Documente Academic
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Documente Cultură
Author: Ivan Avramidi; File: absmath.tex; Date: June 11, 2007; Time: 15:24
1
Contents
1
Logic
1.1 LECTURE 1. Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Negations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 LECTURE 2. Compound Statements . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Conjunctions and Disjunctions . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Negating Conjunctions and Disjunctions . . .
1.2.4 Logically Equivalent Statements . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Tautologies and Contradictions . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 LECTURE 3. Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Truth Table for an Implication . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Proving Statements Containing Implications .
1.3.3 Negating an Implication: Counterexamples .
1.3.4 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions . . . . .
1.3.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 LECTURE 4. Contrapositive and Converse . . . . .
1.4.1 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
II
2
Sets
2.1 LECTURE 5. Sets and Subsets .
2.1.1 The Notion of a Set . . .
2.1.2 Subsets . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Complements . . . . . .
2.1.4 Homework . . . . . . .
2.2 LECTURE 6. Combining Sets .
2.2.1 Unions and Intersections
2.2.2 De Morgans Laws . . .
2.2.3 Cartesian Products . . .
2.2.4 Homework . . . . . . .
2.3 LECTURE 7. Collection of Sets
2.3.1 Power Set . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Indexing Sets . . . . . .
2.3.3 Partitions . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 The Pigeonhole Principle
2.3.5 Cantor Set . . . . . . .
2.3.6 Homework . . . . . . .
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Functions
3.1 LECTURE 8. Definition and Basic Properties . . .
3.1.1 Image of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Inverse Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 LECTURE 9. Surjective and Injective Functions. .
3.2.1 Surjective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Injective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Bijective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 LECTURE 10. Composition and Inverse Functions
3.3.1 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
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The Integers
5.1 LECTURE 13. Axioms and Basic Properties . . .
5.1.1 The Axioms of the Integers . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 The Well-Ordering Principle . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 LECTURE 14. Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Induction: A Method of Proof . . . . . .
5.2.2 Other Forms of Induction . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 LECTURE 15. The Division Algorithm . . . . .
5.3.1 Divisors and Greatest Common Divisors
5.3.2 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Relatively Prime Integers . . . . . . . .
5.3.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 LECTURE 16. Primes and Unique Factorization
5.4.1 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Unique Factorization . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Euclid Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 LECTURE 17. Congruences . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Congruences and Their Properties . . . .
5.5.2 The Set of Congruence Classes . . . . .
5.5.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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51
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4.2
4.1.3 Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Closure . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . .
LECTURE 12. Equivalence Relations
4.2.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Properties of Relations . . . .
4.2.3 Equivalence Relations . . . .
4.2.4 Equivalence Classes . . . . .
4.2.5 Partial and Linear Ordering .
4.2.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . .
III
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CONTENTS
IV
6
Infinite Sets
6.1 LECTURE 19. Countable Sets . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Numerically Equivalent Sets . . . . .
6.1.2 Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Unions of Countable Sets . . . . . .
6.1.4 The Rationals are Countable . . . . .
6.1.5 Cartesian Products of Countable Sets
6.1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 LECTURE 20. Uncountable Sets . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Uncountable Sets . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Cantor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Continuum Hypothesis . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem . . . .
6.2.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 LECTURE 21. Collections of Sets . . . . . .
6.3.1 Russells Paradox . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Countable Unions of Countable Sets
6.3.3 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
7.3.6
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Bibliography
113
VI
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Logic
1.1
LECTURE 1. Statements
1.1.1
Proof
Mathematics is an attempt to determine which statements are true
and which are not.
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Conjecture is a not verified statement
Proof is the verification of a statement.
Axioms are statements that are accepted as given.
Propositions are the logical deductions from the axioms.
Theorems are particularly important propositions.
Proof is the logic, the arguments, used to make deductions
Example
An integer m is a multiple of an integer n if m = kn for some integer k.
1
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
1.1.2
Statements
Definition 1.1.1 A statement is any declarative sentence that is either
true or false.
Example
A variable is a symbol that stands for an undetermined number.
Definition 1.1.2 An open sentence is any declarative sentence containing one or more variables that is not a statement but becomes a
statement when the variables are assigned values.
Notation:
P(x),
1.1.3
P(x, y)
Quantifiers
1.1.4
Negations
Example
Definition 1.1.3
false.
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
4
The negation of the statement
For all x, P(x)
is the statement
For some x, P(x)
1.1.5
Homework
Read Introduction for the Student and to the Chapter 1; pp. xv-xix, 1.
Reading: Sect 1.1
Exercises: 1.1[9,11,D5]
1.2
1.2.1
Notation:
P Q, read P and Q
Definition 1.2.2
is the statement
Notation:
P Q, read P or Q
Remarks. Similarly for open sentences, P(x) Q(x) etc.
