Advanced Powder Technology 19 (2008) 403418

www.brill.nl/apt

Review paper
Fluidized Bed Dryers Recent Advances
Wan Ramli Wan Daud
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia
Received 18 January 2008; accepted 7 April 2008

Abstract
Although industrial uidized bed dryers have been used successfully for the drying of wet solid particles for
many years, the development of industrial uidized bed dryers for any particular application is fraught with
difculties such as scaling-up, poor uidization and non-uniform product quality. Scaling-up is the major
problem and there are very few good, reliable theoretical models that can replace the expensive laboratory
work and pilot-plant trials. This problem is mainly due to the different behavior of bubbles and mixing
regimes in uidized bed dryers of different size. Simple transformation of laboratory batch drying data to
continuous back-mixed dryers using the residence time distribution of the solids is insufcient to account for
the complex ow and heat and mass transfer phenomena occurring in the bed. Although time scaling using
temperature driving forces and solids mass ux for the same change in moisture content in the batch and
continuous dryers has been successful in predicting moisture content proles in the continuous dryer at the
constant rate period, it does not take into account solid mixing. Two-phase DavidsonHarrison models have
been used in modeling of the continuous back-mixed dryer with various degrees of success. On the other
hand, the three-phase KuniiLevenspiel model is seldom used in modeling uidized bed dryers because it is
too complex to handle. A combination of multi-phase models and residence time distribution could improve
predicting power for back-mixed dryers because this combination takes into account both the bubbles and
solid mixing phenomena. Incremental models were widely used to model continuous plug ow uidized
bed dryers, but the cross-ow of drying medium has not been sufciently modeled except by the author.
In some incremental models, axial dispersion is modeled using the Peclet number, Pe. A combination of
an incremental model with an axial dispersion and cross-ow model of drying medium would improve
predicting power. Poor uidization of Geldart group C particles could be improved by the assistance of
external means such as vibration, agitation, rotation and centrifugation. Both vibrated and agitated uidized
bed dryers have been successfully used in industry, but rotating or centrifugal uidized bed dryers are still
not available for industrial use.
Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Society of Powder Technology, Japan, 2008
Keywords
Fluidized bed, modeling, scaling up, vibrating uidized bed, centrifugal uidized bed, agitated uidized
bed, cross ow

E-mail: wramli@vlsi.eng.ukm.my

Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Society of Powder Technology, Japan, 2008

DOI:10.1163/156855208X336675

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W. R. W. Daud / Advanced Powder Technology 19 (2008) 403418

Nomenclature
A
E(t)

F
f
G
h
L
mB
NV
NTU
Nu
Pe
Pr
Rep
TG
TGI
Ti
To
TS
Twb
t

X
Xi
Xo
Y
Yo
Yi
z
Z

bed area (m2 )

RTD curve ()
bed porosity ()
dry basis solid ow rate (kg/h)
falling rate drying factor ( C)
dry basis gas ow rate (kg/h)
bed height (m)
total length of dryer (m)
mass of bed (kg)
local solids dying rate (kg/h/m2 )
number of transfer units ()
nusselt number ()
Peclet number ()
Prandtl number ()
particle Reynolds number ()
local gas temperature ( C)
initial gas temperature ( C)
inlet gas tenmperature ( C)
exhaust gas temperature ( C)
local solids temperature ( C)
wet bulb temperature ( C)
time (s)
residence time (s)
dry basis solids moisture content (kg/kg)
inlet solids dry basis moisture content (kg/kg)
exit solids dry basis moisture content (kg/kg)
dry basis gas humidity (kg/kg)
exhaust gas dry basis humidity (kg/kg)
inlet gas dry basis humidity (kg/kg)
distance along bed (m)
scaling factor ()

1. Introduction
Fluidized bed technology has been used in industrial dryers for the drying of wet
solid particles for many years. Fluidized bed dryers have successfully been used for
drying of products such as coal [1], maize [2], paddy [3], coconut [4], biosynthesis
products [5], chillies [6, 7], nylon [8], bakers yeast [9], black tea [10] and bleaching
agents (sodium perborate) [11]. Industrial drying operations require a high rate of
heat and mass transfer and a high rate of solid transport to or from the dryer. The
main advantages of uidized bed technology in drying application are large contact
surface area between solids and gas, high thermal inertia of solids, good degree of

