Station Battery Guide

Stationary Battery Guide: Design,
Application, and Maintenance

Revision 2 of TR-100248
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Technical Report
Plant
Maintenance
Support
Equipment
Reliability
Stationary Battery Guide: Design,

Application, and Maintenance
Revision 2 of TR-100248
1006757
August 2002
EPRI Project Manager

W. E. Johnson
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
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ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Nuclear Maintenance Application Center
EPRI
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, NC 28262
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Stationary Battery Guide: Design, Application, and Maintenance, Revision 2 of TR-100248,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1006757.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
Stationary batteries provide backup to various dc control systems in power plants, substations,
telecommunication facilities, and other applications that require a safe and orderly shutdown in
the event of primary power loss. Batteries are expected to be fully capable and ready in the event
of a power emergency such as a loss of ac power. This guide has been revised by EPRIs Nuclear
Maintenance Applications Center to reflect design, application, and maintenance
recommendations that will be helpful to users of stationary-type batteries.
Background
EPRIs Nuclear Maintenance Application Center (NMAC) developed a Stationary Battery
Application and Maintenance Guide, TR-100248, in 1992 to reflect changes in battery
maintenance programs-related new and revised industry standards. Batteries still play a critical
role in many applications where they act as the last level of defense for power loss situations and
also provide power to assist in power recovery situations, such as breaker closing and field
flashing for generators. Lead-acid and nickel cadmium still remain the most widely used types of
cells for stationary applications.
Objectives
To bolster the knowledge and capabilities of stationary battery users
To incorporate findings from recent and ongoing industry research and development in the
area of stationary battery applications and maintenance
To provide insight into changes in maintenance and testing practices with guidance on the
limitations associated with the use of certain test methods
To emphasize cost-effective maintenance practices
To focus on methods that improve equipment reliability
Approach
The maintenance approach and accompanying recommendations were developed by reviewing
industry standards, regulatory guidance, and manufacturers recommendations and by obtaining
input from other experts including users. This input ensures that the bases for the recommended
practices were thoroughly researched and are flexible for incorporation into existing maintenance
programs; it also supplies a foundation for new and/or improved battery maintenance programs.
Results
Fundamentals of battery design are covered in greater detail in this revision. More details related
to internal cell materials, their operational relationship, and performance over the expected life of
the battery cell are provided. This information has been included because many changes in
battery cell materials, manufacturing, and design processes are not always fully communicated to
the user.
EPRI Perspective
When the original Stationary Battery Guide was issued in 1992, it provided significant insight
and guidance for plant personnel regarding battery maintenance. Participation with industry
groups and battery users has provided unique insight into industry needs and concerns regarding
industry issues related to stationary battery usage. Maintenance departments were the key
audiences for the original guide; however, over time, many other plant departments have used
this document as a source for battery installation, application, and maintenance. Additionally,
stationary battery workshops have been used to bolster the knowledge and capabilities of plant
personnel regarding the use of stationary batteries in power plants.
This revision updates the practices and methods used to ensure proper battery performance. This
revision incorporates application issues that affect the testing and maintenance of stationary
batteries used in nuclear power plants and other stationary applications.
Keywords
Batteries
Storage batteries
Stationary batteries
Battery testing
Maintenance
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This document was prepared for the Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC), under
Electric Power Research Institute project number 3814-33. NMAC and Edan Engineering
recognize the following individuals for their contributions by reviewing the document or
providing technical material. The support provided is gratefully appreciated.
Jack Bellack
Consultant
Tom Carpenter
Entergy Operations, Inc.
Robert Connell
Wisconsin Electric
John Coyle
PECO Energy
Pete DeMar
Battery Research and Testing
Ray Hansen
Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency
Jack Kopytek
Ontario Hydro
Pete Langan
AVO Biddle
Roger Pocock
Alcad Standby Batteries
Omi Samanta
Southern California Edison
Sam Shah
Southern Nuclear Operating Company
NMAC was supported in this effort by:

Edan Engineering Corporation
900 Washington St., Suite 830
Vancouver, Washington 98660
Principal Investigators:
E. Davis
D. Funk
vii
The following personnel provided reviews, comments, and support of the 1992 publication of the
NMAC Stationary Battery Maintenance Guide. Their contributions have been reflected in this
expanded document.
Ladislav Bednar
Nebraska Public Power
Richard Bolgeo
Tennessee Valley Authority
James Christie
Yankee Atomic Electric Company
Randy Crawford
Washington Public Power Supply System
Brad Radimer
Public Service Electric & Gas Company
Phillip Thompson
Union Electric Company
Roman Zulak
Philadelphia Electric Company
David Feder
Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems, Inc.
Mark Hlavac
Midtronics, Inc.
Gary Markle
AVO Biddle Instruments
Jim McDowall
Alcad, Inc.
Jim Montesano
G&W Electric Company
Bill Rutledge
Reserve Energy Systems
Graham Walker
C&D Charter Power Systems, Inc.
viii
ABSTRACT
This guide has been prepared to assist a variety of users with stationary battery design,
application, and maintenance. The following battery-related topics are discussed in detail:
Fundamentalshow batteries are designed and how they work
Aging, degradation, and failures with an emphasis on how various maintenance tasks can
prevent, detect, or repair certain degradation mechanisms
Applicationshow batteries are designed for a specific purpose and how the battery
industry has evolved
Sizing for different applications
Protection and charging
Periodic inspections and checks
Capacity discharge testing
Installation and replacement considerations
Problems that can occur with battery systems
The Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC) published the original Stationary
Battery Maintenance Guide in 1992 to provide a consolidated reference source for plant
personnel responsible for maintaining stationary batteries. The document focused on the three
key battery types that are widely used in stationary applications: vented and valve-regulated
lead-acid cells, and vented nickel-cadmium cells.
The original audience was intended to be plant maintenance personnel; however, the original
document was also used by system engineers, plant technical staff, and training personnel. With
this broader group of users, many suggestions were provided to enhance the overall usefulness of
the document. Attendees at the periodic NMAC stationary battery workshops also provided
numerous recommendations related to the original document.
Since the original guide was published, new IEEE Recommended Practices related to stationary
battery applications have been issued. This revision addresses these industry changes as well as
some of the emerging issues related to the development of these industry documents.
This guide has been prepared as a comprehensive reference source for stationary batteries and is
intended to address the design, application, and maintenance needs of users. The technical
discussions are at the application level. Fundamentals of battery design are covered in greater
detail in this revision. More details related to internal cell materials, their operational
ix
relationship, and performance over the expected life of the battery cell are provided. This
information has been included because many changes in battery cell materials, manufacturing,
and design processes are not always communicated to the user.
The overall maintenance approach and the accompanying recommendations were developed by
reviewing industry standards, regulatory guidance, manufacturers recommendations, and other
experts including users to ensure that the bases for the recommended practices were thoroughly
developed and are flexible for incorporation into existing maintenance programs as well as
provide a foundation for a new program.
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
2 BATTERY FUNDAMENTALS ................................................................................................2-1
2.1
Types of Stationary Batteries.......................................................................................2-1
2.2
How a Battery Works ...................................................................................................2-2
2.2.1
Electrochemical Process.....................................................................................2-2
2.2.2
Lead-Acid Batteries.............................................................................................2-3
2.2.2.1
Negative Plate Reaction ...............................................................................2-3
2.2.2.2
Positive Plate Reaction .................................................................................2-5
2.2.2.3
Full-Cell Reaction..........................................................................................2-6
2.2.3
2.3
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries...................................................................................2-7
Vented Lead-Acid Stationary Batteries ........................................................................2-7
2.3.1
Plate Constructions .............................................................................................2-9
2.3.1.1
Lead-Antimony............................................................................................2-11
2.3.1.2
Lead-Calcium..............................................................................................2-13
2.3.1.3
Lead-Selenium............................................................................................2-14
2.3.1.4
Plate Physical Configurations .....................................................................2-14
2.3.1.5
Variations in Plate Design...........................................................................2-15
2.3.2
Expanders .........................................................................................................2-18
2.3.3
Separators and Retainers .................................................................................2-18
2.3.4
Electrolyte .........................................................................................................2-19
2.3.5
Container Design and Construction ..................................................................2-20
2.3.6
Electrical Characteristics...................................................................................2-21
2.3.6.1
Voltage........................................................................................................2-21
2.3.6.2
Discharge Characteristics ...........................................................................2-22
2.3.6.3
Plate Polarization ........................................................................................2-24
2.3.6.4
Capacity ......................................................................................................2-25
2.3.7
Temperature Effects..........................................................................................2-27
xi
2.3.8
2.4
Gas Evolution During Operation .......................................................................2-29
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries ...........................................................2-30
2.4.1
Recombination Cycle ........................................................................................2-33
2.4.2
Cell Construction...............................................................................................2-34
2.4.2.1
Absorbed Electrolyte Construction..............................................................2-34
2.4.2.2
Gelled Electrolyte Construction...................................................................2-36
2.4.2.3
Pressure Relief Valve .................................................................................2-37
2.4.3
Electrolyte Concentration ..................................................................................2-37
2.4.4
VRLA Cell Electrical Characteristics .................................................................2-38
2.4.5
2.4.6
Gas Generation During Operation ....................................................................2-39
2.5
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries .........................................................................................2-40
2.5.1
Cell Construction...............................................................................................2-41
2.5.1.1
Plate Constructions.....................................................................................2-42
2.5.1.2
Separators ..................................................................................................2-43
2.5.1.3
Electrolyte ...................................................................................................2-43
2.5.1.4
Container Design and Construction ............................................................2-43
2.5.2
Electrical Characteristics...................................................................................2-44
2.5.3
3 LEAD-ACID BATTERY AGING, DEGRADATION, AND FAILURE ......................................3-1

3.1
The Ideal Life Curve of a Lead-Acid Battery ................................................................3-2
3.2
Aging and Degradation Mechanisms ...........................................................................3-3
3.2.1
Temperature........................................................................................................3-3
3.2.2
Discharge Cycle Service .....................................................................................3-6
3.2.3
Overcharging.......................................................................................................3-7
3.2.4
Undercharging.....................................................................................................3-8
3.2.5
Ripple Current .....................................................................................................3-9
3.2.6
Overdischarge...................................................................................................3-10
3.2.7
Impurities...........................................................................................................3-10
3.3
xii
Failure Modes ............................................................................................................3-10
3.3.1
Plates ................................................................................................................3-11
3.3.2
Container...........................................................................................................3-13
3.3.3
Connections and Terminations .........................................................................3-13
3.3.4
Electrolyte .........................................................................................................3-13
3.4
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries ...........................................................3-14
3.4.1
VRLA Battery Aging and Degradation...............................................................3-14
3.4.1.1
Dryout .........................................................................................................3-15
3.4.1.2
Thermal Runaway.......................................................................................3-16
3.4.1.3
Complexity of the Recombination Process .................................................3-18
3.4.1.4
Temperature Effects ...................................................................................3-19
3.4.1.5
Electrolyte Concentration............................................................................3-19
3.4.1.6
Absorbed Glass Mat Compression Effects .................................................3-20
3.4.1.7
Negative Strap Corrosion............................................................................3-23
3.4.1.8
Over-Discharge...........................................................................................3-23
3.4.1.9
Design and Manufacturing Variations .........................................................3-23
3.4.1.10 VRLA Cell Failure Characteristics...............................................................3-24

3.4.2
VRLA Battery Failure Rates and Expected Operating Life ...............................3-27
3.4.2.1
USA Study of 25,000 Cells .........................................................................3-28
3.4.2.2
Swedish Study of 35,000 Cells ...................................................................3-28
3.4.2.3
Battery Manufacturer Evaluation of Expected Life......................................3-28
3.4.2.4
1998 Study of VRLA Battery Failure Rates.................................................3-28
3.4.2.5
Concluding Remarks on VRLA Battery Reliability ......................................3-29
4 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY AGING, DEGRADATION, AND FAILURE ..........................4-1

4.1
Aging and Degradation Mechanisms ...........................................................................4-1
4.1.1
Temperature........................................................................................................4-2
4.1.2
Discharge Cycle Service .....................................................................................4-2
4.1.3
Long-Term Float Operation.................................................................................4-3
4.1.4
Ripple Current .....................................................................................................4-3
4.1.5
Memory Effect .....................................................................................................4-3
4.2
Failure Modes ..............................................................................................................4-3
4.2.1
Plates ..................................................................................................................4-4
4.2.2
Container.............................................................................................................4-4
4.2.3
Connections and Terminations ...........................................................................4-4
4.2.4
Electrolyte ...........................................................................................................4-5
5 BATTERY APPLICATION AND SELECTION .......................................................................5-1