Example
1.2.2
Truth Tables
P Q,
or
P,
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
6
Example
P
T
T
F
F
PQ
T
F
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
PQ
T
T
T
F
P P
T F
F T
Remarks
Example
1.2.3
Example
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P
F
F
T
T
Q
F
T
F
T
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
(P Q)
F
T
T
T
PQ
T
F
F
F
PQ
T
T
T
F
(P Q)
F
F
F
T
P Q
F
T
T
T
P Q
F
F
F
T
That is,
(P Q) P Q
(P Q) P Q
These statement forms mean the same thing.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 10
1.2.4
Statements and statement forms are logically equivalent if they are expressed in different ways but mean the same thing.
Notation.
P Q read P is equivalent to Q
Remark. If two statement forms have the same truth tables then they are
logically equivalent.
Examples.
1. (P Q) P Q
2. (P Q) P Q
3. (x, P(x) x 3 (P(x))
4. (x 3 P(x) x, (P(x))
5. (x, (P(x) Q(x)) x 3 ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
6. (x, (P(x) Q(x)) x 3 ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
7. (x 3 (P(x) Q(x)) x, ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
8. (x 3 (P(x) Q(x)) x, ((P(x)) (Q(x)))
Examples.
The statements
For all x, P(x) or Q(x)
and
For all x, P(x) or for all x, Q(x)
are not equivalent, that is
x, (P(x) Q(x)) < x, P(x) x, Q(x)
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 11
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
8
Proposition.
1.2.5
Q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
R
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
PQ
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
PR
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
(P Q) (P R)
T
F
T
F
F
F
F
F
QR
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
P (Q R)
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
1.2.6
Homework
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
10
1.3
LECTURE 3. Implications
is the statement
1.3.1
11
Q
T
F
T
F
PQ
T
F
T
T
Examples.
1.3.2
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
12
Q(a) is the conclusion
Example
1.3.3
13
Formally
(x, P(x) Q(x)) x 3 (P(x) Q(x))
The value assigned to the variable x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false is
a counterexample to the statement
For all x, P(x) Q(x).
Negation of an implication is not an implication!
1.3.4
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
14
Also, Q is not a sufficient condition for P. That is, even if Q is true, P may
be false.
Example
1.3.5
Homework
1.4
1.4.1
Contrapositive
15
The statements
PQ
and
Q P
are logically equivalent
(P Q) (Q P)
Check the truth tables
To prove the statement P Q is the same as to verify the statement Q
P
This means: whenever Q is false, then P is false.
In other words: if P is true, then Q cannot be false and, therefore, Q is true.
Example
Definition 1.4.1 Let P and Q be two statements. The statement
Q P
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
16
1.4.2
Converse
Example
Definition 1.4.2 The statement
QP
is the converse of the statement
P Q.
Example
The statements P Q and its converse Q P are not necessarily logically
equivalent!
(P Q) < (Q P)
If the implication P Q is true, its converse Q P could be false.
Example
1.4.3
Biconditional
If the statement P Q and its converse Q P are both true, then the
statements P and Q are either both true or both false.
Then P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q.
Thus, P and Q are logically equivalent.
Definition 1.4.3 The statement
PQ
is the statement
(P Q) (Q P).
The symbol is called the biconditional.
17
The word iff is the shorthand for the phrase if and only if.
1. n is even.
2. n2 is even.
Proof :
Example
1.4.4
Proof by Contradiction
CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
18
Proving
Q P
means that we
P Q
is logically equivalent to P.
Proof :
Example
1.4.5
Homework
Chapter 2
Sets
2.1
2.1.1
CHAPTER 2. SETS
20
Description of the set of all elements of the set U such that the open sentence
P(x) is true statement
A = {x U | P(x)}
So, A is the truth set of the open sentence P(x).
The set U is a fixed set called a universal set.
Example. The set of multiples of n
nZ = {m Z | m = nk for some k Z} = {nk | k Z}
Unbounded intervals
(, b] = {x R|x b},
(a, ) = {x R|a < x},
Example
Sets containing finitely many elements are called finite sets.
The number of elements of a finite set is called the cardinality of the set.
Notation. |A|
Sets containing infinitely many elements are called infinite sets.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 23
2.1.2
21
Subsets
Example
Definition 2.1.2 Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B if every
element of A is also an element of B. If the set B has an element that
is not an element of its subset A then the subset A is called a proper
subset.
Notation.
A B, (A is a subset of B).
A B (A is a proper subset of B)
Example
Let U be an universal set. Then A B is the statement
x U, if x A, then x B.
Example
Example
Definition 2.1.3
elements.
Notation. A = B.
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is an element
of B and every element of B is an element of A
(A = B) (A B A)
The statement A B is false if there is an element of A such that it is not an
element of B.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 24
CHAPTER 2. SETS
22
2.1.3
Complements
Definition 2.1.4
the set
Example
The set A does not need to be a subset of the set B.
