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Lecture Notes 1

Basic Concepts of Mathematics


MATH 352
Ivan Avramidi
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Socorro, NM 87801
June 3, 2004

Author: Ivan Avramidi; File: absmath.tex; Date: June 11, 2007; Time: 15:24
1

Textbook: R. J. Bond and W. J. Keane, An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics,


Brooks/Cole, 1999

Contents
1

Logic
1.1 LECTURE 1. Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Negations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 LECTURE 2. Compound Statements . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Conjunctions and Disjunctions . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Negating Conjunctions and Disjunctions . . .
1.2.4 Logically Equivalent Statements . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Tautologies and Contradictions . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 LECTURE 3. Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Truth Table for an Implication . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Proving Statements Containing Implications .
1.3.3 Negating an Implication: Counterexamples .
1.3.4 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions . . . . .
1.3.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 LECTURE 4. Contrapositive and Converse . . . . .
1.4.1 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I

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CONTENTS

II
2

Sets
2.1 LECTURE 5. Sets and Subsets .
2.1.1 The Notion of a Set . . .
2.1.2 Subsets . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Complements . . . . . .
2.1.4 Homework . . . . . . .
2.2 LECTURE 6. Combining Sets .
2.2.1 Unions and Intersections
2.2.2 De Morgans Laws . . .
2.2.3 Cartesian Products . . .
2.2.4 Homework . . . . . . .
2.3 LECTURE 7. Collection of Sets
2.3.1 Power Set . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Indexing Sets . . . . . .
2.3.3 Partitions . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 The Pigeonhole Principle
2.3.5 Cantor Set . . . . . . .
2.3.6 Homework . . . . . . .

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Functions
3.1 LECTURE 8. Definition and Basic Properties . . .
3.1.1 Image of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Inverse Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 LECTURE 9. Surjective and Injective Functions. .
3.2.1 Surjective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Injective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Bijective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 LECTURE 10. Composition and Inverse Functions
3.3.1 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Binary Operations and Relations


41
4.1 LECTURE 11. Binary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.1 Associate and Commutative Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.2 Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 1

CONTENTS
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The Integers
5.1 LECTURE 13. Axioms and Basic Properties . . .
5.1.1 The Axioms of the Integers . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 The Well-Ordering Principle . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 LECTURE 14. Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Induction: A Method of Proof . . . . . .
5.2.2 Other Forms of Induction . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 LECTURE 15. The Division Algorithm . . . . .
5.3.1 Divisors and Greatest Common Divisors
5.3.2 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Relatively Prime Integers . . . . . . . .
5.3.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 LECTURE 16. Primes and Unique Factorization
5.4.1 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Unique Factorization . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Euclid Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 LECTURE 17. Congruences . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Congruences and Their Properties . . . .
5.5.2 The Set of Congruence Classes . . . . .
5.5.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.2

4.1.3 Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Closure . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . .
LECTURE 12. Equivalence Relations
4.2.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Properties of Relations . . . .
4.2.3 Equivalence Relations . . . .
4.2.4 Equivalence Classes . . . . .
4.2.5 Partial and Linear Ordering .
4.2.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . .

III
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absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 2

CONTENTS

IV
6

Infinite Sets
6.1 LECTURE 19. Countable Sets . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Numerically Equivalent Sets . . . . .
6.1.2 Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Unions of Countable Sets . . . . . .
6.1.4 The Rationals are Countable . . . . .
6.1.5 Cartesian Products of Countable Sets
6.1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 LECTURE 20. Uncountable Sets . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Uncountable Sets . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Cantor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Continuum Hypothesis . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem . . . .
6.2.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 LECTURE 21. Collections of Sets . . . . . .
6.3.1 Russells Paradox . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Countable Unions of Countable Sets
6.3.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Real and Complex Numbers


7.1 LECTURE 22. Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.2 Elementary Properties of Fields . . . . . . . .
7.1.3 Ordered Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.4 Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 LECTURE 23. The Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Bounded Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Least Upper Bound and Greatest Lower Bound
7.2.3 The Archimedean Principle . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4 Incompleteness of Rationals . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 LECTURE 24. The Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Conjugation and Absolute Value . . . . . . .
7.3.3 Solutions of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4 Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5 Complex Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 3

CONTENTS

7.3.6

Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Bibliography

113

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 4

VI

CONTENTS

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 5

Chapter 1
Logic
1.1

LECTURE 1. Statements

1.1.1

Proof
Mathematics is an attempt to determine which statements are true
and which are not.

Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Conjecture is a not verified statement
Proof is the verification of a statement.
Axioms are statements that are accepted as given.
Propositions are the logical deductions from the axioms.
Theorems are particularly important propositions.
Proof is the logic, the arguments, used to make deductions
Example
An integer m is a multiple of an integer n if m = kn for some integer k.
1

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

1.1.2

Statements
Definition 1.1.1 A statement is any declarative sentence that is either
true or false.

Example
A variable is a symbol that stands for an undetermined number.

Definition 1.1.2 An open sentence is any declarative sentence containing one or more variables that is not a statement but becomes a
statement when the variables are assigned values.

Notation:
P(x),

1.1.3

P(x, y)

Quantifiers

A universal quantifier is a phrase


for every, for all, etc
Notation:
Example
An existential quantifier is a phrase
there is, there exists, etc
Notation:
Example
A bound variable is a variable to which a quantifier is applied.
A variable that is not bound is a free variable.
Notation: The symbol
3 is read such that
Remark: The order in which quantifiers appear in a statement is important.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 6

1.1. LECTURE 1. STATEMENTS

1.1.4

Negations

Example

Definition 1.1.3
false.

The negation of a statement P is the statement P is

Notation: The negation of P is denoted by the symbol


P, read not P
Alternative ways to express
P: P is not true,
or
It is not true that P
Remark. Exactly one of P and P is true; the other is false.
Example
Negation of a statement with a universal quantifier
Example
Negation of a statement with an existential quantifier
Example
Basic Rules of negating statements with quantifiers
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 7

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

4
The negation of the statement
For all x, P(x)
is the statement
For some x, P(x)

(x, P(x)) x 3 P(x)


The negation of the statement
For some x, P(x)
is the statement
For all x, P(x)
(x, 3 P(x)) x, P(x)
Example
(x, y 3 P(x, y)) x 3 y, P(x, y)

1.1.5

Definition 1.1.4 (Archimedean Principle) For every real number x,


there is an integer n such that n > x.

Homework

Read Introduction for the Student and to the Chapter 1; pp. xv-xix, 1.
Reading: Sect 1.1
Exercises: 1.1[9,11,D5]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 8

1.2. LECTURE 2. COMPOUND STATEMENTS

1.2

LECTURE 2. Compound Statements

1.2.1

Conjunctions and Disjunctions

Compound statements are statements built up from two or more statements.

Definition 1.2.1 The conjunction of a statement P and a statement Q


is the statement
Both P and Q are true.

Notation:
P Q, read P and Q

Definition 1.2.2
is the statement

The disjunction of a statement P and a statement Q


P is true or Q is true.

Notation:
P Q, read P or Q
Remarks. Similarly for open sentences, P(x) Q(x) etc.
Example

1.2.2

Truth Tables

Statement forms are expressions of the form


P Q,

P Q,

or

P,

where P and Q are variables representing unspecified statements.


Statement forms are not statements but they become statements when the
variables P and Q are specified, that is, replaced by statements.
Truth tables are tables of truth values of the statement forms.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 9

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

6
Example
P
T
T
F
F

PQ
T
F
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

PQ
T
T
T
F

P P
T F
F T

Remarks
Example

1.2.3

Negating Conjunctions and Disjunctions

Example
P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

P
F
F
T
T

Q
F
T
F
T

P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

(P Q)
F
T
T
T

PQ
T
F
F
F

PQ
T
T
T
F

(P Q)
F
F
F
T

P Q
F
T
T
T

P Q
F
F
F
T

That is,
(P Q) P Q
(P Q) P Q
These statement forms mean the same thing.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 10

1.2. LECTURE 2. COMPOUND STATEMENTS

1.2.4

Logically Equivalent Statements

Statements and statement forms are logically equivalent if they are expressed in different ways but mean the same thing.

Definition 1.2.3 Two statements are logically equivalent or just


equivalent if they are both true or both false.

Definition 1.2.4 Two statement forms are logically equivalent if the


substitution of statements for the variables in the forms always yields
logically equivalent statements.

Notation.
P Q read P is equivalent to Q
Remark. If two statement forms have the same truth tables then they are
logically equivalent.
Examples.
1. (P Q) P Q
2. (P Q) P Q
3. (x, P(x) x 3 (P(x))
4. (x 3 P(x) x, (P(x))
5. (x, (P(x) Q(x)) x 3 ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
6. (x, (P(x) Q(x)) x 3 ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
7. (x 3 (P(x) Q(x)) x, ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
8. (x 3 (P(x) Q(x)) x, ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
Examples.
The statements
For all x, P(x) or Q(x)
and
For all x, P(x) or for all x, Q(x)
are not equivalent, that is
x, (P(x) Q(x)) < x, P(x) x, Q(x)
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 11

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

8
Proposition.

x 3 (P(x) Q(x)) (x 3 P(x)) (x 3 Q(x))) .


Proof : Truth table.
Example
One can construct compound statements and statement forms from three or
more statements
Proposition.
(P Q) (P R) P (Q R)
Proof :
P
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

1.2.5

Q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

R
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

PQ
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

PR
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F

(P Q) (P R)
T
F
T
F
F
F
F
F

QR
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F

P (Q R)
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F

Tautologies and Contradictions

Tautology is a statement form that is always true no matter what statements


are substituted for the variables.
Remark. Each of the truth table values of a tautology is true.
Example. P P is always true.
Contradiction is a statement form that is always false no matter what statements are substituted for the variables.
Remark. Each of the truth table values of a contradiction is false.
Example. P P is always false.
Negation of a tautology is a contradiction and vice versa.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 12

1.2. LECTURE 2. COMPOUND STATEMENTS

1.2.6

Homework

Reading: Sect 1.2


Exercises: 1.2[4,11,12]

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CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

10

1.3

LECTURE 3. Implications

Theorems follow logically from prior propositions


Propositions follow from axioms
Axioms are statements that are taken without proof and that serve as the
starting point
Implications are statements of the form
If . . . , then . . . ,
or
For all . . . , if . . . , then . . . .
Example
The premise or the assumption of the statement is the if part.
The conclusion is the then part.
Definition 1.3.1 Let P and Q be statements. The implication
PQ

is the statement

If P is true, then Q is true.


Notation.
P Q (read P implies Q)
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 14

1.3. LECTURE 3. IMPLICATIONS

1.3.1

11

Truth Table for an Implication

In the implication P Q, P might be unrelated to Q at all.


P does not have to have caused Q
The implication P Q means that in all circumstances under which P is
true, Q is also true.
In other words, implication P Q means that whenever P happens, Q
also happens.
The implication P Q is false only in the case if P is true and Q is false.
The implication P Q cannot be false if P is false, even if Q is false.
A false statement implies anything!
Truth values of the statement form P Q:
P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

PQ
T
F
T
T

Examples.

1.3.2

Proving Statements Containing Implications

Let P(x) and Q(x) be open sentences.


