2271

Communication Systems
. . . transmitting messages, and possibly information . . .


Transformation of source (message) signal x(t) into transmit signal

y(t) matched to transmission channel (frequency range, propagation
and attenuation characteristics etc.)

Mechanisms
Modulation process of embedding information-bearing signal
x(t) into y(t)
Demodulation process of extracting information-bearing signal
Multiplexing combination of independent source signals into
a composite signal suitable for transmission over a common
channel

Distinguish
Analog vs. digital message signals
analog time continuous + continuum of values
digital time-discrete + quantized values

Analog vs. digital transmission

Transmit signal varies continuously with message signal

Finite set of transmit signals to represent information


This chapter
Analog transmission of analog message signals

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228 2

Outline
7.1 Amplitude Modulation
7.2 Frequency Modulation
7.3 Analog-Pulse Amplitude Modulation
7.4 Multiplexing

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229 3

7.1

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation (AM): Amplitude of sinusoidal carrier signal

c(t) is varied in proportion to a message signal x(t)

AM is oldest and most simple technique for wireless transmission

and multiplexing.

Used for longwave, mediumwave, and shortwave radio and broadcasting, for analog television, for frequency multiplexing for analog
telephone transmission, etc.

7.1.1


Modulation

Distinguish
Double-sideband AM
AM with/suppressed carrier
Quadrature AM

Single-sideband AM

Vestigial-sideband AM

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2304


Double-sideband AM suppressed carrier

Generation of AM wave
y(t) = x(t)c(t) = x(t)

2crms cos(c t + c )

with carrier signal

c(t) =

2crms cos(ct + c)

Notation

x(t): message signal, modulating signal

y(t): modulated signal
c(t): carrier signal, carrier wave
crms : root mean square value of sinusoidal carrier
c : carrier frequency
c : carrier phase

Illustration

x(t)

y(t)

x(t)

y(t)

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2crms cos(c t + c )

2315

Frequency domain
Spectrum of carrier wave

C(j) = 2crms ( c)ejc + ( + c)ejc

Multiplication property of Fourier transform

crms
jc
jc
Y (j) = X(j( c))e + X(j( + c ))e
2
Replications of original spectrum centered around c
double representation of modulation signal
Bandwidth of message signal M bandwidth of modulated
signal 2M
x(t) recoverable from y(t) only if c > M
X(j)
1

C(j)

2crms

c
Upper
sideband

Y (j)

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c
rms
2

2crms

Lower
sideband

Lower
sideband

c M c

Upper
sideband

c + M

232 6


Double-sideband AM with carrier

Add carrier wave to transmit signal
Simple demodulation possible
Less power efficient, since carrier does not contain information
Modulated signal
y(t) = (A + x(t))

with
DC component A
Modulation index

m=

2crms cos(c t + c )

max{|x(t)|}
A

Illustration
y(t)

m<1

max{|x(t)|}

y(t)

x(t)
t

m=1

max{|x(t)|}
y(t)

m>1
t

Phase reversals
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2337

Efficiency factor
=

average power of message signal

average total power

m2 S 2
=
1 + m2 S 2
with degree of saturation

average power of message signal

S=
max{|x(t)|}
Frequency domain
Superposition of message signal part and carrier wave


crms
Y (j) = X(j( c ))ejc + X(j( + c))ejc
2

+ 2Acrms ( c )ejc + ( + c )ejc
X(j)
1

2Acrms

Y (j)

2Acrms

c
rms
2

Upper
sideband

0
Lower
sideband

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c
Lower
sideband

Upper
sideband

2348


Quadrature AM
Feature
2 doubled-sideband AM using orthogonal carrier waves
cos(ct) and sin(ct)
Two independent message signals occupy same transmission bandwidth (multiplexing)
Bandwidth-conservation scheme
Time-domain description (c = 0)

y(t) = 2crms (x1(t)cos(c t) x2(t)sin(ct))

Block diagram
x1(t)

2crms cos(c t)

2crms sin(c t)
x2(t)

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y(t)

2358

Frequency domain
Spectrum of modulated signal
crms h
Y (j) = X1(j( c)) + X1(j( + c))+
2

i
j X2(j( c)) X2(j( + c))

Spectrum of Y (j) not symmetric about c no double

representation
Bandwidth of modulated signal 2M equals sum of the bandwidths of the modulation signals no bandwidth expansion
Illustration for real-valued spectra X1(j) and X2(j)
X1 (j)

X2 (j)