Let U be a universal set. The the complement of A in U is simply called the
complement of A.
Notation.
A = U A.
The set that contains no elements is called the empty set.
Notation.
If U is an universal set, then
= U and U = .
A B iff B A.
Proof :
Example
2.1.4
Homework
23
2.2
2.2.1
Example
Two sets are disjoint if they do not have common elemets, that is their
intersection is the empty set,
A B = .
Venn diagrams
Theorem 2.2.1 Let A, B and C are sets. Then
1. A B = B A,
2. A B = B A,
3. (A B) C = A (B C),
4. (A B) C = A (B C),
5. A (A B),
6. (A B) A,
7. A,
8. A = A,
9. A = .
Proof :
CHAPTER 2. SETS
24
1. A B = A B.
2. A B A B = B
Proof :
Theorem 2.2.2 Let A, B and C be sets. Then
1. A (B C) = (A B) (A C),
2. A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Proof :
2.2.2
De Morgans Laws
Example
Theorem 2.2.3 Let U be a universal set and A, B U. Then
1. A B = A B,
2. A B = A B.
Proof :
2.2.3
Cartesian Products
Definition 2.2.3
set
The Cartesian product is the set of ordered pairs (a, b), where the first
element is from the set A and the second element is from B.
Example
2.2.4
Homework
25
2.3
2.3.1
Power Set
Example
Definition 2.3.1 The power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of A.
Notation.
P(A) = {X|X A}.
Note that
P(A) and A P(A).
If the set A is finite, then the cardinality of the power set is
|P(A)| = 2|A|
Example
2.3.2
Indexing Sets
Example
The indexing set is the set of subscripts that are used to distinguish the sets
in a collection of sets.
Notation.
S = {Ai |i I} = {Ai }iI ,
where I = {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Union of sets in a collection of sets
n
[
Ai = {x U| i I 3 x Ai }
i=1
CHAPTER 2. SETS
26
Intersection of sets in a collection of sets
n
\
Ai = {x U| x Ai i I}
i=1
Example
Infinite collection of sets.
Union of sets in a collection of sets
[
Ai = {x U| i N 3 x Ai }
i=1
\
Ai = {x U| x Ai i N}
i=1
Example
The collection of sets S = {Ai }iI is increasing (or an ascending chain) if
A1 A2 A3
The collection of sets S = {Ai }iI is decreasing (or an descending chain) if
A3 A2 A1 .
Example
Definition 2.3.2
tion of sets.
27
Notation. Let S be a collection of sets. Then the union and the intersection
are
AS A and AS A.
2.3.3
Partitions
Definition 2.3.3
P(A) such that
1. if X P, thenX , ,
S
2. XP X = A,
3. if X, Y P and X , Y, then X Y = .
That is, a partition is a collection of non-empty disjoint subsets of A that
cover the set A.
Remark. A partition of a set divides the set into different disjoint nonempty
subsets so that every element of the set is in one of the subsets and no
element is in more than one.
Example
|A B| = |A| + |B|
Proof : Rigorous proof later.
Corollary 2.3.1 Let S = {Ai }ni=1 be a collection of finite mutually disjoint sets. Then
n
n
[
X
Ai =
|Ai |
i=1 i=1
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 30
CHAPTER 2. SETS
28
Corollary 2.3.2 Let A and B be finite sets. Then
|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
Example
2.3.5
Cantor Set
1
3n
n
2
3
n N
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 31
29
An
n=1
2.3.6
Homework
30
CHAPTER 2. SETS
Chapter 3
Functions
3.1
Notation.
f :AB
and
f
CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS
32
3.1.1
Image of a Function
Definition 3.1.2 Let f : A B be a function and X A. The image
of the set X under the function f is the set
f (X) = {y B|y = f (x) for some x X}
Diagram.
Remark.
f () = for any function f .
Remark.
Im( f ) B for any function f .
Diagram.
Diagram.
Remark.
( f ) A B.
Remark. The functions f : A B and g : A f (A) such that g(x) = f (x)
for any x A are different if f (A) , B.
Definition 3.1.5 Two functions f and g are equal if they have the
same domain and the same codomain and if f (x) = g(x) for any x in the
domain.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 34
33
Examples
Sine function
sin : R R,
sin
x 7 sin(x)
Theorem 3.1.1 Intermediate Value Theorem. Let A, B R be subsets of real numbers and f : A B be a function. Let [a, b] A and f
be continuous on the interval [a, b]. If y is a number between f (a) and
f (b), then there is a real number x [a, b] such that f (x) = y.
Without proof.
Graphical illustration.
Example
Proposition 3.1.1 Let A and B be sets and X and Y be subsets of A such
that
X Y A.
CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS
34
1. f (X Y) = f (X) f (Y).
2. f (X Y) f (X) f (Y).
Proof :
Example.
