Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving
component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an
engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft
via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is
transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the
fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and
uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.
1.2 Piston Engines
1.2.1 Internal combustion engines

Fig-1.2.1 Internal combustion engine piston, sectioned to show the gudgeon pin
The piston of an internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the
expanding combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder.
This force then acts downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The
connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swiveling gudgeon pin. This pin is mounted
within the piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin
itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the connecting rod.
A few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must
be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall,
usually by circlips.
1

Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron
rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at
a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure.
Two types of ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower
rings have narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many
proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminum alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious
benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that
could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys
such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all
internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US
submarine Pompano as fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R.
double-acting two-stroke diesel engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped
submarine, this design of engine was not repeated.
1.2.2 Trunk pistons

Fig-1.2.2 Trunk piston for a modern diesel engine

Trunk pistons are long, relative to their diameter. They act as both piston and also as a
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for part of its rotation, there is also
a side force that reacts along the side of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer
piston helps to support this.

Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of the
reciprocating internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel
engines, although high speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.
A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that they have a
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin, not just the rings between the gudgeon pin
and crown.
The name trunk piston derives from the trunk engine, an early design of marine steam
engine. To make these more compact, they avoided the steam engine's usual piston rod
and separate crosshead and were instead the first engine design to place the gudgeon pin
directly within the piston. Otherwise these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to
the trunk piston: they were of extremely large diameter and were double-acting. Their
trunk was a narrow cylinder placed mounted in the centre of this piston
1.2.3 Crosshead pistons
Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on
the piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large
piston rod extending downwards from the piston to what is effectively a second smallerdiameter piston. The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings.
The smaller piston is purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk
guide and also carries the gudgeon pin.
1.2.4 Slipper pistons

Fig-1.2.4 Slipper piston

A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size and weight
as much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for
the piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to leave two lands so as to
stop the piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin
are reduced away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the
reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds.
3

A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall, however as
most of this is due to the parts of the piston that are left behind, the benefit is minor.
1.2.5 Deflector pistons

Fig-1.2.5 Two-stroke deflector piston

Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression, where
the gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient
scavenging. With cross scavenging, the transfer inlet to the cylinder and exhaust ports
are on directly facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture
passing straight across from one port to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its
crown. This is intended to deflect the incoming mixture upwards, around the
combustion chamber. Much effort, and many different designs of piston crown, went
into developing improved scavenging. The crowns developed from a simple rib to a
large asymmetric bulge, usually with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve
on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never as effective as hoped. Most
engines today use Schnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of transfer ports in the
sides of the cylinder and encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical axis, rather
than a horizontal axis.
1.2.6 Steam engines

Fig-1.2.6.1 Cast-iron steam engine piston, with a metal piston ring spring-loaded against
the cylinder wall.
4

Steam engines are usually double-acting i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each
side of the piston and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves,
piston valves or poppet valves. Consequently, steam engine pistons are nearly always
comparatively thin discs: their diameter is several times their thickness. One exception
is the trunk engine piston, shaped more like those in a modern internal-combustion
engine.

Fig-1.2.6.2 Early piston for a beam engine. The piston seal is made by turns of wrapped
rope.
1.3 Drawbacks
Since the piston is the main reciprocating part of an engine, its movement creates an
imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a vibration, which causes the
engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction between the walls of the cylinder and the
piston rings eventually results in wear, reducing the effective life of the mechanism.
The sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and as a result, many
reciprocating engines rely on heavy noise suppression equipment to diminish droning and
loudness. To transmit the energy of the piston to the crank, the piston is connected to a
connecting rod which is in turn connected to the crank. Because the linear movement of
the piston must be converted to a rotational movement of the crank, mechanical loss is
experienced as a consequence. Overall, this leads to a decrease in the overall efficiency of
the combustion process. The motion of the crank shaft is not smooth, since energy
supplied by the piston is not continuous and it is impulsive in nature. To address this,
manufacturers fit heavy flywheels which supply constant inertia to the crank. Balance
shafts are also fitted to some engines, and diminish the instability generated by the piston's
movement.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Piston Functions
In an internal combustion engine, pistons convert the thermal into mechanical energy.
The functions of the pistons are
To transmit the gas forces via the connecting rod to the crank shaft,
To seal - in conjunction with the piston rings - the combustion chamber against gas
leakage to the crankcase and to prevent the infiltration of oil from the crankcase
into the combustion chamber,
To dissipate the absorbed combustion heat to the cylinder liner and the cooling oil.
Aluminum alloys are the preferred material for pistons both in gasoline and diesel
engines due to their specific characteristics: low density, high thermal conductivity,
simple net-shape fabrication techniques casting and forging, easy machinability, high
reliability and very good recycling characteristics. Proper control of the chemical
composition, the processing conditions and the final heat treatment results in a
microstructure which ensures the required mechanical and thermal performance, in
particular the high thermal fatigue resistance.
The continuing development of modern gasoline and diesel engines leads to specific
objectives for further piston development: reduction of piston weight, increase of
mechanical and thermal load capacity, lower friction and thus improved scuffing
resistance, etc. In addition, the basic requirements for durability, low noise level and
minimum oil consumption have to be taken into account. These goals are achieved by a
targeted combination of high performance aluminum piston materials, novel piston
designs and the application of innovative coating technologies.
For future development, new aluminum materials using e.g. powder-metallurgical
production methods or aluminum-based metal matrix composites produced by various
methods as well as other lightweight materials such as magnesium alloys, carbon, etc., are
being investigated. However, the ongoing improvements achieved with cast and forged
aluminum alloys reveal that aluminum piston materials still offer great optimization
potential and will continue to play a dominant role as piston material in the future.
2.2 Operating Conditions
Pistons are subjected to high mechanical and thermal loads.
The mechanical loads on the piston result from extreme pressure cycles with peak
pressures up to 200 bar in the combustion chamber and
6

 Huge forces of inertia caused the by extremely high acceleration during the
reciprocating motion of pistons.
These mechanical loads are superimposed by thermal stresses which are primarily
generated by the high temperature gradients prevalent on the piston top. Ever rising
demands regarding power density as well as the need for reduced emissions, low noise
and more efficient fuel and oil consumption are the main engineering challenges for
engines. For the pistons, these challenges translate into maximum strength requirements in
the relevant temperature range combined with minimum weight.
In gasoline engines, the thermal loads have risen significantly during the last years as a
result of higher power demands. Also the stresses at average ignition pressure have
increased as a consequence of the introduction of knock control, direct fuel injection and
turbocharging. Moreover, high speed concepts have led to an increase in inertia load. The
requirements for pistons for diesel engines are even more demanding. Modern diesel
engines for passenger cars equipped either with direct injection or super-charging with
charge cooling operate with injection pressures up to 2,000 bar, mean effective pressures
over 20 bar, peak pressures of 170 to 200 bar, and achieve specific powers of up to 80 kW
per liter. But also the demand for ever lower exhaust gas emissions asks for significantly
improved piston material characteristics.
The different elements of the piston system are indicated in the following schematic
drawing:

Fig-2.2.1 Important piston terms

The thermal loads on the piston result from the combustion process with peak gas
temperatures in the combustion chamber between 1800 and 2600C depending on type of
engine, fuel, gas exchange, compression, and fuel/gas ratio. Exhaust gases have
7

temperatures between 500 and 800 C. Combustion heat is transferred to the chamber
walls and piston top primarily by convection. The heat is then dissipated by the water
cooling of the chamber walls and by the oil cooling of the piston. A large share of the heat
absorbed by the piston top is transferred by the piston ring belt area. The remainder is
essentially removed by the oil lubricant impinging on the underside of the piston.
The resulting temperature profile within the piston is schematically outlined in the
following figure:

Fig-2.2.2 Operating temperatures in automotive engines under full load

2.3 Piston Materials
Pistons are produced from cast or forged, high-temperature resistant aluminum silicon
alloys. There are three basic types of aluminum piston alloys. The standard piston alloy is
a eutectic Al-12%Si alloy containing in addition approx. 1% each of Cu, Ni and Mg.
Special eutectic alloys have been developed for improved strength at high temperatures.
Hypereutectic alloys with 18 and 24% Si provide lower thermal expansion and wear, but
have lower strength. In practice, the supplier of aluminum pistons use a wide range of
further optimized alloy compositions, but generally based on these basic alloy types.
The majority of pistons are produced by gravity die casting. Optimized alloy
compositions and a properly controlled solidification conditions allow the production of
pistons with low weight and high structural strength. Forged pistons from eutectic and
hypereutectic alloys exhibit higher strength and are used in high performance engines
where the pistons are subject to even high stresses. Forged pistons have a finer
microstructure than cast pistons with the same alloy composition. The production process
8

results in greater strength in the lower temperature range. A further advantage is the
possibility to produce lower wall thicknesses - and hence reducing the piston weight.
Also aluminum metal matrix composite materials are used in special cases. Pistons
with Al2O3 fiber reinforced bottoms are produced by squeeze casting and used mainly in
direct injection diesel engines. The main advantage, apart from a general improvement of
the mechanical properties, is an improvement of the thermal fatigue behavior.
2.4 Design Considerations for Automotive Pistons
In engines for passenger cars, the diameter of the aluminum pistons for both gasoline
and diesel engines ranges typically between 65 and 110 mm. There are two basic types:
mono-metal aluminum pistons
Aluminum pistons with cast-in elements.
Steel or ceramic cast-in elements are used as local reinforcements to improve the high
temperature mechanical properties and/or to control thermal expansion i.e. reduce the
effects of different thermal expansion coefficients in contact areas with other materials.
Mono-metal pistons can be used in combination with cast iron engine blocks, but only
in low-performance engines due to the larger clearance needed on account of the
difference in thermal expansion between cast iron and aluminum. In engines with an
aluminum engine block, this effect causes no problem, but special care must be taken to
properly control friction and wear in the tribological system cylinder-piston-piston ring.

Fig-2.4 Mono metal piston

2.4.1Pistons with cast-in control elements

When used in cast iron engine blocks, the thermal expansion of aluminum pistons
is usually controlled by cast-in steel struts in the pin boss area. During engine operation,
undesired thermal expansions are thereby avoided and the advantages of small clearances
can be fully utilized.

Fig-2.4.1. Cast-in steel control strut

Diesel engines with pre-chamber, swirl chamber or direct injection operate under
higher gas pressures and temperatures compared to gasoline engines. This increases the
loads on the first ring groove, which is consequently strengthened by a cast-in stainless
steel ring carrier in standard piston designs.
The even higher thermal loads in supercharged diesel engines are reduced by efficient
cooling through a cooling gallery, a hollow annular cooling channel filled with oil through
a nozzle installed in the crankcase. The cooling channel is usually produced using a salt
core technology, but other methods are also possible, in particular for squeeze cast pistons
where the cooling gallery is used in combination with ceramic fiber reinforcements.