The expression P(x) Q(x) is an open sentence that becomes a statement
when the variable x is assigned a value a.
Note that the expression x, P(x) Q(x) is a statement.
We want to prove the statement x, P(x) Q(x).
Proof: Assume that if the variable x is assigned the value a, then P(a) is true
and proceed to prove Q(a).
P(a) is the hypothesis
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CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

12
Q(a) is the conclusion
Example

Remark. Let P(n) be an open sentence. Once we say, Let n be an integer,


then P(n) is a statement.
Example

1.3.3

Negating an Implication: Counterexamples

In order to prove that a statement containing an implication is false it is


necessary to prove that its negation is true.
Example.
The only way for an implication x, P(x) Q(x) to be false is that there is
an assigned value a of the variable x such that P(a) is true and Q(a) is false.
A value of a variable served to disprove a statement with a universal quantifier is a counterexample.
Proposition. If P and Q are statement forms, then
(P Q) P Q
Proof : Find truth tables.
If P(x) and Q(x) are open sentences, the negation of the statement
For all x, P(x) Q(x)
is the statement
There exists x such that P(x) Q(x),
or
For some x, P(x) is true and Q(x) is false.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 16

1.3. LECTURE 3. IMPLICATIONS

13

Formally
(x, P(x) Q(x)) x 3 (P(x) Q(x))
The value assigned to the variable x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false is
a counterexample to the statement
For all x, P(x) Q(x).
Negation of an implication is not an implication!

1.3.4

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

In the implication P Q (if P is true, then Q is true) P is a sufficient


condition for Q.
In order for Q to be true it is sufficient that P be true.
If P Q is true, (it is true that if P is true then Q is true), then Q is a
necessary condition for P.
Q must be true in order for P to be true.
In other words, if Q is false, then P is false.
Proposition. The statement
Q P
is equivalent to the statement
P Q.
(Q P) (P Q)
Proof : Truth table.

Remarks.
If P Q is true then it is not necessary that P be true in order for Q to be
true.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 17

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

14

Also, Q is not a sufficient condition for P. That is, even if Q is true, P may
be false.
Example

1.3.5

Homework

Reading: Sect 1.3


Exercises: 1.3[3,13,15]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 18

1.4. LECTURE 4. CONTRAPOSITIVE AND CONVERSE

1.4

LECTURE 4. Contrapositive and Converse

1.4.1

Contrapositive

15

The statements
PQ
and
Q P
are logically equivalent
(P Q) (Q P)
Check the truth tables
To prove the statement P Q is the same as to verify the statement Q
P
This means: whenever Q is false, then P is false.
In other words: if P is true, then Q cannot be false and, therefore, Q is true.
Example
Definition 1.4.1 Let P and Q be two statements. The statement
Q P

is the contrapositive of the statement


P Q.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 19

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

16

1.4.2

Converse

Example
Definition 1.4.2 The statement
QP
is the converse of the statement
P Q.
Example
The statements P Q and its converse Q P are not necessarily logically
equivalent!
(P Q) < (Q P)
If the implication P Q is true, its converse Q P could be false.
Example

1.4.3

Biconditional

If the statement P Q and its converse Q P are both true, then the
statements P and Q are either both true or both false.
Then P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q.
Thus, P and Q are logically equivalent.
Definition 1.4.3 The statement
PQ

is the statement
(P Q) (Q P).
The symbol is called the biconditional.

Notation. The statement


P Q is read P if and only if Q.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 20

1.4. LECTURE 4. CONTRAPOSITIVE AND CONVERSE

17

The word iff is the shorthand for the phrase if and only if.

Theorem 1.4.1 Let n be an integer. Then n is even if and only if n2 is


even.
Theorem 1.4.2 Let n be an integer. The following are equivalent statements:

1. n is even.
2. n2 is even.
Proof :

Proposition. The statements


(P Q)
and
(P Q)
are logically equivalent.
(P Q) (P Q)
Proof : By examining the truth tables.

Corollary 1.4.1 Let n be an integer. Then n is odd if and only if n2 is


odd.
Proof :

Example

1.4.4

Proof by Contradiction

In order to prove an implication P Q one can prove its contrapositive


Q P.
Proof by contradiction.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 21

CHAPTER 1. LOGIC

18
Proving
Q P
means that we

assume that Q is false, and prove that P is false,


getting a contradiction that P and P cannot both be true.
To prove a statement P by contradiction means to assume that P is false,
and deduce a false statement Q from it.
Theorem 1.4.3 Let P be a statement and Q be a false statement. Then
the statement

P Q
is logically equivalent to P.
Proof :

Example

1.4.5

Homework

Reading: Sect 1.4


Exercises: 1.4[2,17,21]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 22

Chapter 2
Sets
2.1

LECTURE 5. Sets and Subsets

2.1.1

The Notion of a Set

The set is a basic undetermined concept which cannot be defined formally.


The set is a collection of objects called the elements.
Notation.
x A (read x is in A).
Example
Notation.
N = Z+ the set of positive integers (natural numbers),
Z the set of integers,
Q = { mn |m, n Z, n , 0} the set of rational numbers numbers,
R+ the set of positive real numbers,
R the set of real numbers,
C the set of complex numbers.
Example
19

CHAPTER 2. SETS

20

Description of the set of all elements of the set U such that the open sentence
P(x) is true statement
A = {x U | P(x)}
So, A is the truth set of the open sentence P(x).
The set U is a fixed set called a universal set.
Example. The set of multiples of n
nZ = {m Z | m = nk for some k Z} = {nk | k Z}

Definition 2.1.1 A set I of real numbers is called an interval if I , ,


I contains more than one element, and for every x, y I such that x < y,
if z a real number such that x < z < y, then z I.

Closed bounded interval


[a, b] = {x R|a x b}
Open bounded interval
(a, b) = {x R|a < x < b}
Half-open, half-closed bounded intervals
(a, b] = {x R|a < x b},

[a, b) = {x R|a x < b}

Unbounded intervals
(, b] = {x R|x b},
(a, ) = {x R|a < x},

(, b) = {x R|a x < b},


[a, ) = {x R|a x},

Example
Sets containing finitely many elements are called finite sets.
The number of elements of a finite set is called the cardinality of the set.
Notation. |A|
Sets containing infinitely many elements are called infinite sets.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 23

2.1. LECTURE 5. SETS AND SUBSETS

2.1.2

21

Subsets

Example
Definition 2.1.2 Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B if every
element of A is also an element of B. If the set B has an element that
is not an element of its subset A then the subset A is called a proper
subset.
Notation.
A B, (A is a subset of B).
A B (A is a proper subset of B)
Example
Let U be an universal set. Then A B is the statement
x U, if x A, then x B.
Example

Proposition 2.1.1 Let A, B and C be sets. If A B and B C, then


A C.
Proof :

Example

Definition 2.1.3
elements.

Two sets A and B are equal if they have the same

Notation. A = B.
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is an element
of B and every element of B is an element of A
(A = B) (A B A)
The statement A B is false if there is an element of A such that it is not an
element of B.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 24

CHAPTER 2. SETS

22

2.1.3

Complements
Definition 2.1.4
the set

Let A and B be sets. The complement of A in B is


B A = {x B|x < A}.

Example
The set A does not need to be a subset of the set B.
Let U be a universal set. The the complement of A in U is simply called the
complement of A.
Notation.
A = U A.
The set that contains no elements is called the empty set.
Notation.
If U is an universal set, then
= U and U = .

Theorem 2.1.1 Let U be a universal set and A and B be sets contained


in U. Then

A B iff B A.
Proof :

Example

2.1.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 2.1


Exercises: 2.1[1,10,14]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 25

2.2. LECTURE 6. COMBINING SETS

23

2.2

LECTURE 6. Combining Sets

2.2.1

Unions and Intersections

Definition 2.2.1 The union of a set A and a set B is the set


A B = {x|x A x B}.
Definition 2.2.2 The intersection of a set A and a set B is the set
A B = {x|x A x B}.

Example
Two sets are disjoint if they do not have common elemets, that is their
intersection is the empty set,
A B = .
Venn diagrams
Theorem 2.2.1 Let A, B and C are sets. Then
1. A B = B A,
2. A B = B A,
3. (A B) C = A (B C),

4. (A B) C = A (B C),
5. A (A B),
6. (A B) A,
7. A,
8. A = A,
9. A = .
Proof :

Proposition. Let A, B U. Then


absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 26

CHAPTER 2. SETS

24

1. A B = A B.
2. A B A B = B
Proof :
Theorem 2.2.2 Let A, B and C be sets. Then

1. A (B C) = (A B) (A C),
2. A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Proof :

2.2.2

De Morgans Laws

Example
Theorem 2.2.3 Let U be a universal set and A, B U. Then

1. A B = A B,

2. A B = A B.
Proof :

2.2.3

Cartesian Products
Definition 2.2.3
set

The Cartesian product of a set A and a set B is the


A B = {(a, b)|a A, b B}.

The Cartesian product is the set of ordered pairs (a, b), where the first
element is from the set A and the second element is from B.
Example

2.2.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 2.2


Exercises: 2.2[22,24]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 27

2.3. LECTURE 7. COLLECTION OF SETS

25

2.3

LECTURE 7. Collection of Sets

2.3.1

Power Set

Example

Definition 2.3.1 The power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of A.

Notation.
P(A) = {X|X A}.
Note that
P(A) and A P(A).
If the set A is finite, then the cardinality of the power set is
|P(A)| = 2|A|
Example

2.3.2

Indexing Sets

Example
The indexing set is the set of subscripts that are used to distinguish the sets
in a collection of sets.
Notation.
S = {Ai |i I} = {Ai }iI ,
where I = {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Union of sets in a collection of sets
n
[

Ai = {x U| i I 3 x Ai }

i=1

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 28

CHAPTER 2. SETS

26
Intersection of sets in a collection of sets
n
\
Ai = {x U| x Ai i I}
i=1

Example
Infinite collection of sets.
Union of sets in a collection of sets

[
Ai = {x U| i N 3 x Ai }
i=1

Intersection of sets in a collection of sets

\
Ai = {x U| x Ai i N}
i=1

Example
The collection of sets S = {Ai }iI is increasing (or an ascending chain) if
A1 A2 A3
The collection of sets S = {Ai }iI is decreasing (or an descending chain) if
A3 A2 A1 .
Example
Definition 2.3.2
tion of sets.

Let I be an indexing set and S = {Ai }iI be a collec-

1. The union of the collection is


[
Ai = {a| a A for some i I}
iI

2. The intersection of the collection is


[
Ai = {a| a A for all i I}
iI

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 29

2.3. LECTURE 7. COLLECTION OF SETS

27

Notation. Let S be a collection of sets. Then the union and the intersection
are
AS A and AS A.

2.3.3

Partitions

Definition 2.3.3
P(A) such that

A partition of a set A is a subset P of the power set

1. if X P, thenX , ,
S
2. XP X = A,
3. if X, Y P and X , Y, then X Y = .
That is, a partition is a collection of non-empty disjoint subsets of A that
cover the set A.

Remark. A partition of a set divides the set into different disjoint nonempty
subsets so that every element of the set is in one of the subsets and no
element is in more than one.
Example

2.3.4 The Pigeonhole Principle


Theorem 2.3.1 Let A and B be finite disjoint sets. Then

|A B| = |A| + |B|
Proof : Rigorous proof later.

Corollary 2.3.1 Let S = {Ai }ni=1 be a collection of finite mutually disjoint sets. Then


n
n
[
X
Ai =
|Ai |
i=1 i=1
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 30

CHAPTER 2. SETS

28
Corollary 2.3.2 Let A and B be finite sets. Then

|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|

Pigeonhole Principle. If n objects are placed in k containers and n > k,


then at least one container will have more than one object in it.
Let S = {Ai }ni=1 be a collection of finite mutually disjoint sets and A =
Sn
i=1 Ai .
If |A| = k and k > n, then, for some i, |Ai | 2.
Example

Theorem 2.3.2 Let S = {Ai }ni=1 be a collection of finite mutually disjoint


S
sets and A = ni=1 Ai . If |A| > nr for some positive integer r, then, for
some i, |Ai | r + 1.
Proof : Exercise.

Example

2.3.5

Cantor Set

Let A = [0, 1].


