Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Training Programme for ACTAVIS Employees

(2008/2009)

Subject: Basic Electrical and

Electronics Principles

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NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics

Applications

Fundamental Units of measure:

Describe measured things such as length (metre), mass (kg),
time (seconds)
Based on the International System of Units, SI Units
SI Units are also included to indicate quantities measured in
electrical and electronics technology
Measuring Angles:
In some electrical/electronic circuits, called a.c. circuits, part of
operation is based on repetitive waves (often sinosoidal in
shape)
A point on a wave is referred either in terms of time from the
start of the cycle, or in terms of an angle one waveform cycle
starts at 0 and finishes at 360.
A cycle is said to be completed when a point is reached when
operation will be repeated
Angles can be measured also in Radians.
Radian: angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
having length equal to the radius of the circle.
One rotation to complete a circle (1 cycle) covers an angle
of 360. One complete circle covers 2 radians. Hence 1
radian covers an angle of 360/2 = 57.3
To convert from degrees to radians, divide by 57.3
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 57.3
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T/4

T/2

3T/4

0
90

180

270

360

time
angle

1 revolution (cycle)

One cycle of a sine wave

T = time taken by one cycle
Frequency = number of cycles per second
F = 1/T

1 radian
r

arc length = r

Definition of the radian

Multiples and sub-multiples:

Many of the units measured are too large or too small for convenient everyday use.
More convenient to use multiples and sub-multiples:
Prefix

Abbreviation

Multiplier

Tera

x 1 000 000 000 000 (x 1012)

Giga

x 1 000 000 000 (x 109)

Mega

x 1 000 000 (x 106)

Kilo

k or K

x 1 000 (x 103)

(none)

(none)

x 1 (x 100)

Centi

x 0.01 (100 or x 10-2)

Milli

x 0.001 (1 000 or x 10-3)

Micro

x 0.000 001 (1 000 000 or x 10-6)

Nano

x 0.000 000 001 (1 000 000 000 or x 10-9)

pico

x 0.000 000 000 001 (1 000 000 000 000 or x 10-12)

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NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics

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Atomic Theory:
All matter is made up of different substances called Elements
Elements are composed of tiny particles called Atoms
Atomic Structure:
The Nucleus: Gives the identity to an element. Made up of two
particles, Protons and Neutrons. Proton has a positive charge.
Neutron has no charge
Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus. Identifies the
element
Atomic weight: Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Number of neutrons can vary. This creates different isotopes for
a given element
Electrons: Surrounds the nucleus. Have an opposite charge from
the protons (i.e. they are negatively charged). Electrons orbit
around the nucleus in different spheres called electron shells.
The farther away from the nucleus the shell, the more energy the
electron has.
Electrons can move from one atom to the other. This depends
upon the material
Generally number of electrons equals number of protons. Atom is
electrically neutral
Under some conditions there can be an excess or shortage of
electrons.
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Nucleus

Example of an Atom

Ions:

Positive Ion: Atom with shortage of electrons. Positively charged atom

Negative Ion: Atom with excess of electrons. Negatively charged atom

Elements identity remains unchanged, irrespective if the atom is neutral, positive, or negative
ion.
Compounds: different elements joined together and sharing electrons. Resulting particles of
compounds are called molecules
Molecules: Always moving. Speed depends upon temperature. In solid, molecules are
interlocked but vibrate continuously. In liquid molecules slide around. In gas molecules are
literally whizzing all over the place, bumping into each other.
Conductor: Electrons can easily move from one atom
outer shell to the other neighbour atom outer shell. Gold
and silver are the best conductors. Copper and
aluminium are very good conductors. Conductor can be
solid or liquid. Gas is a poor conductor unless ionized
Insulator: Electrons are so tight to the atom that they
cannot easily move from one atom to the other. Good
insulators are Glass, Wood, Paper, Ceramic, and
Plastic.
Dielectric: Second name for insulator because it keeps
electrical charges apart. Prevents flow of electrons that
would equalize a charge difference between two places