3.1.2
Inverse Image
Definition 3.1.6 Let A and B be sets and W be a subset of B. Let
f : A B be a function. The the inverse image of the set W with
respect to f is the set
f 1 (W) = {x A| f (x) W}
Diagram.
The inverse image f 1 (W) is the set of all elements of the domain of f that
are mapped to elements of W.
Remarks. Inverse image is a subset of the domain.
f 1 (W) A
W is not necessarily a subset of the image Im( f ) of the function f .
The symbol f 1 does not refer to the inverse function, which might not even
exist.
Example
Proposition 3.1.3 Let A and B be sets and W and Z be subsets of B.
Let f : A B be a function. Then
1. f 1 (W Z) = f 1 (W) f 1 (Z)
2. f 1 (W Z) = f 1 (W) f 1 (Z)
Proof :
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 36
35
Example
3.1.3
Homework
CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS
36
3.2
3.2.1
Surjective Functions
To prove that a function is surjective one needs to prove that for any element
y in the codomain B there is an element in the domain x A such that
f (x) = y.
Diagram.
Surjection is also called an onto mapping.
Example
Let A and B be sets. The function : A B A defined by
(a, b) = a
is a projection of A B onto A.
To prove that the function f : A B is not surjective one needs to show that
there exists an element y B in the codomain B such that for any element
x A in the domain, f (x) , y.
Examples.
3.2.2
Injective Functions
Example
Definition 3.2.2
an injection) if
37
3.2.3
Bijective Functions
Definition 3.2.3 A function that is both injective and surjective is bijective (or a bijection).
Examples.
Definition 3.2.4
tion of A.
Example
3.2.4
Homework
CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS
38
3.3
If A = B, then we denote
F(A, A) = F(A).
3.3.1
Composition of Functions
Definition 3.3.2 Let A, B, and C be nonempty sets, and let f F(A, B)
and g F(B, C). The composition of f and g is the function g f
F(A, C) defined by
(g f )(x) = g( f (x)), x A
f iA = iB f = f.
Proof : Exercise.
Proposition 3.3.2 Let f F(A, B) and g F(B, C). Then:
39
3.3.2
Inverse Functions
Definition 3.3.3 Let A and B be nonempty sets and f F(A, B). Then
f is invertible if there is a function f 1 F(B, A) such that
f f 1 = iB
and
f 1 f = iA .
If f 1 exists, it is called the inverse of f .
If f is invertible, then f 1 is invertible and
( f 1 )1 = f
Proposition 3.3.4 There is only one function that can be the inverse of
a function f .
Proof :
CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONS
40
Examples.
Theorem 3.3.1 Let A and B be sets, and let f F(A, B). Then f is
invertible if and only if f is a bijection.
Proof :
Examples.
3.3.3
Homework
Chapter 4
Binary Operations and Relations
4.1
Example
Definition 4.1.1
function
Notation.
f (a, b),
a b,
a ? b,
a + b,
a b,
a b,
4.1.1
a, b, c A
a, b A
42
4.1.2
Identities
Definition 4.1.4 Let be a binary operation on the set A. An element
e is an identity element of A with respect to if
ae=ea=a
for any a A.
Not all sets have identity elements with respect to a given binary operation.
Examples.
4.1.3
43
Inverses
Definition 4.1.5 Let be a binary operation on the set A with identity
e. We say that a A is invertible with respect to if there exists b A
such that
a b = b a = e.
If
a b = b a = e,
then b is an inverse of a with respect to .
Examples.
4.1.4
Closure
Definition 4.1.6 Let A be a nonempty set and X A. Let be a binary
operation on the set A. If for any x, y X, we have x y X, then X is
closed in A under .
44
4.1.5
Groups
Definition 4.1.7 A set with a binary operation is a group if
Examples.
4.1.6
Homework
45
4.2
4.2.1
Relations
4.2.2
Properties of Relations
The relation
R = {(a, a)|a A}
is called the diagonal of A A.
Definition 4.2.2 Let R be a relation on a set A. Then
1. R is reflexive if a A,
aRa,
2. R is symmetric if a, b A,
if aRb, then bRa,
3. R is transitive if a, b, c A,
if aRb and bRc, then aRc,
4. R is antisymmetric if a, b A,
if aRb and bRa, then a = b.
Examples.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 46
46
4.2.3
Equivalence Relations
Definition 4.2.3
it is
1. reflexive,
2. symmetric and
3. transitive.
4.2.4
Equivalence Classes
Definition 4.2.4 Let be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then for
any a A the set
[a] = {x A | x a}
is the equivalence class of a.
47
Theorem 4.2.1 The set of equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a nonempty set A forms a partition of A.
Proof :
1. Equivalence classes are subsets of A.
2. Equivalence classes are nonempty.
3. Every element of A is in some equivalence class.
4. Different equivalence classes are disjoint. In other words,
if [a] , [b], then [a] [b] = ,
or
if [a] [b] , , then a b and [a] = [b].
