36

Basics of

MINING METHOD AND

EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY
Notes:
- Pictures of the equipment are from the Mining Magazine [7, 17, and 25].
- Equipment :( explanations, equations and diagrams) ]7,14,17and25[.
-Drilling and Blasting, (definitions, equations and Diagrams [5, 19].

I- Main Elements of Surface Mine Fields (Definitions)

1-Surface mine:
It is a complex of excavations, constructions and equipment at the surface of the
earth to exploit a given deposit or a part of it.
2- Bench:
It is the part of an ore body, or the overburdens, in the surface mine, having a
working zone, in the form of a step and worked by the same complex of mine
machinery.
3- Semi-bench:
It is the part of the bench separated and loaded by a certain complex of machinery,
but transported in combination with other parts.
4- Slope:
It is the inclined plane determining the bench in the direction of extraction, or removal
works.
5- Edge:
It is the edge of the bench, the intersection of the slope plane with the horizontal
platforms, both upper and lower.
6- Safety berms:
It is a platform with a small width, at the idle side of the surface mine, to strengthen
its side and to prevent the falling of rock or ore.
7- Working zone:
It is the group of working benches in the mine, working at the same time.
8-Working side:
It is the side a long which mining works are carried out.

37

II-Stages of Surface Mining and Development Order

A- Surface mining is governed by the following rules:
1- The fertile soil layer is removed separately from the rock and utilized for
reclamation.
2- Lands of little value are selected for waste dumps.
3- The land of quarry should be reclaimed as soon as possible in order to prevent
soil erosion.
4- The whole mineral reserve should be extracted whenever possible.
5- Open cast mining is organized in a way, which preserves the conditions of surface
water run-off (rivers, streams).
B- Exploitation of a new deposit or a next portion of a quarry is carried out in
the following stages:
1- Preparation of the surface includes: drainage, removal and storage of surface
layer for subsequent reclamation, leveling, construction of primary railway or
trucks approach lines to mining sections and dumps, etc.
2- Drainage of the rock massif and reinforcement of the flank portions of the massif.
3- Permanent mining works which can be divided into:
A. Removal of overburden, permanent capital and working trenches, pits
and earth fills.
B. Mining exploitation work, extraction and haulage of ore to store or
directly to the consumer, cleaning up the stripped reserve, construction
of transportation lines, operations on the development of waste dumps,
etc. Many of the above operations are considered to be carried out
during the construction period of the mine.
4- The final stage associated with depletion of mineral reserves, and the necessity to
change to underground mining if it profitable is called the stage of extinction of
mining work; it may sometimes continue for a few years.
C- Development depends on:
1- Kind of deposit.
2- Shape of deposit.
3- Surface topography.
4- Position of deposit relative to prevailing surface level.
5- Angle of dip and inclination of the ore beds.
6- Quality distribution of minerals.
7- Thickness and kind of overburden.
8- Production rate.

38

III- Methods of Mining

The mining method depends on type, characteristics, physical and mechanical
properties of the ore deposit, as well as the overburden. Diagram 4.1 shows the
main classification and selection of mining method and equipment that could be used
for exploitation of the ore deposit.

Suggested mining method and equipment

Overburden removal with scraper

Soft unconsolidated rock

Consolidated rock

Power shovel
or loader
Very hard rock

Hard

rock
Quarrying trucks
Rock blasting

Hydraulic jackhammer

Power shovel

Power shovel

Crushing and
screening unit

Quarrying trucks

Quarrying

trucks

Crushing and
Screening unit

Crushing and
Screening unit

Diagram 4.1: Suggested mining method and equipment

1- Rock Excavation with Loaders:
Single bucket loaders are designed to perform as extraction, loading, and extractionhaulage or as auxiliary equipment. They are usually operated in set with truck
transportation. The buckets of loaders have a solid lip or teeth to excavate solid
blasted rocks. Loaders can be fitted with up to 30 change attachments such as
39