Let A1 = [0, 13 ] [ 23 , 1]
Let A2 = [0, 19 ] [ 29 , 93 ] [ 69 , 79 ] [ 98 , 1]
Define An by removing the middle third from each of the closed intervals
that make the set An1 .
Each An is the union of 2n closed intervals
Each interval that makes An has length

1
3n

The total length of all intervals that make An is

 n
2
3

The collection of sets {An }


n=1 forms a descending chain
An+1 An ,

n N
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 31

2.3. LECTURE 7. COLLECTION OF SETS

29

The Cantor set is defined by


C=

An
n=1

The endpoints of all intervals in each of the sets An are in C


1 2 1 2 7 8
0, 1, , , , , , , C
3 3 9 9 9 9
Cantor set is infinite.
Cantor set is bounded.
The size (length) of the Cantor set is zero. Since the length of C is smaller
than the length of An for any n N, which is ( 23 )n . Thus it is smaller than
( 23 )n for any n, and is, therefore, zero.
Cantor set is uncountable. So, it is larger than the set of integers.

2.3.6

Homework

Reading: Sect 2.3


Exercises: 2.3[16,26,28]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 32

30

CHAPTER 2. SETS

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 33

Chapter 3
Functions
3.1

LECTURE 8. Definition and Basic Properties

Definition 3.1.1 Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A


to B is a rule that assigns to each element of the set A one and only one
element of the set B.
The set A is the domain of f and the set B the codomain.

Notation.
f :AB
and
f

for each a A, f (a) = b or a 7 b.


Example
The identity function on A is the function iA : A A defined by
iA (x) = x for any x A.
It is also denoted by IdA or idA .
31

CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS

32

3.1.1

Image of a Function
Definition 3.1.2 Let f : A B be a function and X A. The image
of the set X under the function f is the set
f (X) = {y B|y = f (x) for some x X}

Diagram.
Remark.
f () = for any function f .

Definition 3.1.3 Let f : A B be a function. The image (or the


range) of the function f is the set
Im( f ) = f (A) = {y B|y = f (x) for some x A}

Remark.
Im( f ) B for any function f .
Diagram.

Definition 3.1.4 Let f : A B be a function. The graph of the


function f is the set
( f ) = {(a, b) A B|b = f (a), a A}

Diagram.
Remark.
( f ) A B.
Remark. The functions f : A B and g : A f (A) such that g(x) = f (x)
for any x A are different if f (A) , B.

Definition 3.1.5 Two functions f and g are equal if they have the
same domain and the same codomain and if f (x) = g(x) for any x in the
domain.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 34

3.1. LECTURE 8. DEFINITION AND BASIC PROPERTIES

33

Examples
Sine function
sin : R R,

sin

x 7 sin(x)

Greatest integer function.


f : R Z,

f (x) = [x] is the greatest integer x

Finding the image of a function. If f : A B is a function and y B, then


y Im( f ) if and only if there exists an element x A such that f (x) = y.
Example.

Theorem 3.1.1 Intermediate Value Theorem. Let A, B R be subsets of real numbers and f : A B be a function. Let [a, b] A and f
be continuous on the interval [a, b]. If y is a number between f (a) and
f (b), then there is a real number x [a, b] such that f (x) = y.
Without proof.

Graphical illustration.
Example
Proposition 3.1.1 Let A and B be sets and X and Y be subsets of A such
that
X Y A.

Let f : A B be a function. Then


f (X) f (Y).
Proof : Easy.
The converse of this proposition is false.
Example.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 35

CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS

34

Proposition 3.1.2 Let A and B be sets and X and Y be subsets of A. Let


f : A B be a function. Then

1. f (X Y) = f (X) f (Y).
2. f (X Y) f (X) f (Y).
Proof :

Example.

3.1.2

Inverse Image
Definition 3.1.6 Let A and B be sets and W be a subset of B. Let
f : A B be a function. The the inverse image of the set W with
respect to f is the set
f 1 (W) = {x A| f (x) W}

Diagram.
The inverse image f 1 (W) is the set of all elements of the domain of f that
are mapped to elements of W.
Remarks. Inverse image is a subset of the domain.
f 1 (W) A
W is not necessarily a subset of the image Im( f ) of the function f .
The symbol f 1 does not refer to the inverse function, which might not even
exist.
Example
Proposition 3.1.3 Let A and B be sets and W and Z be subsets of B.
Let f : A B be a function. Then

1. f 1 (W Z) = f 1 (W) f 1 (Z)
2. f 1 (W Z) = f 1 (W) f 1 (Z)
Proof :
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 36

3.1. LECTURE 8. DEFINITION AND BASIC PROPERTIES

35

Proposition 3.1.4 Let A and B be sets and f : A B be a function. If


A is a finite set, then Im( f ) is a finite set and
|Im( f )| |A|.
Proof : Easy.

Example

3.1.3

Homework

Reading: Sect 3.1


Exercises: 3.1[2,4,11]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 37

CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS

36

3.2

LECTURE 9. Surjective and Injective Functions.

3.2.1

Surjective Functions

Definition 3.2.1 Let f : A B be a function. Then f is surjective


(or a surjection) if the image of f is equal to the codomain of f , that is
Im( f ) = B.

To prove that a function is surjective one needs to prove that for any element
y in the codomain B there is an element in the domain x A such that
f (x) = y.
Diagram.
Surjection is also called an onto mapping.
Example
Let A and B be sets. The function : A B A defined by
(a, b) = a
is a projection of A B onto A.
To prove that the function f : A B is not surjective one needs to show that
there exists an element y B in the codomain B such that for any element
x A in the domain, f (x) , y.
Examples.

3.2.2

Injective Functions

Example

Definition 3.2.2
an injection) if

Let f : A B be a function. Then f is injective (or

for any a1 , a2 A, if a1 , a2 , then f (a1 ) , f (a2 ).


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3.2. LECTURE 9. SURJECTIVE AND INJECTIVE FUNCTIONS.

37

An injection takes different elements of the domain A to different elements


of the codomain B.
Injection is also called an one-to-one mapping.
Diagram.
Example
To prove that a function f : A B is injective one needs to prove that
for all a1 , a2 A, if f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), then a1 = a2 .
Examples.
To prove that a function f : A B is not injective one needs to show that
there exist a1 , a2 A such that a1 , a2 and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ).
(In other words, f maps two different elements of A to the same element of
B.)
Example.

3.2.3

Bijective Functions
Definition 3.2.3 A function that is both injective and surjective is bijective (or a bijection).

Examples.

Definition 3.2.4
tion of A.

Let A be a set. A bijection f : A A is a permuta-

Example

3.2.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 3.2


Exercises: 3.2[2,13,17]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 39

CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS

38

3.3

LECTURE 10. Composition and Inverse Functions


Definition 3.3.1 Let A and B be nonempty sets. The sets of all functions from A to B is denoted by
F(A, B) = { f | f : A B}.

If A = B, then we denote
F(A, A) = F(A).

3.3.1

Composition of Functions
Definition 3.3.2 Let A, B, and C be nonempty sets, and let f F(A, B)
and g F(B, C). The composition of f and g is the function g f
F(A, C) defined by
(g f )(x) = g( f (x)), x A

Notation. The composition g f is also denoted simply by g f .


If A = B = C, then both g f and f g are defined.
Examples.
Proposition 3.3.1 Let f : A B be a function. Then

f iA = iB f = f.
Proof : Exercise.
Proposition 3.3.2 Let f F(A, B) and g F(B, C). Then:

1. If f and g are surjections, then g f is a surjection.


2. If f and g are injections, then g f is an injection.
3. If f and g are bijections, then g f is a bijection.
Proof :
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 40

3.3. LECTURE 10. COMPOSITION AND INVERSE FUNCTIONS

39

Corollary 3.3.1 Let A be a nonempty set. Let f and g be permutations


of A. Then g f is a permutation of A.
Proof : Exercise.

Proposition 3.3.3 Let A, B, C and D be nonempty sets. Let f F(A, B),


g F(B, C), h F(C, D). Then
(h g) f = h (g f ).
Proof :

Notation. One can write without ambiguity simply


h g f = (h g) f = h (g f ).
If we have n functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , then one can write f1 f2 fn for
their composition.

3.3.2

Inverse Functions
Definition 3.3.3 Let A and B be nonempty sets and f F(A, B). Then
f is invertible if there is a function f 1 F(B, A) such that
f f 1 = iB

and

f 1 f = iA .
If f 1 exists, it is called the inverse of f .
If f is invertible, then f 1 is invertible and
( f 1 )1 = f

Proposition 3.3.4 There is only one function that can be the inverse of
a function f .
Proof :

Let A be a set and iA : A A be the identity function. Then iA is invertible


and
i1
A = iA .
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CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS

40
Examples.

Theorem 3.3.1 Let A and B be sets, and let f F(A, B). Then f is
invertible if and only if f is a bijection.
Proof :

Examples.

3.3.3

Homework

Reading: Sect 3.3


Exercises: 3.3[1,20]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 42

Chapter 4
Binary Operations and Relations
4.1

LECTURE 11. Binary Operations

Example

Definition 4.1.1
function

Let A be a nonempty set. A binary operation is a


f : A A A.

Notation.
f (a, b),

a b,

a ? b,

a + b,

a b,

a b,

The element f (a, b) must be in the set A.


Examples.

4.1.1

Associate and Commutative Laws


Definition 4.1.2 A binary operation on A is associative if
(a b) c = a (b c),

a, b, c A

Definition 4.1.3 A binary operation on A is commutative if


a b = b a,
41

a, b A

CHAPTER 4. BINARY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS

42

To prove that an operation is associative or commutative one needs to prove


the property for all elements of A.
To prove that an operation is not associative or commutative one needs to
show that the property does not hold for some elements of A.
Examples.
Union of sets on P(U)
Intersection of sets on P(U)
Composition of functions on F(A)
Multiplication and addition on F(R)
Matrix multiplication on M2 (R)
Matrix addition on M2 (R)

4.1.2

Identities
Definition 4.1.4 Let be a binary operation on the set A. An element
e is an identity element of A with respect to if

ae=ea=a
for any a A.

Not all sets have identity elements with respect to a given binary operation.
Examples.

Proposition 4.1.1 If e is an identity element of the set A with respect to


a binary operation on A, then e is unique.
Proof : By contradiction.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 43

4.1. LECTURE 11. BINARY OPERATIONS

4.1.3

43

Inverses
Definition 4.1.5 Let be a binary operation on the set A with identity
e. We say that a A is invertible with respect to if there exists b A
such that
a b = b a = e.

If

a b = b a = e,
then b is an inverse of a with respect to .
Examples.

Proposition 4.1.2 Let be an associative binary operation on a set A


with an identity element e. If a A has an inverse with respect to ,
then that inverse is unique.
Proof : Exercise.

Notation. The inverse of a is denoted by a1 .

4.1.4

Closure
Definition 4.1.6 Let A be a nonempty set and X A. Let be a binary
operation on the set A. If for any x, y X, we have x y X, then X is
closed in A under .

If X A is closed in A under , then is also a binary operation on X.


Examples.
To prove that X A is not closed under a binary operation , we need to
prove that there exist x, y X such that x y < X.
Examples.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 44

CHAPTER 4. BINARY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS

44

4.1.5

Groups
Definition 4.1.7 A set with a binary operation is a group if

1. the binary operation is associative,


2. there is an identity element,
3. every element has an inverse.

Examples.

4.1.6

Homework

Reading: Sect 4.1


Exercises: 4.1[2,5,19,22,36,37]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 45

4.2. LECTURE 12. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

45

4.2

LECTURE 12. Equivalence Relations

4.2.1

Relations

Definition 4.2.1 A relation R on a set A is a subset of A A.

Notation. If (a, b) R, then we write aRb


Examples.

