Action potentials

-From resting potential (-70 mV)

depolarisation occurs when a
+
stimulus causes influx of Na ions
-At +40 mV (action potential),
+
+
Na channels close and K
channels open
+
-K ions leave- repolarisation
+
-When too many K ions leave,
the membrane is hyperpolarised,
then resting potential is restored.
Excitatory- causes an action
potential in the next neurone
Inhibitory- prevents an action
potential- possibly by increasing
threshold for an action potential
Brain imaging
CT scans:
-X-rays, frozen moment picture,
detect brain disease, not very
detailed
MRI:
-Magnetic field + radio waves,
detect soft tissue, can obtain 3D
image, more detailed
-Used to detect tumours,
strokes, brain injuries
fMRI:
-Lots of pictures observing brain
function over time,
deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs and
emits signal, whilst
oxyhaemoglobin does not
-Active brain regions light up
-Only used for normal brain
function
Investigating habituation (ignoring
unimportant stimuli) in sea slug
-Gill withdraws when siphon is
stimulated then comes back out
-Repeat at regular intervals
-Siphon returns more quickly or
stops withdrawing

-An action potential initiates an electrical

current
-Depolarisation spreads to the adjacent
region
This is called a wave of depolarisation and
is faster in myelinated neurones, as
impulse jumps.
Synapses
-An action potential at the presynaptic
2+
neurone causes Ca ions to enter
-Vesicles containing neurotransmitters
release their contents into synaptic cleft
by exocytosis
-Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on
postsynaptic neurone membrane
-This triggers an action potential (if
excitatory)
-The neurotransmitter is either broken
down in synaptic cleft or reuptaken

Schwann cell

Frontal lobethinking

Topic 8
Grey Matter

Occipital
lobe- sight
Cerebellumcoordinates movement

Hypothalamus- thermoregulation
Medulla oblongata- cardiovascular
and ventilation centre
Parkinsons disease
-Caused by lack of dopamine
-Symptoms: tremors, stiff muscles,
poor balance and slow movement
-Treatments: L-dopa which can
cross blood-brain barrier and helps
remaining cells produce dopamine,
dopamine agonists which mimic
effects of dopamine

MotorCNS to effector
SensorySensory cells to CNS
RelayWithin the CNS
node of Ranvier

Neurones are myelinated for insulation and to speed

up nerve impulses-which travel by saltatory conduction

Parietal lobememory

The Brain

Temporal lobehearing

Types of neurone

Genetic Modification
Microorganisms
-Inserting gene for required trait
(e.g. insulin production) into a
plasmid of a bacterium
-Extracting insulin
Plants
-Artificial selection
-Transgenic plants- infect with
modified bacterium, remove
tumour, plants grown from tumour
will contain desired trait
Animals
-Transgenic animals produce certain
proteins in milk

Depression
-Caused by lack of serotonin
-Symptoms- sadness,
anxiety, hopelessness
-Treatments- SSRIs which
inhibit serotonin reuptake
Ecstasy is harmful due to its
effects on serotonin levels

Pupil reflex
Bright light sympathetic
reflex circular muscles
contract, radial muscles
relax
Dim light
parasympathetic reflex
radial muscles contract,
circular muscles relax

Detecting stimuli- photoreceptors

Cones- colour vision; rods- monochrome
Rods in dark:
+
- Na enters and leaves cell
-It is depolarised
-Neurotransmitter released and inhibits
bipolar cell
-No action potential so no information
to optic nerve
Rods in light:
-Rhodopsin is broken down into retinal
and opsin
+
+
-Na channels closed, but Na continues
to leave cell
-hyperpolarised
-No neurotransmitter released
-Action potential in bipolar cell so visual
information travels via optic nerve

Critical window
Exposure to stimulus is
needed to develop fullydemonstrated by Hubel and
Wiesels experiments
Nature vs. Nurture debate
-Newborn babies
-Brain damage cases
-Twin studies
-Cross cultural studies

The Eye

Phytochromes
-In normal sunlight, more red light than far
red- more PFR
-In dark, PFR converts into PR
-PFR needed to form leaves and chlorophyll
-Phytochromes allow plants to detect day
length; controlling germination and flowering
-Plants use growth substances such as IAA
-Plant shoots are positively phototropic,
so more IAA on shaded side, to promote
cell elongation, and then plant grows
towards light

Issues with genetic modification

-Antibiotic resistance, harmful products, virus
transmission from animals to humans
-Ill health caused by eating/using GMOs

Human Genome Project

-Can find genes for drug targets
-Provide tailored dosage and drugs
-More insight into genetic/ environmental
risk factors
-Ethical considerations if there is a DNA
database: breaches of confidentiality etc

Nervous control
Travel as nerve impulses
Fast acting
Short-term changes
Action potential in specific
cells
Local response

Hormonal control
Travel in blood
Slower acting
Long-term changes
Blood travels to all cells but
hormones affect target cells
Widespread effect

Effects of exercise
Too much exercise
Wear and tear of joints
Compromised immunity

Too little exercise

Obesity
CHD
Diabetes

Moderate exercise is most useful to health

Ligaments- bone to bone; Tendons-muscle to bone

Muscle fibres: Multinucleate & contain myofibrils

Fast Twitch
White (less myoglobin)
Anaerobic respiration
Few mitochondria
Lots of glycogen

Are performance enhancing drugs ethically acceptable?

