2.

Divergence of a Vector Field

The divergence of a vector field A is defined as

divA A

(12)

where is the del operator defined in equation (4).

In Cartesian coordinates

divA i j k iAx jAy kAz

y
z
x

(13a)

or
divA

Ax Ay Az

x
y
z

(13b)

The divergence of a vector field is a scalar function.

To investigate the geometrical interpretation of the divergence of a vector field A , consider
an infinitesimal volume element xyz , which is located in the vector field as shown
Az x, y, z z

Ax x, y, z

x
Ay x, y, z

Ay x, y y, z

z
y
Ax x x, y, z

Az x, y, z

The flux of a vector field A through an infinitesimal surface vector element s , of a closed
surface, is defined as
s
A s A n

(14)

where n is a unit vector pointing perpendicularly outward from the closed surface.
The flux of vector A through the rear face of the volume element is then given by
backface Ax x, y, z yz

(15)

and the flux through the front face is

frontface Ax x x, y, z yz

(16)

In obtaining equations (15) and (16) we assume that the infinitesimal area yz is small
enough such that the components Ax x, y, z and Ax x x, y, z of A along the x- axis do not
vary appreciably over the surface element.
Also we note that the components of A along the y- , and z- axes do not contribute to the flux
through the back and front faces since these components are parallel to the two faces.
Similarly the flux of vector A through the left and right faces of the volume element is given
respectively by
(17)
leftface Ay x, y, z xz
rightface Ay x, y y, z xz

(18)

Lastly, for the flux through the bottom and top faces we have
bottomface Az x, y, z xy

(19)

topface Az x, y, z z xy

(20)

The net flux of vector A through the volume element is then

net Ax x x, y, z Ax x, y, z yz Ay x, y y, z Ay x, y, z xz
Az x, y, z z Az x, y, z xy

(21)

Dividing equation (21) by we obtain the net flux of vector A per unit volume

net Ax x x, y, z Ax x, y, z Ay x, y y, z Ay x, y, z

x
y
A x, y, z z Az x, y, z
z
z

(22)

Since the volume element is very small, x , y , and z , all tend to zero, and we may use the
definition of the partial derivative to write equation (22) as

 net Ax Ay Az

x
y
z

(23)

Thus the divergence of a vector field A at a point is the net outward flux of A per unit volume
as the volume becomes infinitesimal.

2.4

The Laplacian of a Scalar Field

The divergence of the gradient of a scalar field is also defined thus

divgrad

i j
k i
j
k
y
z x
y
z
x

x x y y z z

2
x 2

2
y 2

(24)

z 2

where 2 x 2 , 2 y 2 , and 2 z 2 is the second partial derivative of with respect to x,

y, and z respectively.
The divergence of the gradient may also be written as
divgrad 2

(25)

where
2

2
x 2

2
y 2

2
z 2

(26)

is called the Laplacian operator.

This operator occurs in many equations of mathematical physics such as the heat equation
and the wave equation.

2.5

Curl of a Vector Field

The Curl of a vector field A is defined as

curlA A

(27)

where is the del operator.

In Cartesian coordinates we have

curlA i j
k i Ax jAy kAz

y
z

i j

Axy i k Axz j i Ayx

Ay
Ax
Az
j k
k i
k j
y
z
z

Ay
Ay
A
A
A
A
k
j z k x i z j x i
x
x
y
y
z
z

(28)

Rearranging equation (28) yields

A Ay

curlA i z

j Ax Az k y Ax

x x
y
z

(29)

Equation (29) may be written compactly as

i

curlA
x
Ax

y
Ay

z
Az

(30)