Re{Y (j)}

c
c
Im{Y (j)}

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23610


Single-sideband AM
Observation from double-sideband AM
Redundant representation of message signal in upper and
lower sideband
Twice the signal bandwidth M is required
Therefore
No information lost if one sideband is suppressed!
single-sideband AM
Frequency-domain description
X(j)
1

Upper sideband

Y (j)

2crms
c

Lower sideband

Y (j)

2crms
c

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23711

Spectrum (c = 0)
Upper sideband
h1

Y (j) = 2crms (sign( c ) + 1) X(j( c ))

2
i
1
(sign( + c ) 1) X(j( + c ))
2
Lower sideband
h1

Y (j) = 2crms (sign( + c ) + 1) X(j( + c ))

2
i
1
(sign( c ) 1) X(j( c))
2
Remark:
We note that from the convolution property of the Fourier transform
and F{1/t} = jsign() we have the Fourier pair
1 F
1
x(t) jX(j)sign() .

t
The left-hand side operation is called Hilbert transform, and is defined as

H{x(t)} =

1 1
1
x(t) =

x( )
d
t

and thus
H{x(t)} = F 1 {jX(j)sign()}

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23812

Single-sideband signal
Upper sideband

y(t) = F 1 {Y (j)}
h1

= 2crms (x(t) + jH{x(t)}) e+jct

2
i
1
jc t
+ (x(t) jH{x(t)}) e
2

y(t) = 2crms (x(t)cos(c t) H{x(t)}sin(ct))

Lower sideband
y(t) =

2crms (x(t)cos(ct) + H{x(t)}sin(ct))

Block diagram

x(t)

2crms cos(c t)

2crms sin(c t)

y(t)

H{}

Observe
Single-sideband AM is QAM with x2(t) = H{x1(t)}

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23913

Illustration for real-valued spectrum X(j)

X(j)
Re

F {H{x(t)}} = jsign()X(j)
Re

Im

Im

F {cos(ct)}
Re

F {sin(c t)}
Re

Im

Im
=

=
Re

Re

Im

Im

Y (j)
Re

Im

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Y (j)
Re

Im

24014

Implementation of exact Hilbert-transform filter impossible

For DC-free message signals soft-Hilbert filter possible
Method by Weaver
X(j)
1

2crms cos(2 t)

Lowpass

x(t)

1
2cos(1t)

2sin(1t)

2crms sin(2 t)

y(t)

Lowpass
1

Lowpass

1 =

o + u
2


o u
2

1 =

o +u
2


+ : upper sideband
2 = c 1
: lower sideband
Lowpass filter with finite edge steepness

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24115


Vestigial-sideband AM
Single-sideband modulation not applicable when message signal
contains significant low-frequency components, e.g., for television signals
Compromise between double- and single-sideband AM
Vestigial-sideband AM
One sideband is passed almost completely
Only vestige of other sideband is retained

Sideband-shaping filter symmetric about c

Illustration
X(j)

Y (j)

c M

c + M

Bandwidth-expansion factor (roll-off factor) [0, 1]

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16

242

7.1.2

Demodulation

Assumption: No overlap (c > M ), transmitted signal y(t) is also

received signal (no noise, distortion etc.)

Distinguish
Synchronous demodulation
Asynchronous demodulation

Synchronous Demodulation
Demodulation of high-frequency signal into low-frequency signal
with locally generated carrier wave

2
c0 (t) =
cos(c0 t + 0c)
crms
Carrier frequency offset: c = c0 c
Carrier phase offset: c = 0c c
Subsequent lowpass filtering with cutoff frequency co
Transmitter-receiver structure for general QAM
w1(t)

x1 (t)

y(t)

x2 (t)

2
0
crms cos(c t

+ 0c )

crms2 sin(c0 t + 0c )
w2(t)

Lowpass
co

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v1(t)

co

2crms cos(ct + c )

2crms sin(ct + c )

Lowpass

v2(t)

24317

Signals after multiplication with carrier

w1(t) = 2x1(t)cos(ct + c)cos(c0 t + 0c)
2x2(t)sin(c t + c)cos(c0 t + 0c)
= x1(t) [cos(ct + c) + cos((c + c0 )t + c + 0c)]
+x2(t) [sin(ct + c) sin((c + c0 )t + c + 0c)]
w2(t) = 2x2(t)sin(ct + c)sin(c0 t + 0c )
2x1(t)cos(ct + c)sin(c0 t + 0c)
= x2(t) [cos(ct + c) cos((c + c0 )t + c + 0c)]
x1(t) [sin(c t + c) + sin((c + c0 )t + c + 0c)]
Signals after lowpass filtering with
M < oc 2c M
v1(t) = x1(t)cos(c t + c) + x2(t)sin(c t + c)
v2(t) = x2(t)cos(c t + c) x1(t)sin(ct + c)
Convenient combination to complex demodulated signal
v1(t) + jv2(t) = x1(t) [cos(ct + c) jsin(ct + c)]
+jx2(t) [cos(ct + c) jsin(ct + c)]
v1(t) + jv2(t) = (x1(t) + jx2(t))ej(ct+c )

