EXPERIMENT A1

Aim: To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.
Apparatus: a resistance wire about 1 meter long, a battery eliminator, rheostat, voltmeter,
ammeter, a resistance box, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper.
Theory:
According to Ohms law The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor
remains the same.
Let I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential drop across the
ends, then
IV
or,
VI
or,
V/ I = constant = R
where R is a constant called the electrical resistance. Its S.I. unit is ohm and its value
depends upon the dimensions (length and area of cross section) and material of the wire.
If a graph is plotted with V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis, then it will be a straight line as V
is directly proportional to I. The slope of this graph (I/V) can be used to find the resistance
of the wire. R = 1/slope.
OBSERVATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
S.No.

1
2
3
4
5
6

Range of instruments: Ammeter A, Voltmeter . Volt

Least count of ammeter = A
Least count of voltmeter = . Volt
Zero error of ammeter = .. A
Zero correction of ammeter = .. A
Zero error of voltmeter = .. volt
Zero correction of voltmeter = .. volt
Length of the wire = .. cm
Voltmeter reading (V)
(Volt)
Observed
Corrected

Ammeter reading (I)

(Ampere)
Observed
Corrected

R=V/I
(Ohm)

Mean value of resistance, R =

Graph: Choose appropriate scale and plot a graph between V on the x-axis and I on the yaxis. Find the slope of the graph, after drawing the suitable triangle on the graph.
Calculations:
Substitute values from the graph
Slope = I / V = (I2 I1) / (V2 V1) = 1/R
Therefore, R = V / I = 1/slope
R = . ohm from the graph
Resistance per unit length = R / L = ohm/cm
Result:
(i) The graph between potential drop V and current I through a conductor is a straight line.
(ii)The value of the resistance of the given wire is . .
(iii) The resistance per cm of the given wire is ./ cm
Precaution:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with proper
polarities.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Measuring instruments of proper range should be used and zero error, if any, must
be taken into account.
6. Too high currents should not be drawn from the battery and care must be taken to
avoid short circuiting.
7. The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire
leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The
length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be
included otherwise it will contribute to error.
Sources of error:
1. Due to heating effect of current, the resistance of the wire may change during the
course of experiment.
2. The ammeter and voltmeter are not ideal and hence introduce some error on
account of their resistances.
3. Error due to parallax may creep in.
4. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of its material.
Apparatus: a metre bridge, a resistance wire about 1 metre long, a resistance box, jockey,
one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, screw gauge and sand paper.
Theory:
Metre Bridge is a simple apparatus based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S joined such that they form a
quadrilateral ABCD as shown in the figure. The current i drawn from the cell is divided in A
into two parts. One part i1 flows along the path AB and the other part i2 flows along AD.
Since the potential falls equally along the two conductors, it is possible to find two points B
and D, such that they are at the same potential. If B and D are connected to a galvanometer
through a key K, no current will flow through it. Hence there will be no deflection in the
galvanometer and the bridge is said to be balanced. Let i1 and i2 be the currents in the arms
ABC and ADC respectively and let Va, Vb, Vc and Vd be the potentials at the points A, B ,C and
D respectively. Then, applying Ohms law, we get
Va- Vb = P .i1
Vb Vc = Q .i1
Va - Vd = R .i2
Vd Vc = S .i2
In balanced condition
Va- Vb = Va - Vd
And Vb Vc = Vd Vc
(since, Vb = Vd)
Therefore, P i1 = R i2
Q i1 = S i2
Or,
P/Q=R/S
If the resistances Q, R and S are known, P can be calculated.
Therefore,
P = (R / S) x Q
Measuring an unknown resistance
In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance
box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the
balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from
the principle of the Wheatstone bridge
X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC
= k x length AD / k x length DC
where k is the resistance per unit length.
If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm
Therefore,
X = [l / (100 l)] x Q

Specific resistance
The resistance of a resistor varies directly as its length L and inversely as its area of cross
section r2, where r is the radius of the wire.
Therefore, the resistance of the wire can be written as
X = 4L / d2,
where d is the diameter of the wire and is the specific resistance of the wire.
Therefore,
= (d2 /4L) X
OBSERVATIONS:
(a) Length of the wire = .. cm
(b) Least count of meter bridge scale = . Cm
(c) For measurement of resistance of the wire
No. of
Resistance P
observation
(ohm)

Balancing
length (l)
(cm)

Length DC =
(100 l)
(cm)

X =[ l / (100 l) ]
xQ
(ohm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean value of resistance, X =
(c)For measurement of diameter of wire
Pitch of screw gauge (p) = mm
No of div on the circular scale (n) = .
Least count of screw gauge = p/n = .. mm
Zero error = (+ or -) div = mm
No
of
obs

Reading along one dir.