For
Against
The athletes right to choose
Athletes may be
misinformed of dangers
The risks are known and
Goes against the concept
everyone should use what is
of fairplay in sport
right for them

Temperature must stay within 1 C of 37.5 C

Temp too high- enzymes denature
Temp too low- enzyme controlled reactions too
slow
Body temperature rises during exercise
Temperature is restored via negative feedback
To restore temperature:
Too hot- sweat, hairs lie flat, vasodilation,
reduce metabolism (in order to cool down)
Too cold- shivering, hairs upright,
vasoconstriction, increase metabolism (to
warm the body up)
Energy can be transferred via radiation,
conduction, convection and evaporation

Negative feedback- Returning to the norm

value, in response to deviating from it.
Glucose, CO2, water levels, pH and
temperature must remain within limits
Receptors detect a change, and trigger
effectors to reverse it.

Slow Twitch
Red (lots of myoglobin)
Aerobic respiration
Lots of mitochondria
Little glycogen

Respiration- Splitting glucose releasing CO2 as waste & reuniting

hydrogen + oxygen to form water and release energy
Many steps catalysed by specific intercellular enzymes

Topic 7
Run for your life

Homeostatis and thermoregulation

Glycolysis- breaking down glucose

Glucose (6C)
2ATP
2ADP

Ventilation and cardiovascular

control centres are in the medulla
oblongata
Heart rate- nerves can affect SAN
-Sympathetic nerve accelerates
(sympathetic- preparing body for
action)
-Vagus nerve decelerates
(parasympathetic- controls body
systems when resting or
digesting)
-Adrenaline works in a similar
way to sympathetic nerve
Breathing rate
-Changes in CO2 concentration,
blood pH or temperature are
detected in medulla, aorta or
carotid artery
-Breathing rate is adjusted via
negative feedback

Sliding Filament Theory

-Impulse at neuromuscular junction
2+
-Ca released; attaches to troponin
-Then tropomyosin moves, exposing
myosin binding site on actin filament
-Myosin head binds to the site
forming cross bridges
-ADP and Pi are released
-Myosin head nods forward
-ATP binds; head detaches
-ATP is hydrolysed
-Myosin returns to normal
Cycle can repeat

Muscles bring about movement at joints and work in

antagonistic pairs
Extensors contract to extend; flexors contract to flex

Disabilities and injuries in sport

-Prosthetic limbs
-Knee joint replacements
-Repairing ligaments by keyhole
surgery
Keyhole surgery minimises risk of
infection and reduces recovery time
(therefore hospital stay)

Heart & Breathing

Heart is myogeniccontracts without nervous
impulse from brain

2 x 3C compounds
2H x 2

4ADP + 2Pi
4ATP

Pyruvate x 2
This occurs in aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.

Cardiac output- volume of blood pumped by heart in a minute

Stroke volume- volume of blood pumped per ventricular contraction
Heart rate- number of heart beats per minute
Tidal volume- volume of air per breath
Vital capacity- maximum volume of air breathed in/out
Minute ventilation- volume of air taken in per minute
Electrical activity of the heart
-SAN (in right atrium) starts depolarisation, causing atria to contract
-0.13 second delay then impulse from AVN goes to ventricles
-Bundles of His carry impulse so ventricles contract from apex
upwards
ECGs can be used to measure electrical activity of the heart (at rest
or during physical activity) and can detect heart problems
P wave- Atrial systole
PR wave- SAN to AVN
QRS- Ventricular systole
T wave- Diastole

Pyruvate
Aerobic Respiration
Link reaction
Pyruvate
2H
CO2
Acetyl CoA

Anaerobic Respiration
-NAD is oxidised
-Pyruvate is converted
into lactate
-Small amounts of energy
are released
A build up of lactate fall
in pH enzymes denature
-To stop this, lactate is
converted back into
pyruvate or into glycogen
and stored in liver

Krebs Cycle
Acetyl CoA
Reduced
FAD 2H
Reduced
NAD 2H
Reduced
NAD 2H
ATP
CO2

4C

6C
CO2
2H Reduced NAD

5C

Electron Transport Chain

-Series of oxidation (removing e ) and reduction
(gaining e ) reactions in mitochondrial membrane.
+
-H eventually combines with oxygen (final electron
carrier) to form water.

< 60 bpm- bradycardia caused by hypothermia, heart disease or drugs

>100 bpm- tachycardia caused by heart failure or anaemia etc
Irregular heartbeat- ischaemia