Fig-2.4.2 other cast-in features

10

For improved running properties, the piston skirt is generally protected by a wear
resistant coating to reduce friction and hence to increase the scuffing resistance. Different
coating methods are used as chromium plating, chemical nickel deposition, etc.
During the last two decades, different measures allowed a reduction of the oscillating
masses by 20 - 25 % in the system piston connecting rod. The suitable choice of piston
material proved to be just as crucial as an optimum production process and an appropriate
design to achieve the ideal combination of low weight and high stability/reliability. A
critical factor is also the application of the proper piston rings. Piston rings are produced
from cast iron and steel and optimized in their performance with electroplated, thermalsprayed or vapour-deposited coatings whether for reducing the flank wear, longer service
intervals, better conformity to the cylinder, reducing oil consumption, or reducing friction
2.5 Current Examples of Aluminium Pistons
Modern cast aluminium pistons for gasoline engines such as the ECOFORM
piston concept developed by MAHLE are designed for minimum weight while increasing
the load-bearing capacity. The inclination of the box walls enables relatively large skirt
widths in the lower region and improves the stress distribution in the support area. For the
next generation of lightweight pistons - the EVOTEC piston - additional changes relating
to the skirt connection, enlarged recesses behind the ring belt on the pin axis, an
asymmetrical skirt width as well as supporting ribs on the pin axis result in further weight
reductions of up to 10%.

Fig-2.5.1 Cast piston

The piston skirt for gasoline engines with cast iron or steel cylinder surfaces is usually
coated with GRAFAL. GRAFAL helps to reduce friction and hence increases the scuffing
resistance. For the application in aluminum cylinder surfaces, MAHLE uses the iron
particle reinforced synthetic resin coating FERROPRINT. MAHLE's new Ferro Tec
galvanic iron layer is another ongoing development available on the market. These
11

coatings are necessary to enable the combination of aluminum pistons with pure
aluminum engine blocks and hence represent an essential contribution to an overall
reduction in engine weight.
Another piston system optimized for fuel economy and CO2 emissions is offered by
KS Kolbenschmidt.
The totally harmonized piston-cylinder system consists of the LITEKS2 advanced
piston generation, the NANOFRIKS coating, the high duty alloy KS 309TM, a low
friction ring pack, a lightweight bushless sinter-forged conrod, and a DLC-coated piston
pin. As a result, the system friction could be reduced by 32% and the system weight by
10%. At the same time, the fatigue strength was improved and an excellent balance
between noise excitation and scuff resistance was achieved.

Fig-2.5.2 Forged piston

Forged pistons are common in motor racing, but they are increasingly used also in
series-produced engines subject to high stresses. Forged pistons have a finer
microstructure than cast pistons with the same alloys. The production process results in
greater strength in the lower temperature range. A further advantage is the opportunity for
producing lower wall thicknesses-and hence reducing the weight.
Aluminium pistons for diesel engines require improved material properties with respect
to the high temperature loads, especially a greater fatigue resistance over a wide
temperature range. Standard features include ring carriers made from high-strength,
austenitic cast iron for increasing the wear resistance of the first ring groove, salt core
cooling channels or cooled ring carriers. For engines with especially high loads, bushings
are used in the piston pin bores.
12

Fig-2.5.3 Aluminium piston for diesel engine

In piston production for diesel engines, MAHLE utilizes the extremely heat-resistant
aluminium alloy "M174+". In addition, MAHLE improved the casting process with its
newly developed ADC Advanced Diesel Casting method. With ADC, a fine
microstructure can be achieved in the high-stress zone of the bowl rim, which improves
fatigue resistance and the resistance to temperature fluctuations. To improve the piston
properties at critical points the piston structure or inserted subsequently.
In addition to the measures described earlier, such as casting-in a ring carrier and
inserting bushings, fibers made from aluminum oxides are infiltrated for strengthening the
combustion bowl subject to high thermal stresses. The fibre reinforcement enables an
increased fatigue resistance, improved rigidity as well as increased thermal shock
resistance.
With its cooled ring carrier, MAHLE has developed a solution for high volume
production which achieves a significant improvement in piston cooling in the critical areas
of the bowl rim and first ring groove. The cooled ring carrier consists of a Niresist ring
carrier onto which a thin austenitic steel sheet is welded with inlet and outlet openings.
Cast-in in the piston, the combined insert brings the cooling oil even closer to the
combustion chamber and the first ring groove.
A critical area of high-loaded state-of-the-art diesel pistons is the combustion chamber
bowl. Specific engine performance outputs of 70 kW/l and more result in bowl edge
temperature exceeding 400 C. The combination of thermal-mechanical fatigue and high
frequency fatigue resulting from the gas forces may lead to cracking at the bowl edge or
other areas of the bowl. In diesel pistons from KS Kolbenschmidt, the required
improvement of the material characteristics is achieved by the newly developed alloy V4
and a process-controlled microstructure adapted to the specific thermal and mechanical
piston loads.
13

For especially high thermal and mechanical loads at the bowl edge, KS Kolbenschmidt
has developed a laser re-melting technology where the zone subjected to high loads is remelted under controlled conditions to produce an optimized, fine and homogeneous
microstructure. This process improves the thermal fatigue properties of the critical zone by
up to 60%.

Fig-2.5.4 Critical zone

2.6 Outlook
Modern engines with variable valve train or different direct injection concepts require
pistons with complex crown shapes which would often lead to a higher piston weight.
Therefore in every new piston development, the piston geometry is optimized in particular
in the ring belt/piston skirt area. Intensive application of numerical simulation methods
enables significant weight reductions while increasing at the same time the load-bearing
capacity. Newly developed alloys with better cast ability, but also higher fatigue resistance
in the critical temperature and stress region, allow the realization of thinner wall
structures. Improved casting methods enable large recesses for the ring belt and hence a
considerable reduction in the piston weight. Boring or milling the internal areas of the
pistons also helps reduce the weight. Improved piston cooling and the reduction of piston
friction are other features which have to be considered. Local reinforcements with cast-in
metallic or ceramic inserts offer further development potential. Thus the aluminum piston
has not yet reached its limits.
But also the use of steel pistons in diesel engines for passenger cars is discussed again
and again. The advantages of steel pistons such as reduced installation clearances, low fuel
consumption figures and long service life would have to be evaluated against customer
demands such as low emission levels, lightweight, efficient cooling and a competitive
price. But up to now, there are no definite indications that steel pistons would be a viable
concept for mass production.
14

Chapter 3
DESIGN OF PISTON
3.1 Function of Piston
The piston transforms the energy of the expanding gasses into mechanical energy. The
piston rides in the cylinder liner or sleeve. Pistons are commonly made of aluminum or
cast iron alloys. To prevent the combustion gasses from bypassing the piston and to keep
friction to a minimum, each piston has several metal rings around it.
These rings function as the seal between the piston and the cylinder wall and also act to
reduce friction by minimizing the contact area between the piston and the cylinder wall.
The rings are usually made of cast iron and coated with chrome or molybdenum. Most
diesel engine pistons have several rings, usually 2 to 5, with each ring performing a
distinct function. The top rings acts primarily as the pressure seal. The intermediate rings
acts as a wiper ring to remove and control the amount of oil film on the cylinder walls.
The bottom rings is an oiler ring and ensures that a supply of lubricating oil is evenly
deposited on the cylinder walls.
3.2 Piston Assembly
Engine pistons serve several purposes. They transmit the force of combustion to the
crankshaft through the connecting rod. They act as a guide for the upper end of the
connecting rod. And they also serve as a carrier for the piston rings used to seal
the compression in the cylinder.
The piston must come to a complete stop at the end of each stroke before
reversing its course in the cylinder. To withstand this rugged treatment and wear, it
must be made of tough material, yet be lighting weight. To overcome inertia and
momentum at high speed, it must be carefully balanced and weighed. All the
pistons used in any one engine must be of similar weight to avoid excessive vibration.
Ribs are used on the underside of the piston to reinforce the hand.
The ribs also help to conduct heat from the head of the piston to the piston rings and
out through the cylinder walls.

15

Fig-3.2 Piston and piston rod

The structural components of the piston are the head, skirt, ring grooves, and land.
However, all pistons do not look like the typical one. Some have differently shaped heads.
Diesel engine pistons usually have more ring grooves and rings than gasoline engine
pistons. Some of these rings may be installed below as well as above the wrist or piston
pin.
Fitting pistons properly is important. Because metal expands when heated
and space must be provided for lubricants between the pistons and the cylinder
walls, the pistons are fitted to the engine with a specified clearance. This clearance
depends upon the size or diameter of the piston and the material form which it is
made. Cast iron does not expand as fast or as much as aluminum. Aluminum pistons
require more clearance to prevent binding or seizing when the engine gets hot. The skirt of
bottom part of the piston runs much cooler than the top; therefore, it does not
require as much clearance as the head.
The piston is kept in alignment by the skirt, which is usually cam ground elliptical in
cross section. This elliptical shape permits the piston to fit the cylinder, regardless of
whether the piston is cold or at operating temperature. The narrowest diameter of the
piston is at the piston pin bosses, where the piston skirt is thickest. At the widest diameter
of the piston, the piston skirt is thinnest. The piston is fitted to close limit sat its widest
diameter so that the piston noise is prevented during the engine warm-up. As the
piston is expanded by the heat generated during operation, it becomes round because the
expansion is proportional to the temperature of the metal. The walls of the skirt are cut
away as much as possible to reduce weight and to prevent excessive expansion during
engine operation. Many aluminum pistons are made with split skirts so that when the
pistons expand, the skirt diameter will not increase.

16

The two types of piston skirts found in most engines are the full trunk and the slipper.
The full-trunk-type skirt, more widely used, has a full cylindrical shape with bearing
surfaces parallel to those of the cylinder, giving more strength and better control of the oil
film. The slipper-type cutaway skirt has considerable relief on the sides of the skirt,
leaving less area for possible contact with the cylinder walls and thereby reducing
friction.
3.2.1 Piston Pin
The piston is attached to the connecting rod by the piston pin or wrist pin. The pin
passes through the piston pin bosses and through the upper end of the connecting rod,
which rides within the piston on the middle of the pin. Piston pins are made of alloy steel
with a precision finish and are case hardened and sometimes chromium plated to increase
their wearing qualities. Their tubular construction gives them maximum strength with
minimum weight. They are lubricated by splash from the crankcase or by pressure through
passages bored in the connecting rods.
Three methods are commonly used for fastening a piston pin to the piston and the
connecting rod: fixed pin, semi floating pin, and full-floating pin. The anchored, or fixed,
pin attaches to the piston by as crew running through one of the bosses; the connecting rod
oscillates on the pin. The semi floating pin is anchored to the connecting rod and turns in
the piston pin bosses. The full-floating pin is free to rotate in the connecting rod and in
the bosses, while plugs or snap-ring locks prevent it from working out against the sides
of the cylinder.
3.2.2 Piston Rings
Piston rings are used on pistons to maintain gastight seals between the pistons and
cylinders, to aid in cooling the piston, and to control cylinder-wall lubrication. About
one-third of the heat absorbed by the piston passes through the rings to the cylinder wall.
Piston rings are often complicated in design, are heat treated in various ways, and are
plated with other metals. Piston rings are of two distinct classifications: compression
rings and oil control rings.
The principal function of a compression ring is to prevent gases from leaking by
the piston during the compression and power strokes. All piston rings are split to permit
assembly to the piston and to allow for expansion. When the ring is in place, the ends
of the split joint do not form a perfect seal; therefore, more than one ring must be used,
and the joints must be staggered around the piston. If cylinders are worn, expanders are
sometimes used to ensure a perfect seal. The bottom ring, usually located just above the
piston pin, is an oil-regulating ring. This ring scrapes the excess oil from the cylinder
17