Theorem 4.2.2 Let P be a partition of a nonempty set A. Let R be a
relation on A defined by
There is a bijection between the set of all equivalence relations of A and the
set of all partitions of A.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 48
48
4.2.5
1. reflexive,
2. transitive and
3. antisymmetric.
A set with a partial ordering is a partially ordered set.
Examples.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 49
4.2.6
49
Homework
50
Chapter 5
The Integers
5.1
5.1.1
x + y = y + x, x, y Z
A3 Additive identity:
0 Z such that x + 0 = x, x Z
A4 Additive inverse:
x Z, (x) Z such that x + (x) = 0
51
52
Definition 5.1.2
A5 Associativity of multiplication:
(x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z Z
A6 Commutativity of multiplication:
x y = y x, x, y Z
A7 Multiplicative identity:
1 Z such that x 1 = x, x Z, and 1 , 0
A8 Distributivity:
x (y + z) = x y + x z, x, y, z Z
Notation.
x + (y) = x y, x y = xy
These properties of integers are axioms.
The multiplicative inverses of integers do not exist, in general.
The axiom 1 , 0 is needed for a nontrivial theory.
If 1 = 0, then x = 0 for any x Z. Therefore, Z = {0} consists of only one
element.
Proposition 5.1.1 Let a, b, c Z. Then
P1 If a + b = a + c, then b = c
P2 a0 = 0
P3 (a)b = a(b) = (ab)
P4 (a) = a
Proof :
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 52
53
P6 a(b c) = ab bc
P7 (1)a = a
P8 (1)(1) = 1
Proof :
The set of positive integers Z+ is defined by
Definition 5.1.3
Z+ = {n Z | n = 1
+ }1}
| + {z
n
Notation.
Z+ = N
Definition 5.1.4 The set Z+ has the properties
A9 Closure. Z+ is closed with respect to addition and multiplication:
if x, y Z+ , then x + y Z+ and xy Z+
5.1.2
Inequalities
Definition 5.1.5
54
Notation.
x < y is read x is less than y
if x < y, then y > x
if x < y or x = y, then x y
if x > y or x = y, then x y
if x y, then y x
If x Z+ , then x > 0.
Proposition 5.1.4 Let a, b, c Z.
5.1.3
55
5.1.4
Homework
56
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
57
Proof : Exercise.
Example
Theorem 5.2.3 Second Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let
P(n) be a statement about the positive integer n. Suppose that
1. 1 S , and
2. If k S , then k + 1 S .
Then S = Z+ .
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 57
58
Proof : Exercise.
Example
n
X
k=1
k=
n(n + 1)
2
Theorem 5.2.5
Then
i=1
i=1
Proof : By induction.
5.2.3
and
n! = n(n 1) 2 1 if n > 0.
Notation.
!
n
= Crn
r
Note that
!
!
!
0
n
n
=
=
=1
0
n
0
Also
!
!
n
n
=
k
nk
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 58
n
r
n
r
59
Example
5.2.4
Homework
60
5.3
5.3.1
Example
61
gcd(a, b) = (a, b)
Note that for any a Z, a , 0,
gcd(a, 0) = |a|
Example
and
0 r < b.
Proof :
1. Let S = {a bx|x Z} and S 0 = {n S |n 0}.
2. Show that S 0 , . (If a 0, then a S 0 . If a < 0, then a ba S 0 .)
3. Let r be the smallest element of S 0 . Then r 0.
4. Also, r = a bq for some q Z.
5. Then r < b, since if r b, then r b < r is the smallest element of S 0
(contradiction).
6. Uniqueness. Assume q1 , r1 and q2 , r2 and show that q1 = q2 and
r1 = r2 .
Theorem 5.3.2
62
5.3.2
Euclidean Algorithm
Lemma 5.3.1 Let a and b be integers, not both zero. If there exist two
integers q and r such that
a = bq + r
and
0 r < b,
then
gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r)
Proof :
1. Let d = gcd(a, b).
2. Then d|r.
3. For any c Z, if c|b and c|r, then c|a.
4. Since d = ax + by, then c|d.
Euclidean Algorithm is the following procedure for finding the gcd of two
integers.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 62
63
5.3.3
Two integers are relatively prime if they have no common divisors except
for 1 and 1.
Example
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 63
64
Theorem 5.3.3 Two integers a and b are relatively prime if and only if
there exist integers x and y such that
ax + by = 1
Proof :
1. If gcd(a, b) = 1, then ax + by = gcd(a, b) = 1 for some x, y Z.
2. Let d = gcd(a, b).
3. If ax + by = 1 for some x, y Z, then d|(ax + by).
4. So, d|1.
5. Thus d = 1.
5.3.4
Homework
65
5.4
5.4.1
Prime Numbers
Lemma 5.4.1
Let n Z+ be an integer greater than 1. Then n is
composite if and only if there exist integers a and b such that
n = ab, where 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n.
