Rama - Upload - 2 - CN3135 - Fire & Explosion 1 - NUS Lecture 28.08 PDF

Process Safety, Health and
Environment
CN3135
Ramasami Sundaresan
(Rama)
25/8/2014
NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2
Lecture # 2
Fires and Explosions:
Prevention & Mitigation
Concepts
25/8/2014
Learning Outcomes
1. Describe and identify fire and explosion
hazards in chemical processes
2. Analyse and assess the potential impacts of
these hazards on safety and health of
People, The Environment and Property.
3. Develop methods for controlling process
hazards to minimize fire and explosion risks.
4. Design measures to safely mitigate the
consequences of process incidents
25/8/2014
Scope of Lecture
Inerting
Use of Flammability Diagrams
Static Electricity
Controlling Static Electricity
Ventilation
Explosion Proof Equipment & Instrumentation
Sprinkler Systems
Miscellaneous Design for Preventing Fires &

Explosions
25/8/2014
Prevention & Mitigation Strategy

Threefold prevention and mitigation Strategy
Prevent flammable mixture
Prevent initiation of fire
Minimize damage from fire or explosion
25/8/2014
Bases for Prevention & Mitigation

Prevention
Triangle of Combustion
Fuel combustible or explosive material
Oxygen or oxidant
Heat source of ignition
Mitigation
Arresting the combustion reaction
Containing the energy/effects
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Means of Achieving Prevention and

Mitigation
Prevention
Inerting
Use of Flammability Diagram
Static Electricity & Control

Ventilation

Explosion-proof Equipment & Instrumentation
Mitigation
Sprinkler & Other Fixed Systems
Other Design features
25/8/2014
Inerting
Adding an inert gas to a combustible vapour
mixture to reduce concentration of oxygen below
the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC).
Generally applicable LOC:

Gases:
about 10%
Dusts:
about 8%
Commonly adopted safety margin: 4% below LOC

Gases:
about 6%
Dusts:
about 4%
25/8/2014
Vessel Inerting Protocol

Vessel is emptied and initial inerting done before flammable

material is charged.
Inerting system required to maintain inert atmosphere in the
vapour space above liquid and positive pressure to prevent
air ingress:
Automatic inert gas addition feature to control the oxygen concentration below the LOC (minimizes inert gas)
o
Analyzer to continuously monitor oxygen concentration in

relationship to the LOC
Controlled inert gas feed system to add inert gas with safety
margin
Simple regulator based system to maintain fixed positive inert

pressure in the vapour space
o
25/8/2014
Maintains constant outflow of inert gas to avoid air inflow.

Methods of Initial Vessel Purging

Several purging methods used to initially reduce
the oxygen concentration to the low set point:
Vacuum Purging,
Pressure Purging,
Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging,
Vacuum & Pressure Purging with impure Nitrogen,
Sweep-Through Purging, and
Siphon Purging
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10
Vacuum Purging
Most common inerting procedure for process vessels of

robust construction
Reactors generally designed for full vacuum (-760 mm Hg
gauge or 0.0 mm Hg absolute)
Method not suitable for large, atmospheric tanks
Withstand only very low external pressure - few inches water column
Steps in vacuum purging process:

Drawing a vacuum on the vessel until the desired level
Relieving the vacuum with an inert gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide)

to atmospheric pressure
Repeating above steps until desired oxygen concentration is

reached.
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11
Tank Implosion Due to Vacuum
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12
Vacuum Purging Cycles
P r e s s u r e
End of first
vacuum purge
End of second
vacuum purge
PH
PL
Oxygen
Concentration
is Constant
Number of Moles
of Oxygen is
Constant
Time
Figure 7-1 Vacuum purge Cycles
Initial oxygen concentration - y0
Vessel is initially at pressure PH and is vacuum-purged applying the

vacuum at pressure PL.
Cycle is repeated until target oxygen concentration y1 is reached.

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13
Vacuum Purging
Total moles at each pressure (ideal gas behaviour):
Atmospheric pressure:
=

(7-1)
Vacuum pressure:
=

(7-2)
Oxy moles @ atm:
( )1 =
(7-4)
Oxy moles @ vac:
( )1 =
(7-3)
Dalton's Law: In a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is

equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases
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Vacuum Purging
As vacuum purging cycle is repeated:
Oxidant moles remain the same as at vacuum state;
Nitrogen moles increase.
New (lower) oxidant concentration is calculated using equation 7-5
This process is repeated until desired (reduced) oxidant concentration level

is achieved.
The concentration after j purge cycles (vacuum and relief) is given by

the following general equation:
(7-6)
Please review Example 7-1 Pg. 312
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15
Pressure Purging
Vessels can be pressure-purged by adding
Inert gas, generally N2, is fed into vessel under pressure.
Gas is diffused throughout the vessel and vented down to