walls and returns some of it, through slots, to the piston ring grooves. The ring groove
under an oil ring has openings through which the oil flows back into the crankcase. In
some engines, additional oil rings are used in the piston skirt below the piston pin.
In every engine, piston plays an important role in working and producing results.
Piston forms a guide and bearing for the small end of connecting rod and also transmits
the force of explosion in the cylinder, to the crank shaft through connecting rod.
The piston is the single, most active and very critical component of the automotive
engine. The Piston is one of the most crucial, but very much behind-the-stage parts of
the engine which does the critical work of passing on the energy derived from the
combustion within the combustion chamber to the crankshaft. Simply said, it carries
the force of explosion of the combustion process to the crankshaft. Apart from the
critical job that it does above, there are certain other functions that a piston invariably
does-It forms a sort of a seal between the combustion chambers formed within the
cylinders and the crankcase. The pistons do not let the high pressure mixture from the
combustion chambers over to the crankcase.
3.3 Construction of Piston
Its top known by many names such as crown, head or ceiling and thicker than bottom
portion. Bottom portion is known as skirt. There are grooves made to accommodate the
compression rings and oil rings. The groove, made for oil ring, is wider and deeper than
the grooves made for compression ring. The oil ring scraps the excess oil which flows into
the piston interior through the oil return holes and thus avoiding reaching the combustion
chamber but helps to lubricate the gudgeon pin to some extent. In some designs the oil
ring is provided below the gudgeon pin boss .The space between the grooves are called
as land.
The diameter of piston always kept smaller than that of cylinder because the piston
reaches a temperature higher than cylinder wall and expands during engine operation. The
space between the cylinder wall and piston is known as piston clearance. The diameter of
the piston at crown is slightly less than at the skirt due to variation in the operating
temperatures. Again the skirt itself is also slightly tapered to allow for unequal expansion
due to temperature difference as we move vertically along the skirt the working
temperature is not uniform but slightly decrease.
3.4 Design of Piston
A piston does the dirty work of actually taking the brunt of the force of explosion
arising of the combustion of the fuel and passes it onto the crankshaft the big, heavy part
18

of an engine that rotates due to the movement of the piston. It takes a tremendous amount
of pressure about 1000 Psi notwithstanding the severe heat that it has to take.

Fig-3.5. Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E)
Exhaust camshaft, (I) Intake camshaft, (S) Spark plug, (V) Valves, (P) Piston, (R)
Connecting rod, (C) Crankshaft, (W) Water jacket for coolant flow.
Now, when designing pistons, the weight is a serious determining factor. Imagine the
scenario on one hand you would need the pistons to be able to pick up all that heat and
pressure, but on the other hand, you still want it light. Material sciences come to the
rescue again with aluminum leading the pack for the choice with its favorable strength-toweight ratio; the fact that it is easily machinable, has a great thermal conductivity can
transfer heat quickly and most importantly, it is light weight, aluminum is the choice
material for making pistons today.
However, the big brother cast iron is also used for the construction of pistons for the
above mentioned reasons, except that it is heavy and hence is used for limited applications
like slow-speed engines and the like.
The crown head of the piston takes heat and hence expands more than the other parts of
the piston. So this area, the upper part of the piston, is machined to a diameter slightly
lesser than the rest of the piston the skirt, mainly. Yet another way of controlling the
pistons expansion is cut a slot into the skirt the main body of the piston. So when the
piston heats, up the skirt simply closes itself due to the metal expansion and prevents the
piston to expand outwards and touch the cylinder.
In order to reduce wear and increase the life of piston grooves in high speed engines, a
ferrous metal rings are inserted into the grooves.
19

The piston rings, which are also called as compression rings are fit closely in the
grooves provided in the piston. These rings are worn out before the wearing of the piston
and cylinder wall. Hence by replacing the same, we can avoid replacement of piston or
cylinder.
The leakage of the high temperature gases produced during power stroke in the
combustion chamber is prevented by piston rings. The piston rings form an effective seal
and at the same time transmit heat from crown to the cylinder walls and hence keep the
temperature within the workable limit. There should be at least two piston rings in each
piston of internal combustion engine. For the higher capacity engines, there are four or
even six piston rings have been used. The number of rings is depending upon the capacity
and size of the I.C.Engine.
In order to achieve the effective seal against lubricating oil and high pressure gases
leakage, a great pressure must be exerted, by each ring on the cylinder walls. To produce
this effect, the rings are made slightly larger in the diameter than that of cylinder bore and
cutting small gap which is partly narrowed when the ring is fitted. The end gap in the
piston ring provides flexibility to the ring and the same time allowing for thermal
expansion. There are another rings used in piston grooves, called as, Oil Scraper Rings.
The function of these rings are, only as much quantity of the oil as it just sufficient to
maintain proper lubrication is allowed to reach the skit. The excess oil which would have
leaked in the combustion chamber without serving any useful purpose and rather leading
to carbonization is scraped off by the oil scraper ring.
While mounting the piston rings over the piston, a great care should be taken to ensure
that the gaps of various rings should not fall in the same vertical line. The piston rings of
internal combustion engines are made in various sections such as, standard, tapered,
grooved, wedge and L shape. Whereas oil scraper rings are made as, narrow, wide,tapered
and six segment cord.
The cast iron along with 2.5% silicon will provide a good wear resistance to piston
ring. In case of passenger cars, the piston rings are usually plated with Chromium Tin or
Cadmium. The plating reduces the rate of cylinder wear and hence increases the life of
internal combustion engine.
The piston engine was first proposed by R.P. Pescara and the original application was a
single piston air compressor. The engine concept was a topic of much interest in the
period 1930-1960. These first generation piston engines were without exception opposed
piston engines, in which the two pistons were mechanically linked to ensure symmetric
motion. Piston engines provided some advantages over conventional technology,
including compactness and a vibration-free design. The first successful application of the
20

piston engine concept was as air compressors. In these engines, air compressor cylinders
were coupled to the moving pistons, often in a multi-stage configuration. Some of these
engines utilized the air remaining in the compressor cylinders to return the piston, thereby
eliminating the need for a rebound device. Piston air compressors were in use because it
has advantages of high efficiency, compactness and low noise and vibration after the
success of the piston air compressor. A number of piston gas generators were developed,
and such units were in widespread use in large-scale applications such as stationary and
marine power plants.
High operational flexibility, and excellent part load performance has been reported for
such engines.
3.5 Piston Description
Pistons move up and down in the cylinders which exerts a force on a fluid inside the
cylinder. Pistons have rings which serve to keep the oil out of the combustion chamber
and the fuel and air out of the oil. Most pistons fitted in a cylinder have piston rings.
Usually there are two spring-compression rings that act as a seal between the piston and
the cylinder wall, and one or more oil control ring s below the compression rings. The
head of the piston can be flat, bulged or otherwise shaped. Pistons can be forged or cast.
The shape of the piston is normally rounded but can be different. A special type of cast
piston is the hypereutectic piston. The piston is an important component of a piston
engine and of hydraulic pneumatic systems. Piston heads form one wall of an expansion
chamber inside the cylinder. The opposite wall, called the cylinder head, contains inlet
and exhaust valves for gases.
As the piston moves inside the cylinder, it transforms
the energy from the expansion of a burning gas usually a mixture of petrol or diesel and
air into mechanical power in the form of a reciprocating linear motion. From there the
power is conveyed through a connecting rod to a crankshaft, which transforms it into a
rotary motion, which usually
3.5.1 Piston head or crown
The piston head or crown may be that convex or concave depending upon the design
of combustion chamber.
It with stands the pressure of gas in the cylinder.
The selection of piston crown primarily depends upon the requirement of values
for the combustion chamber.
3.5.2. Piston rings
These are used to seal the cylinder in order to prevent leakage of the gas past the
piston.
21

To act as passage of heat flow from piston crown to the wall of the cylinder.
To act as a lubricating oil controller on the cylinder wall so as to minimize wear.
To absorb some part of the piston due to side thrust.
The material for piston rings is usually cast iron & alloy cast iron due to their good
wearing qualities & also they retain the spring characteristics ever at high
temperatures.

Piston Rings are of Two Types

Compression rings - Sealing of the combustion gas.
Heat transfer from piston crown to the cylinder wall.
Oil control rings - To prevent excessive oil from passing through the end gap
of rings and between the cylinder wall & the ring face.
3.6 Different Types of Pistons
Various types of pistons are employed on different engines. This is because each
type fulfils some specific requirements on a particular engine. Some pistons have complex
head formation, some have specially formed skirts, and other have geometrical
peculiarities. Based on various considerations, the pistons may be categorized as follows
On the basis of head formation:
Deflector head piston
combustion chamber type piston
Domed and depression headed piston.
On the basis of skirt profile :
Slipper piston
Cutway piston
On the basis of skirt piston:
solid skirt piston
split skirt piston
On the basis of other specialties:
Cam ground piston
Taper piston
Oval piston
3.7 Materials for Manufacturing Pistons
Aluminium alloys give light pistons and for better heat dissipation, aluminium alloys
are the ideal materials due to their very high thermal conductivity. Aluminium is 3 times
lighter than cast iron. Its strength is good at low temperatures but is looses about 50% of
22

its strength at temperatures above about 320c .Its expansion is about 2 times that of
cast iron and the resistance to abrasion is low at height temperatures. However these
disadvantageous properties of aluminium have now been ever come by alloying it with
other materials and by developing advanced designs of pistons. The split skirt, T-slotted as
well as cam ground, oval sectioned pistons made from aluminium alloys are mostly used
which can be tightly fitted into the cylinder born to eliminate piston slap. A coating of
aluminium oxide or tin on aluminium alloys pistons has been found to be protective
against scuffing or partial seizure during running in after overhaul.
For a cast iron piston the temperature at the centre of the piston head Tc is about
425c to 450c under full load conditions and the temperatures at the edges of the
piston head Tb is about 200c to 225c.
For aluminium alloy piston, Temp is about 260c to 290c and Te is about 185c
to 215c.
Since the aluminium alloys are about three times lighter than cast iron, Therefore its
mechanical strength is good at low temperatures, but they lose their strength about 50% at
temperatures above 325c.
3.7.1Cast Iron
It is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and furnaces by the definition cast iron
is an alloy and iron and carbon containing more 2% of carbon. It contains
carbon
-3.0-4.0%
Silver
-1.0
Manganese
-0.5-1.0%
Sulphur
-upto0.1%
Phosphors
-upto0.1%
Iron
-remainder.
3.7.2 Properties of Cast Iron

It is brittle material.
Good casting
High compressive strength.
High wheel resistance.
Poor machine ability
Tensile strength -100 to 200mpa
Compressive strength-400 to 1000mpa
Shear strength -120mpa