4.2.2

Properties of Relations

The relation
R = {(a, a)|a A}
is called the diagonal of A A.
Definition 4.2.2 Let R be a relation on a set A. Then
1. R is reflexive if a A,
aRa,
2. R is symmetric if a, b A,
if aRb, then bRa,

3. R is transitive if a, b, c A,
if aRb and bRc, then aRc,
4. R is antisymmetric if a, b A,
if aRb and bRa, then a = b.
Examples.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 46

CHAPTER 4. BINARY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS

46

4.2.3

Equivalence Relations
Definition 4.2.3
it is

A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if

1. reflexive,
2. symmetric and
3. transitive.

Notation. An equivalence relation is denoted by


ab
read as
a is equivalent to b
Examples.
Congruence mod n is a relation R on Z+ defined by
aRb if a b = nk for some k Z
written
a b(mod n)
Example

4.2.4

Equivalence Classes
Definition 4.2.4 Let be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then for
any a A the set

[a] = {x A | x a}
is the equivalence class of a.

Equivalence class of a is the set of all elements equivalent to a.


absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 47

4.2. LECTURE 12. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

47

All elements of an equivalence class are equivalent to each other.


Examples.
An equivalence relation divides the set into disjoint equivalence classes.

Theorem 4.2.1 The set of equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a nonempty set A forms a partition of A.
Proof :
1. Equivalence classes are subsets of A.
2. Equivalence classes are nonempty.
3. Every element of A is in some equivalence class.
4. Different equivalence classes are disjoint. In other words,
if [a] , [b], then [a] [b] = ,
or
if [a] [b] , , then a b and [a] = [b].

Theorem 4.2.2 Let P be a partition of a nonempty set A. Let R be a
relation on A defined by

aRb if a and b are in the same element of the partition.


Then R is an equivalence relation.
Proof :
1. R is reflexive.
2. R is symmetric.
3. R is transitive.


There is a bijection between the set of all equivalence relations of A and the
set of all partitions of A.
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CHAPTER 4. BINARY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS

48

4.2.5

Partial and Linear Ordering

Example. Ordering of the real numbers.


aRb if a b
R is reflexive, transitive and antisymmetric.
Definition 4.2.5
R is

A relation R on a set A is a partial ordering on A if

1. reflexive,

2. transitive and
3. antisymmetric.
A set with a partial ordering is a partially ordered set.

The relation < is not a partial ordering on R.


Let A be a set and P(A) be the power set of A. Let R be a relation on P(A)
defined by
XRY if X Y.
Then R is a partial ordering on P(A).
Example. Linear ordering of real numbers.
x, y R, either x y or y x.
Definition 4.2.6 Let A be a set and R be a partial ordering on A. Then
R is a linear ordering on A if

a, b A, either aRb or bRa.


A set with a linear ordering is a linearly ordered set.

Examples.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 49

4.2. LECTURE 12. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

4.2.6

49

Homework

Reading: Sect 4.2


Exercises: 4.2[10,14,15,17]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 50

50

CHAPTER 4. BINARY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONS

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 51

Chapter 5
The Integers
5.1

LECTURE 13. Axioms and Basic Properties

5.1.1

The Axioms of the Integers


Definition 5.1.1 The set Z of integers is a set with two binary operations: addition, +, and multiplication, , with the properties
A1 Associativity of addition:
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z), x, y, z Z
A2 Commutativity of addition:

x + y = y + x, x, y Z
A3 Additive identity:
0 Z such that x + 0 = x, x Z
A4 Additive inverse:
x Z, (x) Z such that x + (x) = 0
51

CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

52
Definition 5.1.2
A5 Associativity of multiplication:

(x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z Z
A6 Commutativity of multiplication:
x y = y x, x, y Z
A7 Multiplicative identity:
1 Z such that x 1 = x, x Z, and 1 , 0
A8 Distributivity:
x (y + z) = x y + x z, x, y, z Z
Notation.
x + (y) = x y, x y = xy
These properties of integers are axioms.
The multiplicative inverses of integers do not exist, in general.
The axiom 1 , 0 is needed for a nontrivial theory.
If 1 = 0, then x = 0 for any x Z. Therefore, Z = {0} consists of only one
element.
Proposition 5.1.1 Let a, b, c Z. Then
P1 If a + b = a + c, then b = c

P2 a0 = 0
P3 (a)b = a(b) = (ab)
P4 (a) = a
Proof :
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 52

5.1. LECTURE 13. AXIOMS AND BASIC PROPERTIES

53

Proposition 5.1.2 Let a, b, c Z. Then


P5 (a)(b) = ab

P6 a(b c) = ab bc
P7 (1)a = a
P8 (1)(1) = 1
Proof :
The set of positive integers Z+ is defined by

Definition 5.1.3

Z+ = {n Z | n = 1
+ }1}
| + {z
n

Notation.
Z+ = N
Definition 5.1.4 The set Z+ has the properties
A9 Closure. Z+ is closed with respect to addition and multiplication:
if x, y Z+ , then x + y Z+ and xy Z+

A10 Trichotomy Law. For every integer x Z exactly one of the


following statements is true:
1. x Z+ ,
2. x Z+ ,
3. x = 0.

Proposition 5.1.3 If x Z and x , 0, then x2 Z+ .


Proof : Follows from closure of Z+ .

5.1.2

Inequalities
Definition 5.1.5

Let x, y Z. Then x < y if y x Z+ .


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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

54
Notation.
x < y is read x is less than y
if x < y, then y > x
if x < y or x = y, then x y
if x > y or x = y, then x y
if x y, then y x
If x Z+ , then x > 0.
Proposition 5.1.4 Let a, b, c Z.

Q1 Exactly one of the following holds:


a < b, b < a or b = a.
Q2 If a > 0, then a < 0. (If a < 0, then a > 0.)
Q3 If a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0 and ab > 0.

Q4 If a > 0 and b < 0, then ab < 0.


Q5 If a < 0 and b < 0, then ab > 0.
Q6 If a < b and b < c, then a < c.
Q7 If a < b, then a + c < b + c.
Q8 If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.
Q9 If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.
Proof : Exercise.

5.1.3

The Well-Ordering Principle


Definition 5.1.6
A11. The Well-Ordering Principle. Every
nonempty subset of Z+ has a smallest element. That is, if S is a
nonempty subset of Z+ , then
there is a S such that a x for all x S .
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 54

5.1. LECTURE 13. AXIOMS AND BASIC PROPERTIES

55

Proposition 5.1.5 There is no integer x such that 0 < x < 1.


Proof :
1. By contradiction.
2. Suppose that a Z+ is the smallest integer such that 0 < a < 1.
3. Then a2 < a (contradiction).

Corollary 5.1.1 The number 1 is the smallest element of Z+ .


Proof : Exercise.

5.1.4

Corollary 5.1.2 The only integers having multiplicative inverses in Z


are 1 and 1.
Proof : By contradiction.

Homework

Reading: Sect 5.1


Exercises: 5.1[1,9]

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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

56

5.2

LECTURE 14. Induction

5.2.1

Induction: A Method of Proof

Induction is a method for proving statements about the positive integers.


Let P(x) be an open sentence. The purpose of an induction proof is to show
that the statement P(n) is true for every positive integer n Z+ .
Idea:
1. Verify (prove) that P(1) is true.
2. Given a positive integer k Z+ for which P(k) is true, prove that
P(k + 1) is true.
3. This establishes that P(n) is true for any n Z+ .
Theorem 5.2.1
First Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let
P(n) be a statement about the positive integer n. Suppose that

1. P(1) is true, and


2. If P(k) is true for a k Z+ , then P(k + 1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for any n Z+ .
Proof : By contradiction and the Well-Ordering Principle.

The assumption that P(k) is true is the induction hypothesis.


Examples.

5.2.2

Other Forms of Induction


Theorem 5.2.2 Modified Form of First Principle of Mathematical
Induction Let P(n) be a statement about the integer n. Suppose that
there is an integer n0 Z such that

1. P(n0 ) is true, and


2. If P(k) is true for an integer k n0 , then P(k + 1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for any integer n n0 .
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 56

5.2. LECTURE 14. INDUCTION

57

Proof : Exercise.
Example
Theorem 5.2.3 Second Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let
P(n) be a statement about the positive integer n. Suppose that

1. P(1) is true, and


2. If, for a positive integer k Z+ , P(i) is true for every positive
integer i k, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for any positive integer n Z+ .
Proof : Exercise.

A function f : Z+ Z+ is defined recursively if the value f (k) of f at a


positive integer k is defined by the values f (1), f (2), . . . , f (k 1) of f at the
preceding positive integers.
f (k) = F( f (1), . . . , f (k 1))
This equation is a recursion, or a recursive relation.
Example. Let f : Z+ Z+ be defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 5, and
f (n + 1) = f (n) + 2 f (n 1).
Then
f (n) = 2n + (1)n
Proof : By induction.
Restatement of the First Principle of Mathematical Induction in the language of the set theory.
Theorem 5.2.4
that

Let S Z+ be a subset of positive integers. Suppose

1. 1 S , and
2. If k S , then k + 1 S .
Then S = Z+ .
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

58
Proof : Exercise.
Example

n
X
k=1

k=

n(n + 1)
2

Let A be a set and {Bi }ni=1 be a finite collection of sets.


n
n  \
\ [
[

B =
A
A
B
i
i

Theorem 5.2.5
Then

i=1

i=1

Proof : By induction.

5.2.3

The Binomial Theorem


Definition 5.2.1
is defined by

Let n be a nonnegative integer. The factorial n! of n


0! = 1,

and

n! = n(n 1) 2 1 if n > 0.

Definition 5.2.2 Let n and r be


n nonnegative integers such that 0
r n. The binomial coefficient r is defined by
!
n(n 1) (n r + 1)
n
n!
=
=
r!(n r)!
r!
r

Notation.

!
n
= Crn
r

Note that

!
!
!
0
n
n
=
=
=1
0
n
0

Also

!
!
n
n
=
k
nk
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 58

5.2. LECTURE 14. INDUCTION


The binomial coefficient
a collection of n objects.
The binomial coefficient
with n elements.

n
r

n
r

59

is the number of ways to choose r objects from


is the number of subsets of r elements in a set

Identity. Let n, k Z+ such that 1 k n. Then


!
!
!
n+1
n
n
=
+
k
k
k1
Proof : Exercise.

Theorem 5.2.6 Let a, b Z and n Z+ . Then


!
n
X
n nk k
n
(a + b) =
a b
k
k=0
Proof : By induction.

Example

Corollary 5.2.1 Let n Z be a nonnegative integer, n 0. Then


!
n
X
n
= 2n
k
k=0
Proof : Apply the binomial theorem to (1 + 1)n .

5.2.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 5.2


Exercises: 5.2[1,2,4,26]

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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

60

5.3

LECTURE 15. The Division Algorithm

5.3.1

Divisors and Greatest Common Divisors


Definition 5.3.1 Let a and b be integers.
We say b divides a if there is an integer c such that
a = bc.

The integer a is divisible by b and c.


The integers b and c are factors of a.
Notation.
b | a (read b divides a)
Example
Proposition 5.3.1 Let a, b, c Z.
1. If a|1, then a = 1 or a = 1.

2. If a|b and b|a, then a = b or a = b.


3. If a|b and a|c, then a|(bx + cy) for any x, y Z.
4. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proof : Exercise.

Example

Definition 5.3.2 Let a and b be integers, not both zero.


A common divisor of a and b is an integer c such that c divides both a
and b.
A greatest common divisor of a and b is a positive integer d such that
1. d is a common divisor of a and b, and
2. for any integer c, if c is a common divisor of a and b, then c
divides d.

Notation. The greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers a and b is


denoted by
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 60

5.3. LECTURE 15. THE DIVISION ALGORITHM

61

gcd(a, b) = (a, b)
Note that for any a Z, a , 0,
gcd(a, 0) = |a|
Example

Theorem 5.3.1 Division Algorithm. Let a be an integer and b be a


positive integer. Then there exist unique integers q and r such that
a = bq + r

and

0 r < b.

