Define and provide examples of the composition fallacy. 07-64
7. Define and provide examples of the division fallacy. 07-69
8. Define and provide examples of the vicious abstractions fallacy. 08-76
9. Define and provide examples of the irrelevant thesis fallacy. 09-81
10. Define and provide examples of the red herring fallacy. 09-82
11. Define and provide examples of the appeal to ignorance (argumentium
ad ignorantium) fallacy. 10-92
12. Define and provide examples of the appeal to pity (misericordium) fallacy. 10-98
13. Define and provide examples of the appeal to prestige (argumentum ad
verecundium) fallacy. 11-100
14. Define and provide examples of the appeal to force (argumentium ad baculum)
fallacy. 11-106
15. Define and provide examples of the argument from ridicule (ad hominem) fallacy.
12-111
16. Define and provide examples of the argumentum ad populum (fallacy of mob
appeal) fallacy. 12-116
17. Define and provide examples of the accident or sweeping generalization fallacy.
13-122
18. Define and provide examples of the converse accident (hasty generalization)
fallacy. 13-127
19. Define and provide examples of the post hoc ergo propter hoc (A preceded B;
A caused B) fallacy. 14-132
20. Define and provide examples of the non-sequitur (it doesn’t follow)
fallacy. 14-136
21. Define and provide examples of the compound question fallacy. 14-138
22. Define and provide examples of the begging the question fallacy. 15-152
23. Define and provide examples of the tu quoque (you yourself do it) fallacy. 15-
156
24. Define and provide examples of the genetic fallacy. 16-159
25. Define and provide examples of the false analogy fallacy. 16-163
26. Define and provide examples of the insufficient evidence fallacy. 17-167
27. Define and provide examples of the pathetic fallacy (anthropomorphism) fallacy.
17-170
28. Define and provide examples of the contrary to fact conditional error. 18-174
29. Define and provide examples of the contradictory premises fallacy. 18-178