23

Chapter 4
INTRODUCTION TO ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
4.1 History
Aluminum is the worlds most abundant metal and is the third most common element,
comprising 8% of the earths crust. The versatility of aluminum makes it the most widely
used metal after steel. Although aluminum compounds have been used for thousands of
years, aluminum metal was first produced around 170 years ago.
In the 100 years since the first industrial quantities of aluminum were produced,
worldwide demand for aluminium has grown to around 29 million tons per year. About 22
million tons is new aluminium and 7 million tons is recycled aluminium scrap. The use of
recycled aluminium is economically and environmentally compelling. It takes 14,000
kWh to produce 1 tonne of new aluminium. Conversely it takes only 5% of this to remelt
and recycle one tonne of aluminium. There is no difference in quality between virgin and
recycled aluminium alloys.
Pure aluminium is soft, ductile, corrosion resistant and has a high electrical
conductivity. It is widely used for foil and conductor cables, but alloying with other
elements is necessary to provide the higher strengths needed for other applications.
Aluminium is one of the lightest engineering metals, having a strength to weight ratio
superior to steel.
By utilising various combinations of its advantageous properties such as strength,
lightness, corrosion resistance, recyclability and formability, aluminium is being
employed in an ever-increasing number of applications. This array of products ranges
from structural materials through to thin packaging foils.
4.2 Properties of Aluminium
The major advantages of using aluminium are tied directly to its remarkable
properties. Some of these properties are outlined in the following sections.
4.2.1 Strength to Weight Ratio
Aluminium has a density around one third that of steel and is used advantageously in
applications where high strength and low weight are required. This includes vehicles
where low mass results in greater load capacity and reduced fuel consumption.
24

4.2.2 Corrosion Resistance

When the surface of aluminum metal is exposed to air,a protective oxide coating forms
almost instantaneously. This oxide layer is corrosion resistant and can be further enhanced
with surface treatments such as anodizing.
4.2.3 Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
Aluminum is an excellent conductor of both heat and electricity. The great advantage
of aluminum is that by weight, the conductivity of aluminum is around twice that of
copper. This means that aluminum is now the most commonly used material in large
power transmission lines. The best alternatives to copper are aluminum alloys in the 1000
or 6000 series. These can be used for all electrical conduction applications including
domestic wiring.
Weight considerations mean that a large proportion of overhead, high voltage power
lines now use aluminum rather than copper. They do however, have a low strength and
need to be reinforced with a galvanized or aluminum coated high tensile steel wire in each
strand.
4.2.4 Light and Heat Reflectivity
Aluminum is a good reflector of both visible light and heat making it an ideal material
for light fittings, thermal rescue blankets and architectural insulation.
4.2.5 Toxicity
Aluminium is not only non-toxic but also does not release any odours or taint products
with which it is in contact. This makes aluminium suitable for use in packaging for
sensitive products such as food or pharmaceuticals where aluminium foil is used.
4.2.6 Recycling
The recyclability of aluminium is unparalleled. When recycled there is no degradation
in properties when recycled aluminium is compared to virgin aluminium. Furthermore,
recycling of aluminium only requires around 5 percent of the input energy required to
produce virgin aluminium metal.
The combination of two remarkable properties of aluminium makes the need to recycle
the metal obvious. These first of these factors is that there is no difference between virgin
and recycled aluminium. The second factor is that recycled aluminium only uses 5% of the
25

energy required to produce virgin material. Currently around 60% of aluminium metal is
recycled at the end of its lifecycle but this percentage can still be vastly improved.
4.3 Aluminum Production
Aluminium is extracted from the principal ore, bauxite. Significant bauxite deposits are
found throughout Australia, the Caribbean, Africa, China and South America. Open cut
techniques are commonly used to mine the bauxite.
The bauxite is purified using the Bayer process. This process involves dissolving
aluminumtrihydrate to leave alumina plus iron and titanium oxides. The iron and titanium
oxides are by-products of the process and are often referred to as red mud. Red mud must
be disposed of with strong consideration given to environmental concerns.
Approximately two tones of bauxite are required to yield one tonne of alumina. The
extraction of aluminum from alumina is achieved using an electrolytic process. A cell or
pot is used that consists of a carbon lined steel shell. This shell forms a cathode. A
consumable carbon anode is suspended in liquid cryolite sodium aluminium fluoride held
within the pot at 950C. Alumina is dissolved in the cryolite by passing low voltages at
high amperages through the pot. This results in pure aluminium being deposited at the
cathode.
4.4 Environmental Considerations
The aluminium industry is very conscious of the environmental impact of its activities.
The mining and smelting of aluminium, plus the disposal of red mud can have a major
environmental impact if not done properly. The industry is proud of its efforts and
achievements in rehabilitating open cut mine sites and the restoring flora and fauna to
these sites. Such efforts have been rewarded with awards from the United Nations
Environment Programme and red mud disposal areas are now being successfully
revegetated. Environmental requirements are met on pot line emissions through the use of
specialist scrubbing system.
4.5 Applications
The properties of the various aluminium alloys has resulted in aluminium being used in
industries as diverse as transport, food preparation, energy generation, packaging,
architecture, and electrical transmission applications.

26

Depending upon the application, aluminium can be used to replace other materials like
copper, steel, zinc, tin plate, stainless steel, titanium, wood, paper, concrete and
composites. Some examples of the areas where aluminium is used are given in the
following sections.
4.5.1 Packaging
Corrosion resistance and protection against UV light combined with moisture and
odour containment plus the fact that aluminium is non-toxic and will not leach or taint the
products has resulted in the widespread use of aluminium foils and sheet in food
packaging and protection. The most common use of aluminium for packaging has been in
aluminium beverage cans. Aluminium cans now account for around 15% of the global
consumption of aluminium.
4.5.2 Transport
After the very earliest days of manned flight, the excellent strength to weight ratio of
aluminium have made it the prime material for the construction of aircraft. These same
properties of aluminium mean various alloys are now also used in passenger and freight
rail cars, commercial vehicles, military vehicles, ships & boats, buses & coaches, bicycles
and increasingly in motor cars.
The sustainable nature of aluminium with regards to corrosion resistance and
recyclability has helped drive the recent increases in demand for aluminium vehicle
components.
4.5.3 Marine Applications
Aluminium plate and extrusions are used extensively for the superstructures of ships.
The use of these materials allows designers to increase the above waterline size of the
vessel without creating stability problems. The weight advantage of aluminium has
allowed marine architects to gain better performance from the available power by using
aluminium in the hulls of hovercraft, fast multi-hulled catamarans and surface planning
vessels.
Lower weight and longer lifecycles have seen aluminium become the established
material for helidecks and helideck support structures on offshore oil and gas rigs. The
same reasons have resulted in the widespread use of aluminium in oil rig stair towers and
telescopic personnel bridges.

27

4.5.4 Building and Architecture

Aluminium use in buildings covers a wide range of applications. The applications
include roofing, foil insulation, windows, cladding, doors, shop fronts, balustrading,
architectural hardware and guttering. Aluminium is also commonly used as the in the form
of tread plate and industrial flooring.
4.5.5 Foils
Aluminum is produced in commercial foils as thin as 0.0065 mm or 6.5 m. Material
thicker than 0.2mm is called sheet or strip. Aluminum foil is impervious to light, gases,
oils and fats, volatile compounds and water vapour. These properties combined with high
formability, heat and cold resistance, non toxicity, strength and reflectivity to heat and
light mean aluminum foil is used in many applications. These applications include:

Pharmaceutical packaging
Food protection and packaging
Insulation
Electrical shielding
Laminates

4.5.6 Other Applications

The above applications account for approximately 85% of the aluminium consumed
annually. The remaining 15% is used in a wide variety of applications including:

Ladders
High pressure gas cylinders
Sporting goods
Machined components
Road barriers and signs
Furniture
Lithographic printing plates

This Data is indicative only and must not be seen as a substitute for the full
specification from which it is drawn. In particular, the mechanical property requirements
vary widely with temper, product and product dimensions. The information is based on
our present knowledge and is given in good faith. However, no liability will be accepted
by the Company is respect of any action taken by any third party in reliance thereon.
28

As the products detailed may be used for a wide variety of purposes and as the
Company has no control over their use; the Company specifically excludes all conditions
or warranties expressed or implied by statute or otherwise as to dimensions, properties
and/or fitness for any particular purpose.
4.6 Aluminum Alloy LM25
This alloy conforms to British Standard 1490 LM25. Castings are standardized in the
following conditions as Cast, LM25-M precipitation treated LM25 - TE; solution treated
and stabilized LM25 - TB7; and fully heat - treated LM25 - TF.
Element
Copper
Magnesium
Silicon
Iron
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Titanium*
Aluminium

%
0.1 max.
0.20-0.60
6.5-7.5
05 max
03 max
0.1max
01max
01max
0.05max
02max
Remainder

*0.05% min if Titanium alone used for grain refining.

Fig-4.6.1 Chemical Composition of LM 25
4.6.1 Strength at Elevated Temperatures
The tensile properties of LM25 alloy at elevated temperatures are influenced by the
condition heat -treatment of the castings and the duration at the elevated temperature. For
short term testing e.g. 30 minutes at temperature, the properties fall only slowly and
uniformly up to about 200oC at which temperature for example, the strength of LM25-TF
is reduced by approximately 20%, Very prolonged heating 10,000 hours results in
Sharp, loss of strength at about135oC and at 200oC the strength on LM25-TS is less than
half of that at room temperature. For prolonged service at elevated temperatures above
130oC there is, therefore, no practical advantage to be gained by heat treatment.
4.6.2 Machinability
The heat treated alloy has fairly good machining properties, but tools should
preferably be of high speed steel and must be kept sharp. A moderately high rate of tool
wear may be expected. Liberal cutting lubricant should be employed.
29

4.6.3 Corrosion Resistance

Resistance to corrosive attack by sea water and marine atmospheres is high.
4.6.4 Anodizing
A protective anodic film can be obtained by either the sulphuric or chromic acid
process but the grey opaque character of coatings of normal thickness precludes their
colouring in light shades for decorative purposes. Achievement of the specified minimum
tensile properties is dependent on maintaining the optimum magnesium content. Care
must therefore be taken during melting and degassing to avoid loss of magnesium by
oxidation resulting from overheating or by excessive chlorination.
4.6.5 Heat Treatment
LM25-TE Precipitation treated - Heat for 8-12 hours at 155- 175c and allow to cool in
airLM25-TB7 Solution treated and stabilized heat for 4-12 hours at 525-545C and quench
in hot water, followed by a stabilizing treatment at 250C for 2-4 hours.LM25-TF fully
heat treated- heat for 4-12 hours at 525- 545C and quench in hot water, followed by a
precipitation treatment of 8-12 hours at 155-175OC.
4.6.6 Application
LM25 alloy is mainly used where good mechanical properties are required in castings
of a shape or dimensions requiring an alloy of excellent castability in order to achieve the
desired standard of soundness.
The alloy is also used where resistance to corrosion is an important consideration
particularly where high strength is also required.
Consequently LM25 finds application in the food, chemical, marine, electrical and
many other industries and above all in road transport vehicles where it is used for cylinder
blocks and heads, and other engine and body castings. Its potential uses are increased by
its availability in four conditions of heat treatment in both sanded chill castings. It is, in
practice, the general purpose high strength casting alloy.
4.7 Aluminum Alloy 7475-T761
4.7.1 General Characteristics of Aluminum 7475
Aluminum 7475 offers strength and fracture toughness while resisting fatigue crack
propagation. Its an ideal aircraft alloy appropriate for fuselage skins and bulkheads, and
wing parts for commercial, fighter and transport airplanes.
30

