Different Dimensions of Curriculum Development

Tek Narayan Pandey*

Curriculum is all of the experiences
children have under the guidance of
teachers, it encompasses all learning
opportunities provided by school and it
is also a plan for all experiences which
the learner encounters in school.
The curriculum is at the heart of the
governments policies to raise
standards and help all schools to
continuously
improve
(www.qcda.gov.uk). The curriculum
indicates what is to be learned, the
educational goals indicate why it is to
be learned, and the instructional plan
indicates how to facilitate learning. ...a
well planned, vibrant curriculum
recognizes that primary children relish
learning independently and cooperatively; they love to be challenged
and engaged in practical activities;
they delight in the wealth of
opportunities for understanding more
about the world (Sir Jim Rose).
Education both influences and reflects
the values of our society, and the kind
of society we want to be. It is therefore
important to recognise a set of
common aims, values and purposes
that underpin the school curriculum
and the work of schools (The National
Curriculum, UK). Curriculum is the

sum total of all intentional learning

experiences. Curriculum includes
outputs such as: activities, events,
workshops, trainings, field trips;
contexts such as club, school
enrichment and special interest camps,
and after-school; and print and on-line
learning materials that is intentional
for youth and adults (4-H National
Headquarters).
If curriculum development is carried
out efficiently and effectively, the
learning needs of learners will be met,
teachers will teach more effectively,
using suitable, relevant methods and
materials, a good service will be
delivered, satisfying the demands of
different stakeholders, and the goals
and aims of the education and training
programme
will
be
achieved.
Curriculum development can take
place
in
traditional
university
buildings and in farmers fields or
forests (Helvetas).

1. Curriculum: need to know

Relate education to the socioeconomic, technological, political and
environmental demands of our society.
Relate content or the body of
knowledge to our local setting.

* Joint Secretory, MOE

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Apply the most effective and relevant

teaching and learning methodologies.
Evaluate teaching and learning
processes in our education system.

2. Definition of Curriculum
Plan or program of all experiences
which the learner encounters under the
direction of a school (Tanner and
Tanner).
the totality of the experiences of
children for which schools are
responsible. (Gatawa)

3. Designing and planning the

curriculum
The following three questions should
be answered to plan, review, design
and evaluate the curriculum:
what are you trying to achieve?
how can you organise learning to
achieve these aims?
how will you know if you have been
successful?

Adapted from www.qcda.gov.uk

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4. Components of Curriculum
Curriculum
has
the
following
components:
Standards
Context
Content
Instruction
Assessment
We can add more components of
curriculum; these are:

Curriculum Design - Creating the

curriculum in schools
Curriculum
Delivery
Implementation,
supervising,
monitoring or using feedback to
improve the curriculum
Curriculum Coordination -Lateral
focus and connectivity
Curriculum Articulation -Vertical
focus and connectivity

Broad analysis of the bases and components of curriculum:

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5. Characteristics of the
Curriculum:
Curriculum
has
the
following
characteristics:
It comprises the experiences of children
for which the school is responsible.
It has content.
It is planned.
It is a series of courses to be taken by
students.
The curriculum is viewed as a
composite whole including the learner,
the teacher, teaching and learning
methodologies,
anticipated
and
unanticipated experiences, outputs and
outcomes possible within a learning
institution.

6. Curriculum Perspectives

Empiricists think:
True knowledge is derived from
evidence.
Authentic knowledge comes through the
senses.
Pragmatists believe that:
Knowledge is hypothetical and changing
constantly.
Knowledge is experienced.
Knowledge cannot be imposed on the
learner.
Knowledge is a personal activity.
Knowledge is socially constructed.
Existentialists
or
phenomenologist
conclude that:
Knowledge is personal and subjective.
Knowledge is ones own unique
perception of ones world.
Education should be less formal.
Curricula should be diverse, not
common for all.