buckets of various capacities, a shovel or back-hoe, a grader, a bucket to haul

stones, a dozer blade. The shape and performance schematics for loaders are
illustrated in Figure 4.1.
1- Figure 4.1 (a): Turning the rubber tyred loader through 30-40 degrees and
approaching a dump truck. Most widely applied in longitudinal faces and
when wide cuts are carried out in end faces to ensure a minimum loader
travel.
2- Figure 4.1 (b): The same as above, but the material is dumped into two
dump trucks. This permits a wider operating plate form at any face and
width of the cut at end faces. Where the loader travels longer distances.
3- Figure 4.1 (c): Carrying out narrow cuts in an end faces and both in a
longitudinal and on end faces (crawler mounted and front-end dumping
loader) also with running of the dump trucks on a longitudinal bench.
4- Figure 4.1 (d): Shuttle type 5-10 m. motion of a rear-end dumping loader.
Dump trucks are placed at a distance of 8-13 m. from the face.
5- Figure 4.1 (e): Two turns of the loader and travel through a longer
distance, for end faces only in wider cuts.
6- Figure 4.1 (f): Side dumping wheeled loader or with a crawler mounted
loader turning through 90 degrees due to the shifting of its tracks in
opposite directions. The loader is backed up from the face through a
distance of 2-3 m.
Various methods of rock extraction with loaders are distinguished into the following
[14, 27, 28]

1- Selective:
To extract low-density loose rocks from a muck pile in three successive operations
(Figure 4.2, a) 1, 2 and 3 respectively, where the bucket is introduced along the toe
of the face into the rock till the rear wall of the bucket comes to the bear against the
rock (Figure 4.2-a1), then the bucket is turned through the entire tipping angle
(Figure 4.2-a2), then lifting the filled bucket (Figure 4.2-a3).
2- Combined:
The crowding force of the loader introduces the bucket into the rock at the face toe to
a depth of (0.2-0.5) Ib, where the (Ib) is the length of the bucket, the simultaneously,
the boom is lifted and the bucket is turned with the loader in a continuous transitional
motion (Figure 4.2-b). Rocks of the lower excavation ability (i.e. of higher strength)
are extracted introducing the bucket into the ground to depth of 0.3 I b and lifted
simultaneously (Figure 4.2-c). The case of Figure 4.2-d. is for coherent rocks
blasted to medium lump size, where the bucket is introduced into the material
stopping it and lifting the front part of the loader .
3- In slices:
For thin horizontal or inclined extraction slices, the bucket is gradually filled during
the continuous motion of the loader. The method is shown in Figure 4.2-e.
40

Quarrying loader

Figure 4.1: The shape and performance of loaders.

41

Figure 4.2: The various methods of rock extraction with loaders.

Productivity of loader inside the mine QTF:

QTF

3600 x E x K
------------(4.1)
Tef

The loader loads the ore from the face, and transfers the ore to the crushing unit,
then returns back to the face to repeat the cycle.
E = bucket capacity = 2.5 m3.
K = coefficient of filling the bucket = 0.95.
Tef = time per one cycle.
Tef = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
T1 = the required time to fill the bucket = 8 sec.
T2 = the required time to reach the place of dumping. = L/V =350/2.5 = 140
sec.
V1 = velocity of loaded loader inside the mine = 9 km/hr= 2.5 m/sec.
T3 = time of dumping = 3 sec.
V2 = velocity of empty loader inside the mine= 12 km/hr= 3.3 m/sec.
T4 = time of return to the face of production = L/V 2 =105 sec.
T5 = time required to change velocities = 10 sec.
Tef = 8+ 140 + 3 + 105 + 10 =266 sec.
QTF = (3600 x 2.5 x 0.95)/266 = 32 m3 /h.
Seven loaders with a capacity of 32 m 3/hr for a million m3 annual production
assuming 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
6.5 7 loaders
32m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year

But in the case of annual production is 500,000, and 250,000 m 3, the needed
numbers of loaders with capacity 32 m3/hr are four and two respectively.

2-Rock Extraction with Hydraulic Jackhammers:

42

Hydraulic jackhammers, due to increasing power and reliability coupled with strict
environmental conditions of noise and dusts have been playing a more prominent
role in the mining and quarry operations. Before hydraulic hammers were almost
always employed for secondary breaking-typically for clearing blockages in tips and
primary crushers. It is now common to find hydraulic hammers in use for primary rock
bearing which was previously reserved for blasting or drill and blast techniques.
Hydraulic breakers are becoming increasingly popular in the quarrying sector, for
primary mining as they offer a number of operating advantages over the more
conventional methods of drilling and blasting. The shape of hydraulic jackhammer is
shown in Figure 4.3. and the mechanism of working is illustrated in Figure 4.4.
The hydraulic hammers are classified according to the power as the following:
1- Weak duty: 140 horse power.
2- Moderate duty: 140-250 horse power.
3- Heavy duty:>250 horse power.
Factors affecting hydraulic hammers performance:
1- The material to be broken.
2- The degree of reduction required.
3- The used shovel.
4- The condition of the shovel, hammer and skill of the operator.