4.7.2 Composition Notes:

Aluminum content reported is calculated as remainder.
Composition information provided by the Aluminum Association and is not for design.
Key Words: UNS A97475; ISO AlZn5.5MgCu; Aluminum 7475-T761; AA7475-T761
Component Wt. %

Component Wt. %

Component Wt. %

Al

88.5-91.5

Mg

1.9-2.6

Si

Max 0.1

Cr

0.18-0.25

Mn

Max 0.06

Ti

Max 0.06

Cu

1.2-1.9

Other,each

Max 0.05

Zn

5.2-6.2

Fe

Max 0.12

Other,total

Max 0.15

Table 4.7.2 Composition of Aluminium Alloy 7475-T761

4.7.3 Material Properties
Physical Properties
Metric
2.81 g/cc

English
0.102 lb/in

Comments
AA; Typical

Mechanical Properties
Hardness, Brinell

140

140

Hardness, Knoop

177

177

Hardness,
Rockwell A

51.6

51.6

Hardness,
Rockwell B

84

84

500 kg load
with 10 mm ball.
Calculated value.
Converted
from Brinell
Hardness Value
Converted
from Brinell
Hardness Value
Converted
from Brinell
Hardness Value

162

162

Ultimate Tensile
Strength

517 MPa

75000 psi

Converted
from Brinell
Hardness Value
AA; Typical

Tensile
Strength

448MPa

65000 psi

AA; Typical

Density

Hardness,
Vickers

Yield

31

Elongation
Break

at

12%

12 %

Modulus
Elasticity

of

70.3 GPa

10200 ksi

Poisson's Ratio

0.33

0.33

Shear Modulus

27GPa

3920 ksi

310 MPa

45000 psi

Calculated
value.

4.32e006 ohm-cm

AA; Typical
at 68F

23.2 m/m-C

12.9 in/inF

AA; Typical;
Average over 68212F range.

linear 25.2 m/m-C

14 in/in-F

Average
over the range 20300C

Heat 0.88 J/g-C

0.21 BTU/lbF

Estimated
from trends in similar
Al alloys.

Thermal
Conductivity

147 W/m-K

1020 BTUin/hr-ft-F

AA; Typical
at 77F

Melting Point

477 - 635 C

890 - 1175 F

AA; Typical
range based on
typical composition
for wrought products
1/4 inch thickness or
greater

Allowable
Strength

Electrical Properties
Electrical
4.32e-006
Resistivity
cm

ohm-

AA; Typical;
1/16 in. (1.6 mm)
Thickness
AA; Typical;
Average of tension
and compression.
Compression
modulus is about 2%
greater than tensile
modulus.

Thermal Properties
CTE, linear 68F

CTE,
250C

Specific
Capacity

Solidus

477 C

890 F

AA; Typical

Liquidus

635 C

1175 F

AA; Typical

32

Processing Properties
Annealing
Temperature

413 C

775 F

Solution
Temperature

516 C

960 F

Aging
Temperature

121 - 177 C

250 - 350 F

must be
preceded by soak at
870 to 890F

Table 4.7.3 Material Properties of Aluminium Alloy 7475-T761

4.7.4 Heat Treatment of Aluminum 7475

Strength, fracture toughness optimization

Solution treating
Aging
4.7.5 Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum 7475

Acceptable exfoliation resistance in -T61 and -T651 tempers

Comparable or better than other high-strength alloys, including 7075, 7050, and
2024
4.7.6 Workability of Aluminum 7475

Improved forming vs. 7075

7475 sheet offers super plastic forming qualities in some instances
Heat treat to standard -T62 or -T762 temper for required corrosion resistance and
toughness
4.7.7 Applications of Aluminum 7475

Fuselage parts
Skin
Bulkheads
Wing components
Upper and lower skins
Spars

33

4.8 Aluminum Alloy 6061

4.8.1 Background
Aluminum alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used of the 6000 series
aluminum alloys. It is a versatile heat treatable extruded alloy with medium to high
strength capabilities.
4.8.2 Composition
Typical composition of aluminium alloy 6061
Component

Amount (wt.%)

Aluminium

Balance

Magnesium

0.8-1.2

Silicon

0.4 0.8

Iron

Max. 0.7

Copper

0.15-0.40

Zinc

Max. 0.25

Titanium

Max. 0.15

Manganese

Max. 0.15

Chromium

0.04-0.35

Others

0.05

Table 4.8.2 Composition of Aluminium Alloy 6061

4.8.3 Key Properties
Typical properties of aluminium alloy 6061 include:
Medium to high strength
Good toughness
Good surface finish
Excellent corrosion resistance to atmospheric conditions
Good corrosion resistance to sea water
Can be anodized
Good weldability and brazability
34

 Good workability
Widely available
4.8.4 Physical Properties
Density: 2.7 g/cm3
Melting Point: Approx 580C
Modulus of Elasticity: 70-80 GPa
Poissons Ratio: 0.33
4.8.5 Mechanical Properties
Temper

Ultimate Tensile 0.2%

Strength (MPa)

Proof Brinell

Stress (MPa)

Elongation

Hardness
(500kg

50mm dia (%)

load,

10mm ball)
0

110-152

65-110

T1

180

95-96

T4

179 min

110 min

T6

260-310

240-276

30-33

14-16
16

95-97

9-13

Table 4.8.5 Mechanical Properties of Alluminium Alloy 6061

4.8.6 Thermal Properties
Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion (20-100C): 23.5x10-6 m/m.C
Thermal Conductivity: 173 W/m.K
4.8.7 Electrical Properties
Electrical Resistivity: 3.7 4.0 x10-6 .cm
4.8.8 Typical Heat Treatment/Temper States
Treatment

Definition

As fabricated

Annealed to obtain lower strength temper

T1
T4, T4511

Cooled from an elevated shaping process and

naturally aged
Solution heat treated and naturally aged

T51

Cooled from an elevated shaping process and

T6, T6511

Solution heat treated and artificially aged

Table 4.8.8 Heat Treatment

35

 This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after cooling
from an elevated temperature shaping process, or in which the effect of cold
work in flattening or straightening has no effect on mechanical properties
This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after solution
heat-treated, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening
has no effect on mechanical properties
This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after solution
heat-treatment, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening
does not effect mechanical properties.
4.8.9 Material Properties
Physical Properties

Metric

Density

2.70 g/cc

Mechanical Properties

Metric

Hardness, Brinell

30

Tensile Strength, Ultimate

124 MPa

Tensile Strength, Yield

55.2 MPa

Elongation at Break

25.0 % @Thickness 1.59 mm

30.0 % @Diameter 12.7 mm

Modulus of Elasticity

68.9 GPa

Ultimate Bearing Strength

228 MPa

Bearing Yield Strength

103 MPa

Poissons Ratio

0.330

Fatigue Strength

62.1 MPa
@# of Cycles 5.00e+8

Machinability

30 %

Shear Modulus

26.0 GPa

Allowable Strength

82.7 MPa

Electrical Properties

Metric

Electrical Resistivity

0.00000366 ohm-cm
@Temperature 20.0 C

36

Thermal Properties

Metric

CTE, linear

23.6 m/m-C
@Temperature 20.0 - 100 C
25.2 m/m-C
@Temperature 20.0 - 300 C

Specific Heat Capacity

0.896 J/g-C

Thermal Conductivity

180 W/m-K

Melting Point

582 - 651.7 C

Solidus

582 C

Liquidus

651.7 C

Processing Properties

Metric

Solution Temperature

529 C

Aging Temperature

160 C

Component Elements Properties

Metric

Aluminum, Al

95.8 - 98.6 %

Chromium, Cr

0.040 - 0.35 %

Copper, Cu

0.15 - 0.40 %

Iron, Fe

<= 0.70 %

Magnesium, Mg

0.80 - 1.20 %

Manganese, Mn

<= 0.15 %

Other, each

<= 0.050 %

Other, total

<= 0.15 %

Silicon, Si

0.40 - 0.80 %

Titanium, Ti

<= 0.15 %

Zinc, Zn

<= 0.25 %

Table 4.8.10 Material Properties of Aluminum Alloy 6061

37

4.8.10 Applications
Typical applications for aluminium alloy 6061 include:
Aircraft and aerospace components
Marine fittings
Transport
Bicycle frames
Camera lenses
Driveshafts
Electrical fittings and connectors
Brake components
Valves
Couplings

38

Chapter 5
DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF PISTON
5.1 Pressure Calculations
Suzuki GS 150 R specifications
Engine type : air cooled 4-stroke SOHC
(
)
Bor
Displacement
=149.5CC
Maximum power
= 13.8bhp @8500rpm
Maximum torque
= 13.4Nm @ 6000 rpm
Compression ratio
= 9.35/1
Density of petrol
= 0.00073722 kg/cm3
= 0.00000073722 kg/mm3
T = 60F =288.855K =15.550C
Mass = density
m = 0.00000073722
m = 0.11kg
molecular wt. for petrol 144.2285 g/mole
R = Gas constant
PV = mRT
where m = mass/molecular wt.
R = Gas constant
P=
P = 15454538.533 j/m3 = N/m2
P =15.454 N/mm2
5.2 Design calculation for Material - Aluminum Alloy 6061
Temperature at the center of piston head TC = 2600c to 2900c
Temperature at the edge of piston head TE = 1850c to 2150c
Maximum gas pressure p = 15.454N/mm2
Bore or outside diameter of piston = 57mm
5.2.1 Thickness of piston head
th =
39

where

= allowable stress =

= 82.7Mpa

th =
th =
= 10.669mm
or
Considering heat transfer
th =(

Thermal Conductivity= 180w/mk

TC TE = The temperature difference
TC TE = 750c
H = Heat flowing the piston head = C HCV m B.P(in KW)
C = constant representing the portion of the heat supplied to the engine which is
absorbed by the piston = 0.05
HCV =Higher Calorific Value of the fuel = 47 103KJ/kg for petrol
m = mass of fuel used in kg per brake power per second
BP = brake power of the engine per cylinder
H = CxHCVx(m/BP)xBP
H = 0.05x47x103x0.11
H = 258.5KJ/s
th= 258.5/(12.56x180x75)
= 0.001524 m
th = 1.524 mm
th = 10.699mm
5.2.2Piston rings
Radial thickness t1 = D
t1 = 57
= pressure of the gas on the cylinder wall
= 0.042N/mm2
= allowable bending(tensile stress) for cast iron rings
= 110Mpa
t1