5.1
The Evolution of the Stationary Lead-Acid Battery Industry ........................................5-1
5.2
Battery Design Variations ............................................................................................5-4
xiii
5.2.1
High-Rate UPS....................................................................................................5-5
5.2.2
Long-Duration Discharge Application..................................................................5-5
5.2.3
Cycling Application..............................................................................................5-5
5.2.4
Motive Power Application....................................................................................5-6
5.2.5
Extreme Low Temperature Application ...............................................................5-6
5.2.6
Long-Life Requirement........................................................................................5-7
5.3
When to Select a Nickel-Cadmium Battery Over a Lead-Acid Battery ........................5-7
5.3.1
Cold Temperature Applications...........................................................................5-7
5.3.2
High Temperature Applications...........................................................................5-8
5.3.3
Engine Starting....................................................................................................5-9
5.3.4
Reliable, Long-Life Applications........................................................................5-10
5.4
When to Use a VRLA Battery ....................................................................................5-10
5.5
The True Cost of a Battery.........................................................................................5-12
5.6
Warranty Considerations ...........................................................................................5-13
6 BATTERY SIZING ..................................................................................................................6-1

6.1
Manufacturers Sizing Curves for Lead-Acid Batteries ................................................6-1
6.2
Lead-Acid Battery Sizing for a Duty Cycle .................................................................6-12
6.2.1
6.2.1.1
Continuous Loads .......................................................................................6-13
6.2.1.2
Noncontinuous Loads .................................................................................6-13
6.2.1.3
Momentary Loads .......................................................................................6-14
6.2.1.4
Random Loads............................................................................................6-15
6.2.2
Types of Duty Cycle Loads ...............................................................................6-15
6.2.3
Duty Cycle Duration ..........................................................................................6-16
6.2.4
Determining the Duty Cycle ..............................................................................6-17
6.2.5
IEEE 485 Approach to Sizing............................................................................6-20
6.2.5.1
Minimum and Maximum Voltage Requirements .........................................6-20
6.2.5.2
Battery Sizing Methodology ........................................................................6-22
6.2.6
xiv
Duty Cycle Load Categories .............................................................................6-12
Cell Size Correction Factors .............................................................................6-24
6.2.6.1
Aging Correction Factor ..............................................................................6-24
6.2.6.2
Temperature Correction Factor...................................................................6-24
6.2.6.3
Design Margin Correction Factor ................................................................6-26
6.2.6.4
Manufacturers Cell Sizing Correction Factor .............................................6-26
6.2.6.5
Application of Correction Factors................................................................6-26
6.2.7
Battery Sizing Example .....................................................................................6-27
6.3
Lead-Acid Battery Sizing for an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) .......................6-33
6.4
Battery Sizing for Diesel Engine Cranking .................................................................6-37
6.5
Additional Considerations for VRLA Batteries ...........................................................6-39
6.6
Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries...............................................................................6-39
7 DC SYSTEM PROTECTION ..................................................................................................7-1

7.1
Short Circuit Current ....................................................................................................7-1
7.1.1
Battery Short Circuit Current ...............................................................................7-1
7.1.1.1
Short Circuit Current Magnitude ...................................................................7-1
7.1.1.2
Effect of Inductance ......................................................................................7-4
7.1.2
Battery Charger Contribution ..............................................................................7-5
7.1.3
DC Motor Contribution ........................................................................................7-6
7.1.4
Short Circuit Calculation for Sample System ......................................................7-7
7.2
7.1.4.1
Battery Contribution ......................................................................................7-7
7.1.4.2
Battery Charger Contribution ......................................................................7-10
7.1.4.3
DC Motor Contribution ................................................................................7-10
DC System Protective Devices ..................................................................................7-10
7.2.1
Molded Case Circuit Breakers ..........................................................................7-12
7.2.1.1
Application Considerations .........................................................................7-12
7.2.1.2
Comparison of AC to DC MCCBs ...............................................................7-13
7.2.2
Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers.................................................................7-13
7.2.3
Fuses ................................................................................................................7-14
7.2.3.1
Fuse Construction.......................................................................................7-14
7.2.3.2
Fuse Clearing Characteristics.....................................................................7-15
7.2.3.3
Fuse Selection Guidelines ..........................................................................7-16
7.3
Short Circuit Protection Methods ...............................................................................7-17
7.4
DC System Alarms.....................................................................................................7-17
7.5
Additional Information Sources ..................................................................................7-18
8 BATTERY CHARGING ..........................................................................................................8-1

8.1
Charging Modes...........................................................................................................8-1
8.1.1
Float Charging.....................................................................................................8-1
8.1.2
Recharge.............................................................................................................8-4
8.1.3
Equalizing Charge...............................................................................................8-4
xv
8.2
Battery Charger Types.................................................................................................8-6
8.2.1
Controlled Ferroresonant Charger ......................................................................8-6
8.2.2
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Charger....................................................................8-7
8.3
Temperature-Compensated Chargers .........................................................................8-8
8.4
Charger Sizing .............................................................................................................8-8
8.5
Charging Problems ......................................................................................................8-9
8.5.1
Improper Float Voltage........................................................................................8-9
8.5.1.1
Effects of Overcharging and Undercharging...............................................8-10
8.5.1.2
Effect of Ambient Temperature on Float Voltage........................................8-11
8.5.1.3
Effect of Cell-to-Cell Float Voltage Variations.............................................8-12
8.5.2
Battery Tap Connections...................................................................................8-13
9 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ..............................................9-1

9.1
Historical Maintenance Problems ................................................................................9-2
9.2
Industry Standards for Stationary Batteries .................................................................9-3
9.3
Maintenance Program Objectives and Conceptual Development ...............................9-3
9.3.1
Maintenance Philosophy .....................................................................................9-3
9.3.2
Program Objectives.............................................................................................9-4
9.3.3
Maintaining the Design Basis..............................................................................9-4
9.3.4
Practical Considerations .....................................................................................9-5
9.3.5
Personnel Training ..............................................................................................9-5
9.3.6
Performance Trending ........................................................................................9-6
9.3.7
Operators Role in Monitoring Battery Conditions ...............................................9-6
9.4
Recommended Maintenance Practices and Periodicity...............................................9-7
10 PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ............................................10-1

10.1
Personnel Safety General Precautions .................................................................10-1
10.2
Equipment Safety General Precautions ................................................................10-2
10.3
Hydrogen Generation Precautions........................................................................10-3
10.4
Short Circuit Dangers............................................................................................10-5
10.5
Electrolyte Spill Precautions..................................................................................10-6
11 VENTED LEAD-ACID BATTERY INSPECTIONS .............................................................11-1

11.1
General Inspections ..............................................................................................11-1
11.1.1
xvi
Pilot Cell Selection Considerations ................................................................11-2
11.1.2
General Visual Inspection ..............................................................................11-3
11.1.2.1
Purpose of Inspection ...............................................................................11-3
11.1.2.2
Inspection Procedure ................................................................................11-3
11.1.3
Float Voltage Checks.....................................................................................11-5
11.1.3.1
Purpose of Float Voltage Checks .............................................................11-5
11.1.3.2
Effects of Overcharging and Undercharging.............................................11-6
11.1.3.3
Float Voltage Relationship to Cell Open Circuit Voltage...........................11-7
11.1.3.4
Effect of Ambient Temperature on Float Voltage......................................11-8
11.1.3.5
Effect of Cell-to-Cell Float Voltage Variations...........................................11-9
11.1.3.6
Inspection Procedure ..............................................................................11-10
11.1.4
Electrolyte Checks .......................................................................................11-11
11.1.4.1
Background Information..........................................................................11-11
11.1.4.2
Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations ..........................................11-12
11.1.4.3
Specific Gravity Measurements ..............................................................11-13
11.1.4.4
Water Addition Considerations ...............................................................11-16
11.1.4.5
Electrolyte Stratification ..........................................................................11-17
11.1.4.6
11.2
Quarterly Inspections ..........................................................................................11-19
11.3
Annual Inspections..............................................................................................11-20
11.3.1
11.3.1.1
Purpose of Inspection .............................................................................11-21
11.3.1.2
11.3.2
Connection Resistance Measurements .......................................................11-24
11.3.2.1
11.3.2.2
Micro-Ohmmeter Measurements ............................................................11-24
11.3.2.3
Single Terminal Post Example................................................................11-25
11.3.2.4
Two Terminal Post Example ...................................................................11-26
11.3.2.5
Inter-Tier or Inter-Rack Connection Example .........................................11-27
11.3.2.6
Correcting High-Resistance Connections ...............................................11-29
11.3.3
11.4
Detailed Battery Visual Inspection ...............................................................11-21
Battery Rack Integrity Inspection .................................................................11-31
11.3.3.1
11.3.3.2
Special Inspections .............................................................................................11-32
xvii
12 VRLA BATTERY INSPECTIONS.......................................................................................12-1

12.1
Monthly Inspections ..............................................................................................12-1
12.1.1
12.1.1.1
12.1.1.2
12.1.2
12.2
General Visual Inspection ..............................................................................12-2
Quarterly Inspections ............................................................................................12-6
12.2.1
Internal Ohmic Measurements.......................................................................12-6
12.2.2
VRLA Battery Cell Temperature Inspection ...................................................12-8
12.2.2.1
12.2.2.2
12.3
Annual Inspections................................................................................................12-9
12.4
Special Inspections ...............................................................................................12-9
13 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY INSPECTIONS.................................................................13-1

13.1
Quarterly Inspections ............................................................................................13-1
13.1.1
Battery Visual Inspection ...............................................................................13-2
13.1.1.1
13.1.1.2
13.1.2
13.1.2.1
Background Information and Purpose of Inspection .................................13-4
13.1.2.2
13.1.3
Pilot Cell Temperature Check ........................................................................13-5
13.1.3.1
13.1.3.2
13.1.4
Electrolyte Specific Gravity Measurements ...................................................13-6
13.2
Semi-Annual Inspections ......................................................................................13-6
13.3
Annual Inspections................................................................................................13-6
13.3.1
Connection Resistance Measurements .........................................................13-7
13.3.2
Battery Rack Integrity Inspection ...................................................................13-7
13.4
xviii
13.3.2.1
13.3.2.2
Special Inspections ...............................................................................................13-8
14 STATIONARY BATTERY CAPACITY DISCHARGE TESTS ............................................14-1

14.1
Performance Test..................................................................................................14-2
14.1.1
Purpose of Test and Background Information ...............................................14-2
14.1.2
Performance Test Discharge Duration...........................................................14-3
14.1.3
Performance Test Periodicity for Vented Lead-Acid Cells .............................14-5
14.1.4
Performance Test Periodicity for VRLA Cells ................................................14-6
14.1.5
Calculating Battery Capacity..........................................................................14-7
14.1.6
Performance Test Initial Conditions and Pretest Requirements ....................14-8
14.1.6.1
Adjusting the Battery for Optimal Performance.........................................14-8
14.1.6.2
Testing the Battery in the As-Found Condition .........................................14-9
14.1.7
14.2
Test Procedure ..............................................................................................14-9
Service Test ........................................................................................................14-15
14.2.1
Purpose of Test and Background Information .............................................14-15
14.2.2
Service Test Duty Cycle ..............................................................................14-15
14.2.2.1
Aging Factor............................................................................................14-16
14.2.2.2
Design Margin Factor..............................................................................14-16
14.2.2.3
Temperature Correction Factor...............................................................14-17
14.2.3
Service Test Periodicity ...............................................................................14-17
14.2.4
Service Test Initial Conditions and Pretest Requirements...........................14-17
14.2.5
Test Procedure ............................................................................................14-18
14.2.6
Test Failure Considerations .........................................................................14-20
14.3
Acceptance Test .................................................................................................14-20
14.4
Modified Performance Test .................................................................................14-20
14.5
Nickel-Cadmium Battery Considerations ............................................................14-23
14.5.1
Test Specifications.......................................................................................14-23
14.5.2
Performance Test Frequency ......................................................................14-24
14.5.3
Performance Test Discharge Rate...............................................................14-24
14.5.4
Acceptance Criteria .....................................................................................14-25
14.6
Continuity Test ....................................................................................................14-26
14.6.1
Background Information...............................................................................14-26
14.6.2
Procedure ....................................................................................................14-27
14.7
Capacity Test Failure Considerations .................................................................14-28
14.8
Battery Replacement Considerations..................................................................14-28
xix
15 BATTERY INSTALLATION AND REPLACEMENT...........................................................15-1