Figure 4.3: The shape of hydraulic jackhammer.

43

Figure 4.4: The mechanism of working.

Free quarrying using hydraulic hammers:
1- Selective quarrying:
Most rock deposits contain a variety of different rock grades. During blasting these
various grades are mixed together and can no longer be separated. The quality of
the mining operation is diminished. Selective mining can be achieved in this case
using hydraulic hammers, which means that the available deposit can be exploited
more successfully.
2- Higher quality rock:
Blasting causes micro-cracks in the rock that lower its quality.
Moreover, the
operation of fine, which can only be used as lower-grade materials or for refilling, is
particularly as high as10 % to 40 %. Hydraulic hammers impact the rock with only
energy needed to achieve localized breaking, as a result micro breaking is avoided
and the quality of the rock guaranteed. The operation of fines is limited to a maximum
of 5 %.
3- Continuous mining:
Blasting necessitates frequent interruptions to quarrying operations. Hydraulic
hammers, on the other hand, can be used continuously; the only interruptions being
for necessary maintenance work.
4- Conveyors can be installed close to the face:
Mobile conveyors system can be installed directly at the face. The front end
conveyors can move in line with mining progress and feeds a stationary conveyor

44

system. The advantage to the quarry operator in the truck haulage is no longer
necessary.
5- Dispensing with the primary crusher:
The hydraulic hammer can provide secondary breaking functions oversize on site,
giving the operator a direct influence on the grain size of the mined rock. Primary jaw
crushers with their high-energy consumption may then be no longer necessary.
Some important technological data:
1- The construction of the surface mine either trenches for transportation or benches
for one extraction and overburden removal is to be carried out by drilling and
blasting.
2- Hydraulic hammers are for breaking and for ripping. Any attempt to rip may cause
the breakage of the working tool. When it comes to ripping, a tractor fitted with a
ripping tool is to be used.
3- There are useful areas where blasting is forbidden or restricted.
4- The best performance is with a backhoe.
5- Usually two hammers can do the job with a suitable dozer.
6- Working tools may be sharpened from time to time. No other treatment is allowed.
7- The operator must have continuous training.
8- Providing secondary breaking function of oversize pieces on site relative to the
size of the crusher.
9- Hydraulic hammers are more friendly to the environment.
10Productivity is from 100 to 600 tons / hr; in sandstone quarry it is about 200
tons / hr.
Productivity of hydraulic hammers:
P = (3600 x C x He x Ku)/( 1 /VM + T/ L )

m3 / hr. -------------------(4.2).

Where:
T = time of inserting hammer and lifting it up, assume 5 sec.
C = distance between horizontal line of breaking, assume one meter.
He = depth of inserting the hammer, assume 25 cm.
Ku = coefficient of the hydraulic hammer, assume 0.2.
L = length of working face, assume 3 m.
VM = velocity of breaking, assume 2 m/sec.

45

P = 83 m3/hr
P 200 tons / hr
Three jackhammers with a capacity of 83 m3/hr for a million m3 annual production
assuming 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
2.52 3 Jack hammers
83m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year

The number of jackhammers to produce 1000,000. 500,000, and 250,000 m 3/year

are three, two and one respectively.
3- Rock Extraction with Powershovel
3-A- Soft rock extraction with powershovel:
The distinguished features of soft rocks excavation are:
1- Constant face height.
2- Comparatively favorable excavation condition with respect to digging and
dynamic loads due to the absence of oversize lumps.
3- Possible use of larger capacity buckets.
The height of the face in soft rocks must not exceed the maximum digging height of
the powershovel, to prevent the formation of over hanging rocks. The minimum face
height ensuring filling of the bucket per single bucket digging should not be less than
2/3 of the height of the crowding shaft of the powershovel. The position of the power
shovel with respect to the face and width of the cut is determined by the excavation
ability of the rock and kind of haulage equipment. The shape of power shovel is
shown in Figure 4.5. The mechanism of power shovel working is shown in Figure
4.6.
3-B- Hard rock, (broken by blasting or by jackhammer), extraction with power
shovel:
The face for a powershovel is usually the entire end face of the muck pile or a part of
it. The height of a face for a particular excavation for powershovel (H F) depends on
the lump size and cohesion of the blasted rocks. With free-running fine broken rocks
in the conditions where the sudden rock caving is impossible;