Rationalists say:
True knowledge is achieved by the mind.
Knowledge is a series of revelations.
Comparison of different perspectives of curriculum:

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7. Elements of Curriculum
The following diagram clarifies the elements of curriculum:
Elements of Curriculum

Purpose
The purpose of a curriculum:
is based on the social aspirations of
society,
outlines the goals and aims of the
program, and
is expressed as goals and objectives.
There are three categories of goals
and objectives:
cognitive, referring to intellectual
tasks,
psychomotor, referring to muscular
skills, and
affective, referring to feeling and
emotions.
Content or Subject Matter
The content of the curriculum:
is divided into bodies of knowledge,
for example, mathematics, English and
science;
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outlines the desired attitudes and

values;
includes cherished skills;
is determined by prevailing theories of
knowledge; and
caters to ideological, vocational and
technical considerations.
Methods
The methods outlined in a curriculum:
deal with teaching and learning
experiences, and
involve organizational strategies.
Flexible teaching methods facilitate
learning.
Evaluation
Evaluation is used to:
select appropriate content based on the
aims and objectives of the curriculum;
select appropriate methods to address
the content and purpose;
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check the effectiveness of methods and

learning experiences used;
check on the suitability and the
appropriateness of the curriculum in
answering social needs;
give feedback to the planners, learners,
teachers, industry and society; and
provide a rationale for making
changes.
We should note that in conducting
evaluations, judgments must be made
regarding:
inputs,
means,
content,
outputs, and
outcomes of the whole learning
process.
Benefits of curriculum evaluation:
For Planners
improved institution
identification of relevant resources for
content and curriculum
determination of the appropriateness
of the curriculum
identification of needs
improvement of learners and teachers
provision of feedback to society
regarding the level to which goals and
aims were achieved
For Employers
preparation of workers with relevant
skills for the work force
trainable workers who know how to
learn
knowledgeable workers
For Learners
improved performance, knowledge
and skills
relevant content
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access
to
appropriate
learning
experiences
increased opportunities
For Teachers
improved performance, knowledge
and skills
better understanding of learner
increased confidence
improved material resources
improved working conditions
improved teaching content

8. Types of Curricula
Formal Curriculum
It is the officially selected body of
knowledge
which
government,
through the Ministry of Education or
any body offering education, wants
students to learn.
Informal Curriculum
Teachers or instructors may not adhere
to the presented formal curriculum but
can include other aspects of
knowledge derived from other sources.
This additional material is called the
informal curriculum.
Actual Curriculum
This refers to both written and
unwritten syllabuses from which
students
encounter
learning
experiences (Tanner and Tanner
1975).
Hidden Curriculum
Hidden Curriculum is the non
academic but educationally significant
component of schooling. It is also
called collateral curriculum.
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Core Curriculum
It refers to the area of study, courses or
subjects that students must understand
in order to be recognized as educated
in the area. In other words, core
refers to the heart of experiences
every learner must go through. The
learner has no option but to study the
prescribed course or subjects.

Extra-Mural Curriculum
Coaching and training in various
aspects of school sports are some of
the
extra-curricular
learning
experiences available to students. As
you know, these experiences are not
stipulated in the formal curriculum.

9. Factors That Influence

Curriculum Design

influence of technology on
curriculum
influence of environment on
urriculum
influence of child psychology on
curriculum.

influence of politics on curriculum

influence of society on curriculum
influence
of
economy
on
curriculum
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Factor
Political factors

Explanation
- determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences
and evaluation strategies;
- influence the selection and interpretation of curricular
materials;
- influence funding of edudation;
- influence entry into educational institutions and the
examination systems; and
- play a part in the hiring of personnel

Social factors

- influence the selection and interpretation of resources

- influence the hiring of personnel

Economic factors

-influence goals, content and learning experience

- influence material production
- influence standard of academic attainment

Technological factors

- same as economic factors

Environmental factors - influence goals, content and learning experiences

- influence material production
Theories of child
psychology

- influence curriculum content and delivery methods

- influence scheduling and timetabling

10. Models of Curriculum

Design
the objectives model,
the process model,
Tylers model,
Wheelers model, and
Kerrs model.
The Objectives Model
The objectives model of curriculum
design contains content that is based
on
specific
objectives.
These
objectives should specify expected
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learning outcomes in terms of specific

measurable behaviors.
This model comprises four main steps:
agreeing on broad aims which are
analyzed into objectives,
constructing a curriculum to achieve
these objectives,
refining the curriculum in practice by
testing its capacity to achieve its
objectives, and
communicating the curriculum to the
teachers through the conceptual
framework
of
the
objectives.
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The Process Model

Unlike th objectives model, this model
does not consider objectives to be
important. Using this model presupposes
that:
Content has its own value. Therefore, it
should not be selected on the basis of the
achievement of objectives.

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Content involves procedures, concepts

and criteria that can be used to appraise
the curriculum.
Translating content into objectives may
result in knowledge being distorted.
Learning activities have their own value
and can be measured in terms of their
own standard. For this reason, learning
activities can stand on their own.