atmospheric pressure.
More than one pressure cycle may be necessary to reduce
the oxidant content to the desired concentration.
Cycle repeated to reduce the O2 concentration to a target
level are shown in Figure 7-2.
Vessel is initially at PL (atmospheric) and is pressurized using
a source of pure nitrogen at PH.
Objective is to determine the number of pressure purge cycles
required to achieve target (reduced) O2 concentration.
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Pressure Purging Cycles
P r e s s u r e
End of first
pressure purge
End of second
pressure purge
PH
PL
O2 Concentration
is Constant
Number of Moles of
Oxygen is Constant
Time
Figure 7-1 Pressure purge Cycles
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Pressure Purging
Pressurization phase: As pure N2 is used, number of O2 moles remains

constant, but mole fraction decreases.
Depressurization phase: Composition of the gas remains constant, but
total number of moles is reduced; O2 mole fraction remains unchanged.
Equation 7-6
applies here as well to determine O2 concentration after j purge cycles

(pressure and vent)
nL is now the total moles at atmospheric pressure (low pressure)
nH is the total moles under pressure (high pressure).
Initial concentration of oxidant in the vessel (y0) is computed after the

vessel is pressurized (the first pressurized state).
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18
Combined Pressure Vacuum Purging

Both pressure and vacuum purging may be used simultaneously.

The computational procedure depends on whether the vessel is first
evacuated or pressurized.
(7-6)
Pressurefirst cycle
Start
Start
Time
Figure 7-3 Vacuum-pressure purging
with initial Pressurization.
Vacuumfirst cycle
Time
Figure 7-4 Vacuum-pressure purging
with initial evacuation.
Equation 7-6 is directly applicable but number of cycles j is the number of cycles
after the initial evacuation.
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19
Vacuum & Pressure Purging with

Impure Nitrogen
Nitrogen separation processes available today do not provide pure nitrogen;
typical purity is around 98%+ range.
Equations for pure nitrogen are not applicable.
Assuming N2 contains O2 with a constant mole fraction of yoxy total moles of
O2 present at the end of the first pressurization is given by the moles initially
present plus the moles included with the nitrogen
(7-9)
Arising from this the generalized equation for O2 concentration after j
pressure cycles is:
(7-12)
Equation 7-12 is used in place of 7-6 for both pressure and vacuum purging.
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20
Advantages & Disadvantages

Pressure purging is faster because pressure differentials are

greater. However uses more gas than vacuum purging
Vacuum purging uses less inert gas because oxygen
concentration is reduced primarily by vacuum
Combined pressure-vacuum purging has the advantage of
less nitrogen used compared to pressure purging, especially
if the initial cycle is a vacuum cycle
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21
Sweep-Through Purging

Adds purge gas into a vessel at one opening and withdraws

the mixed gas from the vessel to the atmosphere from another
opening
Commonly used when vessel not rated for pressure or
vacuum
Purge gas is added and withdrawn at atmospheric pressure
The volumetric quantity of inert gas required to reduce the
oxidant concentration from C1 to C2 is Qvt, and it is determined
using:
C1 C0
Qv t = V ln
C
0
2
(7-12)
V is vessel volume
C is concentration of oxidant within vessel (mass or volumetric units)
C0 is inlet oxidant concentration (mass or volumetric units)
Qv is volumetric flow rate
t is time
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Siphon purging
Sweep-through process requires large quantities of nitrogen

making the method expensive
Siphon purging is used to minimize the purging expense by
significantly reducing the inert gas expended
Starts by filling vessel with a liquid - water or any liquid
compatible with product
Purge gas is added to the vapour space of the vessel as the
liquid is drained from vessel
Volume of purge gas = volume of the vessel,
Rate of purging = volumetric rate of liquid discharge.
First filling vessel with liquid and then using sweep-through

purge to remove O2 from the residual head space is cost
effective.
25/8/2014
23
Flammability Diagram (6-6)

Diagram constituents
The Three Sides: Fuel, Oxygen and Inert Material (N2)
In volume or mole %
Significance of the tick marks
The Air Line
From point a1: Fuel = 0% Oxygen = 21%, Inert gas (N2) = 79%
To a2: Fuel = 100% Oxygen = 0%, Inert gas (N2) = 0%
Equation: % =
Stoichiometric Line
25/8/2014

x !"#$% % +
(6-17)
Represents all stoichiometric combinations of fuel + oxygen
24
Flammability Diagram (6-6)

a1
s1
s2
a2
25/8/2014
25
Static Electricity
Sparks resulting from static charge build-up and sudden discharge is a

common ignition source within chemical plants.
Due to its insidious nature, static electricity is perhaps the most elusive of
ignition sources.
Serious explosions and fires by static ignition causes continue to plague the
industry despite considerable expenditure and effort.
Prevention measures depend on the following for success:
Understanding the fundamentals of static charge across the workforce
Designing specific features to prevent the accumulation of static charge
Differentiating those situations where static build-up is inevitable
Where static build-up is unavoidable design (engineered) features are
added to continuously and reliably inert the atmosphere where static
sparks are likely.
25/8/2014
26
Static Electricity Fundamentals

