Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Flows
What is Turbulence?
U L
L = x, d , d h , etc.
where Re L =
Internal Flows
Re d h 2,300
Natural Convection
2
3
3
g
L
T
g
L
T
Ra
p
9
10
=
where Ra =
is the Rayleigh number
k
Pr
Cp
Pr = =
is the Prandtl number
k
6-3
www.fluentusers.com
Small
structures
Large
structures
Energy Cascade
Richardson (1922)
2006 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
6-4
Solves the spatially averaged N-S equations. Large eddies are directly resolved, but
eddies smaller than the mesh are modeled.
Less expensive than DNS, but the amount of computational resources and efforts
are still too large for most practical applications.
z
z
Theoretically, all turbulent flows can be simulated by numerically solving the full
Navier-Stokes equations.
Resolves the whole spectrum of scales. No modeling is required.
But the cost is too prohibitive! Not practical for industrial flows - DNS is not
available in Fluent.
There is not yet a single, practical turbulence model that can reliably predict
all turbulent flows with sufficient accuracy.
6-5
RANS based
models
One-Equation Models
Spalart-Allmaras
Two-Equation Models
Standard k
RNG k
Realizable k
Standard k
SST k
Reynolds Stress Model
Detached Eddy Simulation
Large Eddy Simulation
6-6
Increase in
Computational
Cost
Per Iteration
www.fluentusers.com
Ensemble (time) averaging may be used to extract the mean flow properties
from the instantaneous ones:
1
ui (x, t ) = lim
N N
ui
(n )
(x, t )
ui(x, t )
n =1
ui (x, t )
ui (x, t )
Example: Fully-Developed
Turbulent Pipe Flow
Velocity Profile
Time-average Fluctuating
component
component
u
u
p
i + uk i =
+
xk
xi x j
t
z
ui
x
j
Rij
+
x
j
Rij = uiu j
(Reynolds stress tensor)
6-7
ui u j 2 uk
2
T
+
Rij = uiuj = T
ij k ij
x x 3 x
3
i
k
j
z
6-8
k = uiui 2
Turbulent kinetic energy [L2/T2]
Turbulence dissipation rate [L2/T3] = ui x j (ui x j + uj xi )
Specific dissipation rate [1/T]
= k
Spalart-Allmaras:
Standard k, SST k
6-9
T = f (~
)
k2
T = f
k
T = f
ANSYS, Inc. Proprietary
When in modified form, the eddy viscosity is easy to resolve near the wall.
Has been shown to give good results for boundary layers subjected to adverse
pressure gradients.
Gaining popularity for turbomachinery applications.
6-10
www.fluentusers.com
The equation contains a term which cannot be calculated at the wall. Therefore,
wall functions must be used.
Generally performs poorly for flows with strong separation, large streamline
curvature, and large pressure gradient.
Performs better than SKE for more complex shear flows, and flows with high strain
rates, swirl, and separation.
6-11
The term realizable means that the model satisfies certain mathematical
constraints on the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of
turbulent flows.
Positivity of normal stresses: uiu j > 0
z
z
( )
ui2u 2j
More accurately predicts the spreading rate of both planar and round jets.
Also likely to provide superior performance for flows involving rotation,
boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients, separation, and
recirculation.
6-12
The model equations do not contain terms which are undefined at the wall, i.e. they
can be integrated to the wall without using wall functions.
They are accurate and robust for a wide range of boundary layer flows with
pressure gradient.
The SST k model uses a blending function to gradually transition from the
standard k model near the wall to a high Reynolds number version of the k
model in the outer portion of the boundary layer.
Contains a modified turbulent viscosity formulation to account for the transport
effects of the principal turbulent shear stress.
6-13
LES has been most successful for high-end applications where the RANS models
fail to meet the needs. For example:
Implementations in FLUENT:
z
Combustion
Mixing
External Aerodynamics (flows around bluff bodies)
Smagorinsky-Lilly model
Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-Viscosity (WALE)
Dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly model
Dynamic Kinetic Energy Transport
6-14
u
yU
+
+
u
=
y =
U
6-15
www.fluentusers.com
The k family and RSM models are not valid in the near-wall region,
whereas Spalart-Allmaras and k models are valid all the way to the
wall (provided the mesh is sufficiently fine). To work around this, we
can take one of two approaches.