HF max = (2.5-2.7) Hdg max. -------------------(4.3)

Where,
Hdg max is the maximum digging height of the powershovel.
For coherent-loose fine broken and free running rock of average lump size are
extracted from faces of height:

46

Power shovel mechanism

HF max = (1.05-1.15) Hdg max. -------------(4.4)

For coherent rocks and rocks of large lump size H F less than or equal Hdg max,
according to Mine safety regulation (M.S.R.).
Figure 4.5: The shape of power shovel

[17]

The mechanism of power shovel working, where:

A: Length of undercarriage.
B: Rear overhang of uppercarriage.
C: Machine height.
D: Max. reach.
E: Max. cutting height.
F: Min. cutting of ground level.
Productivity of power shovel:
m3 / hr. ----------(4.5)

P = (Bc x NC x KF )/Ks
Where:

Figure 4.6: The mechanism of power shovel working [25].

47

Bc = bucket capacity , assume 2.2 m3.

NC = number of excavation cycles.
KF = coefficient of filling of the bucket, assume, 0.9.
KS = coefficient of swelling = 1.1 to 1.3.

NC = (3600)/TC -------------------------------(4.6)
Where,
TC = is the time per one cycle; second
TC =(T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7)/ Bc
T1 = time of filling, assume15 Sec.
T2 = time to raise the bucket to the unloading level, assume 10 sec.
T3 = swing time, assume 15 sec.
T4 = time to open the bucket and unload, assume 15 sec.
T5 = swing time back to the excavation face, assume 10 sec.
T6 = time to lower the bucket to the initial level of excavation, assume 10 sec.
T7 = stopping during the cycle, assume 30 sec.
I

= interference between the above intervals of the cycle time = 1.15-1.3

Sec.
Tc = 105 sec/m3
Nc = 34.29 35
P = 53.3 54 m3/hr.
Four power shovels with a capacity of 54 m 3/hr for a million m3 annual production
assuming 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
3.86 4 shovels
54 m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year

The number of powershovel to produce 1,000,000, 500,000, and 250,000 m 3/year

are four, two and one respectively.
4- Ore Transfer by Quarrying Trucks:
Quarrying trucks could be used when the distance between the face and crushing
and screening unit is more than 2000 meters, the loader can not be economic in this

48

case due to its low speed and small bucket capacity. Figure 4.7 shows the quarrying
truck.

Cycle Time:
TC = time per cycle of truck = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
V1 = velocity of loaded truck inside the mine = 15 km/hr= 4.67 m/sec.
V2 = velocity of empty truck inside the mine= 20 km/hr= 5.56 m/sec.
T1 = time of a truck for going and return = L1 /V1 + L1 / V2
= 428 + 360 = 788 sec
T2 = time of loading =266 sec
T3 = time of unloading = 30 sec.
T4 = time of maneuvering = 30 sec.
L1 = distance of transportation inside the mine = 2000 m
TC = 788 + 266 + 30 + 30 = 1114 sec.
Productivity of trucks Qa

Qa = (60 X TSH X KU X qa)/TC -----------------(4.7)

TSH = time of shift, assume, 8 hours = 480 min.
KU = coefficient of shift = 0.9.
qa = tonnage of truck, assume, 17 tons.
TC = time per cycle, assume, 1114 sec.
KU = coefficient of loader or power shovel = 0.8.
Rock specific weight, assume, 2.5 ton/m3
Qa = (60 X 480 X 0.9 X 17)/1114 = 396 tons/shift = 989 m 3/shift
Qa = (3600 X 0.9 X 17)/1114 = 49.44 tons/hr = 124 m3/hr

49

Figure 4.7: The shape quarrying truck.

Two trucks with a capacity of 20 m3/hr for a million m3 annual production assuming 8
hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
1.7 2 Trucks
124 m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year

The number of trucks needed for maintenance and other uses to produce 1000,000.
500,000, and 250,000 m3/year are three, two and two respectively.
5- Mine maintenance with Bulldozers (Dozers)
A bulldozer is a crawler-mounted or wheel tractor fitted with a blade. Similar to a
wheeled scraper it is capable of extraction, moving (transportation to a limited
distance), and stockpiling rocks (Figure 4.8). The capacity (production rate) classifies
dozers into four types as shown in Table 4.1.