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solids mixing, and rapid transfer of heat and moisture between solids and gas that
shortens drying time considerably without damaging heat sensitive materials. In
addition, uidized solid particles can be easily transported into and out of the dryer
by gravity (much like a liquid) and transported elsewhere by pneumatic conveying
with less mechanical equipment.
However, uidized bed technology also has several serious undesirable characteristics that lower uidization quality and hence uidized bed performance which
are detrimental to dryer operation. The uidized bed dryer for drying specic material could only be scaled-up using empirical pilot-plant data and not by using
mathematical models. Hence, the performance of the uidized bed drier could not
be reliably predicted a priori before pilot-plant trials are undertaken. This is due to
the lack of reliable mathematical models for uidized bed dryers. For some solid
particles that belong to Geldart group C and D, uidization quality is poor and product quality is not uniform. For more fragile solid particles, attrition or pulverization
produces ne particles that can easily be entrained in the gas, causing product lost
through the dust control system. Fine particles also agglomerate and may seriously change product size distribution, causing lower drying rates and non-uniform
product quality. A wider particle size distribution produced by attrition may also
lower uidization quality and hence lower product quality. The vigorous mixing of
solid particles especially in back-mixed uidized bed dryers also induces a wider
residence time distribution (RTD) of the solids going out of the dryer leading to
non-uniform product quality. The operational life of the uidized bed dryer and associated pipes and vessels are shorter than that of other types of dryers because of
erosion of the dryer, pipe and vessel walls by violent particlewall collisions. In
addition, the higher pressure drop across the bed requires a more powerful compressor, and hence higher capital and operational costs.
2. Scaling-up and Modeling of Fluidized Bed Dryers
By far the most serious problem is scaling-up of the uidized bed dryer because
bubble size remains essentially the same, but ow patterns of solid particles and
gas may differ in larger uidized bed dryers [12]. In addition solids mixing in small
equipment at low gas velocities is due to upwards solids motion in the wake of
rising bubbles, whereas in larger equipment, more vigorous mixing is due to largescale toroidal circulation patterns, up in the center and down at the wall [12]. See
Fig. 1.
The dispersion or diffusion coefcient as a measure of mixing increases proportionally with bed diameter [12]. These limitations require that uidized bed
drying of any material must be tested both at the laboratory and pilot-plant scale
so that proper scale-up procedure is used to evaluate the performance of the industrial dryer. It is therefore difcult to design the full-scale uidized bed dryer from
rst principles using laboratory data only and predict its performance for any particular application [12]. These limitations render the development of uidized bed

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Figure 1. Different solid and bubble ow patterns in small (left) and large (right) uidized beds.

dryers for any particular application expensive. Hence, the main impetus for developing a successful uidized bed dryer model is the savings in development costs
when the model could successfully be used to evaluate the full-scale dryer using
minimum laboratory data without recourse to expensive pilot-plant trials.
An enduring difculty is the problem of estimating heat and mass transfer coefcients with sufcient accuracy. Most heat transfer correlations are based on data for
turbulent ow around stationary spheres, whereas the motion of bubbles and wakes
as well as the circulating ow of solids in larger uidized beds creates a very different gas ow patterns around the solid particles. An old but effective correlation that
can estimate the heat transfer coefcient more accurately than others is the Ranz
and Marshall correlation [13, 25]:
0.33
Nu = 2 + 0.6Re0.5
.
p Pr

(1)

The other serious difculty is to model the solid and gas mixing in the uidized
bed, and the interaction between the solid and the gas phase. There are two main
types of continuous uidized bed dryers based on RTD: the back-mixed continuous
uidized bed dryer with a broad residence time (Fig. 2) and the plug ow continuous
uidized bed dryer with a relatively narrower RTD (Fig. 3). Mixing regimes in
actual industrial uidized bed dryers may lie between the two.
Both back-mixed and plug ow uidized bed dryers have been used in the drying of particulate solids for many years. However, modeling and simulation of the
performance of any particular design of the dryer has always been problematic due
to the inadequate overall empirical models used, which are often too inexible and
too specic to the particular design, and the inadequate theoretical models that encounter difculty in modeling the cross-ow of solids and gas. Black box empirical
models have been used for drying of specic products, but the models are not general enough to be used for scaling-up of other uidized bed dryers drying different
materials.

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Figure 2. Back-mixed uidized bed dryer.

Figure 3. Plug ow uidized bed dryer.

2.1. Back-Mixed Continuous Fluidized Bed Models

There are three main types of models of back-mixed continuous uidized bed dryers:
(i) Simple empirical model.
(ii) Transformation of batch drying data using RTD:
(a) Solids mixing model.
(b) Time scaling of driving forces model.
(iii) Transformation of single-particle heat and mass transfer using two- or threephase uidized bed models:
(a) One-dimensional two-phase model with and without solids mixing
model.
(b) Three-dimensional two-phase continuum model.
(c) One-dimensional three-phase model.