Static charge buildup is a result of physically separating a poor conductor

from a good conductor or another poor conductor.
Electrons move across the surfaces of materials in contact
An imbalance in electrons results upon separating the materials
one material becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged
If both the materials are good conductors, the charge build-up as a result
of separation is small due to the ease of transfer
If one or both are insulators or poor conductors, electrons are not as
mobile and are trapped on one of the surfaces
The magnitude of the charge is much greater.
There are many household examples that result in a build-up of a static
charge e.g. walking across a rug, removing a sweater, etc.
Tendency for charge to build up is greater in dryer climate
25/8/2014
27
Industrial Static Electricity Hazards

The intensity of static hazards in industry is brought about by

the nature of materials handled, their sheer bulk and
continuous operations and repetitive motions.
Common examples:
Pumping a non-conductive liquid through a pipe
Mixing immiscible liquids
Pneumatically conveying solids
The resulting static charges accumulate to develop large
voltages.
Subsequent grounding produces large and energetic sparks.
Dangerous energy near flammable vapors
0.1 mJ
Static buildup by walking across carpet
20 mJ
25/8/2014
28
Electrostatic Relationships
Factors Surrounding a Static and Discharge
Strength of the electrical field produced by the static

charges
Electrostatic potential
Capacitance
Relaxation times
Currents and potentials in flow systems
Others
25/8/2014
29
Charge Accumulation Processes

Contact and Frictional charging

Separation of two materials after being in contact
Double layer charging occurs at microscopic scale

Solid Liquid (including pipe wall)
Gas Liquid
Liquid - Liquid
Induction Charging
Involving electrically conducive media including humans
Common occurrence in tank truck operations
Charging by Transport
Free falling
25/8/2014
30
Static Charge & Ignition Prevention

Two materials at different potentials or polarities come close

enough together to generate a charge transfer.
In an explosive environment this sudden transfer of charges
may be energetic enough to be an ignition source.
Prevention of ignitions
Charges accumulate on objects and dissipation
Means of discharge by means of charge transfer, and
Estimate the resulting energy in relation to the minimum ignition

energy (MIE) of the explosive environment.
25/8/2014
31
Occurrence of Electrostatic Discharges

Discharge to ground or oppositely charged object when

Field intensity exceeds 3MV/m (breakdown voltage of air), or
Surface charge density exceeds 2.7 X 10-5 C/m2
Methods of discharge (6):

Spark between metal objects
Propagating brush - from grounded conductor to charged insulator

(conductor backing)
Conical pile powdery material at high fill rate (0.5kg/s)
Brush between sharp pointed conductors (0.1 100 mm)
Lighting like from cloud in air above powder
Corona discharge similar to brush, energy sufficient to ignite only

sensitive gases.
Estimate the resulting energy in relation to the minimum ignition energy

(MIE) of the explosive environment.
25/8/2014
32
Energy from Electrostatic Discharges
Figure 7-12 Minimum ignition energies

compared to electrostatic discharge energies.
25/8/2014
33
Energy of Electrostatic Ignition Sources

A spark is generated between two conductors when

the distance between the conductors is small compared to the
diameter of the conductors, and
when the electric field intensity between the conductors is
approximately 3 MV/m.
A brush discharge is generated if the distance between the conductors is
large compared to the radius of curvature of the conductor.
The energy of a spark discharge is a function of
the accumulated charge (Q in coulombs) on the object,
the capacitance of the object (C in farads), and
the potential, or voltage (V in volts) of the object.
These variables are related by the expression C = QIV. The actual energy
(expressed in joules) associated with the discharge process is given by
'=
25/8/2014
()
)*
(7-20)
34
Streaming Current

Streaming current Is is the flow of electricity produced by transferring electrons

from one surface to another by a flowing fluid or solid
When a liquid or solid flows through a pipe (metal or glass), an electrostatic
charge develops on the streaming material
The larger the pipe / the faster the flow, the larger the current
The relationship between a liquid streaming current and the pipe diameter, pipe
length, fluid velocity, and fluid properties is given by
(7-21)
where
IS is the streaming current (amps), u is the velocity (m/s), d is the pipe diameter (m),
L is the pipe length (m), and T is the liquid relaxation time (seconds).
The relaxation time is the time required for a charge to dissipate by leakage. It
is determined using
+, +
=
-.
25/8/2014
(7-22)
35