Proof : Exercise.
66
Proposition 5.4.2
Proof :
1. Suppose p does not divide a.
2. Then a , 0 and gcd(a, p) = 1.
3. Therefore, p|b. (By the theorem that says that if a|(bc) and gcd(a, b) =
1, then a|c.)
Example
5.4.2
Unique Factorization
Theorem 5.4.1
Unique factorization Theorem. Let n Z be an
integer greater than 1. Then either n is a prime number, or it can be
written as a product of prime numbers.
The product is unique, except for the order in which the factors appear.
Proof :
1. Existence. By induction.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 66
67
68
n = pm1 1 pmr r
where the exponents m1 , . . . , mr Z+ are positive integers and
p1 < p2 < < pr
are distinct primes.
Example
5.4.4
Homework
69
5.5
5.5.1
Notation.
a b(mod n) read a is congruent to b modulo n
Congruence mod n defines an equivalence relation on Z.
Proposition 5.5.1
1. a a(mod n).
2. If a b(mod n), then b a(mod n).
3. If a b(mod n) and b c(mod n), then a c(mod n).
Proof : Exercise.
Theorem 5.5.1 Let a, b, c, d Z and n Z+ . Then
70
For any a Z, a r(mod n) for exactly one integer r such that 0 r n1.
Therefore, a [r].
Thus there are exactly n distinct congruence classes:
[0], [1], , [n 1].
Note that
[n] = [0]
To find r so that a [r], we simply compute the remainder when a is divided
by n, that is a = nq + r.
Example.
There is more than one way to represent a congruence class.
For congruences mod n,
[a] = [b] if and only if a b(mod n).
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 70
71
Proof : Exercise.
Remarks.
5.5.2
[a][b] = [ab].
The addition of congruence classes is well defined. That is it does not depend on the choice of the integers to represent the equivalence classes.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 71
72
Proof : Exercise.
73
([a][b])[c] = [a]([b][c])
3. Multiplicative identity:
[a][1] = [a]
4. Distributive property:
[a]([b] + [c]) = [a][b] + [a][c]
Proof : Exercise.
Zn is a finite set.
One can give the addition and multiplication tables.
Example
74
6. Therefore, ax + n(t) = 1.
ax b(mod n)
and if there is y Z such that
ay b(mod n),
then
x y(mod n).
Proof :
1. Since gcd(a, n) = 1, there exist t, s Z such that as + nt = 1, or
as = 1(mod n).
2. We get asb + ntb = b, or a(sb) = b(mod n)
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 74
75
3. Let x = sb.
4. Then ax b(mod n).
5. If y Z is such that ay b(mod n), then ax ay(mod n).
6. Since ax ay(mod n) and gcd(a, n) = 1, then x y(mod n).
If x Z is a solution to the congruence ax b(mod n), then the set of all
solutions to the congruence is the congruence class [x].
Example
5.5.3
Homework
76
Chapter 6
Infinite Sets
6.1
6.1.1
Example
78
6.1.2
Countable Sets
79
80
23. Therefore, t = km+1 = h(m).
24. Thus, h is surjective.
25. So, h is bijective.
Corollary 6.1.1
Theorem 6.1.2
Proof :
1. If A is finite, then A is countable.
2. Suppose A is infinite.
3. Let
S 1 = f 1 (A) .
4. Then S 1 = Z+ .
5. Let n1 be the smallest element of S 1 . Then n1 = 1.
6. Let a1 = f (n1 ) and
S 2 = S 1 f 1 ({a1 })
81
82
6.1.3
Theorem 6.1.3
i=1
Proof :
1. There are bijections fi : Z+ Ai .
n
S
2. Let A = Ai .
i=1
3. Define f : Z+ A as follows:
f (1) = f1 (1),
f (2) = f2 (1),
...
f (n) = fn (1)
f (n + 1) = f1 (2),
...
f (2n) = fn (2)
and so on.
4. For any j Z+ there are unique m and r such that j = mn + r with
m Z+ and 1 r n 1.
5. Claim: f ( j) = f (mn + r) = fr (m + 1)
6. Claim: f is surjective.
7. Let a A.
8. Then a Ai for some i.
9. There is j Z+ such that fi ( j) = a.
10. Then f (( j 1)k + i) = fi ( j) = a.
11. So, f is surjective.
12. So, A is countable.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 81
6.1.4
83
6.1.5
Ai = A1 A2 An
i=1
is countable.
Proof : Exercise.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 82
84
6.1.6
Homework
6.2
85
10k ak ,
k=0
2k ak ,
k=0
6.2.1
Uncountable Sets
Theorem 6.2.1
able.