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The simple empirical models can only be used for specic designs of uidized
bed dryers that dry specic products [3].
The back-mixed continuous uidized bed dryer has a relatively small aspect ratio (length to width ratio) and the mixing of solids is similar to that in a continuous
stirred tank reactor. The RTD of the solids particle is therefore quite broad, leading
to non-uniform nal solids moisture content. A very popular approach is to directly
transform batch data for use in the continuous model by integrating the batch uidized bed drying curve with the RTD of the solids to calculate the average solids
moisture content at the outlet of the continuous dryer [10, 1421]:

1
Xo =
X(t)E(t) dt.
(2)
0
This approach presupposes that the conditions in the original batch drying are
similar to those in the continuous back-mixed uidized bed dryer. This assumption
is, however, erroneous because the ow patterns of solids and gas in the batch and
continuous dryers are very different. This error often leads to overestimation of
dryer performance.
Other researchers who develop similar models rectify this error by assuming
the temperature is uniform throughout the bed and scaling the temperature driving
forces with the solid ow rates of batch and continuous drying for the same change
in moisture content [2225]:
Fast drying materials

Z=

Slow drying materials

2 (mB /A)2 G1 (TGI Twb )1

=
,
1 (mB /A)1 G2 (TGI Twb )2

(3)

2 (TGI Twb )1
=
.
1 (TGI Twb )2

(4)

Z=

This method was further extended by including the effect of mass transfer in the
form of number of transfer units for the batch and continuous dryers in the scaling
factor [25]:
Z=

2 (mB /A)2 G1 (TGI Twb )1 (1 efNTUz )1

=
.
1 (mB /A)1 G2 (TGI Twb )2 (1 efNTUz )2

(5)

The RTD of solids and the heat and mass transfer between the gas and solid
phases are combined in a latest extension of this model [2729].
It has been suggested that the model for the solids phase should be based on
heat and mass transfer on a single particle that could then be scaled-up to a batch
or continuous back-mixed uidized bed dryer using the two- or three-phase model
without having to transform batch drying data for continuous application [3032].
Another approach for non-bubbling uidized bed dryers is to model the gas ow
through the bed using Darcys Law and the interparticle heat and mass transfer
between stationary particles [33]. However, since industrial uidized bed dryers use
bubbling uidized beds, there is limited use of this model. The steady-state, onedimensional two-phase models (suspension of particles and bubbles) of Harrison

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Figure 4. Schematic of a two-phase model of a uidized bed.

and Davidson [3436] were widely used successfully [3740]. A more elaborate
one-dimensional two-phase model that also incorporates the RTD of solids was also
developed [29, 41]. The three-phase model (cloud, emulsion and bubbles) of Kunii
and Levenspiel [42, 43] was never used successfully for uid bed dryers because of
its complexity. See Fig. 4.
The unsteady- and steady-state three-dimensional two-phase continuum model
was developed [44, 45] by remodeling the solids phase as a solids-only continuum and applying uid-like differential mass and momentum balance on the solids
continuum and solving the resulting set of equations along with the differential momentum balance of the gas phase continuum by using computational uid dynamic
techniques of the constant volume method. The model has been successfully applied to uidized bed reactors in the petrochemical industry. However, although the
computed solids temperature was in close agreement with experimental values, the
solids moisture content deviated widely from experimental data.
Both the two- and three-phase models estimate the performance of back-mixed
continuous dryers better than both the RTD-batch dryer transformation model and
the time scaling of batch to continuous dryer model. The one-dimensional twophase model with RTD can estimate the dryer performance even better. However
the three-dimensional continuum two-phase model was promising, but the large
deviations between the computed and experimental solids moisture content were
disappointing. The three-phase model is not often used in uidized bed dryer models because of the many parameters required by the model.
2.2. Plug Flow Fluidized Bed Dryer Models
There are two main types of models for plug ow uidized bed dryers:
(i) Simple black box model.