15.1
Battery Replacement Criteria ................................................................................15-1
15.2
Sizing Considerations for a Replacement Battery.................................................15-2
15.2.1
Verification of Required Battery Size .............................................................15-2
15.2.2
System Design Verification if a Larger Battery Is Installed ............................15-2
15.3
New Battery Installation Considerations ...............................................................15-3
15.3.1
Preparation and Review for a Battery Replacement......................................15-3
15.3.2
Preplanning for the Installation ......................................................................15-4
15.3.3
Battery Rack Considerations .........................................................................15-6
15.3.4
Initial Measurements and Battery Setup ........................................................15-9
15.3.5
Lead-Acid Battery Electrolyte Addition ..........................................................15-9
15.4
Checkout of Other DC System Equipment..........................................................15-10
16 BATTERY PROBLEMS......................................................................................................16-1
16.1
Lead-Acid Batteries...............................................................................................16-1
16.1.1
Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations .................................................16-1
16.1.2
Electrolyte Stratification .................................................................................16-2
16.1.3
Copper Contamination ...................................................................................16-3
16.1.4
Hydration .......................................................................................................16-4
16.1.5
Sulfation.........................................................................................................16-4
16.1.6
Excessive Sediment ......................................................................................16-5
16.1.7
Prolonged Open Circuit Storage ....................................................................16-6
16.1.8
Spare Cell Maintenance ................................................................................16-6
16.2
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries.....................................................................................16-7
16.2.1
Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations .................................................16-7
16.2.2
Carbonation ...................................................................................................16-8
16.2.3
High Temperature Performance ....................................................................16-8
A REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... A-1
xx
A.1
Industry Standards (Stationary Battery and DC Systems).......................................... A-1
A.2
Industry Standards (Miscellaneous)............................................................................ A-2
A.3
EPRI References ........................................................................................................ A-2
A.4
IEEE Papers, INTELEC Articles, and Related Papers................................................ A-2
A.4.1
VRLA Design and Application ............................................................................ A-2
A.4.2
VRLA Aging, Degradation and Reliability........................................................... A-3
A.4.3
VRLA Thermal Runaway.................................................................................... A-4
A.4.4
Impedance and Conductance Testing ............................................................... A-4
A.4.5
UPS Applications ............................................................................................... A-5
A.4.6
Battery Protection............................................................................................... A-5
A.4.7
Battery Maintenance .......................................................................................... A-6
A.4.8
Battery Capacity Testing .................................................................................... A-6
A.4.9
Battery Sizing ..................................................................................................... A-6
A.4.10 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries.................................................................................. A-7

A.4.11 Miscellaneous Battery Articles ........................................................................... A-7
A.5
Miscellaneous References.......................................................................................... A-7
A.6
NRC Documents ......................................................................................................... A-8
B GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................ B-1

C OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRY STANDARDS .......................................................................... C-1
C.1
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)......................................... C-2
C.2
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) ......................................................... C-4
D OVERVIEW OF BATTERY-RELATED NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION

(NRC) DOCUMENTS................................................................................................................ D-1
D.1
NRC-Sponsored Battery Aging Research.............................................................. D-1
D.1.1
NUREG/CR-4099............................................................................................... D-2
D.1.2
NUREG/CR-4457............................................................................................... D-2
D.1.3
NUREG/CR-5181............................................................................................... D-3
D.1.4
NUREG/CR-5448............................................................................................... D-3
D.1.5
NUREG/CR-5643............................................................................................... D-3
D.1.6
NUREG Conclusions.......................................................................................... D-3
D.2
NRC Information Notices ....................................................................................... D-5
D.2.1
NRC Information Notice 83-08 ........................................................................... D-5
D.2.2
D.2.3
D.2.4
D.2.5
D.2.6
D.2.7
D.2.8
D.2.9
xxi
E INTERNAL OHMIC MEASUREMENTS ................................................................................ E-1

E.1
Background Information.............................................................................................. E-1
E.1.1
VRLA Batteries................................................................................................... E-1
E.1.2
Companies Unable to Perform Routine Capacity Tests..................................... E-3
E.1.3
Battery Manufacturer Production Line Testing................................................... E-3
E.2
Test Equipment Description........................................................................................ E-3
E.2.1
Conductance Test Equipment............................................................................ E-3
E.2.2
Impedance Test Equipment ............................................................................... E-5
E.2.3
Resistance Test Equipment ............................................................................... E-6
E.3
Factors Affecting a Batterys Internal Resistance ....................................................... E-7
E.3.1
Battery Model ..................................................................................................... E-7
E.3.2
Aging Effects on Internal Resistance ................................................................. E-8
E.3.3
State of Charge Effect on Internal Resistance ................................................. E-10
E.3.4
Temperature Effect on Internal Resistance...................................................... E-11
E.3.5
Electrolyte Effect on Internal Resistance ......................................................... E-12
E.3.6
Internal Resistance as a Function of Rated Capacity ...................................... E-13
E.3.7
Internal Resistance and Discharge Rate.......................................................... E-14
E.3.8
Ohmic Relationships and the Effect of Test Equipment Frequency................. E-14
E.3.9
Effect of Metallic and Electrochemical Resistance on Discharge Voltage ....... E-17
E.4
Battery Ohmic Measurement Uncertainty Considerations ........................................ E-19
E.4.1
Battery Variables That Contribute to Measurement Uncertainty...................... E-19
E.4.2
Test Equipment Variables That Contribute to Measurement Uncertainty ........ E-20
E.5
Inspection Procedure ................................................................................................ E-21
F OPERABILITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR REMOVING A CELL FROM SERVICE...............F-1

F.1
Evaluation Options.......................................................................................................F-1
F.2
Battery Voltage Requirements .....................................................................................F-2
F.3
Data Needed to Perform a Battery Cell Removal Evaluation ......................................F-3
F.4
Evaluation Methodology ..............................................................................................F-3
F.5
Example Calculation ....................................................................................................F-4
G INDEX ................................................................................................................................... G-1
xxii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Lead-Acid Battery Negative Plate Reaction .............................................................2-4
Figure 2-2 Lead-Acid Battery Positive Plate Reaction ...............................................................2-5
Figure 2-3 Vented Battery Installation........................................................................................2-8
Figure 2-4 Typical Vented Cell...................................................................................................2-8
Figure 2-5 Positive and Negative Grids for the Pasted Flat Plate Design ...............................2-10
Figure 2-6 Positive and Negative Pasted Flat Plates with Active Material in Place .................2-10
Figure 2-7 Float Current During Battery Life............................................................................2-12
Figure 2-8 Annual Water Consumption for Different Battery Types.........................................2-13
Figure 2-9 Typical Plate Assembly Installation ........................................................................2-15
Figure 2-10 Plant Plate ..........................................................................................................2-16
Figure 2-11 Round Cell Grid Structure ....................................................................................2-17
Figure 2-12 Lineage 2000 Round Cell .....................................................................................2-17
Figure 2-13 Variation of Sulfuric Acid Volume with Specific Gravity ........................................2-20
Figure 2-14 Cell Voltage During Constant Current Discharge .................................................2-22
Figure 2-15 Example Voltage Dip at Beginning of Discharge ..................................................2-23
Figure 2-16 Typical Vented Cell Plate Polarization..................................................................2-25
Figure 2-17 Typical Battery Characteristic Curves ..................................................................2-27
Figure 2-18 Typical VRLA Cell.................................................................................................2-31
Figure 2-19 VRLA Battery Modules .........................................................................................2-32
Figure 2-20 VRLA Cell AGM Material ......................................................................................2-35
Figure 2-21 Typical VRLA Cell Plate Polarization....................................................................2-38
Figure 2-22 Capacity Variation with Temperature ...................................................................2-39
Figure 2-23 Typical Nickel-Cadmium Vented Cell ...................................................................2-41
Figure 2-24 Nickel-Cadmium Battery Pocket Plate Construction.............................................2-43
Figure 2-25 Typical Nickel-Cadmium Battery Internal Resistance During Discharge ..............2-45
Figure 2-26 Effect of Temperature on Battery Capacity ..........................................................2-46
Figure 3-1 Ideal Battery Life Curve ............................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-2 Possible Variations from the Ideal Battery Life Curve ..............................................3-3
Figure 3-3 Temperature Effect on Lead-Acid Battery Life .........................................................3-4
Figure 3-4 Crystalline Structure of the Active Material...............................................................3-8
Figure 3-5 Lead Sulfate Formed by Sulfation ............................................................................3-9
Figure 3-6 Thermal Runaway Sequence .................................................................................3-17
xxiii
Figure 3-7 Typical VRLA Cell Plate Polarization......................................................................3-18

Figure 3-8 Specific Gravity Effect on Positive Grid Growth .....................................................3-20
Figure 3-9 Grid Design for Larger VRLA Cells (Positive Grid on Right Side) .........................3-22
Figure 3-10 Typical Performance of Vented Lead-Acid Cells During Discharge .....................3-25
Figure 3-11 Performance of a VRLA Battery During Discharge...............................................3-25
Figure 3-12 Typical Variation in VRLA Cell Discharge Voltage ...............................................3-26
Figure 3-13 Float Voltage Variation Observed for a VRLA Installation ....................................3-27
Figure 4-1 Effect of High Temperature on Battery Life ..............................................................4-2
Figure 5-1 UPS Installed and Forgotten ....................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-2 Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte Freezing Temperature with Specific Gravity ......................5-6
Figure 5-3 Effect of Temperature on Battery Capacity ..............................................................5-8
Figure 5-4 Effect of High Temperature on Battery Life ..............................................................5-9
Figure 5-5 VRLA Battery in an Unregulated Temperature Environment..................................5-10
Figure 5-6 VRLA Battery in an Unregulated Temperature Environment..................................5-12
Figure 6-1 Example Battery Discharge Characteristics .............................................................6-2
Figure 6-2 Cell Voltage During Discharge .................................................................................6-3
Figure 6-3 1.75 V Capability Curve............................................................................................6-5
Figure 6-4 Voltage Capability Curves ........................................................................................6-6
Figure 6-5 Time Lines Relating Amperes to Ampere-Hours ......................................................6-7
Figure 6-6 Final Result...............................................................................................................6-7
Figure 6-7 Capability for 1 Hour.................................................................................................6-8
Figure 6-8 Evaluation of Initial Voltage ......................................................................................6-9
Figure 6-9 Voltage During Discharge.......................................................................................6-10
Figure 6-10 Cell Internal Resistance Calculation.....................................................................6-11
Figure 6-11 Example Battery Duty Cycle.................................................................................6-13
Figure 6-12 Example Battery Duty Cycle with Load Shedding ................................................6-14
Figure 6-13 Typical UPS Duty Cycle .......................................................................................6-16
Figure 6-14 Example Duty Cycle Loads ..................................................................................6-19
Figure 6-15 Example Duty Cycle Final Result .........................................................................6-19
Figure 6-16 Generalized Duty Cycle........................................................................................6-23
Figure 6-17 Example Duty Cycle .............................................................................................6-28
Figure 6-18 Current Variation for a 7.5 kVA Constant Power Discharge .................................6-34
Figure 6-19 Example UPS Duty Cycle.....................................................................................6-35
Figure 6-20 Typical Engine Generator Starting Battery ...........................................................6-37
Figure 6-21 VRLA Battery Capacity Variation with Temperature for One Manufacturer..........6-39
Figure 6-22 Example of Capacity Difference Due to Float Effect ............................................6-40
Figure 7-1 Estimated Short Circuit Current for One Battery Size Range ...................................7-3
Figure 7-2 Inductance Effects on Short Circuit Current .............................................................7-4
Figure 7-3 Battery Charger Contribution to a DC System Fault.................................................7-5
xxiv
Figure 7-4 Cell Internal Resistance Calculation.........................................................................7-7

Figure 7-5 Example DC System for a Fault Study (Protective Devices Left Off for
Clarity)......................................................................................................................7-9
Figure 7-6 Simple Battery System ...........................................................................................7-11
Figure 7-7 DC System with Protective Devices Included.........................................................7-11
Figure 7-8 Fuse Construction ..................................................................................................7-15
Figure 7-9 Fuse Time-Current Curve.......................................................................................7-16
Figure 8-1 Float Charging ..........................................................................................................8-2
Figure 8-2 Single-Cell Equalize Arrangement............................................................................8-6
Figure 8-3 Controlled Ferroresonant Charger............................................................................8-7
Figure 8-4 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Charger .........................................................................8-7
Figure 8-5 Histogram of Cell Voltages on a Tapped Battery ...................................................8-13
Figure 10-1 Hydrogen Explosion Damage to Battery Cells .....................................................10-5
Figure 10-2 Short Circuit Current Generated Across Cell Terminals .......................................10-6
Figure 11-1 Lack of Correlation Between Float Voltage and Cell Capacity .............................11-6
Figure 11-2 Stationary Battery Hydrometer ...........................................................................11-13
Figure 11-3 Proper Micro-Ohmmeter Connection Points.......................................................11-25
Figure 11-4 Single Terminal Post Resistance Measurement.................................................11-26
Figure 11-5 Two Terminal Post Resistance Measurement ....................................................11-26
Figure 11-6 Cable Bolted to Terminal Post............................................................................11-28
Figure 11-7 Inter-Tier or Inter-Rack Resistance Measurement..............................................11-29
Figure 12-1 VRLA Battery with and without Protective Covers................................................12-4
Figure 12-2 Signs of Electrolyte Leakage from a VRLA Battery ..............................................12-5
Figure 14-1 Typical Lead-Acid Battery Life Curves .................................................................14-3
Figure 14-2 Example 4-Hour Duty Cycle .................................................................................14-4
Figure 14-3 Example Performance Test Load Current ............................................................14-4
Figure 14-4 Typical Cell Voltage Measurement .....................................................................14-13
Figure 14-5 Typical Duty Cycle..............................................................................................14-16
Figure 14-6 Typical Cell Voltage Measurement .....................................................................14-19
Figure 14-7 Ideal Modified Performance Test........................................................................14-21
Figure 14-8 Significant Portion of Duty Cycle Not Bounded ..................................................14-22
Figure 14-9 Critical Last Minute of Duty Cycle Not Bounded.................................................14-22
Figure 14-10 Model ABC Discharge Capability .....................................................................14-25
Figure 15-1 Different Battery Rack Configurations (End View)................................................15-7
Figure 15-2 Larger Battery Rack Configurations (End View) ...................................................15-7
Figure 15-3 Vertical VRLA Battery Installation.........................................................................15-8
Figure 15-4 VRLA Battery Installation with Protective Covers .................................................15-8
Figure 16-1 Copper Contamination Visible on Negative Strap ................................................16-3
Figure C-1 Applicability Matrix of Industry Standards ............................................................... C-1
xxv
Figure E-1 Midtron 3200 Battery Conductance Tester ............................................................. E-4