= 57

t1 = 1.93mm
axial thickness t2 = D/10nr = 57/10 3 = 1.9mm
40

nr = no of rings = 3
width of the top land b1= 1.2
b1 = 1.2(10.669) =12.8028 mm
with of other land i.e distance between ring grooves
b2 = t2 = 1.9mm
the gap between the free ends of the ring = 3.5t to 4t = 7.72mm
5.2.3 Piston barrel
t3 = 0.03D + b +4.5
b = radial depth of piston ring
b = t1 +0.4 = 2.33mm
t3 = 0.03 57+2.33+4.5
t3 = 8.54mm
The piston wall thickness towards the open end
t4 = 0.35t3 = 2.989mm
5.2.4 Piston skirt
Maximum gas load on the piston
P = p D2/4 = (15.454
572)/4
P = 30414.88611N
Maximum side thrust on the cylinder
R = p/10 = 3941.488611
R = bearing pressure x bearing area of the piston skirt
R = pb D l
l = length of the piston skirt in mm
l =45.6N/mm2
Bearing pressure pb = 1.5N/mm2
Total length of the piston
L = length of the skirt+length of ring section + top land
Length of ring section = 5 b2 or t2 = 9.5mm
L = 45.6 + 9.5 + 6.54 = 61.64mm
5.2.5Piston pin - material heat treated alloy steel
Center of piston pin should be 0.02D to 0.04D above
The center of skirt = 0.04D = 2.28mm above center of skirt
Tensile strength = 710 to 910Mpa
Length of the pin in the connecting rod bushing
41

l1 = 0.45D = 25.65mm
load on the piston due to gas pressure = 39414.88611N
p =bearing pressurebearing area
p = pb1d0l1
l1 = 25.65mm
pb1 = 50 100Mpa for bronze pb1 = 100Mpa
d0 = p/pb1 l1 = 15.36mm
Inner diameter of piston pin di = 0.6d0 = 9.21mm
Maximum bending moment at the center of pin
M = P.D/8 = (39414.88611x57)/8
M = 280831.06
Z = /32[(d0)4 (dc)4/d0]
Z=

=
Z = 2478.48
Allowable bending stress b = M/Z = 113.3
This is less then the allowable value 140mpa for heat treated alloy steel
The mean diameter of the piston losses = 1.5d0
= 23.04mm
5.3 Design Calculation for Material - Aluminum Alloy 7475-T761
Material: Aluminum alloy 7475-T761
Temperature at the center of piston head Tc = 2600c to 2900c
Temperature at the edge of piston head Te = 1850c to 2150c
Maximum gas pressure p = 15.454N/mm2
Bore or outside diameter of piston = 57mm
5.3.1 Thickness of piston head

th =
42

= 310Mpa
th =
th =
= 5.5108mm
or
Considering heat transfer
th =(

Thermalconductivity = 147w/mk
TC TE= 750c
H = C HCV m B.P(in KW)
C = constant = 0.05
HCV = 47 103KJ/kg for petrol
m = mass of fuel for brake power per second
BP = brake power
H = C HCV
H = 0.05 47 103

0.11

H = 258.5
th =(

th= 258.5/(12.56 147 75)

= 0.001866 m
th = 1.866 mm
th = 5.5108mm
5.3.2 Piston rings
Radial thickness t1 = D
t1 = 57
= pressure of the gas on the cylinder wall
= 0.042N/mm2
= allowable bending(tensile stress) for cast iron rings
= 110Mpa
t1 = 57
43

t1 = 1.93mm
axial thickness t2 = D/10nr = 57/10 3 = 1.9mm
nr = no of rings = 3
width of the top land b1= 1.2th
b1 = 1.2(5.5108) =6.61296 mm
With of other land (i.e) distance between ring grooves
b2 = t2 = 1.9mm
The gap between the free ends of the ring = 3.5t to 4t = 7.72mm
5.3.3 Piston barrel
t3 = 0.03D + b +4.5
b = radial depth of piston ring
b = t1 +0.4 = 2.33mm
t3 = 0.03 57+2.33+4.5
t3 = 8.54mm
The piston wall thickness towards the open end
t4 = 0.35t3 = 2.989mm
5.3.4 Piston skirt
Maximum gas load on the piston
P = p D2/4 = (15.454
572)/4
P = 30414.88611N
Maximum side thrust on the cylinder
R = p/10 = 3941.488611
R = bearing pressure x bearing area of the piston skirt
R = pb D l
l = length of the piston skirt in mm
l =45.6N/mm2
Bearing pressure pb = 1.5N/mm2
Total length of the piston
L = length of the skirt+length of ring section + top land
Length of ring section = 5 b2 or t2 = 9.5mm
L = 45.6 + 9.5 + 6.54 = 61.64mm
5.3.5 Piston pin - material heat treated alloy steel
Center of piston pin should be 0.02D to 0.04D above
The center of skirt = 0.04D = 2.28mm above center of skirt
44

Tensile strength = 710 to 910Mpa

Length of the pin in the connecting rod bushing
l1 = 0.45D = 25.65mm
load on the piston due to gas pressure = 39414.88611N
p =bearing pressurebearing area
p = pb1xd0xl1
l1 = 25.65mm
pb1 = 50 100Mpa for bronze pb1 = 100Mpa
d0 = p/pb1 l1 = 15.36mm
Inner diameter of piston pin di = 0.6d0 = 9.21mm
Maximum bending moment at the center of pin
M = P.D/8 = (39414.88611x57)/8
M = 280831.06
Z = /32[(d0)4 (dc)4/d0]
=

=
Z = 2478.48
Allowable bending stress b = M/Z = 113.3
This is less then the allowable value 140mpa for heat treated alloy steel
The mean diameter of the piston losses = 1.5d0
= 23.04mm

45

Chapter 6
INTRODUCTION TO CAD
6.1- CAD
Computer Aided Design is a technique in which man and machine are blended in to
problem solving team, intimately coupling the best characteristics of each. The result of
this combination works better than either man or machine would work alone , and
by using a multi discipline approach, it offers the advantages of integrated team work.
The advances in Computer Science and Technology resulted in the emergence of very
powerful hardware and software tool. It offers scope for use in the entire design process
resulting in improvement in the quality of design. The emergency of CAD as a field of
specialization will help the engineer to acquire the knowledge and skills needed in the use
of these tools in an efficient and effective way on the design process.
Computer Aided Design is an interactive process, where the exchange of information
between the designer and the computer is made as simple and effective as possible.
Computer aided design encompasses a wide variety of computer based methodologies
and tools for a spectrum of engineering activities planning, analysis, detailing, drafting,
construction, manufacturing, monitoring, management, process control and maintenance.
CAD is more concerned with the use of computer-based tools to support the entire life
cycle of engineering system.
6.2 Introduction to pro/engineer
Pro,ENGINEER is the industrys de facto standard 3D mechanical design suit. It is the
worlds leading CAD/CAM /CAE software, gives a broad range of integrated solutions to
cover all aspects of product design and manufacturing. Much of its success can be
attributed to its technology which spurs its customers to more quickly and consistently
innovate a new robust, parametric, feature based model. Because that PRO/ENGINEER is
unmatched in this field, in all processes, in all countries, in all kind of companies along
the supply chains. Pro/Engineer is also the perfect solution for the manufacturing
enterprise, with associative applications, robust responsiveness and web connectivity that
make it the ideal flexible engineering solution to accelerate innovations.
Pro/Engineer
provides easy to use solution tailored to the needs of small medium sized enterprises as
well as large industrial corporations in all industries, consumer goods, fabrications and
assembly. Electrical and electronics goods, automotive, aerospace, shipbuilding and plant
design. It is user friendly solid and surface modeling can be done easily.
46

6.3 Advantages of Pro/Engineer

Ability to changes in late design process is possible.
It provides a very accurate representation of model specifying all other
dimensions hidden geometry etc.
It is user friendly it is much faster and more accurate.
Once a design is completed. 2d and 3d views are readily obtainable.
The both solid and surface modeling can be done.
It provides a greater flexibility for change. For example if we like to change the
dimensions of our model, all the related dimensions in design assembly,
manufacturing etc. Will automatically change.
It provides clear 3d models, which are easy to visualize and understand.
Pro/engineer provides easy assembly of the individual parts or models created it
also decreases the time required for the assembly to a large extent.
Pro/ENGINEER is a feature-based, parametric solid modeling system with many
extended designed manufacturing applications. As a comprehensive CAD/CAE/CAM
system, covering many aspects of mechanical design, analysis and manufacturing,
Pro/ENGINEER represents threading edge of CAD/CAE/CAM technology.

47

Chapter 7
3D MODELS OF PISTON
7.1 Aluminum Alloy 7475-T761
7.1.1 2 D model of piston

Fig-7.1.1 2 D model of piston for Aluminum Alloy 7475-T761

7.1.2 3D Model of Piston

Fig-7.1.2 3D Model of Piston for Aluminum Alloy 7475-T761

48

7.2 Aluminum Alloy 6061

7.2.1 2 D model of piston

Fig-7.2.1 2D model of piston for aluminum alloy 6061

7.2.2 3D Model of Piston

Fig-7.2.2 3D Model of piston for aluminum alloy 6061

49

7.3 2D Drafting of Piston

7.3.1 Aluminum alloy 7475-T761

Fig-7.3.1 2D drafting of aluminum alloy 7475-t761 piston

7.3.2 Aluminum alloy 6061

Fig-7.3.2 2D drafting of aluminum alloy 6061 piston

50

Chapter 8
INTRODUCTION TO FEA
8.1 Introduction
Finite Element Analysis FEA was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized
the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain
approximate solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956
by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader
definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the stiffness and deflection of
complex structures.
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally
owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid
decline in the cost of computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA
has been developed to an incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to
produce accurate results for all kinds of parameters.
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's
specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or
structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case
of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet
the new condition.
There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and
3-D modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run
on a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling,
however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the
fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer
can insert numerous algorithms functions which may make the system behave linearly or
non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account
plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also
are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh.
This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define
how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain
51

density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular
area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node
density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of:
fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress
areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh
element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material
properties to the object, creating many elements.
A wide range of objective functions variables within the system are available for
minimization or maximization:
Mass, volume, temperature
Strain energy, stress strain
Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
Synthetic User defined
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some
examples are shown:

Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads

Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis

Enforced displacements

Heat flux and convection

Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time.
Some sample elements are:

Rod elements

Beam elements

Plate/Shell/Composite elements

Shear panel

Solid elements

Spring elements

Mass elements

Rigid elements

Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials
within the structure such as:

Isotropic, identical throughout

Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees

General anisotropic, different throughout

52

8.2 Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models
consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material
then vary with the amount of deformation as in.
Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and
impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the
material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.
Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing
the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where
crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the
damage tolerance of the material.
Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the
material or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state
transfer refers to constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.
8.3 Results of Finite Element Analysis
FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by
showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical
stresses within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the
manufacturing costs which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.
In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:
8.3.1 Preprocessing
The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the geometry is divided
into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements, connected at discrete points called
nodes. Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and others will have
prescribed loads. These models can be extremely time consuming to prepare, and
commercial codes vie with one another to have the most user-friendly graphical
preprocessor to assist in this rather tedious chore. Some of these preprocessors can overlay
a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element analysis can be done conveniently
as part of the computerized drafting-and-design process.