Reading along perpendicular

Mean
dir.
observed
dia
Main Circular Observed Main Circular Observed
scale
scale
dia
scale
scale
dia
reading reading
reading reading
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)

1
2
3
Mean corrected diameter = . mm

Corrected
diameter

(mm)

Calculations:
Substitute the value of X, d and L in the working formulae to obtain the specific resistance
of the material of the wire.
Result:
(i) The value of the unknown resistance as determined by the meter bridge was found to be
.
(ii) The value of specific resistance of the material of the given wire is . cm.
Precautions:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. The jockey wire should be long.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured.
6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the
wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed
first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a
momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break
of current in the circuit.
7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be
lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise
the uniformity of the wire will be damaged.
8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard.
9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors.
10.The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire
leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The
length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be
included otherwise it will contribute to error.

Sources of error:
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out
its entire length.
2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering
at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be
negligible.
3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change.
4. The screw gauge may have backlash error.
5. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances (in series and parallel) using a meter
bridge.
Apparatus: a metre bridge, two resistance wire of different length, a resistance box, jockey,
one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, and sand paper.
Theory:
Laws of combination of resistances:
a) Series combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be connected in
series when they are connected end to end as shown in the diagram. The equivalent
resistance is given by Rs = R1 + R2 + .. + Rn
b) Parallel combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be in parallel
when one end of each resistance is connected to a common point and their other ends
are connected to another common point as shown in the figure. The equivalent
resistance is given by
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + .. + 1/Rn
Measuring an unknown resistance using Metre Bridge
In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance
box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the
balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from
the principle of the Wheatstone bridge
X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC
= k x length AD / k x length DC
where k is the resistance per unit length.
If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm
Therefore,
X = [ l / (100 l) ] x Q
OBSERVATION:
Resistanc
e used

X1

X2
X1 and X2
in series
X1 and X2
in parallel

S.No.

1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3

Resistanc
eQ
()

Balancing
length (l)
(cm)

(100 l)
(cm)

Unknown
resistance
(X)

Mean value of
resistance

X1 = .

X2 = .

Xs =

Xp =.

Calculations:
For verifying the laws of combination
S.No.
1

Nature of
Experimental
Theoretical value ()
combination
value ()
series
Xs = .
Xs = X1+ X2 = .

Difference
()
Xs - Xs =

parallel

Xp - Xp=

Xp = .

Xp = X1. X2 / (X1 + X2) = .

Result
1. The values of the individual resistances measured by metre bridge are
X1 = and X2 = .
2. The experimental value of resistance of series combination of X1 and X2 (.) is found to
agree with the theoretically calculated value () within the limits of experimental
error. Hence the law of series combination of resistances stands verified.
3. The experimental value of resistance of parallel combination of X1 and X2 (.) is found
to agree with the theoretically calculated value (.) within the limits of experimental
error. Hence the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified.
Precautions:
1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper
to remove the insulation properly.
2. Connections should be neat and tight.
3. The jockey wire should be long.
4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current
would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit.
5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured.
6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the
wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed
first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a
momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break
of current in the circuit.
7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be
lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise
the uniformity of the wire will be damaged.
8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard.
9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors.

Sources of error:
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out
its entire length.