Figure E-2 Micro Celltron Conductance Tester......................................................................... E-4
Figure E-3 MBITE Battery Impedance Tester in Use................................................................ E-5
Figure E-4 EBITE Battery Impedance Tester ........................................................................... E-6
Figure E-5 Cellcorder Resistance Tester.................................................................................. E-7
Figure E-6 Typical Lead-Acid Battery Model ............................................................................ E-8
Figure E-7 Lead-Acid Battery Internal Resistance as a Function of Age.................................. E-9
Figure E-8 Internal Resistance During Discharge................................................................... E-10
Figure E-9 Temperature-Resistance Relationship.................................................................. E-11
Figure E-10 Internal Resistance as a Function of Capacity .................................................... E-13
Figure E-11 Relationship Between Impedance and Frequency.............................................. E-16
Figure E-12 Typical Discharge Profile of 100% Capacity Battery ........................................... E-17
Figure E-13 Effect of Metallic Resistance Problem on Typical Discharge Profile ................... E-18
Figure E-14 Effect of Electrochemical Resistance Problem on Typical Discharge Profile...... E-18
Figure F-1 Example Duty Cycle .................................................................................................F-4
xxvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Typical Per Cell Float Voltage at 77F (25C) for Vented Lead-Calcium
Batteries ..................................................................................................................2-21
Table 2-2 Typical Lead-Acid Battery Capacity Rating..............................................................2-26
Table 2-3 Effect of Temperature on Capacity ..........................................................................2-28
Table 2-4 Battery Conditions That Generate Hydrogen...........................................................2-29
Table 2-5 Typical Nickel-Cadmium Battery Capacity Rating ...................................................2-44
Table 2-6 Effect of Temperature on Capacity of Nickel-Cadmium Battery ..............................2-46
Table 3-1 One Manufacturers Warranty as a Function of Rate and Number of
Discharges ................................................................................................................3-6
Table 3-2 Effects of Degradation on Lead-Acid Battery Components .....................................3-11
Table 3-3 Reduction in VRLA Cell Rated Life as Float Voltage Increases (Model
Specific) ..................................................................................................................3-19
Table 6-1 Preliminary Discharge Test Data ...............................................................................6-4
Table 6-2 Initial Voltage at Each Discharge Rate ......................................................................6-4
Table 6-3 Cell Size Temperature Correction Factors (Vented Cells with 1.215 Specific
Gravity)....................................................................................................................6-25
Table 6-4 Example Battery Capacity Per Positive Plate ..........................................................6-30
Table 6-5 Cell Sizing Worksheet..............................................................................................6-32
Table 6-6 Example Battery Manufacturer Cell Selection .........................................................6-36
Table 8-1 Typical Vented Lead-Calcium Float Voltage Per Cell at 77F (25C)........................8-2
Table 8-2 Typical Vented Lead-Antimony Float Voltage Per Cell at 77F (25C)......................8-3
Table 8-3 Possible Causes of Abnormal Cell Float Voltages ..................................................8-12
Table 9-1 Vented Lead-Acid Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity...............9-7
Table 9-2 VRLA Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity..................................9-8
Table 9-3 Nickel-Cadmium Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity.................9-8
Table 10-1 Battery Conditions That Generate Hydrogen.........................................................10-4
Table 11-1 Typical Vented Lead-Calcium Cell Float Voltage at 77F (25C) ..........................11-8
Table 11-2 Possible Causes for Abnormal Cell Float Voltages ...............................................11-9
Table 11-3 Specific Gravity Temperature Correction Factors................................................11-14
Table 11-4 Example of Specific Gravity Level Correction Factors.........................................11-15
Table 14-1 IEEE Recommendations for Performance Tests of Vented and VRLA
Batteries ................................................................................................................14-6
Table 14-2 Discharge Temperature Correction Factors.........................................................14-11
xxvii
Table F-1 Required End of Discharge Cell Voltage ...................................................................F-3

Table F-2 Example Battery Capacity Per Positive Plate............................................................F-5
Table F-3 Cell Sizing Worksheet - Original Calculation for 60 Cells ..........................................F-6
Table F-4 Cell Sizing Worksheet - Evaluation for Removing One Cell From Service................F-7
Table F-5 Cell Sizing Worksheet - Evaluation for Removing a Second Cell From Service .......F-8
xxviii
1
INTRODUCTION
This guide has been prepared to assist a variety of users with stationary battery design,
application, and maintenance. The following battery-related topics are discussed in detail:
Fundamentalshow batteries are designed and how they work
Aging, degradation, and failures with an emphasis on how various maintenance tasks can
prevent, detect, or repair certain degradation mechanisms
Applicationshow batteries are designed for a specific purpose and how the battery industry
has evolved
Sizing for different applications
Protection and charging
Periodic inspections and checks
Capacity discharge testing
Installation and replacement considerations
Problems that can occur with battery systems
This guide has been prepared as a comprehensive reference source for stationary batteries and is
intended to address the design, application, and maintenance needs of users. The technical
discussions are at the application level.
Lead-acid batteries and nickel-cadmium batteries used in stationary applications are covered.
Although other experimental batteries have been developed, only lead-acid and nickel-cadmium
batteries satisfy the low cost, high reliability, and long life requirements expected for stationary
applications. Cost and operating life are the limiting factors preventing commercialization of
other battery technologies for stationary applications. Both vented and valve-regulated types of
batteries are addressed because both are now widely used for stationary applications. Of the
possible nickel-cadmium battery types, the pocket plate design is covered in detail because it is
the type most often used for stationary applications.
A close link to industry standards and the manufacturers guidance has been maintained. In
particular, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) provides the strongest and
most complete guidance for stationary battery application and maintenance. These standards
were developed by many knowledgeable individuals in the battery industry and provide the
industrys consensus on how to approach stationary battery design, application, installation, and
maintenance. This text supplements these standards and offers insight into what can be
accomplished by a particular check, inspection, or test. But the applicable standards should
always be reviewed as part of any battery-related activity.
1-1

Introduction
NOTE: For temperature conversion, the following equation should be used:

C = (F-32) x 5/9
NOTE: A color version of this report can be downloaded from EPRIweb. The
report can be located from the EPRI home page by searching on the
report number or keywords.
1-2
2
BATTERY FUNDAMENTALS
Every power plant and substation has one or more battery-backed direct current (dc) auxiliary
power systems. These systems operate critical equipment when a loss of alternating current (ac)
power occurs. Critical equipment typically includes that equipment required to safely shut down
the plant, ensure personnel safety, and protect property. Emergency power from a battery-backed
dc system is generally provided for the following equipment:
Diesel engine cranking power
Inverters
Emergency oil pumps
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
Circuit breaker and protective relay control circuits
Vital instrumentation and control circuits
Solenoid and motor-operated valves
Emergency lighting
Plant annunciation systems
Communication systems
Computer systems
Proper operation of vital plant equipment during a loss of ac power depends directly on the
proper and reliable operation of the equipment's backup power system. The battery functions as
the heart of a dc power system and is the only source of electrical energy upon a loss of normal
and backup (if applicable) ac power. The battery might sit for years without ever having to
provide emergency power; however, if necessary, it must meet the system demands immediately
and for the required duration.
Section 2 describes the basic design and operation of typical stationary batteries. This
information provides a foundation to enable understanding subsequent sections.
2.1
Types of Stationary Batteries
A battery is classified as either a primary or secondary type. Primary cells are designed to be
discharged once, then discarded; secondary cells are designed to be rechargeable. Stationary
batteries are rechargeable, and are thus classified as secondary cells.
2-1

Battery Fundamentals
Stationary batteries are further defined by their physical construction and electrochemistry. The
following types of stationary batteries are predominantly used in power plants and substations:
Vented lead-acid batteries:

- Lead-calcium
- Lead-antimony
- Lead-selenium
- Lead-tin
- Pure lead
Valve-regulated lead-acid batteries:

- Absorbed electrolyte
- Gelled electrolyte
Nickel-cadmium batteries:
- Pocket plate
Each type of battery design has its own set of limitations that must be considered for a particular
application. No one type of battery is ideally suited for all applications. The following sections
discuss the various battery types. Section 5 provides more information regarding battery
selection for a particular application.
2.2
How a Battery Works
A battery provides electrical power by converting its stored chemical energy into electrical
energy. This energy conversion is achieved by a chemical reaction in the battery that releases
electrons. The process is reversible in a stationary battery. If a load is placed across the battery
terminals, the chemical reaction produces electrical power. If electrical energy is directed into
the battery (charging the battery), the chemical reaction reverses and restores the battery to a
fully charged condition.
2.2.1 Electrochemical Process
The generation of electrical current from a cell originates from a difference in electrochemical
potential between two compounds inside the cell that are not in direct contact, but are electrically
connected by a conducting medium. The two compounds are installed in the cell as positive and
negative plates, and the conducting medium between the two plates is referred to as the
electrolyte.
As the plate materials chemically react with the electrolyte, a potential difference is created
between the plates and the electrolyte. The positive plates have a positive potential in relation to
the electrolyte; the negative plates have a negative potential in relation to the electrolyte. The
electrochemical process between the plates and electrolyte creates a voltage between the positive
and negative plates of the cell. This voltage between the plates constitutes an electromotive force
2-2

that causes electrons to flow from the negative plates to the positive plates if the plates are
connected together by an external conductor (a load). The flow of electrons disrupts the
electrochemical equilibrium between the plates and the electrolyte, which initiates further
chemical reaction as the cell attempts to maintain electrochemical equilibrium. The batterys
chemical reaction continues to generate electrical current until the materials involved in the
reaction are depleted or the external connection (the load) is removed.
2.2.2 Lead-Acid Batteries
Although lead-acid batteries have been in use for over 100 years, the actual chemical reaction
occurring within the cell is still debated today and researchers continue to present different
models of the electrochemical process. However, numerous experiments have validated the
present-day understanding of the internal chemical reaction, which is referred to as the doublesulfate theory. The term double-sulfate originated because the theory is based on formation of
lead sulfate at both the positive plates and the negative plates of the battery during discharge.
In a lead-acid battery, the positive plate material is lead dioxide (PbO2) and the negative plate
material is lead (Pb). The plate material is often referred to as the active material. The electrolyte
is a sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4). The chemical reaction in a lead-acid cell can be described in
terms of the reaction occurring at each plate:
Positive Plate
+
PbO2 + SO42 + 4 H +
Lead
Sulfate
Hydrogen
Dioxide Ion
Ions
2e
Electrons
PbSO4
Lead
Sulfate
2 H2 O
Water
Negative Plate
Pb +
Lead
SO42
Sulfate
Ion
PbSO4
Lead
Sulfate
2e
Electrons
The above half-cell reactions offer greater insight into the actual processes occurring at each
plate and within the electrolyte. From left to right, these equations represent the discharge
process, and from right to left, the charging process. The sum of the plus and minus charges on
the left side of each equation equals the total charge on the right side.
2.2.2.1
Negative Plate Reaction
The negative plate reaction during discharge is depicted in Figure 2-1. When lead from the
negative plate comes into contact with the electrolyte, the chemical interaction between the two
+2
compounds casts lead ions into solution; the ions carry a charge of plus 2 (Pb ). Each positively
charged lead ion entering solution leaves behind two negative charges (electrons). Hence, the
chemical reaction gives the negative plate an excess of electrons and a net negative charge
relative to the electrolyte.
2-3