Wall Function Approach
z
z
z
Standard wall function method is to take advantage of the fact that (for
equilibrium turbulent boundary layers), a log-law correlation can supply
the required wall boundary conditions (as illustrated in the previous slide).
Non-equilibrium wall function method attempts to improve the results for
flows with higher pressure gradients, separations, reattachment and
stagnation.
Similar laws are also constructed for the energy and species equations.
Benefit: Wall functions allow the use of a relatively coarse mesh in the
near-wall region.
6-16
outer layer
inner layer
www.fluentusers.com
How to estimate the size of wall-adjacent cells before creating the grid:
y +p =
z
y p u
yp =
U =
w
Cf
= Ue
2
y +p
Cf
0.037
2
Re1L 5
Duct:
Cf
2
0.039
Re1D4h
Use postprocessing tools (XY plot or contour plot) to to double check the nearwall grid placement after the flow pattern has been established.
6-17
There is little gain from resolving the viscous sublayer. The choice of
core turbulence model is more important.
Use non-equilibrium wall functions for mildly separating, reattaching, or
impinging flows.
The characteristic Reynolds number is low or if near wall characteristics
need to be resolved.
The physics and near-wall mesh of the case is such that y+ is likely to vary
significantly over a wide portion of the wall region.
Try to make the mesh either coarse or fine enough to avoid placing the
wall-adjacent cells in the buffer layer (5 < y+ < 30).
6-18
When turbulent flow enters a domain at inlets or outlets (backflow), boundary conditions for k,
, and/or uiu j must be specified, depending on which turbulence model has been selected
Four methods for directly or indirectly specifying turbulence parameters:
z Explicitly input k, , , or
Length scale is related to size of large eddies that contain most of energy.
For boundary layer flows: l 0.4 99
For flows downstream of grid: l opening size
u 1
U U
2k
< 20 %
3
Stochastic inlet boundary conditions for LES and RANS can be generated by using spectral
synthesizer or vortex method
6-19
Models
Viscous
Inviscid, Laminar,
or Turbulent
Define
Boundary Conditions
Turbulence
Model Options
Near Wall
Treatments
Additional
Options
6-20
Reynolds-Stress
model (exact)
Standard k-
model
The Standard k model is
known to give spuriously
large TKE on the font face
of the plate
Contour plots
of turbulent
kinetic energy
(TKE)
6-21
Standard k- (SKE)
Realizable k- (RKE)
0.12 m
Uin = 20 m/s
0.97 m
0.2 m
2006 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
6-23
6-24
www.fluentusers.com
Strouhal
Number
Dynamic Smagorinsky
2.28
0.130
Dynamic TKE
2.22
0.134
2.1 2.2
0.130
Time-averaged streamwise
velocity along the wake centerline
Iso-Contours of Instantaneous
Vorticity Magnitude
2006 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
(ReH = 22,000)
CL spectrum
6-25
6-26
Flow physics
Computer resources available
Project requirements
Accuracy
Turnaround time
Near-wall treatments
Modeling procedure
z
z
z
z
z
6-27
Appendix
Description
Spalart
Allmaras
A single transport equation model solving directly for a modified turbulent viscosity. Designed specifically
for aerospace applications involving wall-bounded flows on a fine near-wall mesh. FLUENTs
implementation allows the use of coarser meshes. Option to include strain rate in k production term
improves predictions of vortical flows.
Standard k
The baseline two-transport-equation model solving for k and . This is the default k model. Coefficients
are empirically derived; valid for fully turbulent flows only. Options to account for viscous heating,
buoyancy, and compressibility are shared with other k models.
RNG k
A variant of the standard k model. Equations and coefficients are analytically derived. Significant
changes in the equation improves the ability to model highly strained flows. Additional options aid in
predicting swirling and low Reynolds number flows.