53

8.3.2 Analysis
The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element code
itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations
Kijuj = fi. Where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal
points. The formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked,
and this module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses.
Commercial codes may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to a
wide range of problem types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem
types can be addressed with the same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element
types from the library.
8.3.3 Postprocessing
In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore through reams of
numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at discrete positions
within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and hot spots this way, and modern
codes use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the results.
8.4 Introduction to ANSYS
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis FEA software package. Finite
Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very
small pieces of user-designated size called elements. The software implements equations
that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive
explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in
tabulated or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the design and
optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into
this category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing equations.
ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department
at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the
Physics and Chemistry departments.
ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or
processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual
prototyping.With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to
optimize the product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in
the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS
also provides a means to ensure that users are able to see the effect of a design on the
whole behavior of the product, be it electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.
54

8.5 Generic Steps to Solving any Problem in ANSYS

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define

solution domain,

The physical model,

Boundary conditions and

The physical properties.

Then solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main
difference is an extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex
model into small elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation.
Below describes the processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.
8.5.1 Build Geometry
Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be modeled and
tested using the work plane coordinates system within ANSYS.
8.5.2 Define Material Properties
Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that compose the
object or project being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.
8.5.3 Generate Mesh
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the
modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.
8.5.4 Apply Loads
Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with constraints,
such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.
8.5.5 Obtain Solution
This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state steady
state, transient etc the problem must be solved.

55

8.5.6 Present the Results

After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS results,
choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots.
8.6 Specific Capabilities of ANSYS
8.6.1 Structural

Fig-8.6.1 Structural analysis

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element
method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical
structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as
mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.
8.6.1.1 Static Analysis
Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions.
ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can
include plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity,
contact surfaces, and creep.
8.6.1.2 Transient Dynamic Analysis
Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All
nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.
8.6.1.3 Buckling Analysis
Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape. Both
linear eigen value buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.
56

In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are

available such as Fracture mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue, and both
p-Method and Beam analyses.
8.6.2 Thermal

Fig-8.6.2 Thermal analysis

ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with
thermal boundary conditions.
Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads on a
system or component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a
transient thermal analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis
also can be the last step of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient
effects have diminished. ANSYS can be used to determine temperatures, thermal
gradients, heat flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object that are caused by thermal loads
that do not vary over time. Such loads include the following:

Convection
Radiation
Heat flow rates
Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)
Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)
Constant temperature boundaries

A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties;
or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties
of most material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being appreciable,
the analysis becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis
nonlinear. Transient calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve
distributions as well as create video for time incremental displays of models.
57

8.6.3 Fluid Flow

Fig-8.6.3 Fluid flow analysis

The ANSYS/FLOTRAN CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics offers
comprehensive tools for analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid flow
fields. ANSYS is capable of modeling a vast range of analysis types such as: airfoils
for pressure analysis of airplane wings lift and drag, flow in supersonic nozzles, and
complex, three-dimensional flow patterns in a pipe bend. In addition,
ANSYS/FLOTRAN could be used to perform tasks including:

Calculating the gas pressure and temperature distributions in an engine

exhaust manifold

Studying the thermal stratification and breakup in piping systems

Using flow mixing studies to evaluate potential for thermal shock

Doing natural convection analyses to evaluate the thermal performance

of chips in electronic enclosures

Conducting heat exchanger studies involving different fluids separated

by solid regions
FLOTRAN analysis provides an accurate way to calculate the effects of fluid flows
in complex solids without having to use the typical heat transfer analogy of heat flux as
fluid flow. Types of FLOTRAN analysis that ANSYS is able to perform include:

Laminar or Turbulent Flows

Thermal Fluid Analysis
Adiabatic Conditions
Free surface Flow
Compressible or incompressible Flows
Newtonian or Non-Newtonian Fluids
Multiple species transport

These types of analyses are not mutually exclusive. For example, a laminar analysis
can be thermal or adiabatic. A turbulent analysis can be compressible or incompressible.
58

8.6.4 Magnetic

Fig-8.6.4 Magnetic analysis

Magnetic analyses, available in the ANSYS/Multiphysics and ANSYS/Emag
programs, calculate the magnetic field in devices such as:

Power generators

Magnetic tape/disk drives

Transformers

Waveguides

Solenoid actuators

Resonant cavities

Electric motors

Connectors

Magnetic imaging systems

Antenna radiation

Video display device sensors

Filters

Cyclotrons
Typical quantities of interest in a magnetic analysis are:

Magnetic flux density

Power loss
Magnetic field intensity
Flux leakage
Magnetic forces and torques
S-parameters
Impedance
Quality factor
Inductance
59

Return loss
Eddy currents
Eigen frequencies

Magnetic fields may exist as a result of an electric current, a permanent magnet, or an

applied external field.
8.6.5 Acoustics / Vibration

Fig-8.6.5 Noise analysis and optimization of a Craftsman Table Saw Blade

ANSYS is capable of modeling and analyzing vibrating systems in order to that
vibrate in order to analyze
Acoustics is the study of the generation, propagation, absorption, and reflection of
pressure waves in a fluid medium. Applications for acoustics include the following:
Sonar - the acoustic counterpart of radar
Design of concert halls, where an even distribution of sound
pressure is desired
Noise minimization in machine shops
Noise cancellation in automobiles
Underwater acoustics
Design of speakers, speaker housings, acoustic filters, mufflers,
and many other similar devices.
Geophysical exploration
Within ANSYS, an acoustic analysis usually involves modeling a fluid medium and
the surrounding structure. Characteristics in question include pressure distribution in
the fluid at different frequencies, pressure gradient, and particle velocity, the sound
pressure level, as well as, scattering, diffraction, transmission, radiation, attenuation,
and dispersion of acoustic waves. A coupled acoustic analysis takes the fluid-structure
60

interaction into account. An uncoupled acoustic analysis models only the fluid and
ignores any fluid-structure interaction.
The ANSYS program assumes that the fluid is compressible, but allows only relatively
small pressure changes with respect to the mean pressure. Also, the fluid is assumed to be
non-flowing and inviscid that is, viscosity causes no dissipative effects. Uniform mean
density and mean pressure are assumed, with the pressure solution being the deviation
from the mean pressure, not the absolute pressure.
8.6.6 Coupled Fields Analysis
A coupled-field analysis is an analysis that takes into account the interaction
coupling between two or more disciplines fields of engineering. A piezoelectric
analysis, for example, handles the interaction between the structural and electric fields:
it solves for the voltage distribution due to applied displacements, or vice versa. Other
examples of coupled-field analysis are thermal-stress analysis, thermal-electric
analysis, and fluid-structure analysis.
Some of the applications in which coupled-field analysis may be required are
pressure vessels thermal-stress analysis, fluid flow constrictions fluid-structure
analysis, induction heating magnetic-thermal analysis, ultrasonic transducers
piezoelectric analysis, magnetic forming magneto-structural analysis, and micro-electro
mechanical systems MEMS.
8.7 Modal Analysis
A modal analysis is typically used to determine the vibration characteristics natural
frequencies and mode shapes of a structure or a machine component while it is being
designed. It can also serve as a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis,
such as a harmonic response or full transient dynamic analysis.
Modal analyses, while being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available in
ANSYS, can also be more computationally time consuming than a typical static analysis.
A reduced solver, utilizing automatically or manually selected master degrees of freedom
is used to drastically reduce the problem size and solution time.
8.8 Harmonic Analysis
Used extensively by companies who produce rotating machinery, ANSYS
Harmonic analysis is used to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of structures to
consistent cyclic loading. Examples of rotating machines which produced or are
subjected to harmonic loading are:
61

Turbines
Gas Turbines for Aircraft and Power Generation
Steam Turbines
Wind Turbine
Water Turbines
Turbo pumps
Internal Combustion engines
Electric motors and generators
Gas and fluid pumps
Disc drives

A harmonic analysis can be used to verify whether or not a machine design will
successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.

62

Chapter 9
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
9.1 Sequence of steps for Aluminum Alloy 6061for Model-1

Importing the piston model from Pro/Engineer

Defining the Thermal Environment.
Defining the Structural Environment.
Solution phase-assigning loads and solving.
Post processing and viewing the results.

Boundary Conditions- In a piston under static conditions it is supported by the gudgeon

pin region. So, the areas corresponding to these have to be constrained in all degrees of
freedom. The working pressure is 15.454 Mpa. Pressures applied at the top of the piston.
9.1.1 Importing the piston model
Utility menu > file > Import > browse >Pro/Engineer part model
ANSYS Utility menu > plot controls > style > solid model facets> normal faceting.
Before going into the later part of the analysis a little bit of description, regarding the
type of analysis and the method used appears to be mandatory.

Fig-9.1.1 Model of piston in ANSYS

63

9.1.2 Defining the thermal environment:

Give the analysis title:
Utility menu > file >change title>optimization of piston.
Give the preferences:
ANSYS main menu>preferences>thermal.
Define the type of Element:
Preprocessor > elemet type > add/edit/del > add element > add > solid > solid 20 node 90.
The element type that has been selected for the thermal parts of the coupled field
analysis is 20 node90.It is a ten nodded tetrahedron element.
Define the element material properties:
Preprocessor> material props> material models> thermal conductivity> isotropic.
In the window that appears, enter the following geometric properties for 6061
Thermal conductivity (kxx) =180W/mK
Specific heat(c)
= 0.896KJ/KgK
Density
= 0.0000027Kg/mm3
Meshing:
Giving element length:
Preprocessor > meshing > size controls > manual size > lines > all lines > element edge
length > 5 > ok.
Meshing:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Volumes > free > pick all > ok

64

Fig-9.1.2 Meshed model

Write environment:
Preprocessor > Physics > Environment > Write.
In the window that appears, enter the Title Thermal and click ok.
Clear Environment:
Preprocessor > Physics Environment > Clear > Ok.
Doing this, clears all the information prescribed for the geometry such as the element
type, material props etc. It does not clear the geometry however so it can be used in the
next stage which is defining the structural environment.
9.13 Defining the Structural Environment:
Switch Element Type:
Preprocessor > Element Type > Switch Element Type > Thermal To Structural > Ok.
Choose Thermal To Structural from the scroll down the list.