Proof :
1. By contradiction.
2. Diagonal argument.
Corollary 6.2.1
[a, b] (c, d)
86
6.2.2
Cantor Theorem
Definition 6.2.1 Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U.
We say that A B if there is an injection f : A B.
We say that A B if there is an injection f : A B and A 0 B.
if
XY
xy
if
X Y.
and
87
6.2.3
Continuum Hypothesis
88
6.2.4
Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem
bk = f (ak+1 ) .
89
bk = f (ak+1 ) .
f : A B ,
g : BB A B ,
g : B A
are bijections.
16. Define h : A B by
if a AA A
f (a),
h(a) =
Lemma 6.2.2
Proof :
1. Since f is an injection on A and AA A, then f is an injection on AA .
2. We only need to prove that f is a surjection on AA , that is, f (AA ) = BA .
3. Let a AA and
X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y)
be the list of its ancestors. Then y A.
4. Let b = f (a) B. Then
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . , y) .
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 88
90
Lemma 6.2.3
Lemma 6.2.4
bijections.
Proof :
1. Let a A and
X(a) = (a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
be the list of its ancestors. Let b = f (a) B. Then
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . ) .
2. If a A , then the list X(a) is infinite. Therefore, the list X(b) is
infinite.
3. Thus, b = f (a) B , that is f (A ) B .
4. If b B , then the list
X(b) = (b, a, b1 , a2 , b2 , . . . )
is infinite, and there is a A such that b = f (a).
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 89
91
Corollary 6.2.2
(0, 1) [0, 1]
Proof : Easy.
Any two intervals of real numbers have the same cardinality.
The cardinality of P(Z+ ) is c. That is
|P(Z+ )| = |R| .
For any countably infinite set X
|P(X)| = |R| .
Corollary 6.2.3
P(Z+ ) R
Proof :
1. It suffices to show P(Z+ ) [0, 1).
2. Let f : P(Z+ ) [0, 1) be a function defined for a set A Z+ by
f (A) = 0.a1 a2 . . .
(a decimal expansion), where ai = 0 if i A and ai = 1 if i < A.
3. Claim: f is an injection.
4. So, P(Z+ ) [0, 1).
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 90
92
6.2.5
Homework
93
6.3
6.3.1
Russells Paradox
6.3.2
94
Example
iZ+
Ai is countable.
2. There is a bijection f : Z+ A.
3. Let f (i) = Ai .
4. Ai are sequences Ai = (ai1 , ai2 , ai3 , . . . ), where aij A j .
5. Choose bi Ai , aii .
6. Let B = (b1 , b2 , . . . ).
7. Then B A, but B , Ai for any i Z+ . (Contradiction).
Example.
Suppose that all sets A are nonempty, i.e. A , for all .
Question: Is the Cartesian product A nonempty?
Answer: Not trivial.
Foundation of set theory: Zermelo-Frankel Axioms.
ZF (Zermelo-Frankel Set Theory): existence of the empty set, existence
of the power set of a set, unions, intersections etc.
The Axiom of Choice:
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 93
95
A , .
6.3.3
Homework
Exercises: 6.3[1,4]
96
Chapter 7
The Real and Complex Numbers
7.1
7.1.1
Fields
Definition 7.1.1 A field F is a nonempty set with two binary operations: addition, +, and multiplication, , that satisfy the following
axioms:
1. Associativity of addition:
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z), x, y, z F
2. Commutativity of addition:
x + y = y + x, x, y F
3. Additive identity (or zero element, or zero):
0 F such that x + 0 = x, x F
4. Additive inverse (or negative):
x F, (x) F such that x + (x) = 0
97
98
Definition 7.1.2
1. Associativity of multiplication:
(x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z F
2. Commutativity of multiplication:
x y = y x, x, y F
3. Multiplicative identity (or one):
1 F such that x 1 = x, x F, and 1 , 0
4. Multiplicative inverse (or the inverse):
x F, x , 0, x1 F such that x x1 = 1
5. Distributivity:
x (y + z) = x y + x z, x, y, z F
Z is not a field.
Q, R, C are fields.
7.1.2
99
Proposition 7.1.2
1. (1)a = a
2. (1)(1) = 1
3. If a + b = a + c, then b = c
4. If a , 0 and ab = ac, then b = c
5. If a , 0, then (a1 )1 = a
Proof : Exercise.
7.1.3
Ordered Fields
Definition 7.1.3 Let F be a field. We say F is an ordered field if there
exists a subset P of F satisfying two properties:
1. P is closed with respect to addition and multiplication, that is
if x, y P, then x + y P and xy P.
100
If x P, then x > 0.
Proposition 7.1.3 Let F be an ordered field and P be a subset of positive elements of F. Let a, b, c F.
1. Exactly one of the following holds:
a < b, b < a or b = a.
2. If a > 0, then a < 0. (If a < 0, then a > 0.)
3. If a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0 and ab > 0.
The set of positive elements P of any field F does not have a smallest element.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 98
101
1. 1 P.