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Ten-step Curriculum Planning Process Model

Evaluate
Curriculum
Implement New
Curriculum
Design New
Curriculum

Ten-Step
Curriculum
Planning
Process Model

Select New
Curriculum
Identify New
Curriculum

Tylers Model
Tylers
model
for
curriculum
designing is based on the following
questions:
What educational purposes should the
school seek to attain?

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Identify
Curricular Need

Develop Goals and

Objectives
Identify Resources
and Restraints
Organize Curriculum
Committees

Establish Roles of
Personnel

What educational experiences can be

provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
How
can
these
educational
experiences be effectively organized?
How can we determine whether these
purposes are being attained?

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Wheelers Model
Wheelers model for curriculum
design is an improvement upon Tylers
model. Instead of a linear model,
Wheeler developed a cyclical model.
Evaluation in Wheelers model is not
terminal. Findings from the evaluation
are fed back into the objectives and the
goals, which influence other stages.
Wheeler contends that:
Aims should be discussed as behaviors
referring to the end product of learning

Kerrs Model
Most of the features in Kerrs model
resemble those in Wheelers and
Tylers models. However, Kerr
divided the domains into four areas.

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which yields the ultimate goals. One

can think of these ultimate goals as
outcomes.
Aims are formulated from the general
to the specific in curriculum planning.
This results in the formulation of
objectives at both an enabling and a
terminal level.
Content is distinguished from the
learning experiences which determine
that content.

objectives,
knowledge,
evaluation, and
school learning experiences.

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What we should note about the model

is that:
the four domains are interrelated
directly or indirectly, and
objectives are derived from school
learning experiences and knowledge.
In Kerrs model, objectives are divided
into three groups:
affective
cognitive
psychomotor.
The model further indicates that
knowledge should be:
organized,
integrated,
sequenced, and
reinforced.
In his model, Kerr asserts that
everything influences everything else
and that it is possible to start an
analysis at any point.
In designing a curriculum, we need
to:
Establish or obtain general goals of
education.
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Reduce the general goals to specific

instructional objectives, including
objectives that cover different domains
and levels.
Assess prior student knowledge and/or
abilities.
Break learning into small, sequential
steps.
Identify teacher behavior.
Identify student behavior.
Write a description of the lesson.
Evaluate to see if the intended
outcomes have been achieved.
If we complete these eight stages, we
would have conducted what is
generally referred to as the task
analysis process.
11. Patterns of Curriculum Designing
Two patterns of curriculum designing:
centralized curriculum designing
decentralized curriculum designing.

Centralized
Pattern
Curriculum Designing

of

A centralized curriculum designing

pattern is one in which the content is
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decided upon by a central national

office. The actual work in designing
the curriculum may be completed by a
contracted consulting company, a
parastatal organization or a division of
the Ministry of Education.

Characteristics of a centralized
pattern of curriculum
designing
The subject content is decided upon
centrally. National syllabuses are
produced with national goals and
philosophies as well as suggested
general learning objectives.
Subject content evaluation instruments
are developed centrally and decisions
on when and how to administer these
instruments rest with the Ministry of
Education or the Examination Board
that
has
been
assigned
the
responsibility.
Subjects to be offered by schools are
determined centrally. Schools choose
their subjects from a given list.
All learners taking the same subject
write the same examination and are
assessed in the same skills. However,
adjustments in testing are made for
students who may have certain
disabilities.
Certification is centrally controlled.
The certification indicates what has
been learned by the student and how
well the student has performed
compared to others taking the same
course.
Generally, textbooks must be approved
by the Ministry of Education before
any school uses these books.
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Normally, there are curriculum

development teams at different levels.
An inspectorate or standards control
division is put in place to monitor the
learning and teaching activities.
It takes a long time to write and
approve
the
final
curriculum
document.

Decentralized
Pattern
Curriculum Design

of

The
decentralized
pattern
of
curriculum design occurs when the
local authorities or individual states
draft their own curriculum. This type
of designing is common in developed
countries.
This pattern of curriculum designing
has the following characteristics:
Local communities initiate the changes
to suit their local needs.
Teachers work with the parents to
determine the content. The learning
experiences are based on what is
available.
Subjects in schools could be the same,
but the content will vary from school
to school, state to state, or district to
district.
Each school, state or district has its
own syllabus that is produced locally.
Generally, the textbooks may not have
been centrally approved.
Each school, state or district has its
own form of evaluation.
Very few people are involved in
curriculum designing.
12.
Curriculum Implementation
Curriculum implementation entails
putting into practice the officially
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prescribed courses of study, syllabuses