Proof :
1. Let S = {a bx|x Z} and S 0 = {n S |n 0}.
2. Show that S 0 , . (If a 0, then a S 0 . If a < 0, then a ba S 0 .)
3. Let r be the smallest element of S 0 . Then r 0.
4. Also, r = a bq for some q Z.
5. Then r < b, since if r b, then r b < r is the smallest element of S 0
(contradiction).
6. Uniqueness. Assume q1 , r1 and q2 , r2 and show that q1 = q2 and
r1 = r2 .

Theorem 5.3.2

Let a and b be integers, not both zero. Then:

1. the greatest common divisor d of a and b exists and is unique,

2. there exist integers x and y such that


d = ax + by.
Proof :
1. Let S = {ax + by|x, y Z} and S 0 = {n S |n > 0}.
2. Then a, b S . So, S 0 , .
3. Let d be the smallest element of S 0 .
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

62

4. Then d S . Hence d = ax + by for some x, y Z.


5. Also, there exist q, r Z such that a = dq + r and 0 r < d.
6. Since r = a(1 xq) + b(yq), then r S .
7. It is impossible that r > 0 since then r S 0 and r < d (contradiction).
Therefore, r = 0.
8. So, a = dq, or d|a. Similarly, d|b.
9. Let c Z be a common divisor of a and b. Then a = cu and b = cv for
some u, v Z.
10. Therefore, d = ax + by = c(ux + vy). So, c|d.
11. Thus d = gcd(a, b).
12. Uniqueness. Exercise.


5.3.2

Euclidean Algorithm
Lemma 5.3.1 Let a and b be integers, not both zero. If there exist two
integers q and r such that
a = bq + r

and

0 r < b,

then
gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r)
Proof :
1. Let d = gcd(a, b).
2. Then d|r.
3. For any c Z, if c|b and c|r, then c|a.
4. Since d = ax + by, then c|d.

Euclidean Algorithm is the following procedure for finding the gcd of two
integers.
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5.3. LECTURE 15. THE DIVISION ALGORITHM

63

1. Let a and b be two positive integers and a > b. By repeating the


division algorithm we get
a = bq1 + r1 , where 0 r1 < b
b = r1 q2 + r2 , where 0 r2 < r1
r1 = r2 q3 + r3 , where 0 r3 < r2
2. Since each remainder is strictly less than the previous remainder, eventually we get
rn2 = rn1 qn + rn , where 0 rn < rn1
rn1 = rn qn+1 + rn+1 , where rn+1 = 0
3. By Lemma we have
gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r1 ) = gcd(r1 , r2 ) = gcd(r2 , r3 ) =
= gcd(rn1 , rn ) = gcd(rn , 0) = rn
4. Thus, gcd(a, b) is the last nonzero remainder that occurs in this procedure.
5. If r1 = 0, then gcd(a, b) = b.
Example.

5.3.3

Relatively Prime Integers


Definition 5.3.3
prime if

Two integers a and b, not both zero, are relatively


gcd(a, b) = 1

Two integers are relatively prime if they have no common divisors except
for 1 and 1.
Example
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

64

Theorem 5.3.3 Two integers a and b are relatively prime if and only if
there exist integers x and y such that
ax + by = 1
Proof :
1. If gcd(a, b) = 1, then ax + by = gcd(a, b) = 1 for some x, y Z.
2. Let d = gcd(a, b).
3. If ax + by = 1 for some x, y Z, then d|(ax + by).
4. So, d|1.
5. Thus d = 1.


Theorem 5.3.4 Let a, b, c Z. If a|(bc) and gcd(a, b) = 1, then a|c.


Proof :
1. We have a|(bc).
2. So, az = bc for some z Z and ax + by = 1 for some x, y Z.
3. Then c = c(ax + by) = a(cx + zy).
4. Therefore, a|c.


5.3.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 5.3


Exercises: 5.3[8,14]

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5.4. LECTURE 16. PRIMES AND UNIQUE FACTORIZATION

65

5.4

LECTURE 16. Primes and Unique Factorization

5.4.1

Prime Numbers

Definition 5.4.1 A prime number is an integer p Z greater than 1


whose only divisors are 1 and p.
A composite number is an integer p Z greater than 1 that is not prime
(that is, it has divisors different from 1 or p).

Remark. 1 is not a prime number.


Example

Lemma 5.4.1
Let n Z+ be an integer greater than 1. Then n is
composite if and only if there exist integers a and b such that
n = ab, where 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n.
Proof : Exercise.

Proposition 5.4.1 Let n Z+ be an integer greater than 1. Then n


has a prime divisor (that is, there exist a prime number p such that p|n).
Proof :
1. Let T = {n Z|n > 1 and n is not divisible by a prime number}.
2. Claim: T = .
3. Suppose T , .
4. Then smallest n0 T .
5. Then n0 is not prime.
6. Then n0 = ab where 1 < a, b < n0 . Therefore, a|n0 .
7. Since a < n0 , then a < T .
8. Hence, there is a prime p such that p|a.
9. Since p|a and a|n0 , then p|n0 .
10. Contradiction to n0 T .
11. Thus T = .
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

66

Proposition 5.4.2

Let a, b Z and p be a prime number. Then


if p|(ab), then p|a or p|b.

Proof :
1. Suppose p does not divide a.
2. Then a , 0 and gcd(a, p) = 1.
3. Therefore, p|b. (By the theorem that says that if a|(bc) and gcd(a, b) =
1, then a|c.)


Corollary 5.4.1 Let m Z+ be a positive integer, a1 , . . . , am Z be


Q
integers, a = ni=1 ai be the product of these integers, and p be a prime
number. Then
if p|a, then p|ak for some k, 1 k m.
Proof : Exercise. Induction.

Corollary 5.4.2 Let m Z+ be a positive integer, a Z be an integer,


and p be a prime number. Then
if p|am , then p|a .
Proof : Exercise.

Example

5.4.2

Unique Factorization
Theorem 5.4.1
Unique factorization Theorem. Let n Z be an
integer greater than 1. Then either n is a prime number, or it can be
written as a product of prime numbers.
The product is unique, except for the order in which the factors appear.
Proof :
1. Existence. By induction.
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5.4. LECTURE 16. PRIMES AND UNIQUE FACTORIZATION

67

2. Let n Z and n > 1. Let P(n) be the statement: n is either prime or a


product of primes.
3. P(2) is true.
4. Let k > 2. Suppose that P(2), . . . P(k) are true.
5. Claim: P(k + 1) is true.
6. If k + 1 is prime, then P(k + 1) is true.
7. If k + 1 is not prime, then there exist a, b Z such that k + 1 = ab and
1 < a < k + 1 and 1 < b < k + 1.
8. Both a and b are either primes or product of primes.
9. Thus, k + 1 is a product of primes.
10. So, P(k + 1) is true.
11. Thus, P(n) is true n Z.
12. Uniqueness. By contradiction.
13. Suppose n = p1 p s = q1 qr with some primes qi and p j .
14. Claim: s = r and after some renumbering pi = qi , i {1, . . . , s}
15. Suppose s r.
16. Since p1 |n, then p1 |(q1 qr ).
17. Therefore, p1 |q j for some j. Renumber the qi s so that q j = q1 .
18. Since p1 and q1 are primes then p1 = q1 .
19. Then p2 p s = q2 qr .
20. Also, p2 |(q2 qr ).
21. So, p2 |qm for some m. Renumber the qi s so that qm = q2 .
22. Thus p2 = q2 .
23. Repeating this process, after s steps, we get p1 = q1 , . . . , p s = q s .
24. If s < r, then we have 1 = q s+1 qr (contradiction).
25. Thus s = r.
26. Therefore, pi = qi for all i.

Standard Form. Let n Z be an integer greater than 1. By grouping the
repeated primes we can write
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

68

n = pm1 1 pmr r
where the exponents m1 , . . . , mr Z+ are positive integers and
p1 < p2 < < pr
are distinct primes.
Example

5.4.3 Euclid Theorem

Theorem 5.4.2 Euclid Theorem. There are infinitely many prime


numbers.
Proof : By contradiction.
1. Let {p1 , pr } be the set of primes be and n = p1 pr be their product.
2. Let m = n + 1. Then m has a prime divisor.
3. Let the prime pi with some i be such that pi |m.
4. Also, we have pi |n.
5. Therefore, pi |(m n). So pi |1 (contradiction).
6. Thus, there are infinitely many primes.


5.4.4

Homework

Reading: Sect 5.4


Exercises: 5.4[10,20]

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5.5. LECTURE 17. CONGRUENCES

69

5.5

LECTURE 17. Congruences

5.5.1

Congruences and Their Properties

Example. There are no x, y Z such that x2 = 4y + 3.




Definition 5.5.1 Let n Z+ be a positive integer. Two integers a, b


Z are congruent modulo n if the difference a b is divisible by n (or
n|(a b))

Notation.
a b(mod n) read a is congruent to b modulo n
Congruence mod n defines an equivalence relation on Z.
Proposition 5.5.1

Let a, b, c Z and n Z+ . Then

1. a a(mod n).
2. If a b(mod n), then b a(mod n).
3. If a b(mod n) and b c(mod n), then a c(mod n).
Proof : Exercise.

Theorem 5.5.1 Let a, b, c, d Z and n Z+ . Then

1. If a b(mod n) and c d(mod n), then a + c b + d(mod n) and


ac bd(mod n).
2. If ab ac(mod n) and gcd(a, n) = 1, then b c(mod n)
Proof : Easy.


Corollary 5.5.1 Let a Z and n, k Z+ . If a b(mod n), then ak


bk (mod n).
Proof : Exercise.

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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

70

Proposition 5.5.2 Let a Z and n Z+ , n > 1. Then there is exactly


one integer k such that
a k(mod n) and 0 k n 1.
Proof : By Division Algorithm. Existence. Uniqueness.


Example. Show that for any x Z, x2 0(mod 4) or x2 1(mod 4).


Example. Show that there are no x, y Z such that x2 = 4y + 3, or there is
no x Z such that x2 3(mod 4).

Definition 5.5.2 Let a Z. The congruence class of a mod n is the


equivalence class [a] of a with respect to the equivalence relation of
congruence mod n:
[a] = {x Z | x a(mod n)}

For any a Z, a r(mod n) for exactly one integer r such that 0 r n1.
Therefore, a [r].
Thus there are exactly n distinct congruence classes:
[0], [1], , [n 1].
Note that
[n] = [0]
To find r so that a [r], we simply compute the remainder when a is divided
by n, that is a = nq + r.
Example.
There is more than one way to represent a congruence class.
For congruences mod n,
[a] = [b] if and only if a b(mod n).
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5.5. LECTURE 17. CONGRUENCES

71

Proof : Exercise.


Remarks.

1. The congruence class [a] is a set, not an integer.


2. For an integer a such hat 0 a < n, the congruence class [a] is the set
of integers that give a remainder of a when divided by n.
3. The equality of congruence classes [a] = [b] does not mean that a = b.
It means that a b(mod n) (or that a and b give the same remainder
when divided by n).

5.5.2

The Set of Congruence Classes


Definition 5.5.3 Let n Z+ , n > 1. Then the set of congruence classes
is

Zn = {[0], [1], , [n 1]}


The addition and multiplication on Zn are defined by: for any a, b Z,
if [a], [b] Zn , then
[a] + [b] = [a + b],

[a][b] = [ab].

The addition of congruence classes is well defined. That is it does not depend on the choice of the integers to represent the equivalence classes.
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

72

Theorem 5.5.2 Properties of Addition. Let n Z, n > 1, and Zn be


the set of congruence classes. Let a, b, c Z. Then
1. Commutativity of addition:
[a] + [b] = [b] + [a]
2. Associativity of addition

([a] + [b]) + [c] = [a] + ([b] + [c])


3. Additive identity:
[a] + [0] = [a]
4. Additive inverse:
[a] = [a]

Proof : Exercise.