65

This will switch to the complimentary structural element automatically from solid 20
node 90 to solid 20 node 95 .Reason is structural analysis uses solid 95 element and
thermal analysis uses solid 95 types.
Define Element Material Properties
Preprocessor > Material props > Material Models > Structural > Liner > Elastic >
Isotropic.
In the window that appears enter the following material properties:
Youngs Modulus (EX) : 68.9e3N/mm2
Poissons Ratio (PRXY) : 0.33
Density
: 2700kg/m3
Write Environment
The structural Environment is now fully described.
Preprocessor > Physics > Environment > Write >Struct.
In the window that appears enter the Title Struct.
9.14 Solution phase: Assuming Loads and solving
Define Analysis Type
Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Static > Ok.
Read in the thermal environment
Preprocessor > Physics > Environment > Read > Thermal > Ok
Choose thermal and click ok.
If the physics option is not available under solution. Unabridged Menu at the bottom of
the solution menu .This should make it visible.
Define state:
Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Steady State > Ok.
Apply Temperature load:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Thermal > Temperature >On areas
The temperature load is applied by taking different areas and applying the load
according to the area of the piston. Temperature is 573K.
66

Apply convection on surfaces :

Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Thermal > Convection > on areas
Convection at various surfaces is applied based on the experimental values.The values
are taken from SAE papers. On the surface of the piston head film coefficient of 222
W/mk and bulk temperature 313K is applied.
Apply heat flow
Solution > Define Load > Apply > Thermal > Heat Flow > On Nodes> Pick All.
Heat flow that occurs through the piston head is calculated making use of the formulae
from the data book. This heat flow corresponds to that which flows through the piston
head
Solve the System
Solution > Solve > Current LS

Fig-9.1.4.1 Nodal temperature

67

Fig-9.1.4.2 Thermal gradient

Fig-9.1.4.3 Thermal flux

68

Close the solution Menu, Main Menu > Finish

It is very important to click Finish as it closes that environment and allows a new one
to be opened without contamination. If this is not done, you will get error message.
This information is saved in a file labeled job name.rth,wererth is the results file . Since
the job name was not changed at the beginning of the analysis, this data can be found as
file .rth, we will use these results in determining the structural effects.
Read in the Structural Environment
Solution > Physics > Environment > Read >Struct> Ok
Choose struct and click OK
Analysis type
Solution >Analysis type > New analysis > Static >Ok
Apply Boundary Conditions
Solution > Define Loads >Apply > structural > Displacement >On areas
In a piston under static conditions is closely observed for where to apply the boundary
conditions. It can be plotted out that it is supported by the gudgeon pin region. So, the
areas corresponding to these have to be constrained in all degrees of freedom.
Apply pressure load:
Solution > Define Loads >Apply > Structural > Pressure >On areas
The working pressure is 15.454 Mpa. Pressures applied at the top of the piston and
choose ok.

Fig-9.1.4.4 solution
69

Include Thermal Effects

Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Temperature > From > Thermal Analysis
> Browse > Ok
As shown below enter the file name File.rth. This couple the results from the solution
of the thermal environment to the information prescribed in the structural environment and
uses it during the analysis.
Define reference temperature
Preprocessor > Loads > Define Loads > Settings > Reference Temp
For this example set the reference temperature to 273 degrees Kelvin.
Solve the system, Solution > Solve > Current Ls
When this command is used. We get windows appearing on the screen this includes the
element matrices and sparse solver .At last we can see an out put window appearing on the
screen which implies that the solution is done.
The solver writes output to the file job name OUT and the results file. If you run the
solution interactively the output file is actually your screen window . By using one of the
following before issuing SOLVE. you can divert the output to a file instead of the screen.
9.1.5 Post processing: Viewing the result
The following steps show the various results that have been observed.
Deformed shape:
General post processing>plot results>deformed shape
This will result in the deformed shape of the piston in the output widow.
Nodal Results:
General post processing > Plot Results > Contour Plot > Nodal solution.

70

Fig-9.1.5.1 Displacement

Fig-9.1.5.2 Vonmises stres

71

9.2 Aluminum Alloy 6061 for Model-2

Fig-9.2.1 Nodal temperature

Fig-9.2.2 Thermal gradient

72

Fig-9.2.3 Thermal flux

Fig-9.2.4 Displacement
73

Fig-9.2.5 Vonmisses stress

9.3 Aluminum 7475 T761 Piston Model-1

Thermal conductivity (kxx)
Specific heat(c)
Youngs Modulus (EX)
Poissons Ratio (PRXY)
Density
Temperature
Film Coefficient
Bulk Temperature

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

147w/mk
0.88kj/kgk
70300N/mm2
0.33
2810kg/m3
563K
222W/mk
313K

74

Fig-9.3.1 Nodal temperature

Fig-9.3.2 Thermal gradient

75

Fig-9.3.3 Thermal flux

Fig-9.3.4 Displacement
76

s
Fig-9.3.5 Vonmisses stress
9.4 Aluminum 7475 T761 Piston Model-2

Fig-9.4.1 Nodal temperature

77

Fig-9.4.2 Thermal gradient

Fig-9.4.3 Thermal flux

78

Fig-9.4.4 Displacement

Fig-9.4.5 Von-misses stress

79

9.5 LM 25 Piston Model-1

Thermal conductivity (kxx)
Specific heat(c)
Youngs Modulus (EX)
Poissons Ratio (PRXY)
Density

=
=
=
=
=

134w/mk
0.963 kj/kgk
70000N/mm2
0.32
2680kg/m3

Fig-9.5.1 Nodal temperature

80

Fig-9.5.2 Thermal gradient

Fig-9.5.3 Thermal flux

81

Fig-9.5.4 Displacement

Fig-9.5.5 Vonmisses stress

82

9.6 LM 25 Piston Model 2

Fig-9.6.1 Nodal temperature

Fig-9.6.2 Thermal gradien

83

Fig-9.6.3 Thermal flux

Fig-9.6.4 Displacement
84

Fig-9.6.5 Von-misses stress

9.7 As per the analysis images for Model 1
Material

Displace
ment(mm)

Von-Misses
Stress(N/mm2)

Aluminum
alloy7475-761

0.016593

123.902

563

21.601

3.175

Aluminum alloy
6061

0.01693

123.902

563

21.422

3.856

LM25

0.016677

122.637

563

22.101

2.962

Nodal
Temp
(K)

Thermal
Gradient
(K/mm)

Table 9.7 Result as per the analysis images for Model 1

85

Thermal
Flux
(W/mm2)

9.8 Permissible Yield Stress Values for Different Aluminum Alloys

LM25

180N/mm2

7475-T761

448 N/mm2

6061

310 N/mm2

9.9 As per the analysis images for Model2

Material

Displace
ment(mm)

Von-Misses
Stress(N/mm2)

0.016734

123.092

563

20.988

3.085

0.01707

127.174

563

19.038

3.427

0.01602

127.174

563

21.681

2.905

Nodal
Temp
(K)

Thermal
Gradient
(K/mm)

Thermal
Flux
(W/mm2)

Aluminum
alloy7475-761
Aluminum alloy
6061

LM25

Table 9.9 Result As per the analysis images for Model2

86

Chapter 10
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
10.1 Conclusion
1. In my project I have designed a piston used in a two wheeler. The present used
material for piston is Aluminum alloy LM25. I am replacing with different
aluminum alloys 7475-T761 and 6061. I am replacing with above materials, since
they have more strength than the Aluminum alloy LM25.
2. It was found that aluminum alloy 7475-T761 has around 150% more permissible
yield stress values when compared to that of LM25. Whereas it was found around
73% for aluminium alloy 6061 when compared to the LM25.
3. Two models of piston are designed for two materials- aluminum alloy 7475-T761
and 6061. Coupled field analysis is done on the models to validate structural and
thermal properties like displacement, stress, thermal gradient, thermal flux.
4. By observing the analysis results, von-misses stress values are around 3.9% less
for material 7475-T761 when compare to 6061 & LM25.
5. By observing the analysis results, its thermal gradient value is around 0.10% more
when compare to 6061.
6. The main disadvantage of this material 7475-T761 when compared to 6061, it is
denser around 0.040% and when compare to LM25 it is denser around 0.048%, so
weight of the piston increases.
10.2 Future Scope
It should be noted that analysis of the piston pin is beyond the scope of this work
which can be however achieved by an appropriate material model for the piston
pin and examinig the stresses in the cross section of the pin.

87

REFERENCES
1. Srecko Manasijevic, Radomir Radisa, Srdjan Markovic,Zagorka Acimovic-Pavlovic ,
Karlo Raic, Thermal analysis and microscopic characterization of the piston alloy
AlSi13Cu4Ni2Mg, Intermetallics 19 (2011) 486 492.
2. Gudimetal P, Gopinath C.V, Finite Element analysis of Reverse Engineered Internal
Combustion Engine Piston,AIJSTPME (2009) 2(4): 85-92.
3. Esfahanian, A. Javaheri, M. Ghaffarpour, Thermal analysis of an SI engine piston
using different combustion boundary condition treatments, Applied Thermal Engineering
26(2006) 277
4. Feng C.-X., 2003. Internet-Based Reverse Engineering, Int. J. of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 21(2): 138 144.
5. Swanson J., Schok D., Kelley A. and Callow D., 2003. Investigation of Reverse
Engineering and Redesign of Milkshake Maker, Internal report submitted for Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering Department, Arizona State University.
6. C.H. Li., Piston thermal deformation and friction considerations, SAE Paper 820086,
1982.
7. Y. Liu. and R.D. Reitz, Multidimensional modeling of combustion chamber surface
temperatures, SAE Paper 971539, 1997.
8. Handbook of Internal Combustion Engines, SAE International
9.Thermal Analysis of a piston of reciprocating air compressor. Bhaumik Patel1, Ashwin
Bhabhor .I/ Issue III/April-June, 2012/73-75. Research Paper.
10. Y. Liu, R.D. Reitz, Modeling of heat conduction within chamber walls for
multidimensional internal combustion engine simulations,Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 41
(67) (1998) 859869.
11. R.J. Jenkin, E.H. James, W.M. Malalasekera, Modeling the effects of combustion and
turbulence on the near-wall temperature gradients in the cylinder of spark ignition engines,
in: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D, vol. 212,IMechE,
1998.
12. S.V. Bohac, D.M. Baker, D.N. Assanis, A global model for steady state and transient
SI engine heat transfer studies, SAE Paper 960073, 1996.
88

13. B. Heywood John, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals,McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1988.
14. D. V. Hutton, Fundamentals of Finite Element Analysis, International Edition,
McGraw Hill, 2004.
15. J. B. Heywood, Internal combustion engine fundamentals, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1988.
16. R. Prasad and N.K. Samria, Transient heat transfer analysis in an internal combustion
engine piston, Computers & Structures vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 781-193. 1990.
17. L. Yong and R.D. Reitz, Modeling of heat conduction within chamber walls for
multidimensional internal combustion engine simulation, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer
vol. 41, pp.859 869, 1988.
18. Y. Rasihhan and F.J. Wallace, Temperature transients on engine combustion chamber
walls II. Geometry and general material property including temperature-dependent
effects, Int. J. Mech. Sci. vol. 33, No. 10, pp.793-803, 1991.
19. Y. Rasihhan and F.J. Wallace, Temperature transients on engine combustion chamber
walls III. Application of finite difference model to various metals and ceramic walls,
Int. J. Mech. Sci. vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 863-874, 1991.
20. A. Jafari, S. K.Hannani, Effect of fuel and engine operational characteristics on the
heat loss from combustion chamber surfaces of SI engines, Int. Communications in Heat
and Mass Transfer vol. 33, pp. 122 134, 2006.
21. A. Mohammadi, M. Yaghoubi, M. Rashidi, Analysis of local convective heat transfer
in a spark ignition engine, Int. Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 35, pp.
215224, 2008.
22.Aluminium matrix composites: Challenges and opportunities. M K SURAPPA.
Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
23. F.M. Hosking, F. Folgar-Portillo, R. Wunderlin and R. Mehrabian, Composites of
aluminium alloys: Fabrication and wear behaviour, J.Mater. Sci., 17 ( 1982) 477498.
24. S.V. Prasad and P.K. Rohatgi, Tribological properties of Al alloy particle composites,
J. Met, 39 (1987) 22-26.

89