and subjects. The process involves
helping the learner acquire knowledge
or experience.
It is important to note that curriculum
implementation cannot take place
without the learner. The learner is
therefore the central figure in the
curriculum implementation process.
Implementation takes place as the
learner acquires the planned or
intended experiences, knowledge,
skills, ideas and attitudes that are
aimed at enabling the same learner to
function effectively in a society.
Curriculum implementation refers to
how the planned or officially designed
course of study is translated by the
teacher into syllabuses, schemes of

work and lessons to be delivered to

students.
Elements in implementation
course syllabus
the teacher
the teaching and learning materials
and equipment
the teaching and learning environment
the learner.
Factors of Curriculum
Implementation
The Teacher
The Learners
Resource Materials and Facilities
Interest Groups
The School Environment
Culture and Ideology
Instructional Supervision
Assessment

13. Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation

Temporal
Physical
Political-legal
Organizational
Personal
Economic
Cultural

Time: quantity, frequency, duration, scheduling

Natural and built environment; materials and equipment
State and federal mandates, limits, requirements
Administrative factors, including size, groupings, policies
Backgrounds, abilities, interests of students, staff, parents
Costs and benefits, broadly conceived
Values and beliefs of school and community

14.
Curriculum Evaluation
The process of describing and judging
an educational program or subject.
The process of comparing a students
performance with behaviorally stated
objectives.
The process of defining, obtaining and
using relevant information for
decision-making purposes.
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Curriculum Evaluation
Approaches
bureaucratic evaluation
autocratic evaluation
democratic evaluation
norm-referenced evaluation
criterion-referenced evaluation.

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Functions of Curriculum
Evaluation
informing decision-makers on the state
of affairs of certain curriculum
program or syllabuses, and
enabling
teachers
to
evaluate
themselves.

Focuses of Evaluation
1. Curriculum Objectives
Are the objectives worthwhile?
Can they be achieved?
What are the expected outcomes?
2. Curriculum
Content
and
Methodology
3. Curriculum Outcomes
Forms of Evaluation
Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluation answers two
questions:
Is the instruction successful?
If it is not successful, what can be
done to avoid failure?
Summative Evaluation
Evaluation Methods and Tools
observations
interviews
tests
questionnaires.
15. Curriculum
Change
and
Innovation
Curriculum Change
Change as embracing the concepts of
innovation, development, renewal and
improvement of a curriculum.
Curriculum change is dictated by the
changes in the economic, social and
technological aspects of a society.
Change has magnitude and direction
and occurs within a definite time frame.
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Curriculum Innovation
Curriculum innovation is any
improvement that is deliberate
measurable, durable and unlikely to
occur frequently. It is the creation,
selection, organization and utilization
of human and material resources in
ways that result in higher achievement
of curriculum goals and objectives.
Sources of Curriculum Change and
Innovation
Types of Change
Hardware Types.
These changes are introduced by
additions to facilities such as new
classrooms, equipment, books and
play grounds.
Software Types.
These affect the content and range of
the curriculum itself. They may be
related to the methods of delivery
recommended by curriculum initiators,
designers and developers.
Forms of Change
Substitution. In this change, one
element replaces another previously in
use. Examples are new textbooks, new
equipment or the replacement of
teachers and administrators.
Alteration. This involves change in
existing structures rather than a
complete replacement of the whole
curriculum, syllabus or course of
study.
Addition. This is the introduction of a
new component without changing old
elements or patterns. New elements
are added to the existing program
without seriously disturbing the main
structure and content of the prescribed
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curriculum. These could be support

inputs such as audio-visual aids,
workshops and equipment.
Restructuring. This involves the
rearrangement of the curriculum in
order to implement desired changes. It
may also involve the sharing of
resources among a group of schools or
institutions.
Basic steps for making significant
change
Identify the problem or concern.
Generate possible solutions.
Select a particular solution.
Try the solution.
Evaluate the solution formatively and
summatively.
Review the outcomes of the trial.
Implement the solution on a wide
scale.
16. Curriculum policy
The need to build social cohesion and
national identity in global society and
to preserve cultural heritage
The need to impart cultural, ethical,
and moral values
Concern for future economic wellbeing, international competitiveness
Concern for equal opportunity and
equity, (urban/rural, gender, income,
disabilities, etc.)
The desire to raise achievement for all
students
17. Essential
principles
underpinning quality provision
for children
In recognition of how our views or
images of children impact on both how
we interact with them and the types of
experiences we provide:
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Viewing children positively as capable