-2
Once in solution, the lead ions combine with sulfate ions (SO4 ), which have charges of equal
magnitude but opposite sign, to form lead sulfate, which has a neutral charge. The sulfate ions
are created when the dilute sulfuric acid disassociates into positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
and negatively charged sulfate ions (SO4-2). The lead sulfate is highly insoluble in the electrolyte
and is immediately deposited as a solid substance on the negative plate. This reaction occurs
within molecular distances from the plate.
Electron Flow
External
Load
H2S04
2e-
2H+
Pb+2
S04-2
PbSO4
Figure 2-1
Lead-Acid Battery Negative Plate Reaction
If an external conduction path exists, the excess electrons at the negative plate migrate toward
the positive plate, creating a flow of electrical current. During recharge, electrons are forced
toward the negative plate and the reaction is reversed.
2-4

2.2.2.2
Positive Plate Reaction
The positive plate reaction during discharge is depicted in Figure 2-2. As shown, the positive
plate reaction is more complicated than the negative plate reaction. When lead dioxide from the
positive plate comes into contact with the electrolyte, the lead dioxide combines with water to
form lead ions with a charge of plus 4 (Pb+4) and hydroxyl ions with a charge of minus 1 (OH-1).
The chemical reaction causes the positive plate to acquire an overall positive charge in relation to
the electrolyte.
2H S0
2
4
E le ctro n Flo w
External
Load
Pb
+2
2e
4H 0
2
PbSO
2H 0
2
Pb
+4
4OH + Pb
+4
PbO
Figure 2-2
Lead-Acid Battery Positive Plate Reaction
When current is allowed to flow through an external circuit, the lead ions (Pb+4) combine with
electrons that are migrating to the positive plate via the external circuit. After combining with the
electrons, the lead ions now carry a charge of plus 2 (Pb+2) and combine with sulfate ions to form
lead sulfate as described above for the negative plate reaction. The hydroxyl ions combine with
the positively charged hydrogen ions from the sulfuric acid to form water. The net effect, as
shown by the positive plate half-cell reaction, is that lead dioxide combines with the sulfuric acid
to form lead sulfate and water.
2-5

2.2.2.3
Full-Cell Reaction
The overall chemical reaction within a lead-acid battery is best described in one equation by
combining the two half-cell reactions. The single equation, referred to as the full-cell reaction, is:
PbO2 +
Positive
Plate
Pb
+
Negative
Plate
2 H 2 SO4
Electrolyte
2 PbSO4
+
Positive
and Negative
Plates
2 H2 O
Water
Several observations can be made regarding the electrochemical process of a lead-acid battery:
When the battery terminals are connected to an external circuit, the current that flows from
the battery is proportional to the potential difference of the plates and is limited mainly by the
circuit resistance (the external resistance is usually much larger than the batterys internal
resistance and intercell connection resistance). The external connection provides a flow path
for electrons, and thereby facilitates the conditions needed to sustain the chemical reaction. If
the external circuit resistance is too small (short circuit), the current flow is limited by only
the efficiency of the chemical reaction.
The sulfuric acid electrolyte is consumed in the discharge reaction and water is produced.
Thus, the acid is continuously diluted during discharge. The decreasing concentration of acid
in the electrolyte represents a decrease in the state of charge of the battery.
The active materials of both plates, lead and lead dioxide, are consumed during the discharge
reaction and lead sulfate is produced. The lead sulfate is deposited onto both positive and
negative plates as it is produced. Thus, the material composition of the plates changes during
discharge.
The cell becomes less able to sustain the chemical reaction as the concentration of active
material and acid decreases during discharge. Eventually, the quantity of active material or
sulfuric acid (depending on which is limiting) is not sufficient to maintain the reaction at a
rate that produces measurable current flow.
A battery undergoing discharge illustrates the principle that chemical compounds, when
combined, attempt to reach their most stable chemical state. As chemicals combine to reach a
more stable condition, energy is liberated. In the case of a lead-acid battery, the chemical
reaction converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
The injection of electrical energy into a battery during charging reverses the chemical
reaction in the cell. To drive the chemical reaction in the charge direction, the battery must
absorb energy. Thus, during charging, electrical energy is transformed to chemical energy.
Because the electrolyte is conductive, the chemical reaction can occur without an external
circuit. This process is referred to as self-discharge or local action. Self-discharge is usually a
slow process; an open-circuit cell might take several months to a year before it fully
discharges.
2-6

2.2.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

A nickel-cadmium battery has a similar chemical reaction process. Nickel and cadmium are the
plate materials and an alkaline solution, potassium hydroxide (KOH), is the electrolyte. The
chemical reactions are:
Positive Plate
Ni (OH ) 3
Nickel
Hydrate
e
Electron
Ni (OH ) 2
Nickel
Hydrate
OH
Hydroxyl
Ion
Negative Plate
Cd
+
Cadmium
Metal
2OH
Hydroxyl
Ions
Cd (OH ) 2
Cadmium
Hydrate
e
Electron
2 Ni (OH ) 2
Positive
Plate
Cd (OH ) 2
Negative
Plate
Full-Cell Reaction
2 Ni (OH ) 3
Positive
Plate
Cd
Negative
Plate
During discharge, hydroxyl ions liberated at the positive plate are consumed at the negative
plate. The potassium hydroxide electrolyte participates in the half-cell reactions by functioning
as an ion conductor. However, as shown in the full-cell reaction, there is no net effect on the
electrolyte by the electrochemical process. Consequently, the electrolyte is not changed by the
chemical reaction. The electrolyte of a nickel-cadmium battery facilitates the chemical reaction
but is not chemically altered during the process. Unlike a lead-acid battery, the electrolyte
concentration is not affected by the reaction and the electrolyte's specific gravity does not change
during charge or discharge of the cell. Thus, the specific gravity of a nickel-cadmium cell does
not indicate the state of charge of the battery.
2.3
Vented Lead-Acid Stationary Batteries
The vented (also called flooded) lead-acid battery is the most common type of stationary battery.
The term vented is used to differentiate this battery from the valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA)
battery, which has seen ever-increasing use in recent years.
Vented batteries are typically constructed with transparent or translucent containers through
which the electrolyte level and internal components are visible. Each cell is continuously vented
through a flame arrestor on the top of the container. A large vented battery installation is shown
in Figure 2-3. A typical vented lead-acid cell is shown in Figure 2-4.
2-7

Figure 2-3
Vented Battery Installation
(Courtesy of C&D Charter Power Systems)
Figure 2-4
Typical Vented Cell
2-8

A lead-acid battery consists of individual cells connected together to provide the desired output
voltage. A single cell consists of positive and negative plates assembled inside a container that is
filled with a sulfuric acid electrolyte. The following basic components are assembled to make a
cell:
Container, including flame arrestor and terminals
Lead dioxide positive plates
Lead negative plates
Separators and retainers
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
These components make up the basic building blocks of a lead-acid cell; their design and the
method of construction vary according to the intended application. The following characteristics
are commonly changed to tailor a battery to a specific application:
Plate and grid alloy material, alloy concentration, or geometry
Number of plates
Distance between positive and negative plates
Separator material type and thickness
Retainer design
Electrolyte specific gravity
Expander to active material ratio
Terminal post design (copper inserts) or number of posts
To an ever-increasing degree, manufacturers design battery cells for specific applications. A cell
designed for reliable, long-life service in one application might fail quickly in another
application. Many designs exist, each with a different intent for meeting a particular performance
characteristic. However, each design also places limitations on the application and method of cell
operation. The following sections describe each cell component and explain how designs are
varied to achieve different characteristics.
2.3.1 Plate Constructions
Lead-acid cells are defined by their plate construction and the alloys used in the plates. The
pasted flat plate is the most common design for vented cells. When a pasted flat plate is
assembled, lead oxide (PbO) paste is applied to a lead alloy grid structure, and then allowed to
dry in place. The lead oxide paste is called the active material. A grid structure containing the
active material is a plate. Typical grids for a pasted flat plate are shown in Figure 2-5. After the
lead oxide paste has dried, the plates are immersed in a dilute sulfuric acid solution and current is
passed through them, with opposite polarities for the positive and negative plates. The lead oxide
(PbO) is converted to lead dioxide (PbO2) in the positive plates and to lead (Pb) in the negative
plates. Figure 2-6 shows typical pasted flat plates with the active material in place.
2-9

Figure 2-5
Positive and Negative Grids for the Pasted Flat Plate Design
Figure 2-6
Positive and Negative Pasted Flat Plates with Active Material in Place
2-10

The grid structure of the cell has two functions:
To provide mechanical support for the active material, which does not by itself have the
strength to be self-supporting.
To act as a conductor to transmit current from all parts of the active material to the plate
terminal. The ideal grid design should maintain a uniform current distribution throughout the
active material. An uneven current distribution could result in buckling of the plates during
charge and discharge cycles.
The ideal grid has the following characteristics:
High conductivity
High strength
Corrosion resistance
Compatibility with the active materials
Manufacturability
Achieving all of the ideal grid characteristics simultaneously is part of the art of battery
construction. The grid is usually composed of a lead alloy in which the lead is hardened by the
alloy so that the grid can support the plate assembly. Commonly used stationary battery grid
alloys include:
Lead-antimony
Lead-calcium
Lead-selenium
Lead-tin
The following sections describe each type of common grid alloy design.
2.3.1.1
Lead-Antimony
Lead-antimony batteries are often used for cycling and deep discharge applications. This type of
cell is less commonly used for standby applications because of the increased watering
requirements as the battery ages and the shorter life compared to a lead-calcium battery. Leadantimony batteries are readily available from battery manufacturers, but their usage has declined
as the lead-calcium battery has become more popular.
Antimony is added to the grid to provide structural strength. The antimony alloy also has the
advantage of being very manufacturable. The lead-antimony battery has the disadvantage that the
antimony is electrochemically very active and affects the cell performance by a process known
as antimony poisoning. As the positive plate ages, antimony oxidizes to a soluble form, dissolves
into the electrolyte, and migrates from the positive plate grids to the negative active material. At
the negative plates, the antimony plates out as metallic antimony on the active material. As the
antimony plates out on the negative plate, it sets up small galvanic cells with the active material,
2-11

causing the negative plate to self-discharge. As more and more antimony plates out, the selfdischarge rate increases, which in turn increases the float current required to maintain the cell
fully charged. The rate of antimony poisoning increases as the positive plate grid corrosion
process tends to expose more antimony to the electrolyte throughout the cells life. For a constant
voltage, the float current increases throughout the cells life as shown on Figure 2-7.
Relative Change
in Float Current
Antimony
Calcium
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Percent of Battery Life
Figure 2-7
Float Current During Battery Life
The increased float current causes several undesirable results. As shown, the float current can
increase by an order of magnitude in some cases as the cell reaches end of life. The higher float
current increases the positive plate aging process. An equivalent lead-calcium battery can have
an expected life 30% longer than a lead-antimony battery. Also, the higher current increases the
gassing rate, causing an increased hydrogen generation rate. With the high gassing rate, the
battery requires more frequent watering. Figure 2-8 shows the typical watering requirements for
lead-antimony cells throughout life (the actual values can vary significantly, depending on the
percentage of antimony added to the grid during the manufacturing process).
2-12

Antimony (End of Life)
Antimony (New)
Calcium (New and Old)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Pints of Water Per Year (60 Cell, 100 Ampere-Hour Battery)
Figure 2-8
Annual Water Consumption for Different Battery Types
In the early days of the lead-antimony battery, the antimony content in the grid was as high as
14%. As the antimony effect became better understood, the antimony was reduced to 4% to 7%
in the 1940. Today, a typical lead-antimony battery can have as low as 2% antimony content in
the grid.
The lead-antimony battery float and water consumption characteristics shown in Figures 2-7 and
2-8, respectively, do have one desirable featurethe user can tell when the battery is nearing end
of life because it needs watering more frequently. This ability to recognize that the battery is
nearing its end-of-life is a desirable feature.
2.3.1.2
Lead-Calcium
The lead-calcium design was developed as an alternative to the high maintenance requirements
of the older lead-antimony battery. Calcium is added to strengthen the grid; however, unlike
antimony, the calcium remains stable throughout the battery life. An equivalent to antimony
poisoning does not occur in the lead-calcium design. Lead-calcium grids require very low float
currents to keep them at full charge, and therefore they have low gassing rates and low water
consumption. In summary, the lead-calcium design has the following advantages over leadantimony batteries:
Stable and lower float current during its operational life
Less critical float voltage ranges
Less and more consistent water consumption during operational life
Lower hydrogen generation during operational life because of lower float current
Longer expected life because the lower float current does not contribute as much to the
positive plate aging process
Longer shelf life because the self-discharge rate is lower