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24418

Double-sideband AM: x1(t) = x(t) , x2(t) 0

Only real part used

v(t) = v1(t) = x(t)cos(ct + c)

For v(t) = x(t)
c = 0 and c = k , k ZZ
Synchronous carriers required!
In case of AM with carrier: highpass to suppress carrier
QAM
v1(t) = x1(t)cos(c t + c) + x2(t)sin(c t + c)
v2(t) = x2(t)cos(c t + c) x1(t)sin(ct + c)
c = 0 and c =
6 k , k ZZ: Coupling of signals
c = 0 and c = k , k ZZ: Separation of signals
Single-sided AM: x1(t) = x(t) , x2(t) = H{x(t)}
Only real part used

v(t) = v1(t) = Re (x(t) jH{x(t)})e

j(c t+c )

= x(t)cos(ct + c) H{x(t)}sin(ct + c)
c = 0, phase offset:
v(t) = x(t)cos(c) H{x(t)}sin(c)

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24519

Frequency offset
Upper sideband

c0 > c

|Y (j)|

c
|W (j)|

Lowpass

|W (j)|

c0 < c

Lowpass

Lower sideband

c0 > c

|Y (j)|

|W (j)|

Lowpass

c0 < c

|W (j)|

Lowpass

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24620


Asynchronous Demodulation
No demodulation with carrier wave no need for synchronization
Evaluation of envelope of received signal envelope detector

Only applicable for Double-sideband AM with carrier and m 1

2crms (A + x(t))

y(t)

How to get rid of carrier wave?

For non-overlapping sidebands

H{y(t)} = H{(A + x(t))

2crms cos(ct + c)}

= (A + x(t)) 2crms sin(ct + c)

cos2(c t + c) + sin2(ct + c) = 1

Envelope

1 p 2
y (t) + H2 {y(t)}
env{y(t)} =
2
env{y(t)} = crms |A + x(t)|
m1
= crms (A + x(t))

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24721

Envelope detector
Hv (t): Bandpass filter to suppress DC component and high
frequencies || > M
Non-overlapping sidebands and m 1 v(t) = x(t)
()2
p
()/2

y(t)

Hv (j)

v(t)

()2

H{}

Practical implementation

y(t)
v 0(t)

v(t)

v 0(t)

y(t)

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v(t)

24822

7.2


Frequency Modulation
Belongs to class of angle modulation techniques
Representation of message in phase of carrier wave
Average power = maximum power
zero dynamic of envelope
efficient power amplification
Higher quality than amplitude modulation
higher power efficiency than amplitude modulation
Requires higher bandwidth than amplitude modulation
trade-off between power and bandwidth efficiency

Angle-modulated signal

y(t) =

2crms cos(ct + (t))

with information bearing phase (t)



Instantaneous frequency
i (t) = c +

d(t)
dt

Types of angle modulation

Phase modulation (PM)
(t) = kpx(t)
Frequency modulation (FM)
i (t) c = kf x(t)
(x(t): modulating signal)

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24923


Frequency modulation
Modulated signal
y(t) =

with

2crms cos c t +

Zt

(i( ) c ) d

i (t) c = kf x(t)
Phase signal
(t) = kf

Zt

x( ) d

Maximum frequency deviation

= kf max{|x(t)|}
kf is system parameter
Usually max{|x(t)|} adjusted through limiter is system parameter

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25024

Example:
Cosine message signal
x(t) = Acos(M t)
= kf A
i (t) c = cos(M t)
(t) =

M sin(M t)

FM signal



y(t) = 2crms cos c t +

sin(M t)
M
(= PM signal with x(t) = Asin(M t) and kp = kf /A)
x(t)

FM

y(t)

PM

y(t)