Ignition energy focussed measures are designed to:

Reduce rate of charge generation
Reduce flow rates
Low energy discharges
Increase the rate of charge relaxation
Relaxation tanks after filters, enlarged section of pipe before
entering tanks
When static charge build up cannot be avoided, focus is on limiting
oxidant level
Prevent ignition by inerting the surroundings
Measure generally adopted when working with flammable liquids
that are 5C (or less) below the flash point (closed cup).
25/8/2014
36

Measures targeted at specific risks
Prevent sparks by eliminating the buildup and accumulation of static

charge by
Sparking: Grounding and bonding ()
Propagating brush discharges: Keeping non-conductive surfaces or
coatings thin or increasing conductivity
Conical pile discharges: Decreasing the charge rate below 0.5 kg/s
Brush discharges: Keeping non-conductive surfaces
Lightning like discharges: Keeping vessel volumes below 60 m3
25/8/2014
37
Explosion-Proof Equipment & Instruments

All electrical devices are inherent ignition sources.

Special design features are required to prevent electrical
devices from igniting flammable vapors and dusts.
Fire and explosion hazard is directly proportional to the
number and type of electrically powered devices in a
process area.
International guidelines e.g. US National Electric Code
(NEC), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) are adopted to ensure safe practices.
Two important principles of electrical safeguard in the
chemical industry are:
Explosion-Proof Housing
Area and Material Classification
25/8/2014
38
Ventilation
Well designed Ventilation is an effective means of fire and

explosion prevention measure as it will ensure vapour
concentrations below the explosive range
Open-Air Plants take advantage of natural ventilation to
dilute flammable discharges from processes.
In-Building Plants require carefully designed mechanical
ventilation systems conforming recommended specification
of air-flow and air-changes requirements
25/8/2014
39
Sprinkler Systems

Sprinkler systems are an effective way to contain fires.

The system consists of an array of sprinkler heads
connected to a water supply.
The heads are mounted in a high location (usually near
ceilings) and disperse a fine spray of water over an area
when activated.
The heads are activated by a variety of methods. A
common approach activates the heads individually by the
melting of a fusible link holding a plug in the head
assembly.
Once activated, the sprinklers cannot be turned off unless
the main water supply is stopped.
25/8/2014
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Other Fire and Explosion Prevention Concepts

Active and Passive Fire Protection

Fireproofing
Separation Distances
Emergency Response & Pre-Incident Plans
Evacuation Arrangement & Assembly Areas
Water Supplies & Fire Pumps
Utilities
Emergency Shutdown Systems
Fail Safe Design
Emergency Power Supply
Redundancies
Industry Mutual Aid Arrangement
25/8/2014
41

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Process Safety, Health and

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Use of Flammability Diagrams

Controlling Static Electricity

Explosion Proof Equipment & Instrumentation

Miscellaneous Design for Preventing Fires &

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Prevention & Mitigation Strategy

Prevent flammable mixture

Prevent initiation of fire

Minimize damage from fire or explosion

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Bases for Prevention & Mitigation

Fuel combustible or explosive material

Heat source of ignition

Arresting the combustion reaction

Containing the energy/effects

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Means of Achieving Prevention and

Use of Flammability Diagram

Static Electricity & Control

Explosion-proof Equipment & Instrumentation

Sprinkler & Other Fixed Systems

Other Design features

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Generally applicable LOC:

Commonly adopted safety margin: 4% below LOC

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Vessel Inerting Protocol

Vessel is emptied and initial inerting done before flammable

Analyzer to continuously monitor oxygen concentration in

Simple regulator based system to maintain fixed positive inert

Maintains constant outflow of inert gas to avoid air inflow.

Methods of Initial Vessel Purging

Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging,

Vacuum & Pressure Purging with impure Nitrogen,

Sweep-Through Purging, and

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Most common inerting procedure for process vessels of

Steps in vacuum purging process:

Drawing a vacuum on the vessel until the desired level

Relieving the vacuum with an inert gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide)

Repeating above steps until desired oxygen concentration is

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Tank Implosion Due to Vacuum

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Vacuum Purging Cycles

Figure 7-1 Vacuum purge Cycles

Initial oxygen concentration - y0

Vessel is initially at pressure PH and is vacuum-purged applying the

Cycle is repeated until target oxygen concentration y1 is reached.

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Oxy moles @ atm:

Oxy moles @ vac:

Dalton's Law: In a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is

NUS CN3135: Fire & Explosion 2

Oxidant moles remain the same as at vacuum state;

Nitrogen moles increase.

New (lower) oxidant concentration is calculated using equation 7-5

This process is repeated until desired (reduced) oxidant concentration level