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In a conductor, electrons are passed from atom to

atom

NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics

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Resistance:
In some substances, flow of electrons is fairly but not really well
Using substances like carbon or adding impurities can change conductivity. i.e. flow of electrons
can be controlled. Electrical components made in this way are called resistors
The better a resistor conducts, the lower the resistance, and the worse it conducts, the better its
resistance
Electrical resistance measured in units called Ohms. The higher the value in ohms, the higher the
resistance.
Current:
When one electron leaves an atom to pass to a
neighbour atom, a hole is created in the atom, and one
is filled in the neighbour atom
Whenever there is movement of electrons (charge
carriers) in a substance, there is a flow of Electric
Current
Current is measured in terms of the number of
electrons or holes passing a single point in one second
Current (Amperes) I = Charge (Coulombs) = Q
Time (Seconds)
t

Both conductors and resistors have some form of

resistance. When current flows, heat is generated
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In a conductor, electrons are passed from atom to

atom

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Static Electricity:
Charge carriers (electrons) in a substance can build up or become deficient without flowing
anywhere
Friction between two elements causes them to be charged either negatively (excess of electrons)
or positively (shortage of electrons)
A Charge of Static Electricity is acquired. Called static because it does not go anywhere.
Current (electrons) will flow only when two differently charged media are touched or brought near
together - spark occurs since electrons will jump from one medium to the other. In such case the
medium with greater charge will discharge through the medium with less charge. Current flow
stops when both mediums reach equal charge.
Electromotive Force (EMF):
For current to flow it must have a push
Push is caused by something positively
charged on one side and negatively
charged on the other
This Power is called Electromotive Force
(EMF) and is measured in Volts
For current to flow there must be a
continuous conductive path between the
two EMF points
Or the difference in charge between the two
points is so high that current will jump to
cause a spark (e.g. Lightning)
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Potential Difference:
The term EMF is normally related to a source of electric power, with the least charged point at zero
Volts. EMF is a measure of Volts, hence it can also be expressed as a Voltage
The zero Volts point is called the reference point and is also called Ground, the earth potential
The term Potential Difference (pd) is normally used when we have a power source where the
least charged point is greater or less than zero Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and 0Volts will present an EMF of 3Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and 1Volt will present a pd of 2Volts
Two points charged at 3Volts and -1Volt will present a pd of 4Volts
Summary:
Current flow is the flow of electrons from one atom to the other in a substance. It is measured in
Amperes or Amps. Abbreviation is A
Resistance is the control of electron flow inside a substance. It is measured in Ohms. Abbreviation
is the Greek Omega
Voltage is the difference in charge between two points. It is measured in Volts. Abbreviation is V
Schematic symbols:
Electronics and electrical are formed of circuits built up by a number of components. Before
starting forming up circuits, here are the first basic symbols we will be using to form electronic
circuit or schematic diagrams
R1

Wire (conductor)

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or

BAT1

R2

Resistance (Resistor)

BAT2

or
+ +
Battery (Energy/EMF source)

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Current flowing through wire

Basic DC Circuits:- Relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance.

When a conductive path is provided between the two points of a power source (EMF/battery), a
closed circuit is formed and electrons from the negative side of the power source, by force of
attraction from the positive side, will have a way from where to pass.
However according to what believed ancient scientists, we still consider the current to flow from the
positive side to the negative side. This is called Conventional Current Flow. The actual flow of
current is called Electron Flow.
In such case the flow of current is called Direct (or DC) Current Flow, because the force which is
creating this flow of current is a Direct EMF, in the sense that it comes from a battery, whose
polarity never changes
A basic dc circuit is shown below. It has 3 main components: a voltage source (EMF) V, a set of
conductors, and a resistance (resistor) R.
Since there is a closed path, a dc current (I) can flow from the positive of the battery, through the
conductor and the resistor, back to the negative of the battery.
A relationship exist between the 3 quantities involved in the circuit: If the voltage is increased, there
is a greater force, hence more current will flow. The resistance controls the amount of current
flowing in the circuit. The more the resistance the less current will flow.
Also, the current flowing through the
CURRENT (I)
resistor R will cause a potential
+
difference (voltage drop) to develop
across.
Potential Difference (V)
EMF (V)
The relationship between these 3
RESISTANCE (R)
elements forms one of the fundamental
rules in electrical circuits
MCAST EEI

NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics

Applications

Ohms Law:
Provided that the temperature does not vary, the ratio of Potential Difference (p.d.) across
the ends of a conductor (or resistor) to the current flowing in the conductor is constant
In mathematical format:
Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
Where Voltage (V) is expressed in Volts (V), Current (I) is expressed in Amps (A), and Resistance
is expressed in Ohms ()
It is important to remember to use units of Volts, Amperes and Ohms in order for the Law to work.
Using multiples and sub-multiples for these 3 elements will lead to incorrect answers
Current, Voltage and Resistance calculations:
To get the current in a circuit, you must know the value of the voltage and resistance. Using Ohms
Law one can find the current, which is the only unknown variable
Similar applies to find the voltage (you must know the values of current and resistance), and
Resistance (you must know the voltage and current)
Energy and Power in a circuit:
Whenever current flows through a resistor, work is being done by the resistor to control the current
flow
CURRENT (I)
Work is being done by the resistance
and electrical power will be dissipated in
+
the form of heat
Potential Difference (V)
EMF (V)
Electrical Power is measured in Watts
RESISTANCE (R)
(W) and can be expressed by:
Power (P) = Current (I) x Voltage (V)
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Resistance and resistivity:

Ideally a conductor is an element with no resistance to current flow (i.e. value of 0)
However in practice a conductor has some resistance, and it depends upon its length, its area and
its resistivity.
Resistivity (or Specific Resistance) is defined as the resistance between the opposite faces
of a cube having sides of 1cm
Resistance R of a conductor is given by:
Resistance (R) =

Resistivity () x Length (l)

Cross Sectional Area (A)

Resistance is measured in Ohms (), Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metre (m), length in metres
(m), and area in square metres (m2)

Example resistivity of some metal

electrical conductors
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Metal

Resistivity

Silver

1.626 x 10-8

Annealed Copper

1.724 x 10-8

Hard Drawn Copper

1.777 x 10-8

Aluminium

2.803 x 10-8

Mild Steel

1.38 x 10-7

Lead

2.14 x 10-7

Nickel

8.0 x 10-8

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Resistor networks:
Resistances in series: In a series resistor combination, resistors are connected one after each
other as shown below:
To get the total resistance, the values are just added together:
Total R = R1 + R2 + R3 etc.
In series resistor networks it is important to note that:
The supply voltage is divided across each resistance
Current through each resistance remains the same
This can be easily shown using Ohms Law:
To find the current, find the total resistance and then find current using ohms law
Use the current resulted and Ohms law to find the voltage across each resistor
The sum of voltage across each resistor must result equally as the supply voltage

R1

R2

R3

10k

10k

10k

BAT1

1.5V

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Resistors in Parallel: Here the resistances are connected parallel to each other in the form of a
ladder network as shown below
To get the total resistance value of a parallel network first you must add the reciprocal of each
resistor value to get the reciprocal of the total resistance value. Hence the total resistance value
will be the reciprocal of the answer:
1
Total Resistance

1 +
R1

1 +
R2

1
R3

.. Etc

In this case it is important to note that:

Current through each resistor is not the same
The total current in the circuit is the sum of the currents through each resistor
The voltage across each resistor is the same
When resistors are connected in parallel the overall resistance will decrease
Hence resistors in parallel are considered as conductances

Conductance is measured in Siemens

and is denoted by the letter G
Conductance (G) = 1/Resistance (R)