2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering
at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be
negligible.
3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change.
4. The screw gauge may have backlash error.
5. The resistance of the overlapping portions of the wires at the joints has not been
taken into account.
EXPERIMENT A4
Aim: To compare the emf of two given primary cells (Daniel and Lechlanche cells) using a
potentiometer.
Apparatus: a potentiometer, two primary cells (Daniel and Lechlanche cells), a resistance
box, jockey, one way key, galvanometer, battery, rheostat, two way key, connecting wire,
multimeter and sand paper.
Theory:
If a steady current is maintained by a battery E, through a wire of homogeneous composition
and uniform area of cross section, then the potential drop V between any two points on the
wire is directly proportional to the separation l between the two points.
Vl
Or,
V / l = k, where k is a constant called potential gradient.
In the circuit shown (fig 4.1), when a steady potential difference V is maintained using driver
battery E and rheostat Rh, across the potentiometer of length L such that end A is at higher
potential than end B, then a potential gradient k = V / L is set up on the potentiometer wire.
If experimental cell E (E < E) is connected as shown and jockey is slided to get a null point
at length l where galvanometer shows no deflection, then E = kl.
When cell E1 is connected in the circuit and (let the potential divider be not there) the
position of the null point is found at balancing length l1, then from the principle of
potentiometer E1 = kl1. When cell E2 is connected in the circuit and the position of the null
point is found at balancing length l2, then E2 = kl2.
Therefore,
E1 / E2 = l1 / l2

OBSERVATIONS:
1. No of wires in the potentiometer board =
2. Least count of potentiometer scale = .. cm
3. Source of supply of current to auxiliary circuit = ..
4. Drop of potential across battery E = .. V
5. Drop of potential across primary cell (Daniel) E1 = .. V
6. Drop of potential across primary cell (Lechlanche) E2 = .. V

Sr. no

Balancing length for Lechlanche Balancing length for Daniel cell

cell (E1) cm
(E2) cm
1
2
Mean l1
1
2
Mean l2

Ratio
E1 / E2 =
l1 / l2

Mean value of E1 / E2 =
Result:
The ratio of emfs of Lechlanche cell and Daniel cell = E1 / E2 =
Precautions:
1. Ensure that emf of driver battery E is greater than the emfs of experimental cells E1
and E2.
2. The wires of potentiometer should be thoroughly cleaned.
3. All the positive terminals should be connected to the same terminal of the
potentiometer.
4. The current should not be passed for a long time to avoid any heating.
5. the rheostat used must have a low resistance ( about 20 ohms)
Sources of error:
1. The potentiometer wire may not have a uniform cross-section.
2. Due to heating, the resistance of the potentiometer wire may not
remain the same during different sets of observations.
3. The emf of the driver cell may not be constant.
3. The end resistance of the copper strips may not be negligible.

EXPERIMENT NO. A5
AIM: To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell by using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS: A potentiometer, a rheostat, battery eliminator or cells in series (e.m.f. of
battery E1>E of the cell), two one-way keys, a Lechlanche cell, a resistance box (0 to 20
ohms), a R.B. (0 to 2000 ), a jockey, a galvanometer, connecting wires, etc.
THEORY:
Resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of ions inside the electric cell is its
internal resistance. For an active cell, this value is about 2 .
The potential difference between the terminals of a cell is less in a closed circuit than in an
open circuit. The difference between the two values is spent up in driving the current through
the electrolyte of the cell against the internal resistance offered by it. Let E be the e.m.f. of
the cell, R the resistance of the external circuit and r the internal resistance of the cell; then
current in the circuit is given by

(1)

or

If V be the terminal potential difference between the terminals of the cell in the closed
circuit, then
(2)
(3)

or
Therefore,

let the balance point for the cell E in the open circuit be at a distance cm from the end A of
the potentiometer; then the e.m.f., E of the cell is proportional to the length . If the cell is
connected by connecting a resistance R in parallel and the new balance point is obtained at a
distance from A, then the potential difference V between the terminals of the cell is
proportional to and therefore,

(same as equation (3) above)

Or

, which is the working formula.

OBSERVATIONS:
Preliminary check using a voltmeter of high resistance
1. Potential drop across the battery, E = .volt
2. Potential drop across the cell, E = .volt (Ensure that E is greater than E)
OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No.

1.
2.
3.
4.

R
(in
Ohm)

Balancing length for Lechlanche cell (in cm)

Open circuit when key K1 open
Closed circuit when key K2 closed
Length l1 (in cm)
Length l2 (in cm)
Increasing Decreasing Mean
Increasing
Decreasing
Mean
(l1)
(l2)

Internal
resistance
r=Rx
(in Ohms)