Realizable k
A variant of the standard k model. Its realizability stems from changes that allow certain mathematical
constraints to be obeyed which ultimately improves the performance of this model.
Standard k
A two-transport-equation model solving for k and , the specific dissipation rate ( / k) based on Wilcox
(1998). This is the default k model. Demonstrates superior performance for wall-bounded and low
Reynolds number flows. Shows potential for predicting transition. Options account for transitional, free
shear, and compressible flows.
SST k
A variant of the standard k model. Combines the original Wilcox model for use near walls and the
standard k model away from walls using a blending function. Also limits turbulent viscosity to guarantee
that T ~ k. The transition and shearing options are borrowed from standard k. No option to include
compressibility.
Reynolds Stress
Reynolds stresses are solved directly using transport equations, avoiding isotropic viscosity assumption of
other models. Use for highly swirling flows. Quadratic pressure-strain option improves performance for
many basic shear flows.
6-29
Spalart-Allmaras
Economical for large meshes. Performs poorly for 3D flows, free shear flows, flows with strong
separation. Suitable for mildly complex (quasi-2D) external/internal flows and boundary layer flows
under pressure gradient (e.g. airfoils, wings, airplane fuselages, missiles, ship hulls).
Standard k
Robust. Widely used despite the known limitations of the model. Performs poorly for complex flows
involving severe pressure gradient, separation, strong streamline curvature. Suitable for initial
iterations, initial screening of alternative designs, and parametric studies.
RNG k
Suitable for complex shear flows involving rapid strain, moderate swirl, vortices, and locally transitional
flows (e.g. boundary layer separation, massive separation, and vortex shedding behind bluff bodies, stall
in wide-angle diffusers, room ventilation).
Realizable k
Offers largely the same benefits and has similar applications as RNG. Possibly more accurate and easier
to converge than RNG.
Standard k
Superior performance for wall-bounded boundary layer, free shear, and low Reynolds number flows.
Suitable for complex boundary layer flows under adverse pressure gradient and separation (external
aerodynamics and turbomachinery). Can be used for transitional flows (though tends to predict early
transition). Separation is typically predicted to be excessive and early.
SST k
Offers similar benefits as standard k. Dependency on wall distance makes this less suitable for free
shear flows.
Reynolds Stress
Physically the most sound RANS model. Avoids isotropic eddy viscosity assumption. More CPU time
and memory required. Tougher to converge due to close coupling of equations. Suitable for complex
3D flows with strong streamline curvature, strong swirl/rotation (e.g. curved duct, rotating flow
passages, swirl combustors with very large inlet swirl, cyclones).
6-30
www.fluentusers.com
~
~
~
(
)
C
= G
Y + S ~
b2
Dt
x j
x j
x j
Eddy viscosity is obtained from
= ~
f
t
3
~
(
/ )
f v1 = ~ 3
( / ) + Cv31
v1
The variation of ~
very near the wall is easier to resolve than k and .
Mainly intended for aerodynamic/turbomachinery applications with
mild separation, such as supersonic/transonic flows over airfoils,
boundary-layer flows, etc.
6-31
D
( k ) = + t
Dt
x j
k
+ Gk
x j
t
D
2
( ) = + + Ce1 Gk C 2
Dt
k
k
x j
x j
where C = 0.09, C1 = 1.44, C 2 = 1.92,
k = 1.0, = 1.3
6-32
u
Dk
= ij i f k +
Dt
x j
x j
t
+
k
D
= ij i f 2 +
x j
Dt
k x j
x j
1
k
Belongs to the general 2-equation EVM family. Fluent 6 supports the standard k
model by Wilcox (1998), and Menters SST k model (1994).
k models have gained popularity mainly because:
z Can be integrated to the wall without using any damping functions
z Accurate and robust for a wide range of boundary layer flows with pressure
gradient
Most widely adopted in the aerospace and turbo-machinery communities.
Several sub-models/options of k: compressibility effects, transitional flows and
shear-flow corrections.