It is inversely proportional to resistance

since the more the conductance, the
more the current that can flow
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BAT1

R1

R2

R3

10k

10k

10k

1.5V

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Resistors in Series-Parallel Combination: To analyze such circuits one need to work in steps
To find total resistance, first point out each parallel network separately. Find the total resistance
of each parallel network and reduce the network to one single resistor having the resulted total
resistance of the network in series with any remaining resistor. Continue finding circuit total
resistance for the resulted series network

BAT1

R1

R1

10k

10k

R2

R3

10k

10k

BAT1
BAT2

1.5V

1.5V

(1). Work-out parallel total R of R2 & R3

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R2//R3
5k
10k

(2). Find out circuit total R by adding value of R1

with the result of parallel combination R2//R3

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Currents in the circuit: Battery BAT1 supplies the total circuit current (I total) from the positive
terminal. This current flows through resistor R1 and is divided into I1 (flowing through R2) and I2
(flowing through R3). Currents I1 and I2 will meet again and reform Itotal before returning to the
negative terminal of the battery. This is one of Kirchoff Laws stating that the total current entering
and being divided in a node will be the same current coming out of the node in the other side of the
network (i.e. Current in at node A = Current out from node B)
Knowing the Battery voltage and the total circuit resistance we can find the total current using
ohms law
I total

I total

R1

I2

I total

10k

R1
10k

I total

I1

BAT1

R2

R3

10k

10k

R2//R3

BAT1

1.5V

5k

1.5V

I1
I total

I total
I2
I total

Kirchoff Law:
At nodes A and B
I total = I 1 + I 2

BAT1

R1 + (R2//R3)
15k

1.5V

I total

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Voltages in the circuit: Battery BAT1 supplies the total voltage to the circuit. This is divided into a
voltage drop (p.d.) across R1 (V R1), and a voltage drop in the parallel network formed of R2 and
R3 (V R2//R3) Remember: In a parallel circuit Current divided, voltage not. In a series circuit
voltage divided, current not !!
Knowing the total circuit current, using ohms law, we can find voltage drop across R1. To find
voltage across R2 or R3, subtract voltage across R1 from the supply voltage. We can then find the
currents through R2 and R3 using ohms law and/or kirchoffs law
I total

I total

R1

I2

I total

10k

R1

I total

10k

I1
V R1

BAT1

R2

R3

10k

10k

1.5V

V R1

BAT1

V R2//R3

1.5V

I1
I total

R2//R3
5k

V R2//R3
I total
I2
I total

BAT1

R1 + (R2//R3)
15k

1.5V

I total

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Voltage Divider Networks:

Resistances in series produce ratios of voltages
Figures illustrate the principle of voltage division (Voltage Divider
Rule)
Voltages at various points increase according to the sum total
resistances up to each point, in proportion to the total resistance,
multiplied by the supply voltage
For the upper circuit:

R1

Vs
R2
V R2

V across R2 (V R2) = Vs x R2
R1 + R2
For the lower circuit:
V1 =

Vs x R3
R1 + R2 + R3

R1

Vs

R2

V2 = Vs x (R2 + R3)
R1 + R2 + R3

V2
R3

Note this symbol on the lower circuit. It indicates a Ground point.

That does not means that the circuit is connected to Earth, but
that the point is the common reference point for the voltage.
Usually this is the negative, or better 0V line of the supply.
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V1

17

Rules involving two resistances in parallel:

Total resistance in the network: The total resistance can be calculated using the formula
below, which is derived from Ohms Law
Total R

R1 x R2
R1 + R2

And when the values of the two resistors are the same, the total resistance of the network
becomes half the value of each individual resistor in the network

Also note that the total resistance in a parallel resistance network will always be near the
value of the smallest resistance in the network. Hence the total resistance in a parallel
network is governed by the resistance with the smallest value

And always remember to remove all multiples

and sub-multiples during calculations. They
must only be added when the final answer is
obtained

R1
10k

R2
10k

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