CALCULATIONS:
(Substitute the value of R and mean values of l1 and l2 in the formula

for each set of observations and calculate the value of r. Since the internal resistance varies
with the external resistance R, the mean of these values of r should not be taken and the
range of variation of r should be mentioned in the result.)
RESULT:
The internal resistance of the given Lechlanche cell varies with the current drawn from it and
its determined value lies between .. and .. ohms.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The cell whose internal resistance is to be determined, should not be disturbed during
the experiment. The disturbance may alter the internal resistance of the cell.
2. Rheostat Rh should be adjusted to introduce a near zero resistance and balance point
for the null deflection be determined.
3. A freshly prepared cell should be used. While using Lechlanche cell, wait for about a
minute between two readings to enable the depolarizer (MnO) to recover its ability to
depolarize.
4. As soon as the observations are taken, the plugs K and K should be taken out to
avoid too much heating of the potentiometer wire as well as that of the resistance box
coils from box P.
5. A high resistance should be connected in series with the galvanometer to locate an
approximate position of the null point. Thereafter, this high resistance R should be
removed to determine the exact position. The inclusion of a high resistance in the
galvanometer circuit does not in any way change the position of the null point. The
same purpose can be achieved by using a shunt across the galvanometer.
(Other precautions to be observed are the same as those for Experiment No. 4)
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire
length.
2. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery producing the fall of potential along the
potentiometer may not be constant throughout the experiment.
3. If the end resistances of potentiometer wire are not taken into account, some error may
creep in.
4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by current may introduce some error.
EXPERIMENT A6
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find its figure of merit
and full scale deflection current.
Apparatus: a Weston type galvanometer, a battery, one resistance box (0- 10000 ), one resistance box (0200 ), two one way keys, connecting wire, sand paper.
Theory:
(a) Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method:

In the circuit diagram for the determination of the galvanometer resistance, when only key K1 is closed, the
current Ig through the galvanometer is given by,
Ig =
E____
R+G
If the current Ig produces a deflection in the galvanometer, then
Ig = k
Or, Ig =
E____ = k
R+G
When key K2 is also closed and the value of the resistance is so adjusted that the galvanometer shows a
deflection half of its previous value i.e. /2, the current Ig through the galvanometer can be found as follows.
Let I be the current drawn from the battery of p.d. (E) when total resistance in the circuit is
R = R + G.S
G+S
Therefore, I =
E______
R + G.S
G+S
The current I divide itself at point A in the inverse ratio of resistances G and S as it passes through resistance
G and S. Therefore, the current Ig through the galvanometer is given by
Ig = I x
S__
G+S
Substituting the value of I in this equation,
Ig =
E______ x
S__
=
E.S_____
R + G.S
G+S
R( G + S) + G.S
G+S
The deflection through the galvanometer is reduced to half of its initial value implies that,
Ig = k (/2)
Therefore,
Ig =
E.S______ = k
R( G + S) + G.S
Dividing Ig by Ig,
Ig/ Ig = E____ x R ( G + S) + G.S = 2
R+G
E.S
Or,
R (G + S) + G.S = 2S(R + G)
R.G G.S = R.S
G(R S) = R.S
G = R.S / (R S)
(b) Figure of merit
Figure of merit is defined as the current required per division of deflection. It is generally denoted by letter k
Ig = k
Where Ig =
E____
R+G
Therefore,
k = 1/ [ E____]
R+G
Figure of merit enables us to find the current required for full scale deflection (N0 divisions) in the
galvanometer. If IG is the current for full scale deflection in the galvanometer,
Then,
IG = kN0
OBSERVATIONS:
(a)Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method:
S.No.
Resistance R
Deflection in the
Half
Required shunt
galvanometer
galvanometer
deflection
(S)
resistance
()
()
(/2)
G = R.S / (R S)
divisions
divisions
()
()
1
30
15
2
28
14
3
26
13

4
24
12
5
22
11
6
20
10
Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G = . ohm
(b)For figure of merit
1. Resistance of the galvanometer (G) by half deflection method = .. ohm
2. EMF of the cell E = volt
No. of
observa
tion

EMF of the cell

Resistance R

(Volt)
()

1
2
3
4
5
6

Deflection in the
galvanometer
()
divisions
30
28
26
24
22
20

Fig. of merit
k = E / ( R + G)
(A/ div)