The multiplication of congruence classes is well-defined.


absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 72

5.5. LECTURE 17. CONGRUENCES

73

Theorem 5.5.3 Properties of Multiplication. Let n Z, n > 1, and


Zn be the set of congruence classes. Let a, b, c Z. Then
1. Commutativity of multiplication:
[a][b] = [b][a]
2. Associativity of multiplication

([a][b])[c] = [a]([b][c])
3. Multiplicative identity:
[a][1] = [a]
4. Distributive property:
[a]([b] + [c]) = [a][b] + [a][c]
Proof : Exercise.


Zn is a finite set.
One can give the addition and multiplication tables.
Example

Theorem 5.5.4 Let n Z, n > 1, and let a Z. Then [a] has a


multiplicative inverse if and only if a and n are relatively prime, that is
gcd(a, n) = 1.
Proof :
1. Suppose [a] has a multiplicative inverse.
2. Then there is x Z such that [a][x] = [1].
3. Hence, [ax] = [1] and ax = 1(mod n).
4. Therefore, n|(ax 1).
5. So, ax 1 = nt for some t Z.
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CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

74
6. Therefore, ax + n(t) = 1.

7. So, by a previous theorem gcd(a, n) = 1.


8. Conversely, suppose gcd(a, n) = 1.
9. Then there exist x, y Z such that ax + ny = 1.
10. Hence [1] = [a][x] + [n][y].
11. We have [n] = [0].
12. Thus [a][x] = [1].
13. So, [x] is a multiplicative inverse of [a].

To find the multiplicative inverse of [a] one has to solve the congruence
ax 1(mod n).
Theorem 5.5.5 Let n Z, n > 1, and let a, b Z. Let gcd(a, n) = 1.
Then the congruence
ax b(mod n)
has a unique solution mod n.
That is, there exists integer x Z such that

ax b(mod n)
and if there is y Z such that
ay b(mod n),
then
x y(mod n).
Proof :
1. Since gcd(a, n) = 1, there exist t, s Z such that as + nt = 1, or
as = 1(mod n).
2. We get asb + ntb = b, or a(sb) = b(mod n)
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5.5. LECTURE 17. CONGRUENCES

75

3. Let x = sb.
4. Then ax b(mod n).
5. If y Z is such that ay b(mod n), then ax ay(mod n).
6. Since ax ay(mod n) and gcd(a, n) = 1, then x y(mod n).

If x Z is a solution to the congruence ax b(mod n), then the set of all
solutions to the congruence is the congruence class [x].
Example

5.5.3

Homework

Reading: Sect 5.5


Exercises: 5.5[2,5]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 75

76

CHAPTER 5. THE INTEGERS

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 76

Chapter 6
Infinite Sets
6.1

LECTURE 19. Countable Sets

6.1.1

Numerically Equivalent Sets

Example

Definition 6.1.1 Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. The sets


A and B are numerically equivalent if there is a bijection f : A B.
The sets A and B have the same cardinality.

Notation. The numerical equivalence of the sets A and B is denoted by


AB
Numerical equivalence is an equivalence relation on the power set of U. Let
A, B, C U. Then
1. A A,
2. if A B, then B A,
3. if A B and B C, then A C.
77

CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

78

Definition 6.1.2 Let A be a subset of a universal set U. Then A is


finite if A = or there is a positive integer n such that A {1, 2, . . . , n}.

The integer n is the number of elements of A.


A set is infinite if it is not finite, that is, A , and there is no positive
integer n such that A {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Notation. The number of elements of a finite set A is denoted by


|A|
Two finite sets A and B are numerically equivalent, A B, (or have the same
cardinality) if and only if they have the same number of elements, |A| = |B|.
The cardinality is also called the cardinal number.
The cardinality of a finite set is the number of elements of the set.
The cardinality of the empty set is
|| = 0

6.1.2

Countable Sets

The set of positive integers Z+ is infinite.


Definition 6.1.3
A set A is countably infinite if it is numerically
equivalent to Z+ , A Z+ .

A set is countable if it is either finite or countably infinite.


A set is uncountable if it is not countable.

Alternatively, a set is countable if it is numerically equivalent to a subset of


Z+ .
Countably infinite sets have the same cardinality.
The cardinality of Z+ is denoted by
0 (read aleph zero)
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6.1. LECTURE 19. COUNTABLE SETS

79

The set Z is countably infinite.


The set of even integers 2Z is countably infinite.

Theorem 6.1.1 Let A be a countable set and B be a subset of A. Then


B is countable.
Proof :
1. If A is finite, then B is finite, and, hence, countable.
2. Suppose A is countably infinite.
3. If B is finite it is countable.
4. Suppose B is infinite.
5. There is a bijection f : Z+ A.
6. Let S = f 1 (B) = {i Z+ | f (i) B}
7. Since f is surjective, then S is infinite.
8. Let S 1 = S and let k1 be the smallest element of S 1 .
9. Let S 2 = S 1 {k1 } and k2 be the smallest element of S 2 .
10. Similarly, we define the sequence of subsets S i+1 Z+ by S i+1 =
S i {ki }, where ki is the smallest element of S i .
11. We have k1 < k2 < . . . .
12. Then S i+1 = S 1 {k1 , . . . , ki }.
13. All S i are infinite.
14. Then S = {k1 , k2 , . . . }.
15. Let h : Z+ S be defined by h(n) = kn .
16. Since kn = km implies n = m, then h is injective.
17. Claim: h is surjective.
18. Let t S .
19. Let m be the number of integers in S that are less than t.
20. If m = 0, then t = k1 .
21. If m , 0, then the integers less than t are k1 , . . . , km .
22. Then t is the smallest element of S m+1 .
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CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

80
23. Therefore, t = km+1 = h(m).
24. Thus, h is surjective.
25. So, h is bijective.

26. Now, let us define g = f h : Z+ B by g(n) = f (h(n)) .


27. Since both f and h are bijections, then g is a bijection.
28. Thus, B is countably infinite.


Corollary 6.1.1

Every subset of Z is countable.

Theorem 6.1.2

Let f : Z+ A be a surjection. Then A is countabe.

Proof :
1. If A is finite, then A is countable.
2. Suppose A is infinite.
3. Let
S 1 = f 1 (A) .
4. Then S 1 = Z+ .
5. Let n1 be the smallest element of S 1 . Then n1 = 1.
6. Let a1 = f (n1 ) and

S 2 = S 1 f 1 ({a1 })

and n2 be the smallest element of S 2 .


7. Similarly, we define ai = f (ni ) and
S i = S i1 f 1 ({ai1 })
and ni be the smallest element of S i .
8. Then
S i = Z+ f 1 ({a1 , . . . , ai1 }) .
9. We have
1 = n1 < n2 < < ni < ni+1 <
and we define
S = {n1 , n2 , . . . } .
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6.1. LECTURE 19. COUNTABLE SETS

81

10. Then f |S : S A is a bijection.


11. Let h : Z+ S be defined by h(i) = ni .
12. Since ni = n j implies i = j, then h is injective.
13. Claim: h is surjective.
14. Let t S .
15. Let m be the number of integers in S that are less than t.
16. If m = 0, then t = n1 .
17. If m , 0, then the integers less than t are n1 , . . . , nm .
18. Then t is the smallest element of S m+1 .
19. Therefore, t = nm+1 = h(m).
20. Thus, h is surjective.
21. So, h is bijective.
22. Define a function g = f h : Z+ A by g(i) = f (h(i)).
23. Then g is bijective.
24. Thus A is countably infinite.


Definition 6.1.4 Let U be a universal set. A sequence of elements of


U is a function f : Z+ U.

Notation. Let f : Z+ U be a sequence. Let an = f (n). The sequence is


denoted by
(an )
n=1 = (a1 , a2 , . . . )
The elements of a sequence are not necessarily distinct (as in the sets).
The elements of the sequence are ordered.
A constant sequence is the sequence (a, a, . . . ).
The image of the sequence, f (Z+ ), is countable.
Let A be a countably infinite set and let f : Z+ A be a bijection. Let
an = f (n). Then the elements of the set A can be identified with the sequence
(a1 , a2 , . . . ) with no elements repeated, that is ai , a j if and only if i , j.
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CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

82

Conversely, if the elements of a set A can be written as a sequence, then A


is countable.
Example

6.1.3

Unions of Countable Sets

If S is a finite set of real numbers then the set Z S is countable.


Let {Ai }ni=1 be a finite collection of countable subsets
n
S
of a universal set U. Then Ai is countable.

Theorem 6.1.3

i=1

Proof :
1. There are bijections fi : Z+ Ai .
n
S
2. Let A = Ai .
i=1

3. Define f : Z+ A as follows:
f (1) = f1 (1),
f (2) = f2 (1),
...
f (n) = fn (1)
f (n + 1) = f1 (2),
...
f (2n) = fn (2)
and so on.
4. For any j Z+ there are unique m and r such that j = mn + r with
m Z+ and 1 r n 1.
5. Claim: f ( j) = f (mn + r) = fr (m + 1)
6. Claim: f is surjective.
7. Let a A.
8. Then a Ai for some i.
9. There is j Z+ such that fi ( j) = a.
10. Then f (( j 1)k + i) = fi ( j) = a.
11. So, f is surjective.
12. So, A is countable.

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6.1. LECTURE 19. COUNTABLE SETS

6.1.4

83

The Rationals are Countable


Theorem 6.1.4 The set Q of rational numbers is countably infinite.
Proof :
1. It is enough to restrict to the positive rationals Q+ .
2. Table of rationals.
3. Define f : Z+ Q+ by diagonal argument.
4. Then f is a surjection.
5. So, Q is a countable set.


Corollary 6.1.2 Any subset of Q is countable.


Proof : Exercise.


6.1.5

Cartesian Products of Countable Sets

The set Z Z is countable.


More generally,

Theorem 6.1.5 Let A and B be countable subsets of a universal set


U. Then A B is countable.
Proof : Diagonal argument.

Theorem 6.1.6 Let {Ai }ni=1 be a finite collection of countable subsets
of a universal set U. Then the set
n


Ai = A1 A2 An

i=1

is countable.
Proof : Exercise.

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CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

84

6.1.6

Homework

Reading: Sect 6.1


Exercises: 6.1[3,7,15]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 83

6.2. LECTURE 20. UNCOUNTABLE SETS

6.2

85

LECTURE 20. Uncountable Sets

Any x R+ can be written in the decimal form


x = a0 .a1 a2 =

10k ak ,

k=0

where ak {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and a0 Z.


Such an expansion is unique unless it ends in an infinite string of 9s.
Convention: Do not use decimal expansions ending in an infinite string of
9s.
Binary expansion:
x = a0 .a1 a2 =

2k ak ,

k=0

where ak {0, 1} and a0 Z.


Convention: Do not use binary expansions ending in an infinite string of
1s.

6.2.1

Uncountable Sets
Theorem 6.2.1
able.
Proof :

The closed interval of real numbers [0, 1] is uncount-

1. By contradiction.
2. Diagonal argument.


Corollary 6.2.1

The set of real numbers R is uncountable.

Proof : Since [0, 1] R.



For any a, b, c, d R
[a, b] [0, 1],

[c, d] [a, b],

(a, b) (c, d),

[a, b] (c, d)

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CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

86

The cardinality of R is called the power of the continuum


|R| = c
If A R, then |A| = c.

6.2.2

Cantor Theorem
Definition 6.2.1 Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U.
We say that A  B if there is an injection f : A B.
We say that A B if there is an injection f : A B and A 0 B.

Let X and Y be two sets and x and y be their cardinalities. Then


xy

if

XY

xy

if

X  Y.

and

Lemma 6.2.1 Let U be a universal set and A, B, C, D U. Suppose


that A B and C D. Then:
If A C, then B D.
If A  C, then B  D.
Proof : Exercise.