and competent
Acknowledging children as having
rights
Valuing the richness that cultural
diversity brings to learning situations
Recognizing children as being literate
within the culture of their community
and families
B. In recognition of the special
characteristics of children
Focusing on a sense of well being
and belonging
Acknowledging the importance of
relationships
Recognizing play is central
Enabling Environments: Learning
through exploration, engagement,
inquiry, investigation, hands on
real life experiences, risk taking
and problem solving
C. In recognition of the importance of
collaboration and partnerships in
education
Empowering children, families and
the communities
Viewing teachers as scaffolders
and as co-constructors of learning
Valuing and embracing diversity
Acknowledging the multicultural
nature of society
D. In recognition of quality teaching
and
learning
approaches
Interweaving teaching, learning,
and assessment
Learning through play
Using teachable moments for
focused teaching and learning
Embedding rich literacy and
numeric experiences into programs
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Acknowledging the environment

as the third teacher
Recognizing the quality of
teaching staff as critical to quality
program delivery
18. Basic Principles of Curriculum
Construction
Monroe says;
The curriculum is the childs
introduction to life, as schooling is the
preparation for it.
SpencerA rationally conceived curriculum
must be resultant of the two forces the nature of the child and the
requirements of the community.
Principles of the Curriculum
childs sense of wonder
immediate environment
integrated learning
developmental learning
existing knowledge and experience
individual difference
transfer of learning
higher-order thinking and
problem solving
child as active agent
activity and guided discovery
collaborative learning
assessment integral
centrality of language
aesthetic dimension
social and emotional dimension
19. Summary
The task of curriculum development
might be redefined as putting together
many resources into a compendium.
The goal, then, is not to order up a
specific training program for a
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particular audience, but rather to

provide a menu from which each
audience can choose something
suitable (CSAP). Changes in the world
context, the vertiginous production of
knowledge, cutting-edge technology,
and new functions delegated to schools
undoubtedly create pressure for and
enliven new challenges in curricular
policy(Prelac). Juan Manuel Moreno
(2006) outlines that Education reform
all over the world is increasingly
curriculum-based,
as
mounting
pressures and demands for change tend
to target and focus on both the
structures and the very content of
school curriculum.
Curriculum is usually defended by
arguing that their learning is necessary
in order to achieve one or several of
the following proposals: (Csar Coll /
Elena Martn)
a) to make possible full exercise of
citizenship within the framework
of the society of reference;
b) to be able to construct and develop
a satisfactory life project;
c) to assure balanced personal,
emotional,
and
affective
development;
d) to be able to access other future
educational processes with a
guarantee of success.

References
1.

2.

Braslavsky, C. 2002. The New Centurys

Change: New Challenges and Curriculum
Responses. New Delhi: COBSE International
Conference.
Introducing the new primary curriculum:
Qualifications and Curriculum Development
Agency, UK.

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3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

Jackson, P.W. (1992). Handbook of Research

on Curriculum. N.Y.: Macmillan.
Kallen, D. (l996). Curriculum reform in
secondary education: Planning, development,
and implementation. European Journal of
Education
Kelly, A. V. (1983; 1999) The Curriculum.
Theory and practice 4e, London: Paul
Chapman.
Moreno, J. M. 2006..The Dynamics of
Curriculum Design and Development. In
School Knowledge in Comparative and
Historical Perspective. Changing Curricula in
Primary and Secondary Education (edited by
Aaron Benavot and Cecilia Braslavsky). Hong
Kong: Comparative Education Research
Centre.
Oliva,
P.F.
(2001).
Developing
the
Curriculum. 5th ed. N.Y.: Longman.

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8.

Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (1998).

Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and
Issues Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
9. Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory
and practice' the encyclopaedia of informal
education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
10. Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (l995). Curriculum
rd

11.

12.
13.
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development: Theory into practice (3 ed.).

Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall Publishers.
The curriculum in the spotlight , prelac journal
/ No 3,The UNESCO Regional Bureau of
Education for Latin America and the
Caribbean OREALC/UNESCO Santiago
The National Curriculum Primary handbook:
Qualifications and Curriculum
Development Agency, UK
Wraga, W. G. & Hlebowitsh, P. S. (2003).
Toward a renaissance in curriculum theory and
development in the USA. Journal of
Curriculum Studies, 35(4), 425-437.

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