6-33
www.fluentusers.com
uiu j +
u k uiu j = Pij + Fij + DijT + ij ij
t
xk
Stress production
Rotation production
Dissipation
Turbulent
diffusion
Pressure
Strain
6-34
www.fluentusers.com
U = 1
ln
E
y
z
z
z
for y < y
for y > y
where U =
U P C1/ 4 kP1/ 2
U
y =
C1/ 4 kP1/ 2 y p
6-35
www.fluentusers.com
Energy
C1 4 k1 2
Prt U P2 + (Pr Prt )Uc2
2q
T =
14 12
2
Pr
C
k
U
1
1
Pr ln Ey + P + Pr y +
ln
E
y
t
2q
( )
for y < yt
for y > yt
Pr 3 4
Pr
P = 9.24 1 1 + 0.28exp 0.007
Prt
Prt
Species
Sc y
for y < yc
Y = 1
+
>
E
y
P
y
y
Sc
ln
for
t
c
c
6-36
The standard and non-equilibrium wall functions are options for all of
the k models as well as the Reynolds stress model.
6-37
www.fluentusers.com
The Enhanced Wall Treatment option is available for the k and RSM models
(EWT is the sole treatment for Spalart Allmaras and k models).
6-38
www.fluentusers.com
z
z
Re y
6-39
y k
uit
Analogous to the Reynolds stresses, this is the turbulent heat flux term. An
isotropic turbulent diffusivity is assumed:
uit = T
z
Prt =
T
xi
t
0.85 0.9
T
6-40
The k model has many good attributes and performs much better than
k models for boundary layer flows.
Wilcox original k model is overly sensitive to the free stream value of
, while the k model is not prone to such problem.
Most two-equation models, including k models, over predict turbulent
stresses in wake (velocity-defect) regions, which leads to poor
performance of the models for boundary layers under adverse pressure
gradient and separated flows.
6-41
Outer layer
(wake and
outward)
Inner layer
(sub-layer,
log-layer)
k 2
=
l
Modified Wilcox k model
6-42
T k
k x j
ui
T
D
1 k
2
(
)
= ij
+
+
+
2
1
1
2
x j
x j
Dt t x j
x j x j
u
Dk
= ij i * k +
x j
x j
Dt
= F1 1 + (1 F1 ) 1 ; = , k , ,
Wall
2006 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
6-43
ui ui u j
1 p
=
+
+
x j
xi x j
t
ui
x
j
Resolved
Scale
Subgrid
Scale
Filtered N-S
equation
ui ui u j
1 p
+
=
+
t
x j
xi x j
ui
x
j
ij
x
j
Filter,
ij = ui u j ui u j
(Subgrid scale
Turbulent stress)
6-44
LES in FLUENT
LES has been most successful for high-end applications where the RANS
models fail to meet the needs. For example:
z
z
z
Combustion
Mixing
External Aerodynamics (flows around bluff bodies)
Implementations in FLUENT:
z
Smagorinsky-Lilly model
WALE model
Dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly model
Dynamic kinetic energy transport model
6-45
Motivation
z
~~
~
= Cb1 S Cw1 f w +
Dt
d ~ x j
~
~
( + )
+ ...
x j
d = min (d w , CDES )
z
z
6-46
V2F shows promising results for many 3D, low Re, boundary layer
flows. For example, improved predictions for heat transfer in jet
impingement and separated flows, where k models fail.
But V2F is still an eddy viscosity model and thus the same limitations
still apply.
V2F is an embedded add-on functionality in FLUENT which requires a
separate license from Cascade Technologies (www.turbulentflow.com)
6-47
ui (x, t ) = ui (x ) + ui(x, t )
Instantaneous
Coherent
+ Random
Time
Averaged
6-48
Initial condition for velocity field does not affect statistically stationary
solutions
However, starting LES with a realistic turbulent velocity field can
substantially shorten the simulation time to get to statistically
stationary state
The spectral synthesizer can be used to superimpose turbulent velocity
on top of the mean velocity field
z
6-49