2-13

Compared to lead-antimony batteries, lead-calcium batteries are not as well suited for cycling
applications, particularly those involving deep discharges. Also, the principal feature that makes
the lead-calcium battery so desirablelow and stable float current throughout its lifeis a
drawback in terms of knowing when the battery is nearing end-of-life. The lead-antimony
batterys ever-increasing float current during its life is a useful indicator of the battery aging
process. The stable float current characteristic of lead-calcium batteries has contributed to the
rise of capacity discharge tests as a method of monitoring the aging process in lead-calcium
batteries.
Lead-calcium cells are commonly used for emergency standby service applications in which they
are subjected to continuous float conditions. Lead-calcium batteries might not be suitable for
service where frequent deep discharges are required, but are used in some applications where
shallow, moderate cycling is expected.
Other materials might also be added to the basic lead-calcium design to improve operational or
manufacturing performance. For example, tin (~ 0.3% to 0.6%) has been added to some leadcalcium grids for the following reasons:
To increase the grid alloy tensile strength
To improve manufacturability
To inhibit passivation between the grid and active material on the positive plate
2.3.1.3
Lead-Selenium
Selenium is used as an additional grid hardening element with a low antimony design grid
(< 2%). By reducing the antimony level to less than 2%, the antimony interaction with the
negative plate is virtually eliminated. Without antimony migration to the negative plate active
material, the float current and water usage tends to remain more stable throughout the cells life.
The selenium has the additional benefit of modifying the grain size of the alloy, resulting in a
densely-packed arrangement of small grains that are resistant to corrosion.
Lead-selenium batteries can be used in the same types of stationary applications as lead-calcium
and lead-antimony batteries. The lead-selenium battery is also well suited for cycling
applications.
2.3.1.4
Plate Physical Configurations
Pasted flat plates are installed vertically in the cell. The plates are fused at the top of the cell to
straps and posts, which transmit current from the plates to external cell connections. Positive
plates might hang from the positive plate straps or container side walls, or might be cantilevered
from the negative plates. The negative plates are usually supported by the negative plate straps
and by feet that rest on the bottom of the battery case. The plate support design is an important
part of cell long-term battery reliability. Positive plates gradually grow larger during the service
life due to unavoidable corrosion of the grid. The positive plate design must accommodate this
growth without placing excessive internal stress or pressure on the container or post. A typical
assembly of the plates inside a cell container is shown in Figure 2-9.
2-14

Figure 2-9
Typical Plate Assembly Installation
Stationary batteries normally have n positive plates and n+1 negative plates. In this design,
negative plates are on both sides of each positive plate to ensure that the positive plate chemical
reaction is balanced. Otherwise, a positive plate could expand abnormally or buckle because of
an uneven chemical reaction rate. The two outermost negative plates are often thinner because
they are next to a single positive plate only.
2.3.1.5
Variations in Plate Design
In general, the overall capacity of a battery increases with the thickness of the plate for a
moderate rate of discharge. The discharge process converts the active material on the positive
and negative plates to lead sulfate. This reaction occurs slowly on pasted flat plates. The active
material on the surfaces of each plate is converted first; the reaction then proceeds to the material
under the surface until it reaches the interior of the plate from both sides. As the discharge rate
increases, the chemical reaction tends to be limited primarily to the surface of the plate that is in
direct contact with the electrolyte; a high discharge rate does not allow time for the reaction to
occur deep inside the plates. A slower discharge rate allows almost all active material of the plate
to respond to the chemical reaction.
Standby batteries designed for 8-hour, low-rate discharges often have thick plates to maximize
the total volume of active material because the slow discharge rate allows more of the plate to be
converted in the chemical reaction. Batteries with higher discharge rate requirements usually use
a greater number of thinner plates to maximize the surface area because the chemical reaction
tends to be limited to the plate surface.
2-15

Other plate constructions are available, but are less commonly used. These include:
Plant plate: The positive plate uses a pure lead casting that is attached to an antimony alloy
lead connecting strap. The surface of the plate is the active material and the surface is often
etched or striated to increase the effective surface area. Figure 2-10 shows an example of an
etched Plant plate.
Modified Plant plate: A thick antimony grid is filled with cast holes into which corrugated
coiled strips of pure lead are inserted. The corrugated, coiled design exposes a large surface
area of active material. This is also called a Manchex design.
Round plate: This is a round version of the pasted flat plate. The lead paste is applied to a
pure lead structure that is designed to fit inside a cylindrical container. Figure 2-11 shows an
example of the round cell grid structure and Figure 2-12 shows the final assembly in the cell
jar.
Tubular plate: The positive plate contains the active material in nonconductive porous tubes;
a lead alloy rod in the center of each tube serves as the conductor. The tubular plate design is
capable of many charge/discharge cycles, but generally is not as well-suited for high-rate
discharges.
The plate type normally refers to the positive plate. Most lead-acid batteries use the pasted
design for the negative plate regardless of the positive plate type.
Figure 2-10
Plant Plate
(Courtesy of Alcad, Inc.)
2-16

Figure 2-11
Round Cell Grid Structure
(Courtesy of Robert W. Chapman and Co.)
Figure 2-12
Lineage 2000 Round Cell
(Courtesy of Robert W. Chapman and Co.)
2-17

2.3.2 Expanders
The chemical reaction that makes a lead-acid battery work depends, in part, on how well the
sulfuric acid in the electrolyte can react with the lead in the positive and negative plates. An
expander is added to the active material in each plate to facilitate the diffusion of electrolyte into
the plate. The expander used in lead-acid batteries is generally a mixture of an organic
compound, typically lignin or a lignin derivative such as barium sulfate and carbon black.
As the ratio of expander-to-active material is increased, the electrolytes ability to make contact
with all of the active material improves. Longer-life cells typically have thick plates to better
withstand the inevitable corrosion process; expanders help the electrolyte reach the interior of
these thicker plates.
If too much expander is added to the plate, the active material tends to dissolve into the
electrolyte, destroying the cell. Too little expander has the effect of reducing the cells capacity
because the electrolyte is restricted in its ability to enter the interior active material in the plate.
The addition of expander to the active material is another variable that has to be controlled
during the manufacturing process.
2.3.3 Separators and Retainers
Separators are installed between the plates to prevent them from touching and shorting. A
separator is constructed of a porous, nonconductive, inert material that allows conduction of
electrolyte ions between the plates. The ideal separator has the following characteristics:
As thin as possible so that it does not add volume to the cell
As stiff as possible to hold its position throughout the cells life
Highly porous to allow electrolyte diffusion throughout the cell and to reduce the internal
resistance
Small pore size to prevent electrical shorts between the plates
Puncture resistant so that dendrites and plate imperfections do not damage it
Nonconductive, so that it does not contribute to plate self-discharge
Electrochemically compatible with the acid and lead environment
Electrical low resistance to minimize effect on cell voltage
Manufacturable and inexpensive
A retainer is a porous mat of inert material, such as fiberglass, that is either pressed between the
plates or wrapped around the positive plate. Repeated charge and discharge cycles tend to cause
shedding of active material from the plate surface. The retainer helps keep the active material in
position on the plates. Lead-acid batteries designed for cycling applications will often have a
retainer mat to help hold the active material in place. The separator might also have ridges to
ensure compression of the retainer against the plates.
2-18

2.3.4 Electrolyte
The electrolyte in a lead-acid battery is a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. Sulfuric acid,
H2SO4, is a very active compound of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. When added to water, the
sulfuric acid does not stay intact as individual H2SO4, molecules. Instead, the sulfuric acid
molecules split into two ions, hydrogen and sulfate. Each hydrogen ion carries one positive
electrical charge and each sulfate ion carries two negative electrical charges.
Sulfuric acid is highly reactive and ionizes almost completely in water. The ions are in constant
motion, attracted or repelled by one another. This constant random motion tends to cause the
ions to diffuse throughout the electrolyte. This diffusion process is not immediate and can take a
relatively long time to reach equilibrium throughout the electrolyte.
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a liquid. Pure water has a specific gravity of 1.0.
The specific gravity of other liquids is usually expressed in relation to that of water. The leadacid cell electrolyte specific gravity typically varies from 1.210 to 1.300, depending on the
particular cell design. Actually, most vented stationary cells have a specific gravity between
1.210 to 1.240. Higher specific gravity electrolyte is available for particular applications or
unusual configurations. VRLA batteries commonly use electrolyte with a higher specific gravity
(1.250 to 1.300) to compensate for the smaller quantity of electrolyte.
The lower specific gravity range of 1.210 to 1.240 is usually adequate for vented cells. The
capacity of a vented cell is often limited by the quantity of active material in the positive or
negative plates. A higher specific gravity electrolyte would generally be used only if the quantity
of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte is potentially limiting.
Very pure sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of over 1.840 at room temperature. However, the
electrolyte in a lead-acid battery mostly contains water. Figure 2-13 shows the percentage
volume of sulfuric acid as the electrolyte specific gravity varies.
2-19

30%
20%
Percent of
Sulfuric Acid
by Volume
10%
0%
1.100
1.150
1.200
1.250
1.300
Specific Gravity
Figure 2-13
Variation of Sulfuric Acid Volume with Specific Gravity
2.3.5 Container Design and Construction

The battery components are enclosed in a plastic jar that functions as a leak-proof container for
the electrolyte. The top cover is bonded to the jar and a flame arrestor vent is installed on the
cover to allow charge gases to escape.
Jars for stationary lead-acid cells are usually transparent to allow visual inspection of the internal
components. Typical transparent jar materials include polystyrene (PS), styrene-acrylonitrile
(SAN), polycarbonate (PC), and polyvinyl-chloride (PVC). Some batteries have translucent or
opaque jars; however, all vented cell designs must include some provision for determining the
electrolyte level.
The positive and negative cell terminal posts are usually designed for bolted connections and are
constructed of alloyed lead. Some batteries contain copper reinforcement inserts to improve
conductivity and optimize high discharge rate performance. Copper inserts are typically used on
larger cells.
Jar-to-cover and terminal post seals are critical features of a cell design. A poor seal can
contribute to the following problems:
Acid creepage up the post causing increased corrosion
Acid creepage up the post causing increased connection resistance, which can affect usable
capacity or, in severe cases, result in post meltdown during discharge
Cell gases venting without the protection of a flame arrestor
Electrical faults that can lead to fire or electrical shocks
2-20

2.3.6 Electrical Characteristics

The electrical characteristics of lead-acid batteries are best described by the relationships
between battery voltage, current, and capacity. These relationships are discussed in the following
sections.
2.3.6.1
Voltage
A fully charged lead-acid cell has an open circuit voltage (OCV) of approximately 2.05 to
2.15 V; the exact voltage varies with the electrolyte specific gravity and temperature. The OCV
increases as the specific gravity increases and decreases as the temperature decreases. The OCV
varies with electrolyte specific gravity by the following relationship:
OCV = Specific gravity + 0.845

For example, the OCV of a cell with an electrolyte specific gravity of 1.215 is 2.06 V (1.215 +
0.845 = 2.06). The OCV of a cell with an electrolyte specific gravity of 1.300 is 2.15 V (1.300 +
0.845 = 2.15).
The charging float voltage must be greater than the cell OCV to overcome the cell's internal
resistance and allow charging current to flow through the cell. The difference between the cell
OCV and the recommended charging float voltage depends on the grid alloy type, specific
gravity, and temperature. This value is usually in the range of 0.10 to 0.20 V at 77F (25C).
Table 2-1 shows the typical range of float voltage per cell for a lead-calcium battery at 77F
(25C). The information in this table is intended for general information; the manufacturer's
technical manual should be consulted for recommended float voltages applicable to a specific
battery.
Table 2-1
Typical Per Cell Float Voltage at 77F (25C) for Vented Lead-Calcium Batteries
Minimum Float
Typical Float
Charging Voltage with Charging Voltage
Periodic Equalization
Range
Electrolyte
Specific Gravity
Nominal Open
Circuit Voltage
1.210
2.05
2.17
2.202.25
1.215
2.06
2.18
2.212.26
1.225
2.07
2.19
2.222.27
1.250
2.10
2.20
2.252.30
1.275
2.12
2.24
2.272.32
1.300
2.15
2.27
2.332.38
2-21

As noted in Table 2-1, there is a range of acceptable float voltage for a given nominal specific
gravity. The higher end of the float voltage range is usually recommended for a lead-calcium
battery because this minimizes or eliminates the need for an equalizing charge. The gas
generation rate can increase with the higher float voltage, but generally not to a degree that
requires closer attention to the electrolyte level.
The information provided in Table 2-1 is on a per cell basis. The desired individual cell float
voltage is multiplied by the number of cells to determine the actual charger voltage output for a
battery string. For example, if the desired float voltage is 2.24 V per cell on a 60-cell battery, the
desired battery float voltage is 134.4 V.
2.3.6.2
Discharge Characteristics
The expected voltage profile for a battery undergoing a constant current discharge is shown in
Figure 2-14. The battery experiences an initial drop in voltage when it begins to discharge. After
the voltage stabilizes from its initial drop, the voltage gradually decreases with time as the active
materials and sulfuric acid are consumed in the chemical reaction. Toward the end of discharge,
insufficient quantities of active material or sulfuric acid exist to sustain the chemical reaction and
the voltage declines rapidly.
2.3
2.2
2.1
Voltage
During
Discharge
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
50
100
150
200
250
Discharge Time (Minutes)
Figure 2-14
Cell Voltage During Constant Current Discharge
A battery is normally considered to be discharged when its average voltage per cell rapidly
declines; this voltage is usually less than 1.75 V per cell. Manufacturers and users often evaluate
cell performance using 1.75 V per cell as a reference point. However, the system design could
require a higher voltage (or allow a lower voltage) to meet the voltage requirements of all
components. For some high-rate discharge applications, the battery manufacturer might provide
discharge ratings for end voltages as low as 1.5 V per cell. Manufacturers rarely provide
discharge ratings below 1.5 V per cell; once voltage has fallen this low, the rate of voltage
decline is very rapid and little additional energy can be removed from the battery.
2-22