Question: Are there any infinite sets with cardinality |Z+ | = 0 ?


Answer: No.
Reason: Every infinite set contains a countably infinite subset.
Question: Are there sets with infinite cardinalities different from 0 and c?
Answer: Yes.
There are infinitely many different infinite cardinal numbers.
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6.2. LECTURE 20. UNCOUNTABLE SETS

87

Theorem 6.2.2 Cantors Theorem. Let A be a subset of a universal


set U and P(A) be the power set of A. Then
A P(A).
Proof :
1. Claim: There is an injection f : A P(A).
2. Let a A.
3. Let f (a) = {a}.
4. Claim: Then f is injective.
5. Claim: There is no surjection g : A P(A).
6. Suppose such a surjection exists.
7. Let B = {a A|a < g(a)}.
8. Since g is surjective, then B g(A) = P(A).
9. So, a0 A such that g(a0 ) = B.
10. Suppose a0 B.
11. Then a0 < g(a0 ) = B (a contradiction).
12. Suppose a0 < B. Then a0 g(a0 ) = B (a contradiction).
13. Thus, there is no surjection from A to P(A).
14. Thus A P(A).


6.2.3

Continuum Hypothesis

Question: Are there sets with cardinality x such that


|Z+ | = 0 x c = |R|?

Continuum Hypothesis. There is no set X with cardinality x such that


0 x c.

Corollary. Let X R. Then either X is finite, or X Z+ , or X R.


The continuum hypothesis is independent of the axioms of the set theory
and can be neither proved nor disproved from those axioms.
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88

6.2.4

Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem

Let U be a universal set. Then  is a relation on P(U).


The relation  is reflexive and transitive.
The relation  is neither symmetric nor antisymmetric. It is anti-symmetric
on the set of equivalence classes [A].

Theorem 6.2.3 Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem. Let A and B be sets.


If A  B and B  A, then A B.
Proof :
1. There are injections f : A B and g : B A.
2. Let a = a1 A.
3. If a = a1 g(B), then let b1 B such that a1 = g(b1 ).
4. If b1 f (A), then let a2 A such that b1 = f (a2 ).
5. If a2 g(B), then let b2 B such that a2 = g(b2 ).
6. If b2 f (A), then let a3 A such that b2 = f (a3 ).
7. Diagram.
8. For each a A we construct an ordered list X(a) = (a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
of ancestors of a, where
ak = g(bk ),

bk = f (ak+1 ) .

9. Then X(a) is either finite or infinite.


10. We define the subsets of A by:
AA = {a A | X(a) is finite; an oldest ancestor y(a) A g(B)}
AB = {a A|X(a) is finite; an oldest ancestor y(a) B f (A)}
A = {a A|X(a) is infinite; there is no oldest ancestor }
11. These subsets are mutually disjoint and define a partition of A
A = A A A A B .
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6.2. LECTURE 20. UNCOUNTABLE SETS

89

12. Every a A must satisfy one of the three conditions.


13. Similarly, for each element b B we define the list of its ancestors
X(b) = (b1 , a2 , b2 , a3 , . . . ) such that
ak = g(bk ),

bk = f (ak+1 ) .

14. This defines the partition of B by subsets BA , BB and B


B = BA B BB .
15. Use the Lemma (proved below): The functions
f : A A BA ,

f : A B ,

g : BB A B ,

g : B A

are bijections.
16. Define h : A B by

if a AA A

f (a),
h(a) =

b, such that g(b) = a, if a AB


17. Claim: h is a bijection.
18. Thus, A B.


Lemma 6.2.2

The function f : AA BA is a bijection.

Proof :
1. Since f is an injection on A and AA A, then f is an injection on AA .
2. We only need to prove that f is a surjection on AA , that is, f (AA ) = BA .
3. Let a AA and
X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y)
be the list of its ancestors. Then y A.
4. Let b = f (a) B. Then
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y) .
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CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SETS

90

5. Therefore, the oldest ancestor of b is in A. So, b = f (a) BA .


6. Thus, f (AA ) BA .
7. Let b BA and y be its oldest ancestor. Then y A. Thus, there is an
a A such that b = f (a).
8. Then
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y)
and
X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y) .
9. Thus, the oldest ancestor of a is y A. That is a AA and BA f (AA ).
10. Thus f (AA ) = BA , and f : AA BA is a surjection, and, therefore, a
bijection.


Lemma 6.2.3

The function g : BB AB is a bijection.

Proof : The proof is the same as above.




Lemma 6.2.4
bijections.

The functions f : A B and g : B A are

Proof :
1. Let a A and
X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
be the list of its ancestors. Let b = f (a) B. Then
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . ) .
2. If a A , then the list X(a) is infinite. Therefore, the list X(b) is
infinite.
3. Thus, b = f (a) B , that is f (A ) B .
4. If b B , then the list
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
is infinite, and there is a A such that b = f (a).
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6.2. LECTURE 20. UNCOUNTABLE SETS

91

5. Then the list


X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
is infinite and a has no oldest ancestor and, therefore, a A . Thus,
B f (A ).
6. Thus, f (A ) = B and f : A B is a surjection, and therefore, a
bijection.
7. The proof for g is the same.

There must be an infinite number of infinite cardinals.

Corollary 6.2.2

(0, 1) [0, 1]

Proof : Easy.

Any two intervals of real numbers have the same cardinality.
The cardinality of P(Z+ ) is c. That is
|P(Z+ )| = |R| .
For any countably infinite set X
|P(X)| = |R| .

Corollary 6.2.3

P(Z+ ) R

Proof :
1. It suffices to show P(Z+ ) [0, 1).
2. Let f : P(Z+ ) [0, 1) be a function defined for a set A Z+ by
f (A) = 0.a1 a2 . . .
(a decimal expansion), where ai = 0 if i A and ai = 1 if i < A.
3. Claim: f is an injection.
4. So, P(Z+ )  [0, 1).
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92

5. Let g : [0, 1) P(Z+ ) be a function defined by


g(0.a1 a2 . . . ) = {i Z+ |ai = 0}
(a binary expansion).
6. Claim: g is an injection.
7. So, [0, 1)  P(Z+ ).
8. Thus P(Z+ ) [0, 1).


6.2.5

Homework

Reading: Sect 6.2


Exercises: 6.2[1,12]

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6.3. LECTURE 21. COLLECTIONS OF SETS

93

6.3

LECTURE 21. Collections of Sets

6.3.1

Russells Paradox

A collection of sets {Ai }iI is countable collection if the indexing set I is


countable and uncountable if the indexing set is uncountable.
Proposition. There is no universal set of all sets.
Proof: Let U be a universal set of all sets. Then U P(U). Therefore, U
does not contain its own power set P(U), which is a contradiction.
There are logical problems with assuming that any combination of sets results in another set.
Let A = {A|A < A}, that is the set of all sets that are not elements of
themselves.
Russells Paradox. If A A, then, by its definition, A < A. Also, if
A < A, then, by its definition, A A.
Not every collection of sets can be considered a set!
Axioms of set theory: if all the sets are subsets of a universal set, then the
operations of union, intersection and Cartesian product generate sets.

6.3.2

Countable Unions of Countable Sets

A finite union of countable sets is countable.

Theorem 6.3.1 Let {Ai }iZ+ be a countably infinite collection of countS


ably infinite sets. Then iZ+ Ai is also a countably infinite set.
Proof : Diagonal argument.


An uncountable union of countable sets may be uncountable.


Example.
Definition 6.3.1 Let {Ai }iZ+ be a countably infinite collection of sets.

The Cartesian product of the collection iZ+ Ai is the set of all sequences (a1 , a2 , . . . ) such that ai Ai for all i Z+ .
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94
Example

Theorem 6.3.2 Let {Ai }iZ+ be a countably infinite collection of sets.


If each Ai contains at least two elements, then the Cartesian product

iZ+ Ai of the collection is uncountable.
Proof : By contradiction.
1. Suppose that A =


iZ+

Ai is countable.

2. There is a bijection f : Z+ A.
3. Let f (i) = Ai .
4. Ai are sequences Ai = (ai1 , ai2 , ai3 , . . . ), where aij A j .
5. Choose bi Ai , aii .
6. Let B = (b1 , b2 , . . . ).
7. Then B A, but B , Ai for any i Z+ . (Contradiction).


Definition 6.3.2 Let be an indexing set and let {A } be a collec


tion of sets. The Cartesian product A of the collection {A }
is the set of all functions
S
f : A
such that f () A for all .

Example.
Suppose that all sets A are nonempty, i.e. A , for all .

Question: Is the Cartesian product A nonempty?
Answer: Not trivial.
Foundation of set theory: Zermelo-Frankel Axioms.
ZF (Zermelo-Frankel Set Theory): existence of the empty set, existence
of the power set of a set, unions, intersections etc.
The Axiom of Choice:
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6.3. LECTURE 21. COLLECTIONS OF SETS

95

If , and A , for all , then

A , .

cannot be proven or disproven from ZF.


The system ZFC is the set theory based on the Zermelo-Frankel axioms
together with the Axiom of Choice.
ZFC is needed to prove that the cardinal numbers are linearly ordered.
If A, B are sets, then either A  B or B  A.

6.3.3

Homework

Exercises: 6.3[1,4]

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Chapter 7
The Real and Complex Numbers
7.1

LECTURE 22. Fields

7.1.1

Fields
Definition 7.1.1 A field F is a nonempty set with two binary operations: addition, +, and multiplication, , that satisfy the following
axioms:
1. Associativity of addition:
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z), x, y, z F
2. Commutativity of addition:

x + y = y + x, x, y F
3. Additive identity (or zero element, or zero):
0 F such that x + 0 = x, x F
4. Additive inverse (or negative):
x F, (x) F such that x + (x) = 0
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CHAPTER 7. THE REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

98

Definition 7.1.2
1. Associativity of multiplication:
(x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z F
2. Commutativity of multiplication:
x y = y x, x, y F
3. Multiplicative identity (or one):
1 F such that x 1 = x, x F, and 1 , 0
4. Multiplicative inverse (or the inverse):
x F, x , 0, x1 F such that x x1 = 1
5. Distributivity:
x (y + z) = x y + x z, x, y, z F
Z is not a field.
Q, R, C are fields.

7.1.2

Elementary Properties of Fields


Proposition 7.1.1 Let F be a field and a, b, c F. Then
1. a0 = 0

2. (a)b = a(b) = (ab)


3. (a) = a
4. (a)(b) = ab
5. a(b c) = ab bc
Proof : Exercise.
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7.1. LECTURE 22. FIELDS

99


Proposition 7.1.2
1. (1)a = a
2. (1)(1) = 1
3. If a + b = a + c, then b = c
4. If a , 0 and ab = ac, then b = c
5. If a , 0, then (a1 )1 = a
Proof : Exercise.


7.1.3

Ordered Fields
Definition 7.1.3 Let F be a field. We say F is an ordered field if there
exists a subset P of F satisfying two properties:
1. P is closed with respect to addition and multiplication, that is
if x, y P, then x + y P and xy P.

2. For every x F exactly one of the following is true:


x P, x P, or x = 0.
The subset P is the set of positive elements of F.

Definition 7.1.4 Let F be an ordered field and P be the set of positive


elements of F. Let x, y F. Then
x < y (or y > x) if y x P.
Notation.
x < y is read x is less than y (or y is greater than x)
if x < y, then y > x
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CHAPTER 7. THE REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS


if x < y or x = y, then x y
if x > y or x = y, then x y
if x y, then y x

If x P, then x > 0.

Proposition 7.1.3 Let F be an ordered field and P be a subset of positive elements of F. Let a, b, c F.
1. Exactly one of the following holds:
a < b, b < a or b = a.
2. If a > 0, then a < 0. (If a < 0, then a > 0.)
3. If a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0 and ab > 0.