50

Figure 4.8: The shape of dozer.

The horse power classifies dozers into the following types:
1- Extra heavy duty, over 300 horsepower.
2- Heavy duty, 300-150 horsepower.
3- Medium duty, 150-100 horsepower.
4- Light duty, 80-20 horsepower.
The dozer can be used to extract rock from a plate form, longitudinal and end-slope
of a bench or from a muck pile. It is expedient to excavate from inclined faces, cutting
off and moving the rock. The operating cycle of dozer consists in cutting off a
horizontal or inclined slice from the ground, forming a dragging prism, moving the
prism, dumping and returning back to excavate. Approximate value of resistance to
rock cutting kg/cm2 (kfc) and density kg /cm3 (Yc), assumed in the design of the
bulldozer traction forces, are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.1: The values of kfc and Yc.
Rock
Clay
Sand and loam
Sand

Kfc kg / cm2.
1.2-2.0
0.7-1.0
0.5-0.6

Yc kg /m3
1200-1800
1600-1800
1500-1700

Productivity of dozers (PB):

PB

3600 V k1
Tc k p

m3 / hr--------------(4.8)

51

Assuming the values in this equation as follows:

K1 = coefficient expresses productivity under the influence of surface
inclination, distance of moving, and rock deformation, K1= 1.
Kp = coefficient of rock hardness = 1.4 - 1.2 = 1.3.
Kc = coefficient of resistance to cutting, = 0.2
Where, V = volume of rock in front of the dozer in cubic meter.
V

H2 L
-----------(4.9)
2 tan

Assuming the values in this equation as follows:

H = height of blade = 1.8 m.
L = length of blade = 4.75 m.
= dynamic angle of repose of the pile = 30 0.

1.8 2 x 4.75
= 13.3 m3
2 tan 30

TC is the time per one cycle, second.

Tc

3.6 L1 3.6 L 2 3.6 (L1 L 2 )

Tn -------------(4.10)
V1
V2
V3

Assume the values of the variables in equation (4.10) as follows:

Tn = is the time which is taken to change velocity = 5 seconds.
L1 = distance of stripping = 17 m.
L2 = distance of moving = (100 m 17 m) = 83 m.
V1 = velocity during stripping = 1 km / hr.
V2 = velocity during moving of rocks = 2 km / hr.
V3 = velocity of return back = 3 km /hr.
TC = 335.6 second.
PB

3600 x 13.3 x 1
109.75
335.6 x 1.3

6- BENCH DRILLING AND BLASTING

52

m3 / hr

A- Introduction
Explosives are chemical compounds or mechanical mixtures, which can explode
from some internal impulse, such as, heating, spark or jolt or detonator. This means
that rapidly change of explosive into other chemical compounds, liberating heat and
forming gases, which can do mechanical work. The extremely rapid liberation of
energy in this chemical transformation of explosives, accompanied by liberation of
heat and formation of hot, expanding compressed gas, is known as an explosion. It
does mechanical work and transmits explosion waves to the surrounding materials.
The nitrogen is an integral component of high explosives composition, which is
suitable in air as a gas, but in the contrary when it is combined with other elements it
becomes very active. Also, oxygen is present in all explosives as nitrates (NO 3), and
perchlorate (ClO4). In addition hydrogen and carbon are also present [5].
B- Technical Characteristics of Explosives:
B-I- Strength
In the past, strength was measured as a percentage ratio of nitroglycerin in the
explosive, but now; strength is the percentage ratio for the elaborated energy from
the explosive to that from the same weight of ANFO.
B-II- Density
The density is stated in gm/cm3, or kg/dm3. It is known as a weight of explosive, but in
practice; the loading density is more effective, which is the weight of explosive per
unit length of the borehole. The explosive density varies from 0.5 to 1.7 kg/dm 3.
Explosives with high density elaborate high energy; therefore the borehole must be
highly compacted.
B-III- Velocity of Detonation
It is the velocity where the detonation waves moves to change the explosive to
gases. Velocity of detonation varies from 1.58-7.62 km/sec, where the power of
explosive equals the multiplication of its detonation velocity times its force.
B-IV- Sensitivity
The explosive is sensitive, if it is blasted by shock, therefore it is dangerous in
handling. Dynamites are more sensitive than ANFO.
B-V- Fumes Characteristics
The fumes mean the quantity of toxic gases, which elaborate from blasting operation
such as CO and Nitrogen oxides. The fume ratio varies from 0.025 to 0.049 m 3/kg.
ANFO has good characteristics than nitroglycerin explosives, which could cause
headache.
B-VI- Water Resistance
Water resistance means obtaining suitable detonation at the moist conditions.
Generally, ANFO has a low water resistance; emulsion has good water resistance
and nitroglycerin has very good water resistance.