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25125


Spectrum of FM signals for cosine signal x(t)




y(t) = 2crms cos c t +

sin(M t)
M


crms
= y 0 (t)ejct + (y 0 (t)ejct)
2

with

y (t) = e

j sin(M t)
M

y 0 (t) periodic with period 2/M

Fourier series description of y 0 t)
y 0 (t) =

Jk

k=

ejkM t

with Bessel function of the first kind, nth order

Z
1
Jk (u) =
ej(usin(v)kv) dv
2

Spectrum of y 0 (t)
Y 0 (j) = 2

k=

Jk

( kM )

Spectrum of FM signal
crms
Y (j) = [Y 0 (j( c )) + Y 0(j( c ))]
2

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25226

Illustration
J0(u)

J1(u)
0.5

J2(u)

0.5

u
0

10

12

14

16

/M = 5
J1(5) Y 0 (j)

0.4

0.2

J2(5)

J2 (5)
/M

0.2

0.4
6

J0 (5)
4

Interpretation:

Discrete spectrum
Larger M density decreases
Larger for fixed M bandwidth increases
/M  1:
J0(/M ) = 1, J1(/M ) (/M )/2,
Jk (/M ) 0 for k > 1
Spectrum of narrowband FM similar to double-sideband
AM with carrier

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25327

0.8

= 2 (5 kHz)

M = 2 (1 kHz)

0.6

0.3

=1

0.25

= 20

0.2
0.4

0.15
0.1

0.2

0.05
10

for M = 2 (1 kHz)

0.6

10

0.5

15

= 2.4

0
15

10

10

0.3

15

= 10

0.25

0.4

0.2
0.3

0.15

0.2

0.1

0.1
0
15

0.05
10

10

15

0.5

0
15

10

10

15

0.4

0.4

= 3.8

0.3

=5

0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1

0.1
0
15

10

0.4

10

0.3

15

0
15

10

0.6

=5

0.5

10

15

= 2.5

0.4
0.2

0.3
0.2

0.1
0.1
0
15

10

10

/(2(1 kHZ))

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15

0
15

10

10

/(2(1 kHZ))

15

M for = 2 (5 kHz)

0
15

25428


Estimation of bandwidth of FM signal for cosine message signal

Strictly speaking: infinite bandwidth
Approximation by Carson
How many discrete spectral components are required to retain p (100%) of the total modulated signal power?
Parseval:
K
X
2
J0(u) + 2
J2k (u) p
k=1

Bandwidth limited to

B = 2KM
causes loss of (1 p) (100%) in signal power
Carsons approximation of bandwidth of FM signal

2( + M ) for p = 0.9
B=
2( + 2M ) for p = 0.99
Note: bandwidth measured in Hz (as usual)
Bf = B/(2) [Hz]
Carsons approximation is also applicable to non-cosine message
signals.

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25529


Demodulation
Ideal angle modulation track angle of modulated signal
j(t)
v(t) = v1(t) + jv2(t) = |v(t)|e



v2(t)
d
d
(arg{v(t)}) =
tan1
v 0(t) =
dt
dt
v1(t)

= kf x(t)

v1(kT )

Lowpass

y(t)

2
crms cos(c t)

arg{}

crms2 sin(ct)

v2(kT )

Lowpass

FM-AM conversion

y(t)

2crms
= (c + kf x(t)) sin(c t + (t))

d
v(t) =
dt

and AM envelope detector (c  = kf max{|x(t)|})

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v 0 (kT )

25630

7.3

Analog Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

Analog transmission of discrete-time sample values of message signal

Amplitude of the pulse carrier is modulated in accordance with instantaneous sample values of the message signal.

Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Lowpass anti-aliasing filtering of message signal
band limitation to || M
Sampling signal at rate T = 2/s , s > 2M
Modulation of impulses h(t)

x0 (t)

Lowpass x(t)

x(nT )

h(t)

PAM signal
y(t) =

n=

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x(nT )h(t nT ))

y(t)

25731

Example:
Rectangular pulse of duration T0

t T0/2
h(t) = rect
T0



X
t T0/2 nT
x(nT )rect
y(t) =
T0
n=


y(t)
x(t)
T

T0

Sampling-and-hold operation with sampling period T and hold

duration T0


Express PAM signal

y(t) =

x(t)

k=

(t kT )

h(t)

Spectrum of PAM signal

1 X
Y (j) =
X(j( ns))H(j)
T
k=

where H(j) = F{h(t)}

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25832


Effect of pulse shape

 


F
tT0 /2
0
H(j) = T0 sinc T
E.g. h(t) = rect
ejT0/2
T0
2
(Xj)

2
T0

sinc

T0
2

2
T0

Frequency distortion
Shorter pulse duration less distortion


Demodulation of PAM signal

Lowpass filter with cutoff frequency M < co s M

Compensate for distortion due to pulse shape

y(t)

Hr (j)

v(t)

E.g. for rectangular pulse shape

ej(TdT0 ) , || M

T sinc(T0 /(2))
Hr (j) = 0 0,
|| (s M )

dont care ,
else
v(t) = x(t Td )
(delay Td for causal filter)

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25933

7.4

Multiplexing
Combination of independent message signals into a composite signal
suitable for transmission over a common channel

General structure

x2(t)
..
.