4. If a > 0 and b < 0, then ab < 0.


5. If a < 0 and b < 0, then ab > 0.
6. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.
7. If a < b, then a + c < b + c.
8. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.
9. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.
10. If a , 0, then a2 P.
Proof : Exercise.


The set of positive elements P of any field F does not have a smallest element.
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7.1. LECTURE 22. FIELDS

101

Theorem 7.1.1 Let F be an ordered field and P be a subset of positive


elements of F. Then:

1. 1 P.
2. If x P, then x1 P.
3. P is an infinite set.
Proof :
1. (1.) Suppose 1 < P. Then (1) P and 1 = (1)(1) P, which is a
contradiction.
2. (2.) Exercise.
3. (3.) Let n Z+ and xn = 1
+ }1.
| + {z
n

4. Claim: xn , xm for n , m.
5. Suppose xn = xm for some n > m. Then 0 = xn xm = 1
+ }1 P,
| + {z
nm

which is a contradiction.


7.1.4

Corollary 7.1.1

Every ordered field is infinite.

Finite Fields

Recall that for any n Z+ , n > 1, Zn = {[0], [1], . . . , [n 1]} is the set of
equivalence classes modulo n.

Theorem 7.1.2
is prime.

Let n Z+ , n > 1. Then Zn is a field if and only if n

Proof :
1. (I). Let n be prime.
2. Zn satisfies all field axioms except possibly the existence of multiplicative inverses.
3. Let [a] Zn , [a] , [0].
4. Then [a] = [1], . . . , [n 1].
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CHAPTER 7. THE REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

102

5. Then n does not divide a since 0 < a < n.


6. Since n is prime, gcd(a, n) = 1 (a and n are relatively prime).
7. So, x, y Z such that ax + ny = 1.
8. Thus, [ax + ny] = [1], and since [n] = [0], then [a][x] = [1].
9. Hence, [x] = [a]1 (multiplicative inverse).
10. So, if n is prime, then Zn is a field.
11. (II). Conversely (claim): if Zn is a field, then n is prime.
12. Suppose n is not prime.
13. There are a, b Z such that 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n and n = ab.
14. Then [a][b] = [0], but [a] , [0] and [b] , [0].
15. Claim: [a] does not have multiplicative inverse.
16. Suppose x Z such that [a][x] = [1].
17. Since [a][b] = [0], then [0] = [b].
18. However, [b] , [0] since 1 < b < n.
19. Contradiction. So, [a] does not have a multiplicative inverse and Zn is
not a field.

For a prime p the finite field Z p is not ordered.
Algebraic number fields.
Example.
Q

  n
o

2 = r + s 2|r, s Q

Galois theory. Idea: Adding solutions of algebraic equations to a field.


Let p be a prime number, ak Z p , and
f (x) = an xn + a1 x + a0
be an irreducible (cannot be factorized) polynomial of a formal variable x
with coefficients ak in Z p .
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7.1. LECTURE 22. FIELDS

103

Let be a solution of the equation


f () = [0] .
Then
Z p () = {x + y|x, y Z p }
is a finite field and there is m Z+ such that
|Z p ()| = pm .

7.1.5

Homework

Reading: Sect. 7.1.


Exercises: 7.1[2,6,8,20]

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104

7.2

LECTURE 23. The Real Numbers

7.2.1

Bounded Sets
Definition 7.2.1

Let S be a nonempty set of real numbers.

1. The set S is bounded above if there exists a real number x R


such that
a x for all a S .

Such a number x is called an upper bound for the set S .


2. The set S is bounded below if there exists a real number y R
such that
a y for all a S .
Such a number y is called a lower bound for the set S .
3. The set S is bounded if it is bounded below and bounded above.

Examples.

7.2.2

Least Upper Bound and Greatest Lower Bound

Example
Definition 7.2.2 Let S be a nonempty set of real numbers bounded
above. Then x R is the least upper bound (or supremum) of S if:

1. x is an upper bound of S , and


2. if z is an upper bound of S , then x z.
Definition 7.2.3 Let S be a nonempty set of real numbers bounded
below. Then y R is the greatest lower bound (or infimum) of S if:

1. y is a lower bound of S , and


2. if z is a lower bound of S , then y z.
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7.2. LECTURE 23. THE REAL NUMBERS

105

Notation:
y = inf S ,

x = sup S

Examples.

Definition 7.2.4 Least Upper Bound Axiom. Any nonempty set of


real numbers that is bounded above has a least upper bound.

Any nonempty set of R bounded below has a greatest lower bound.


If a supremum of a set exists, then it is unique.
If a infimum of a set exists, then it is unique.

7.2.3

The Archimedean Principle


Theorem 7.2.1 Let a, b R+ be positive real numbers. Then there
exists a positive integer n Z+ such that na > b.
Proof : By contradiction.
1. Suppose na b, n Z+ .
2. Let z = sup{na | n Z+ }.
3. x S such that z a < x.
4. m Z+ such that x = ma.
5. Then z < (m + 1)a and (m + 1)a S (contradiction).


Corollary 7.2.1 Let b R+ be a positive real number. Then there exists


a positive integer n Z+ such that 1n < b.
Proof : n Z+ such that n > 1b , or

1
n

< b.


Lemma 7.2.1 Let x R. Then there exists an integer m Z such that


m 1 x < m.
Proof :
1. Let x > 0.
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CHAPTER 7. THE REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

106

2. n Z+ such that n > x.


3. a smallest such integer, call it m.
4. Then x < m and m 1 x.
5. If x = 0, then m = 1.
6. Let x < 0.
7. Then (x) > 0.
8. n Z+ such that n > (x).
9. Then n + x > 0.
10. Thus, k Z+ such that k 1 n + x < k.
11. Therefore, m 1 x < m, where m = k n.


Theorem 7.2.2 Between any two distinct real numbers there is a rational number.
Proof :
1. Let x, y R such that x < y.
2. Then y x > 0.
3. So, n Z+ such that n >

1
.
yx

4. Thus, n(y x) > 1, or nx + 1 < ny.


5. m Z+ such that m 1 nx < m.
6. So, nx < m.
7. Finally, m nx + 1 < ny, or m < ny.
8. Thus nx < m < ny and x <

m
n

< y.


7.2.4

Incompleteness of Rationals

The set of rationals Q does not satisfy the Least Upper Bound Axiom.
Example. The set of rational numbers S = {r Q | r2 < 2} does not have a
supremum.
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7.2. LECTURE 23. THE REAL NUMBERS

107

Theorem 7.2.3
Let x R+ be a positive real number. Then there
exists a positive real number y R+ such that y2 = x.
Proof :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Let S = {t R+ | t2 < x}
Claim: S , .
x
Let t = x+1
.
Then t S .
Claim: S is bounded above.
x + 1 is an upper bound of S .
Let y = sup S .
Then y > 0.
Claim: y2 = x.
Suppose y2 < x.

11. n Z+ such that

1
n

<

xy2
.
2y+1

12. Then (y + 1n )2 < x.


13. So, y + 1n S (contradiction).
14. Suppose y2 > x.
15. m Z+ such that
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

1
m

<

y2 x
.
2y

Then (y m1 )2 > x.
Let a S . Then a2 < x. Thus a2 < (y m1 )2 .
Then a < y m1 .
So, y m1 is an upper bound for S but y m1 < y (Contradiction).
Therefore, y2 = x.


The square root of a positive real number is unique.

7.2.5

Homework

Reading: Sect 7.2


Exercises: 7.2[2,7,9,15 ]

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7.3

LECTURE 24. The Complex Numbers

7.3.1

Complex Numbers

Definition 7.3.1
The set of complex numbers is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers together with two binary operations,
addition, + and multiplication, , defined by
1. (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
2. (a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc)

Notation. The set of complex numbers is denoted by C


The set of complex numbers forms a field.
1. Additive identity (zero): (0, 0)
2. Additive inverse: (a, b) = (a, b)
3. Multiplicative identity: (1, 0)
4. Multiplicative inverse:
(a, b)

a
b
= 2
, 2
2
a + b a + b2

Theorem 7.3.1 The set of complex numbers C is a field with respect


to the binary operation of addition and multiplication.

Two complex numbers (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = b and
c = d.
The set C is not an ordered field.
The complex numbers of the form (a, 0) can be identified with the subset of
real numbers R.
R is a subfield of C
Notation. Imaginary identity
i = (0, 1)
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7.3. LECTURE 24. THE COMPLEX NUMBERS

109

Every complex number (a, b) can be written as


z = (a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = a + ib
The square of the imaginary identity
i2 = (1, 0) = 1
If z = a + ib, then a = Re z is the real part of z.
If z = a + ib, then b = Im z is the imaginary part of z.
The set C of complex numbers is the Cartesian product R R. The plane R2
is called the complex plane.

7.3.2

Conjugation and Absolute Value


Definition 7.3.2
number

Let z = a+ib C be a complex number. The complex


z = a ib

is the complex conjugate of z.


The real number
|z| =

a2 + b2

is the absolute value of z.


Geometric interpretation in the complex plane.
Lemma 7.3.1 Let z, w C. Then
1. z + w = z + w
2. zw = zw

3. zz = |z|2
4. z + z = 2 Re z
5. z z = 2i Im z
6. If z , 0, then z1 =

z
|z|2

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110

7.3.3

Solutions of Equations
Theorem 7.3.2 Let n Z+ , n 1, be a positive integer greater than
1, a j R, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, be real numbers such that an , 0, and
p(z) = an zn + + a1 z + a0

be a polynomial of degree n. Then, if p(z) = 0 for some z C, then


p(z) = 0.
(That is, if z is a root of the polynomial, then the complex conjugate z is
also a root.)
Proof : Easy.

7.3.4

Polar Form

Let z = x + iy. Define


r = |z| =

x 2 + y2

tan = yx .

and

so that
x = r cos ,

y = r sin

The polar form of z is


z = r(cos + i sin )
Argument of z is the angle = arg z.
Non-uniqueness.
arg 0 is not defined.
Theorem 7.3.3

Let z, w C. If

z = r(cos + i sin ) and w = s(cos + i sin ),

then

zw = rs[cos( + ) + i sin( + )]
Proof : Use trigonometric identities.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 108

7.3. LECTURE 24. THE COMPLEX NUMBERS


Theorem 7.3.4

111

DeMoivres Theorem. Let z C and n Z+ . If


z = r(cos + i sin ),

then

zn = rn [cos(n) + i sin(n)]
Proof : By induction.
Define the complex exponential function
ei = cos + i sin .

7.3.5

Complex Roots
Definition 7.3.3 Let z C and n Z+ . An nth root of z is a complex
number w such that
wn = z.
Theorem 7.3.5

Let z C and n Z+ . If
z = r(cos + i sin )

and r , 0, then z has exactly n n-th roots given by


"
!
!#

+
2k

+
2k
1
wk = r n cos
+ i sin
n
n
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Proof : Calculation.

Definition 7.3.4
Let n Z+ . An nth root of unity is a complex
number w such that
wn = 1.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 109

CHAPTER 7. THE REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

112

Theorem 7.3.6
unity given by

Let n Z+ . Then there are exactly n n-th roots of


!
!
2k
2k
wk = cos
+ i sin
n
n

for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Proof : Easy.
Corollary 7.3.1

Let n Z+ and
 
 
= cos 2
+ i sin 2
.
n
n

Then the n-th roots of unity are


wk = k
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.

7.3.6

Homework

Reading: Sect 7.3


Exercises: 7.3[6,10,13]

absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 110

Bibliography
[1] R. J. Bond and W. J. Keane, An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics,
Brooks/Cole, 1999
[2] J. H. Goodfriend, Gateway to Higher Mathematics, Jones & Bartlett, 2005

113

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