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(ii) Transformation of batch drying data:

(a) Discrete solids mixing model.
(b) Incremental plug ow model.
(c) Incremental plug ow model with dispersion using the Peclet number, Pe.
(d) Incremental plug ow model with gas cross-ow.
Most of the existing models of plug ow uidized bed dryers concentrate only
on the solid mixing model and neglect the cross-ow pattern of the drying medium.
The non-ideal ow of solids in plug ow uidized bed dryers has been modeled as
several continuous back-mixed uidized bed dryers connected in several different
ways [10, 23, 4648] that use models originally validated for back-mixed batch and
continuous uidized bed dryers [10, 2022] similar to the modeling of non-ideal
ow reactors. The problem with this type of model is the difculty of estimating
a sufcient number of completely mixed dryers for any particular dryer a priori. It
could only be determined by analysis of pilot-plant data. The position in the dryer
is transformed from the residence time using similar arguments to the incremental
models. The essential feature of the cross-ow of drying medium and solids in plug
ow uidized bed dryer was not modeled at all.
Many incremental models of plug ow uidized bed cross-ow dryers had to
introduce a time increment in the model that is later substituted with the length
increment by using the bed velocity in order to track the changes in moisture content
and temperature of solids and air as functions of distance along the bed [15, 16, 26,
49, 50]. The use of the time increment in a steady-state model is confusing. The
cross-ow dryer was modeled as a series of incremental step-wise co-current dryers
[50]. See Figs 5 and 6.
The incremental model was modied by modeling the cross-ow of the drying
medium and removing the need to use the time increment and bed velocity for
computing the distance along the dryer [51, 52]. To account for non-ideal ow,
an axial dispersion term was introduced in the moisture balance of the solids and
characterized the dispersion with the Peclet number, Pe [15].
A similar plug ow uidized bed dryer model was developed that included a momentum balance of the particles [53] based on the back-mixed batch and continuous
uidized bed dryer model [29]. The essential feature of the cross-ow of drying

Figure 5. Moisture and energy balance in cross-ow dryers as stepwise co-current ow [50].

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Figure 6. Moisture and energy balance in cross-ow dryers [51, 52].

medium and solids in plug ow uidized bed dryers was not modeled. If the incremental model with axial dispersion is combined with the cross-ow model of
drying medium, the predicting power of the model will be enhanced.
3. Improvement of Fluidization Quality of Difcult to Fluidize Particles
3.1. Mechanically Assisted Fluidization
It is well known that uidization quality of group A and B particles in the Geldart classication is excellent. However, the uidization quality of group C (ne
and ultra ne particles) as well as group D (large particles) is comparatively poor.
In addition to natural group C particles, vigorous solids mixing, energetic bubble
eruption at the bed surface, and violent solidsolid and solidwall collisions lead
to the formation of many ne group C particles in the system through attrition
or pulverization of particles. This causes unsatisfactory contact efciency between
solid and uid phases, and a drop in the performance of the uidized bed dryer.
These effects could be reduced and the performance of the uidized bed dryer improved by installation of inner vertical bafes that break up larger bubbles before
they break through the surface [55]. Fluidization quality of ne and ultra-ne particles (group C particles) is poor because of the strong cohesive forces between
ne particles. As a result, channeling in the bed of particles and agglomeration of
nes frequently occur. In addition, entrainment of ne particles is severe because
of the slower terminal falling velocity of ne particles. However, the uidization
quality of ne particles can be enhanced by the assistance of external means such
as vibration, agitation, rotation and centrifugation [56].
3.2. Vibrated Fluidized Bed
Vibrated uidized bed dryers were rst studied in 1969 as an alternative to the conventional uidized bed dryer [57]. Vibrated uidized beds are often associated with
spray drying systems to produce agglomerated instant powder or act as a powder

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conditioning plant for special coating operations. Vibration and the upward and forward ow of air in a uidized bed enables the drying particles to uidize smoothly
[39]. This is especially useful for processing group C particles [54]. Vibration also
assists uidization by creating large tensile stresses during transient periods of the
cyclic pressure pulses [58, 59] and inducing higher particle accelerations [60] that
break up cohesive assemblies of group C particles into smaller agglomerates. In
addition, the gas velocities for minimum and complete uidization are relatively
lower compared to the conventional uidized bed dryer [61]. Attrition due to vigorous particleparticle and particlewall interactions is thus minimized appreciably.
Hence, the application of uidized beds can be further extended to fragile, abrasive and heat-sensitive materials [56]. As the operating gas velocity is lower than in
a conventional uidized bed, the problem of ne particles entrainment is avoided.
For a polydisperse system, low gas velocity uidizes the ne particles gently
while the vibration keeps the coarse particles in a mobile state. Heat and mass
transfer occur more effectively and efciently. A vibrating uidized bed dryer is
therefore useful for drying materials that are ne, poorly uidizable, have a broad
particle distribution, have a highly irregular particle shape or require relatively low
uidization velocities to prevent attrition [56]. Vibrating uidized bed dryers are
generally of the plug ow type with shallow beds. This gives a much lower product
residence time per unit bed area than non-vibrating beds [62]. Vibration increases
particle diffusivity, constant drying rate [6264] and falling drying rate [6567].
Drying rate also increases with increasing amplitude and gas supercial velocity
[59, 64]. However, the understanding of transport processes in the vibrated uidized bed dryer is still little known even 20 years after the rst effort was started
[68]. A LangragianEuler model of the vibrated uidized bed dryer was developed
using the discrete element model for the particles and the NavierStokes equation
for the gas [59], but the model was validated using published experimental bed expansion data [69] only, which is not adequate. More work has to be done in order
to extend our understanding of the phenomena. See Fig. 7.