Notice that Figure 2-14 shows an initial voltage drop that almost immediately recovers, followed
by a long slow discharge thereafter. Figure 2-15 shows in greater detail the discharge voltage
characteristic at the beginning of the discharge. The initial voltage drop observed during
discharge occurs because of two effects. First, the loss of the battery charger float voltage causes
the battery voltage to fall to its open circuit voltage or lower; the amount of voltage drop depends
on the discharge rate. An additional voltage dip might be observed in which the battery voltage
initially falls to some minimum level, followed by a recovery to a slightly higher voltage during
the first few minutes of discharge. This initial voltage dip is referred to as the coup-de-fouet
(French for the stroke of the whip) and its effect is primarily observed on stationary lead-acid
batteries that have been maintained on a long-term float charge.
2.3
2.2
Voltage
During
Discharge
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Discharge Time (Seconds)
Figure 2-15
Example Voltage Dip at Beginning of Discharge
The coup-de-fouet primarily occurs with batteries on long term float for the following reason.
The float charge process maintains the positive plates in a nearly fully charged condition so that
the active material is all lead dioxide, PbO2, with very little lead sulfate, PbSO4, present. During
discharge, lead dioxide is converted to lead sulfate. However, the chemical reaction is better
facilitated when a lead dioxide molecule is located adjacent to a lead sulfate molecule. In other
words, the chemical reaction process improves in efficiency as lead sulfate sites are generated.
During the initial moments of discharge, the chemical reaction is slightly less efficient, with the
result that the voltage can dip by an additional 30 mV per cell, and slowly recovers from this
additional voltage dip during the first few minutes of discharge as these lead sulfate sites are
created.
The coup-de-fouet effect is described here because it can limit the initial discharge capability of
a battery. Some users have been caught by surprise during the first minute of a high-rate
discharge. In the 1980s, some UPS users experienced a high-rate discharge on their system in
which battery voltage would fall below the low-voltage cutout of the UPS during the first minute
of discharge. After resetting the low-voltage cutout, the UPS would perform normally without
again actuating its low-voltage cutout.
2-23

After further investigation, it was discovered that the coup-de-fouet dip during the first discharge
caused voltage to fall low enough to trip the low-voltage cutout. But, in so doing, enough lead
sulfate sites had been established so that the subsequent battery discharge at the same rate did not
experience as low of a dip. Some battery manufacturers were forced to derate their cell ratings to
account for this effect.
In summary, the typical long duration discharge has the following discharge characteristics:
An initial prompt voltage drop
A modest recovery in voltage during the first few minutes of discharge
A gradual and almost linear voltage drop during most of the discharge period
A rapid nonlinear voltage drop at the end of discharge
2.3.6.3
Plate Polarization
Float voltage is applied by the charger to maintain each cell fully charged. If the float voltage is
too low, the cells can self-discharge and slowly lose capacity. If the float voltage is too high, the
cells are overcharged, causing premature aging. Each battery type has a particular float voltage
range within which optimal performance is expectedthe battery remains fully charged without
significant overcharging.
The open circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage across the cell terminals with nothing connected.
Part of the OCV is made up by the positive plate positive potential with respect to the electrolyte.
The remainder of the OCV is made up by the negative plate negative potential with respect to the
electrolyte. The total OCV is the potential of the positive plate with respect to the negative plate.
If a cell is left on open circuit, it will slowly self-discharge and the OCV will drop as the cell
discharges. When charging current is applied to the cell, the positive and negative plates polarize
(develop an added potential relative to their open circuit potential). The polarization does not
occur immediately because some small amount of charging current is needed to offset the cells
tendency to self-discharge. As the charging current is increased, the cells total voltage rises to
be the sum of the OCV, the positive plate polarization, and the negative plate polarization.
The plate polarization can be measured by reference electrodes. Mercurous sulfate reference
electrodes are commonly used. The electrode is placed in the electrolyte as a reference point. The
voltage between the positive terminal and the reference electrode determines the positive plate
potential and the voltage between the negative terminal, and the reference electrode determines
the negative plate potential. The plate polarization is that voltage on the plate in excess of its
OCV.
Figure 2-16 shows a typical example of plate polarization as a function of charging current. Plate
polarization is typically described with respect to the OCV plate potential. For the cell shown in
Figure 2-16, suppose that the OCV is 2.06 V and that the applied float charge is 2.22 V. This
charge level results in a polarization (or overvoltage) of 0.16 V (or 160 mV). In this case, the
polarization voltage is shared between the positive and negative plates, with 70 mV on the
positive plate and 90 mV on the negative plate. A balance has to be maintained so that each plate
is sufficiently polarized to prevent self-discharge, but not excessively polarized to cause
overcharging.
2-24

Positive Plates
150
70 mV positive
plate polarization
100
Overvoltage for
cell is 0.16 V
50
Polarization
Voltage
(mV)
Charge Current
50
100
90 mV negative
plate polarization
150
Negative Plates
Figure 2-16
Typical Vented Cell Plate Polarization
As the float voltage is increased by adjusting the charger output, each plate polarizes by an
additional amount and the overall cell voltage rises. Consequently, the float current increases. As
Figure 2-16 shows, plate polarization increases as the charging current increases.
There is an optimal polarization voltage range that appears to minimize the corrosion process of
the positive plate. Studies have shown that the positive plate aging process is minimized when
the positive plate polarization voltage is 70 mV to 120 mV. Section 3 provides more information
regarding cell life as a function of polarization voltage.
Normally operating vented lead-acid cells can exhibit minor float voltage differences between
cells. Studies have shown that the positive plate polarization tends to be fairly uniform across the
cells in a battery for a given float current. Most of the observed float variation tends to be related
to variations in the negative plate polarization.
2.3.6.4
Capacity
The rate (amperes or power) at which a lead-acid battery is discharged directly affects the
ampere-hours that the battery can deliveras the discharge rate increases, the ampere-hours that
can be obtained from the battery decreases. Decreased capacity at higher discharge rates is due to
the following effects:
2-25

Less time is available for diffusion of electrolyte into the porous lead plates. The higher the
discharge rate, the more the chemical reaction is limited to the surface of the plates.
The discharge chemical reaction process forms larger lead sulfate on the surface of the plates,
which tends to close pores in the plates, thereby slowing electrolyte access to the remaining
active material.
Voltage loss occurs more quickly because of increased cell internal resistance during
discharge.
Battery capacity is normally described in terms of the number of ampere-hours that the battery
can supply for a specified time before voltage falls below a minimum value. The capacity rating
for a typical battery is provided in Table 2-2. If the battery depicted in the table is discharging at
360 amperes, it is said to be discharging at the 5-hour rate. The table shows that total capacity is
reduced at higher loads, as discussed previously. For example, a load of 250 amperes can be
sustained for 8 hours (total capacity = 250 amperes x 8 hours = 2,000 ampere-hours). However, a
load of 950 amperes can be maintained only for 1 hour (capacity = 950 ampere-hours).
Table 2-2
Typical Lead-Acid Battery Capacity Rating
Discharge Time
Capacity
Effective Discharge
(hours to end voltage) (ampere-hours)
Rate (amperes)
8
2,000
250
1,800
360
1,500
500
950
950
The available battery capacity also depends on the minimum allowed cell voltage during
discharge. Manufacturers often provide capacity values referenced to 1.75 V per cell end voltage
at 77F (25C). If the users application requires a higher minimum voltage, such as 1.81 V per
cell, the cell will not be able to sustain the discharge for as long as it can to an end voltage of
1.75 V per cell. Thus, the cell effectively has less available capacity as the minimum voltage
requirement is increased. This discharge characteristic is evident from the discharge voltage
profile shown in Figure 2-14.
Manufacturers provide tables and curves that describe the expected cell capacity as a function of
discharge rate and minimum allowed cell voltage. Figure 2-17 provides a typical set of battery
characteristic curves showing the effect of discharge rate on battery capacity. Notice that the
minimum voltage, the discharge time, and the discharge rate are interrelated. Section 6.1
provides an in-depth discussion of how to interpret the manufacturers battery capacity rating
information.
2-26

Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.70
5 hr
3 hr
Initial
Cell
Volts
2 hr
1.90
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
Amperes Per Positive Plate
120
140
160
Figure 2-17
Typical Battery Characteristic Curves
2.3.7 Temperature Effects

Temperature affects lead-acid battery performance. For the sake of standardization, battery
performance ratings are normally specified at a temperature of 77F (25C).
There is nothing special regarding the selection of 77F (25C) as the reference temperature. The
reference temperature could just as well have been 70F or 80F (21.1C or 26.7C).
Nonetheless, he battery industry generally uses 77F (25C) as the reference. By using the same
reference temperature, the battery manufacturers present their battery capability information
using the same yardstick, thus simplifying the users effort in interpreting and comparing the
manufacturers data.
A lead-acid battery is an electrochemical device whose characteristics vary with temperature;
heat accelerates chemical activity and cold slows it down. A change in the electrolyte
temperature from the reference temperature has two significant effects on lead-acid battery
performance:
Battery capacity decreases as the temperature drops below 77F (25C).
Battery life decreases as the temperature rises above 77F (25C).
At temperatures lower than 77F (25C), the battery cannot provide its rated capacity. In general,
a lower temperature increases the viscosity of the electrolyte, and thus restricts its ability to
circulate into the plates. Also, the efficiency of the chemical reaction decreases as temperature
decreases. Table 2-3 provides typical capacity factors for performance at temperatures other than
the reference temperature of 77F (25C). For example, at 45F (7.2C) a battery can provide
only 80% of its rated capacity. The data contained in Table 2-3 is based on a vented lead-acid
battery with a specific gravity of 1.215.
2-27

Table 2-3
Effect of Temperature on Capacity
(Adapted from IEEE 485)
Electrolyte
Temperature
(F)
(C)
Percent
Capacity
Available
Electrolyte
Temperature
(F)
(C)
Percent
Capacity
Available
25
-3.9
66%
80
26.7
102%
30
-1.1
70%
85
29.4
104%
35
1.7
74%
90
32.2
106%
40
4.4
77%
95
35.0
108%
45
7.2
80%
100
37.8
110%
50
10.0
84%
105
40.6
112%
55
12.8
87%
110
43.3
114%
60
15.6
90%
115
46.1
115%
65
18.3
93%
120
48.9
116%
70
21.1
96%
125
51.7
118%
77
25
100%
In relation to the float voltage, a higher than normal operating temperature affects a lead-acid
battery as follows (a lower than normal operating temperature has the opposite effects):
The rate of internal discharge is increased
The charging current is increased for a given charge voltage (potential overcharging if
temperature is too high)
Temperature variations have an opposite effect on battery life. The batterys positive plate
corrosion rate increases exponentially as the electrolyte temperature rises above 77F (25C).
Sustained battery operation above 77F (25C) shortens battery life. For example, a common rule
of thumb for vented lead-acid batteries is that a 15F (9.4C) temperature rise decreases battery
life by 50%. Section 3.2.1 provides additional information.
The temperature characteristics of the battery must be evaluated at the design stage on the basis
of the expected temperature environment. A battery located in a cold area might require derating
to ensure that sufficient capacity is available to power the connected load for the specified
duration. A battery in a high-temperature area will fail before reaching its advertised service life.
Rated capacity and life are only obtained when the battery is operated near 77F (25C).
2-28