53

B-VII- Pressure of the Wave Top

The pressure at the top of the detonation wave is proportional with the velocity of
detonation and square of density. The pressure varies from 500-1500 Pascal,
(Pascal=N/m2).
B-VIII- Oxygen Balance
Principally, nitroglycerin and ammonium nitrate are oxygen deficient, i.e. they do not
contain enough oxygen to covert carbon and oxygen atom to carbon dioxide and
water. Oxygen balance is equal to the percentage of the difference between
percentage of oxygen present and the percentage of the oxygen required.
C-TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES USED
C-I-Gelatin Dynamite
This explosive base is made by dissolving nitro-cellulose in nitroglycerin. It has high
density, waterproof, high detonation velocity. It can be used for hard dense rocks.
C-II-ANFO
It is non-waterproof. It contains ammonium nitrate and small amount of fuel oil. It
costs of nitroglycerin-based explosive. Its undesirable characteristics are:

Loss of fuel by evaporation may produce hazardous quantities of fumes.

Exothermic reaction can be developed between ANFO and sulfide ores.
Must be heavy detonated.
It can be used when moderate breakage is desired such as in iron mines,
sandstone and limestone.

C-III-Powder
These are ammonium nitrate dynamite that is intended to replace the more costly
gelatin dynamite used in quarrying. Table 4.2 shows the characteristics of Egyptian
Dynamites used, as the dynamites are expensive then powder 16/250 can be used.
Table 4.2: The characteristics of Egyptian dynamites used.
Types

Density
Weight strength %
3
kg/dm
relative to dynamite
G.D.32/40
1.35
100
G.D.50/400
1.4
100
DANFO
0.8
81-90
Powder16/250
0.65-0.75
76
BLASTING PARAMETERS
Blasting parameters are estimated for the following two cases:
I- Normal bench blasting.
II- Large hole diameter blasting.
D-I- Normal Bench Blasting
Figure 4.9 shows the bench blasting parameters.

54

Detonation
velocity m/s
5000
5500
2500
2000

T= Stemming

Figure 4.9: Bench blasting parameters [5].

D-I-1 Diameter (D) The diameter can be selected according to the equipment
available and bench height (K) as it is given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Hole diameter (D) vs. (k) and equipment. ]19[.
Equipment
Hand- held

Light rigs
Medium 11

Heavy

Hole diameter
D, mm.
22
11
12
12
45
51
64
76
89
102

Bench height
K, m.
0-1
0-3
1-4
0-4
2-5
3-8
6-15
9-20
10-25
12-30

Heavy drill machine can be selected here with diameter of 89 mm and the bench
height of 10 m. Rotary percussive drill is highly recommended.
In massive hard rocks holes having diameter (88-127 mm) and spacing (2.4 - 4.6 m),

55

result in better fragmentation than holes diameter (177-228 mm) and spacing (5-7
m ) at the same ratio In massive hard rocks holes having diameter (88-127 mm) and
spacing (2.4 - 4.6 m), result in better fragmentation than holes diameter (177-228
mm)and spacing (5-7 m ) at the same ratio of explosives to rock tonnage. The hole
inclination is adjusted according to the hole diameter as follows:
D< 51mm
D>51 mm