Figure 7. Vibrating uidized bed.

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413

Figure 8. Agitated uidized bed.

3.3. Agitated Fluidized Bed

Another way to improve the uidization quality of ne particles is to use agitating
devices within the uidized bed dryer. By agitating the bed of particles, a homogeneous uidizing bed of ne particles is formed without any channeling or big
bubbles [56]. In addition, deeper bed depth is possible if the bed is agitated while
its uidization quality is maintained [56]. Mechanical agitation improves uidization by reducing agglomeration and channeling, as well as increasing void fraction
[70]. See Fig. 8.
The drying rate of agitated uidized bed dryers increases with the rate of agitation, reaches a maximum and then decreases as the rate of agitation is further
increased [71]. This is because at low agitation speed, agitation and uidization
increase interparticle and gasparticle contact, while at higher agitation speed, the
greater centrifugal force hurls more particles towards the wall away from the main
air ow at the center. The greater interparticle and gasparticle contact at lower
agitation speeds increases both heat and mass transfer, and the drying rate. On the
other hand, the lower interparticle and gasparticle contacts at agitation rates higher
than that at the maximum drying rate, decreases both heat and mass transfer, and
the drying rate. An earlier work that found drying rate decreases with increasing
agitation rate operated the agitated uidized bed beyond the maximum drying rate
point [72].
3.4. Centrifugal and Rotating Fluidized Bed
The centrifugal or rotating uidized bed balances the centrifugal force generated
by chamber rotation with the particle drag force caused by the radial uidization
gas [73]. The uidization gas velocity can be easily varied by varying the rota-

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Figure 9. Centrifugal/rotating uidized bed.

tional speed of the uidization chamber [74]. The centrifugal force is generated
by rapidly rotating the uidization chamber to form an annular particle bed that
is radially uidized by gas injected through the porous or sintered outer wall [75]
and removed via a central chimney. The annular uidized bed is therefore more
compact than conventional uidized beds. The centrifugal force can be increased
by several fold of gravity to increase uidization and gassolid slip velocities, to
improve inter-phase mass and heat transfer through good contact efciency, and to
prevent agglomeration and entrainment of particles [7678]. Recently, models of
rotating uidized beds were proposed for the bubble size [79] as well as for the
whole rotating uidized bed [80]. A novel rotating uidized bed formed by injecting gas tangentially in a static chamber was recently invented [81]. See Fig. 9.
4. Conclusions
The main problem of industrial uidized bed dryers is scaling up because there are
very few good, reliable theoretical models that can replace expensive laboratory
work and pilot-plant trials. The models must take into account both the behavior
of bubbles and mixing regimes in uidized beds of different size. Simple transformation of laboratory batch drying data to continuous back-mixed dryers using
RTD of the solids is insufcient. Time scaling using temperature driving forces and
solids mass ux for the same change in moisture content is successful only in certain cases. Multi-phase models such as the two-phase DavidsonHarrison model
and three-phase KuniiLevenspiel model have been used in modeling continuous
back-mixed dryers but combinations of these models and RTD could improve the
predicting power. Most incremental models of continuous plug ow uidized bed
dryers with and without axial dispersion neglect the cross-ow of drying medium.
A combination of an incremental model with an axial dispersion and cross-ow
model of drying medium would improve the models predicting power. Poor uidization of Geldart group C particles could be improved by the assistance of
external means such as vibration, agitation, rotation and centrifugation in novel

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415

uidized bed dryers. Models of these novel uidized bed dryers are not well developed because the theoretical understanding of them is still far from complete. Both
vibrated and agitated uidized bed dryers have been successfully used in industry,
but rotating or centrifugal uidized bed dryers are still not available for industrial
use.
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