2. If x P, then x1 P.
3. P is an infinite set.
Proof :
1. (1.) Suppose 1 < P. Then (1) P and 1 = (1)(1) P, which is a
contradiction.
2. (2.) Exercise.
3. (3.) Let n Z+ and xn = 1
+ }1.
| + {z
n
4. Claim: xn , xm for n , m.
5. Suppose xn = xm for some n > m. Then 0 = xn xm = 1
+ }1 P,
| + {z
nm
which is a contradiction.
7.1.4
Corollary 7.1.1
Finite Fields
Recall that for any n Z+ , n > 1, Zn = {[0], [1], . . . , [n 1]} is the set of
equivalence classes modulo n.
Theorem 7.1.2
is prime.
Proof :
1. (I). Let n be prime.
2. Zn satisfies all field axioms except possibly the existence of multiplicative inverses.
3. Let [a] Zn , [a] , [0].
4. Then [a] = [1], . . . , [n 1].
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 99
102
n
o
2 = r + s 2|r, s Q
103
7.1.5
Homework
104
7.2
7.2.1
Bounded Sets
Definition 7.2.1
Examples.
7.2.2
Example
Definition 7.2.2 Let S be a nonempty set of real numbers bounded
above. Then x R is the least upper bound (or supremum) of S if:
105
Notation:
y = inf S ,
x = sup S
Examples.
7.2.3
1
n
< b.
106
Theorem 7.2.2 Between any two distinct real numbers there is a rational number.
Proof :
1. Let x, y R such that x < y.
2. Then y x > 0.
3. So, n Z+ such that n >
1
.
yx
m
n
< y.
7.2.4
Incompleteness of Rationals
The set of rationals Q does not satisfy the Least Upper Bound Axiom.
Example. The set of rational numbers S = {r Q | r2 < 2} does not have a
supremum.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 104
107
Theorem 7.2.3
Let x R+ be a positive real number. Then there
exists a positive real number y R+ such that y2 = x.
Proof :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Let S = {t R+ | t2 < x}
Claim: S , .
x
Let t = x+1
.
Then t S .
Claim: S is bounded above.
x + 1 is an upper bound of S .
Let y = sup S .
Then y > 0.
Claim: y2 = x.
Suppose y2 < x.
1
n
<
xy2
.
2y+1
1
m
<
y2 x
.
2y
Then (y m1 )2 > x.
Let a S . Then a2 < x. Thus a2 < (y m1 )2 .
Then a < y m1 .
So, y m1 is an upper bound for S but y m1 < y (Contradiction).
Therefore, y2 = x.
7.2.5
Homework
108
7.3
7.3.1
Complex Numbers
Definition 7.3.1
The set of complex numbers is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers together with two binary operations,
addition, + and multiplication, , defined by
1. (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
2. (a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc)
a
b
= 2
, 2
2
a + b a + b2
Two complex numbers (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = b and
c = d.
The set C is not an ordered field.
The complex numbers of the form (a, 0) can be identified with the subset of
real numbers R.
R is a subfield of C
Notation. Imaginary identity
i = (0, 1)
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 106
109
7.3.2
a2 + b2
3. zz = |z|2
4. z + z = 2 Re z
5. z z = 2i Im z
6. If z , 0, then z1 =
z
|z|2
110
7.3.3
Solutions of Equations
Theorem 7.3.2 Let n Z+ , n 1, be a positive integer greater than
1, a j R, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, be real numbers such that an , 0, and
p(z) = an zn + + a1 z + a0
7.3.4
Polar Form
x 2 + y2
tan = yx .
and
so that
x = r cos ,
y = r sin
Let z, w C. If
then
zw = rs[cos( + ) + i sin( + )]
Proof : Use trigonometric identities.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 108
111
then
zn = rn [cos(n) + i sin(n)]
Proof : By induction.
Define the complex exponential function
ei = cos + i sin .
7.3.5
Complex Roots
Definition 7.3.3 Let z C and n Z+ . An nth root of z is a complex
number w such that
wn = z.
Theorem 7.3.5
Let z C and n Z+ . If
z = r(cos + i sin )
+
2k
+
2k
1
wk = r n cos
+ i sin
n
n
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Proof : Calculation.
Definition 7.3.4
Let n Z+ . An nth root of unity is a complex
number w such that
wn = 1.
absmath.tex; June 11, 2007; 15:24; p. 109
112
Theorem 7.3.6
unity given by
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Proof : Easy.
Corollary 7.3.1
Let n Z+ and
= cos 2
+ i sin 2
.
n
n
7.3.6
Homework
Bibliography
[1] R. J. Bond and W. J. Keane, An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics,
Brooks/Cole, 1999
[2] J. H. Goodfriend, Gateway to Higher Mathematics, Jones & Bartlett, 2005
113