inclination 3:1
inclination 5:1 to 10:1

Once the diameter D is determined the maximum and practical burden can be
determined.
D-I-2 Burden
Burden may be classified to maximum burden and practical burden.
Maximum burden (V max)
V max = Bench width for a single row blasting holes
V max may be calculated as follows:
V max = 45 D
Where, D = hole diameter = 89 mm.
Then V max = 89 x 45 = 4 m.
Practical burden (V1)
V1 may be calculated as follows:
V1 = V max - F
Where,
F= drilling error = collaring error + drilling deviation.
= 3 D/1000 + 3 K/100.
= 3 x 89 /1000 + 3 x 10 /100 = 0.567 0.6
Where,
D = hole diameter, mm.
K = bench height, m.
Then V1 = 4- 0.6 = 3.6 m
D-I-3 Spacing (E)
Spacing may be classified into theoretical and practical spacing.
Theoretical spacing (E)
(E) May be determined as follows:
(E)< 1.25 x (V1)
fine product
(E)> 1.25 x (V1)
coarse product
E < 1.25 x 3.6 = 4.5 4.0 m
Practical spacing (E1)
To achieve the required annual production, the daily rock to be blasted is
1000,000 m3 /300 days per year = 3333.3 m3 year, for a bench height 10 meter
and burden 3.6 m.
B = 3333.3/(3.6 x 10) = 92.6 m 100 m

56

(E1) may be determined as follows:

E1 = B / N.S.C.
E1 = 100/25 = 4 m.
Where,
B = bench width, where there are multi rows blasting holes = 100 m
N.S.C. = Number of spacing complete. = B/E 1 = 100/4 = 25
D-I-4 Specific Drilling m/m3 (g)
(g) can be determined as follows:
(g) =

(NH)/V1KB

Where,:
K = bench height.
U = sub drilling
= 0.3 V max. = 0.3 x 4 = 1.2 m
H = hole depth.
= ( K + U ) = 10 + 1.2= 11.2 m
N = number of holes / row
= N.S.C. + 1. = 25 + 1 = 26 holes / row
(g) = (26 x 11.2) / (3.6 x 10 x 100) = 0.08 0.1 m/m 3
D-I-5 Charge Q
The charge per hole consists of bottom charge Qb and column charge Qc.
Bottom Charge
Bottom charge has a height hb and concentration, Ib.
Bottom charge height hb
(P) is determined as follows:
(P) = 1.3 Vmax
= 1.3 x 4 = 5.2 m
Bottom charge concentration Ib
Ib can be determined as follows:
Ib =

D 2 PS
= 0.785 D2 P S
4

Where,
D = hole diameter, m.
P = charge concentration, kg/dm3.
S = weight strength relative Dinamex (DM).
Charge concentration (P) for ANFO can be found in Table 4.4.

57

Ib for ANFO at compacting degree 15 % = 7.85 x0.89 2 x 0.65 x 0.76 x

1.15 = 3.5 kg/m
Table 4-4: Bottom Charge Concentration]19[.
Hole
DM ( kg/m )
Diameter(mm) Compacting degree
%5
% 10
43
1.9
2
50
2.6
2.75
55
3.2
3.35
60
65
4.4
4.6
75
80
6.5
6.8
90
8
8.4
125
14.5
15.25

% 15
2.1
2.9
3.5
4.8

Em-150 ( kg/m )
Compacting degree
%5
% 10
% 15
1.5
1.6
1.65
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.85
3.2
3.4
3.55
3.8
4
4.2
4.7
4.95
5.2

7.1
8.8
16

Bottom charge (Qb)

Qb can be determined as follows:
Qb = hb x Ib
Qb = 3.5 x 5.2 = 18 Kg
Column charge
Column charge has height hp and concentration Ip.
Column charge height (hp)
hp can be determined as follows:
(hp) = H-hb-Ho = 10-5.2-3.6 = 1.2 m
Where,
h, hb, are given earlier and Ho = uncharged length ~ V1.
ho< V1 Boulder ratio is decreased and fly rock is increased.
ho> V1 Boulder ratio is increased and fly rock is decreased.
Column charge concentration (Ip)
Ip can be determined as follows:
Ip = from 0.4 to 0.6 Ib
Ip = 3.5 x 0.5 = 1.75 kg/m
Column charge (Qp)
Qp can be determined as follows:
Qp = hp x Ip
Qp = 1.75 x 1.2 = 2.1 kg
Where,
hp= column charge height, m.
Ip = charge concentration. Kg/m.
Total charge (Q)
Q can be determined as follows:
58

Q = Qb + Qp = 18 + 2.1 = 20.1 kg
D-I-6 specific Charge (q)
q can be determined as follows:
q = (NQ/V1KB)
q = (26 x 20.1) / (3.6 x 10 x 100) = 0.145 kg/m 3
Where,
N = number of holes/ row.
Q = total charge/hole. kg.
V1 = practical burden, m.
K = bench height, m.
B = bench width, m.

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