Multiplexer

x1(t)
Channel

xI (t)

Demultiplexer

v1 (t)
v2 (t)
..
.
vI (t)

Basic types of multiplexing

1. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Individual signals are separated by allocating them to different frequency bands.
Used with sinusoidal carrier-wave modulation
Examples:
Wired telephony and telegraphy
Radio and TV broadcasting
1st generation (analog) cellular phone systems as the US
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS), the UK Total
Access Communications System (TACS), the German CNetz

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26034

2. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

Individual signals are separated by allocating them to different time slots within a sampling interval.
Used with (digital) pulse modulation
Examples:
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT)
2nd generation digital cellular phone systems as Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Digital-American
Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS), and Personal Digital
Cellular (PDC)
3. Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
Individual signals are separated by assignment of different
codes to them.
Used with digital pulse modulation
Examples:
3rd generation mobile communication standards CDMA2000,
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
4. Space-division multiplexing (SDM)
Individual signals are separated spatially.
Based on directed antennas
Examples:
GSM, UMTS


If the message signals correspond to different user which access the

same transmission medium, the above techniques are also referred
to as multiple-access techniques (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA).

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26135

FDM

Ti m

Illustration

Power

TDM

Ti m

Power

Frequency

CDM
SDM

Ti m

Power

Frequency

Frequency

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26236

7.4.1


Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Multiplexing
Lowpass filtering of message signal no interference with other
signals sharing the common channel
Modulation
Shift the frequency ranges of signals so as to occupy mutually
exclusive frequency intervals
Most widely used: single-sideband AM

Bandpass filter restrict the band of each modulated wave to its

prescribed range
Summation forms input to common channel

x1 (t)

Lowpass

Modulator

Bandpass

x2 (t)

Lowpass

Modulator

Bandpass

..
.

..
.

..
.

Lowpass

Modulator

Bandpass

..
.

xI (t)

Carrier
supply

Lampe, Schober:
Signals and
Communications
Signal
Processing
and
Communications-IIUM

26337


Demultiplexing received signal

Bandpass filtering to extract the modulated signals corresponding to their specific frequency range
Demodulation to recover the original signal
Lowpass filtering to reduce interference and noise

Bandpass

Demod.

Lowpass

v1(t)

Bandpass

Demod.

Lowpass

v2(t)

..
.

..
.

..
.

Bandpass

Demod.

Lowpass

..
.

vI (t)

Carrier
supply

To allow for a coexistence of different communication systems and

standards over the entire usable frequency range, the allocation of
frequencies for different purposes is controlled by several national
and international standards and regulation bodies.

Lampe, Schober:
Signals and
Communications
Signal
Processing
and
Communications-IIUM

26438

7.4.2


Time-Division Multiplexing

TDM is based on the sampling theorem.

Transmission of one band-limited message signal engages transmission channel for only a fraction of the sampling interval.
Time interval between adjacent samples is cleared for use by
other message signals.

Multiplexing
Lowpass filtering to restrict bandwidth to || M

Commutator

Takes narrow samples of each of the I message signals at

rate 1/T > /M
Sequentially interleaves I samples inside sampling interval T

Pulse modulation
x1(t)

Lowpass

x2(t)

Lowpass

..
.

Pulsemodulator

..
.
Commutator

xI (t)

Lowpass

Lampe, Schober:
Signals and
Communications
Signal
Processing
and
Communications-IIUM

26539


Demultiplexing
Pulse demodulator produces narrow samples
Decommutator distributes samples
Lowpass filtering to reconstruct message signal

Pulsedemodulator

Lowpass

v1(t)

Lowpass

v2(t)

..
.

..
.

Decommutator
Lowpass

vI (t)

Timing synchronization between commutator and decommutator

critical

Appropriate choice of pulse shape and pulse demodulation to avoid

intersymbol interference

Lampe, Schober:
Signals and
Communications
Signal
Processing
and
Communications-IIUM