Result:
(a) Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method, G = .. ohm
(b) Figure of merit, k =.. A/div
(c) Current IG for full scale deflection = .mA
Precautions:
1. All the connections should be neat and tight. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
2. A high resistance 10k from the resistance box R should be introduced first and then the battery
key K1 should be closed to avoid any damage to the galvanometer.
3. The deflection in the galvanometer should be as large as possible and should be an even number of
divisions.
4. The value of R must be very large as compared to the value of G; otherwise the result will not be
satisfactory.
5. The e.m.f. of the battery used should be constant and for this, the battery used should be freshly
charged.
6. Before closing the key K2 for determining half deflection, all plugs in Resistance box S should be
tightly fitted and checked. The resistance from resistance box s is gradually increased till deflection
falls to /2.
Sources of error:
1. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
2. The e.m.f. of the battery may not be constant.
3. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

EXPERIMENT NO. A7 (a)

AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of
desired range ( say 0 to 3 V) and verify the same.
APPARATUS: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance and figure of merit are given, a
resistance box of range 0 to 10 k, a battery or accumulator of 5 V (minimum potential drop equal to the
desired range), a rheostat (of range 200) to be used as potential divider arrangement, a one-way key, a
voltmeter (0 to 3 V) for comparing the accuracy of the converted voltmeter, connecting wires, sand papers
and etc.

THEORY:
Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter:
A high resistance of suitable value is connected in series with the galvanometer to convert it into a
voltmeter. Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit.

Calculation of Series Resistance:

Suppose the galvanometer has a resistance of G ohms, its scale has N divisions on either side of the zero
and that for full scale deflection, it takes a maximum current of amperes. Then, the maximum potential
difference that the galvanometer can measure is X G volts. If the converted galvanometer is desired to
have a range of V volts, then the total resistance R that must be included in the circuit for a current of
amperes is given by
ohms.
Since the resistance of the galvanometer is G ohms, the additional resistance R that should be placed in
series with the galvanometer is given as R = R + G =
R = (

Or

)ohms, and connected as shown in the figure.

OBSERVATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Given resistance of the galvanometer,

G = ..ohms
Given value of the figure of merit,
k = ..amperes per division
The total number of divisions on either side of the zero of the galvanometer, N = ..
Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
= .amperes

(a) Calculations of the value of resistance R for placing in series with the galvanometer.
(b) Required range of the converted voltmeter,
(c) Value of the required series resistance,
R = (

V = ..volts

) = .ohms

(b)Verification
Checking the performance of the converted voltmeter by computing it with a standard
voltmeter of the same range using the circuit given in the figure.
(d) Voltage indicated by full scale deflection (N) of the converted voltmeter
V = ..volts
(e) Least count of the converted voltmeter = k =

= .volts/division

OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No.

Reading of the converted

galvanometer into voltmeter
In No. of
divisions
n

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In Volts

Standard
voltmeter
reading

V = k.n

(in Volt)

(in Volt)

Error
V V

(in Volt)

Error %
X 100

(Note: if the difference (V V) happens to be large, then adjust the value of series resistance R
such that the readings V and V almost agree.)

RESULT:
For the given galvanometer of resistance,
and figure of merit,

G = ..ohms
k = .A/division

(a) Current for full scale deflection,

= .A
(b) The value of high resistance required to be connected in series
R = .ohms
(c) On verification, the mean error = .%. Since the error is small, conversion is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Calculations for the required series resistance for conversion should be done carefully.
2. The resistance box should be connected in series with the galvanometer. It must be of high range (10000)
and preferable a dial type. The correct value of the calculated resistance, correct to the nearest Ohm should
be introduces and at no stage, should the resistance in the R.B. be zero or small, otherwise an unduly high
current is likely to flow through the galvanometer and damage it.
3. One free terminal of the resistance box and the other free terminal of the galvanometer are the terminals of
the converted voltmeter as sown in the figure.
4. Any zero error in the galvanometer or voltmeter should be eliminated or accounted for.
5. The standard voltmeter selected for comparing the performance of the converted voltmeter should be used
in the experiment.
6. Both the voltmeters (converted and the standard ones) should be connected in parallel with the p.d. to be
measured with their positive terminals connected to the higher potential side.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
2. The e.m.f. of the battery may not be constant.

3. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

EXPERIMENT NO. A7 (b)

AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter of a
desired range (say 0 to 60 mA) and to verify the same.
APPARATUS: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance and figure of merit are given, a
constantan or manganin wire of 26 or 30 s.w.g. diameter, a screw gauge, a wire cutter, a battery or an
accumulator of 2 V, a one-way key, a rheostat of range about 200, a milli-ammeter of 30 mA range,
connecting wires and sand papers etc.

THEORY:
Conversion of the galvanometer of resistance G and full scale deflection current into an ammeter of
desired range amperes.
A galvanometer is a device used for detection and measurement of feeble currents of the order of a few 100
mA. For measuring large currents, a shunt of low resistance of known value 0.2 to 2 (depending upon the
range and sensitivity of the galvanometer), is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. Out of the total
current , only a small fraction passes through the galvanometer and the rest of it
passes
through the shunt (as shown in the figure). The instrument is calibrated so as to read the current directly in
amperes and then it can be used as an ammeter.
(a) Calculation of Shunt Resistance

Let S be the value of the resistance of the shunt and G that of the galvanometer; then the fraction of the total
current passing through the galvanometer is given by the relation
(1)
Therefore, to convert a galvanometer, which gives full scale deflection for current
range 0 to amperes, the value of the required shunt is given by equation (1) as,

into an ammeter of

Which is the working formula.

For conversion we employ a shunt of value S. the required shunt resistance S is made using a uniform wire
whose specific resistance is known and whose length l is calculated by the formula

where r is the radius of the wire.

OBSERVATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
(a)
5.

Given resistance of galvanometer,

Given value of figure of merit,
Total number of divisions on either side of zero,
Current for full scale deflection,
Calculation of the value of shunt resistance
Required range of the converted ammeter,

G = .
k = .amperes per division
= .
X k = .amperes
= .amperes

6. Value of the shunt resistance,

= .ohms

(b)Computing the length of the wire to make a resistance of S ohms.

7. Observations for the diameter of the wire.
(i)
Pitch of the screw
(ii)
No. of divisions on the circular scale
(iii)
Least count
(iv)
Zero error
(v)
Zero correction

(p) = .cm
= .
(a) = .cm
(e) = .cm
(-e) = .cm

MEASUREMENT OF DIAMETER
S.
No.

Along one direction

Main
scale
reading
S
(in cm)

Circular
scale
reading
n

Diameter
d = S + n.a
(in cm)

Along mutually perpendicular

direction
Main
Circula Diamete
scale
r scale
r
reading reading d = S +
S
n
n.a
(in cm)
(in cm)

Mean observed
diameter

(in cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mean observed diameter,

Mean corrected diameter,

d = ..cm
d = d + (-e) = ..cm

8. Specific resistance of the material of the wire = .ohm-cm

9. The required length of the wire,

= cm
(Substitute the value of S in ohm, d in cm if measured in mm and in ohm-cm)
(c)Verification
Checking the performance of the converted ammeter in comparison to a standard ammeter, using the circuit
of the given figure.
Current indicated by full scale deflection ( ) of converted ammeter = .amperes
Least count of the converted ammeter,
k =

= .amperes per division

Verification

No.
of
Obs.

Resistance
from R.B.
(in ohms)

Galvanometer Reading
No. of divisions
Indicated
n
current
I = k X n

Ammeter
reading
current I

Error I I

Error %

(in ampere)

X
100%

(in ampere)
(in ampere)
1.
2.
3.
4.

RESULT:
(a) Current for full scale deflection = .amperes
(b) i. Value of the shunt required to convert the galvanometer S = ..ohms.

ii. Required length of material..(name)..s.w.g wire = ..cm

As error I I is very small, conversion is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The diameter of the wire for making the shunt resistance should be measured accurately [since the area of
cross-section is (
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

)], at least at six different places. At each place, the observation for diameter is taken in

two mutually perpendicular directions.

The different parts of the shunt wire should neither get coiled nor fall on each other. If required, a book or a
wooden block should be used to restrict the wire from coiling and keeping it pressed down to the table.
While connecting the shunt across the galvanometer, care should be taken to see that only the exact
required length of wire, l, lies between the binding screws. So, a wire of length longer by 2 cm than l should
be selected so that the extra length lies below the terminals of the galvanometer.
The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to the positive pole of the battery. Also,
the ammeter should be in series with the circuit.
The length of the shunt wire should be neither too large nor too small (optimum length is 50 to 60 cm).
The ammeter selected for verification should have the same range as that of the converted ammeter.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
4. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
5. The e.m.f. of the battery may not be constant.

6. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

7. Shunt wire may not be of uniform cross section.
8. Length of the shunt wire may not be accurately measured.