2.3.8 Gas Evolution During Operation

Hydrogen and oxygen gases can be released from a battery during operation. Oxygen evolves at
the positive plate and hydrogen at the negative plate. Gases are generated primarily during
battery charging; the rate of gas evolution depends on the charge voltage and the charge current
that is not absorbed by the battery. The excess charge current causes electrolysis of the
electrolyte water into hydrogen and oxygen.
The period after which the battery is fully charged and charging current mainly results in gas
generation is called overcharge. The most extreme condition for hydrogen generation exists
when maximum current is forced into a fully charged battery. Charging voltages at or above the
equalizing charge level encourage gas evolution.
Cells are equipped with flame arrestors designed to allow gases to escape the battery while
preventing external sparks from igniting any gases inside the battery. A 4% hydrogen
concentration is considered flammable. The ventilation system in a battery area should be
designed to keep hydrogen concentration under 2%.
During heavy discharge, gas can be squeezed out of the plates as lead sulfate forms. This gas
evolution gives the appearance of a higher gas generation rate; however, during discharge, very
little new gas is actually created. Table 2-4 summarizes the conditions during which hydrogen
gas can be generated.
Table 2-4
Battery Conditions That Generate Hydrogen
Operating Condition
Hydrogen Gas Generation
Open Circuit
Virtually no gas emission
Float Charge
Minimal gas emission
Equalize Charge and Recharge
Potential for high gas emission
Discharge
Virtually no gas emission
Some typical rules of thumb regarding hydrogen gas generation are provided below:
Gassing will double for each 0.05 V increase in float voltage for a fully charged cell.
Gassing will double for each 15F (9.4C) rise in temperature.
Gassing will increase by 10% for each 2,000 ft (609.6 m) elevation change.
When all charging current is expended to liberate gases, each ampere-hour produces
0.0147615 ft3 (0.418 liters) of hydrogen gas.
Per IEEE 484, the maximum hydrogen generation rate is 0.000269 ft3 (0.00761723 liters)
/minute/ampere/cell.
2-29

The float current of a lead-antimony cell will increase throughout its life as a consequence of
antimony poisoning of the negative plate. The increased float current also increases the rate of
gas emission. A lead-antimony cell at end of life can generate up to 15 times as much hydrogen
as an equivalent lead-calcium cell.
2.4
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries
The VRLA battery is an innovative design with many useful applications. It is effectively sealed
such that the user cannot gain access to the electrolyte. And, the electrolyte is immobilized so
that it is not a free liquid as in a vented cell. Electrolyte immobilization provides a cell that will
leak little or no electrolyte if damaged. The VRLA battery market has quickly grown to fill the
demand for a battery with the following characteristics:
Immobilized electrolyte to prevent or minimize the potential for electrolyte leakage. This
allows users to avoid the imposition of some environmental regulations regarding sulfuric
acid spill contingencies in most states. This also allows users to install batteries in
commercial buildings and other locations that would not normally have vented batteries
installed.
Smaller installation footprints than vented equivalents. By immobilizing the electrolyte, the
battery can be installed in different configurations. A typical installation has the VRLA cells
oriented on their side rather than upright so that they can be stacked vertically. This allows
for less cabinet or floor space for the installation.
No electrolyte maintenance. Because the battery is sealed and the electrolyte is inaccessible,
water cannot be added to a VRLA cell. This feature was referred to as maintenance-free in
early literature; however, this term is not commonly used today because other types of
maintenance are still necessary.
Higher power density for high-rate discharge UPS applications. Manufacturers have
developed new designs and electrolyte concentrations to boost the high-rate capability.
When they were first introduced, VRLA batteries were intended for install and forget truly
maintenance-free applications in which battery failure would be an inconvenience, not a
catastrophe. Because of some of their desirable design features, VRLA batteries are increasingly
used in stationary battery applications to the point that they are now used in some very critical
applications. Nuclear plants might have VRLA batteries installed in certain non-safety-related
applications such as UPS systems, but VRLA batteries have never been qualified for safetyrelated use in the United States of America (USA). Some utilities have used VRLA batteries
extensively in substations. USA government agencies, such as the Federal Aviation
Administration and the military, use VRLA batteries for UPS applications. The
telecommunications industry also widely uses VRLA batteries.
Traditional vented lead-acid battery maintenance practices, such as verifying electrolyte level
and adding water, cannot be performed on a VRLA battery because each cell is effectively sealed
and the interior is inaccessible. VRLA batteries have been called sealed batteries because they
are completely sealed except for a pressure relief valve that opens as needed to vent excess
internal pressure. They have also been called maintenance-free batteries because periodic water
addition is not allowed by the design. However, VRLA batteries are neither truly sealed nor
2-30

maintenance free. The term starved electrolyte has also been used to describe one VRLA battery
design, referring to a lack of excess electrolyte. As the term starved electrolyte implies, the
capacity of a VRLA battery can be limited by its electrolyte quantity. The term valve-regulated
has become the standard name for this type of battery. A typical VRLA cell is shown in Figure
2-18.
Figure 2-18
Typical VRLA Cell
A bank of VRLA cells is often configured very differently than a conventional vented battery
bank. Vented cells must sit upright on racks to prevent electrolyte leakage from the flame
arrestor or service port. VRLA batteries have fewer limitations on cell orientation because the
electrolyte has been immobilized. Manufacturers have capitalized on this feature to reduce the
overall installed battery footprint. By installing the cells sideways in stackable modules,
manufacturers have reduced the total required floor space for an installation. A typical stack of
VRLA cell modules is shown in Figure 2-19.
2-31

Figure 2-19
VRLA Battery Modules
All VRLA batteries are sealed in opaque containers. As a result, the following inspections and
maintenance that would periodically be performed on a standard vented cell cannot be
performed:
Electrolyte level checks: An actual electrolyte level does not exist in a VRLA cell; the
electrolyte is suspended in microporous mats or a gel surrounding the plates. Access to the
electrolyte is not allowed.
Water addition: Water cannot normally be added to a VRLA cell as a routine maintenance
activity. The access port is sealed by a pressure relief valve. Furthermore, the cells are often
installed on their side which would complicate water addition even if access was allowed.
Visual internal inspection: The opaque container of a VRLA cell does not allow for a check
of the sediment space, or color and condition of the plates.
Although the above checks cannot be accomplished, other maintenance activities associated with
vented batteries still should be completed. Periodic maintenance is at least as important for a
VRLA battery as it is for a vented lead-acid battery. Industry experience to date indicates that
VRLA batteries are more sensitive to their installed environment and operating conditions than
are conventional vented lead-acid batteries. VRLA battery technology has come a long way in
the last 15 years; however, the technology is still developing and the degradation mechanisms
are, even now, not fully understood. What is known so far is that these batteries will fail before
vented batteries when exposed to similar service conditions and environment. VRLA batteries
usually have a much tighter operating window than their vented counterparts, making them more
prone to degradation. VRLA batteries are also much less tolerant of the following conditions:
2-32

High temperature
Overcharge
Float voltage variations
Discharge
VRLA batteries also have exhibited new failure modes rarely seen in vented batteries. Section
3.4 provides more information regarding VRLA battery aging, degradation, and failure.
2.4.1 Recombination Cycle
The internal charge and discharge chemical reaction of a VRLA cell is the same as that in a
vented cell. During discharge, lead on the negative plate and lead dioxide on the positive plate
combine with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate on the plates and release
electrons:
PbO2 +
Positive
Plate
Pb +
Negative
Plate
2 H2 SO4
Electrolyte
2 PbSO4
+
Positive
and Negative
Plates
2 H2 O
Water
The above chemical reaction represents the net overall process; the actual chemical reaction on
each plate is considerably more complex. The chemical reaction is also reversible so that the cell
can be recharged. During standby float-charge operation, the applied charge is intended to
maintain the cell in a fully charged condition. In either a vented or VRLA cell, charging current
beyond that necessary to overcome the cells tendency to self-discharge causes water to be
disassociated into oxygen and hydrogen. In a vented cell, this lost water must periodically be
replaced. VRLA batteries provide a means of recombining these charge gases, which reduces
water loss. Oxygen gas that evolves at the positive plate is allowed to migrate through the
electrolyte to the negative plate, where it recombines with the hydrogen. The following reactions
describe the recombination process:
1. Oxygen is generated at the positive plate by the reaction:
H2 O 21 O2 + 2 H + + 2e
2. The oxygen diffuses through the electrolyte to the negative plate. At the negative plate,
oxygen combines with lead and sulfuric acid as shown:
Pb + H2 SO4 + 21 O2 PbSO4 + H2 0
3. Charging current regenerates the lead in the negative plate and completes the cycle:
PbSO4 + 2 H + + 2e Pb + H2 SO4
2-33

In a properly operating VRLA cell, oxygen is generated at the positive plate, but hydrogen
generation at the negative plate is suppressed by the recombination process. The primary factor
in a VRLA cell's ability to recombine charge gases is its efficiency in transporting the oxygen
generated at the positive plates to the negative plates. When operating properly, a VRLA cell can
recombine charge gases with an efficiency approaching 100%.
2.4.2 Cell Construction
Two VRLA cell designs are available and they are completely different in their approach to
immobilizing the electrolyte. The two types are:
Absorbed electrolyte
Gelled electrolyte
2.4.2.1
Absorbed Electrolyte Construction
An absorbed electrolyte design is constructed with the liquid electrolyte contained in highly
absorbent glass mat separators positioned between the plates. This type of cell is called an
absorbed glass mat (AGM) cell by some manufacturers. Absorbed electrolyte systems generally
have a low internal resistance that allows the cell to provide a high-rate current during discharge.
The mat holds the electrolyte in place by capillary action, similar to the way a sponge holds
water. The electrolyte is distributed throughout the mat and the mat is compressed between the
plates to maintain the electrolyte in contact with the active material of the plates. Figure 2-20
shows an example of the glass mat wrapped around the plates.
2-34

Figure 2-20
VRLA Cell AGM Material
Achieving oxygen transport for an absorbed electrolyte cell involves creating voids, or gas
channels, in the liquid-saturated mat through which the oxygen can migrate from the positive to
the negative plates. Voids exist because the mats are filled to only 90% to 95% of their total
capacity. With 5% to 10% of a mats volume not filled, there are channels that allow oxygen
migration.
One consequence of only partially filling the mat is that AGM cells can be limited in their
capacity by the quantity of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. A vented cell has a large electrolyte
reserve, with the electrolyte level well above the top of the plates, and it is rarely capacitylimited by the electrolyte. At best, an AGM cell starts with the electrolyte level at the top of
plates because the mat is wrapped around the plates and is not fully saturated with electrolyte.
This makes the AGM cell particularly susceptible to a loss of capacity if any electrolyte is lost.
The gradual loss of water from an AGM cell is referred to as dryout and is described in detail in
Section 3.4.1.1.
The glass mat design in an AGM cell has a significant impact on cell performance and life; it is
much more than just a separator and electrolyte container. The glass mat material has
continuously evolved in the last 20 years. Early designs tried a number of materials that either
failed to hold the electrolyte in place or allowed short-circuiting dendrites to form between
plates.
2-35

A microglass fiber material has been found to provide the best performance characteristics. The
glass mat between the plates consists of millions to billions of fibers per gram, depending on the
fiber size. The microglass fibers characteristics appear to be well-suited for the lead-acid cell
environment, including:
Completely wettable by the electrolyte; able to hold the electrolyte in place
Durable in the sulfuric acid environment
Fiber provides the high porosity needed to support the recombination process
Fine fiber provides high resiliency needed to maintain the mat in pressure contact with the
plates
Fine fibers allow the mat to conform to the plate surface
Material is inorganic, and has high temperature and oxidation stability
Compared to the early designs of the 1970s and 1980s, the AGM material used today is more
consistent, durable, and uniform. Even so, extensive research is in progress to continue
improving the AGM cell. Future designs will likely improve the level of compression between
the AGM material and the plates. Eventually, completely new designs might allow the mat to be
completely saturated (almost like a vented battery but with the electrolyte still held by the mat),
but still retain the ability to facilitate the recombination process by allowing oxygen migration
through the fibers rather than around the fibers.
2.4.2.2
Gelled Electrolyte Construction
The gelled electrolyte cell design is similar to a vented cell except that the electrolyte has been
gelled to immobilize it in place. The electrolyte is combined with a silica compound to create
the gelled solution. In addition to gelling the electrolyte, the silica also facilitates oxygen
transport from the positive to the negative plates.
The primary method of oxygen transport in a gelled electrolyte cell is through microscopic
cracks created in the gel after a short period of operation. Initially, the gel has few cracks;
therefore, oxygen transport is poor and the cell recombination efficiency is low when the cell is
placed in service. This condition results in some water loss during the early stages of operation.
The water loss causes the gel to contract, forming microscopic cracks in the gel structure. As the
cracks are formed, oxygen transport is facilitated and the recombination efficiency increases to a
steady-state level. Water loss is minimized after the cell enters the recombinant mode of
operation. The silica added to the electrolyte also tends to increase the rate of oxygen transport
by allowing oxygen to move over the surface of the silica chains, fibers, or filaments.
One consequence of the gelled electrolyte design is that it vents gases during the first several
months of operation until it finally becomes recombinant. This means it vents hydrogen just like
a vented cell during its early life. Some manufacturers literature claims that VRLA cells vent
little or no hydrogen during normal operation, but often does not address the potential for
hydrogen emission when first placed in service.
2-36

The gelled electrolyte cell can have a higher internal resistance than the absorbed electrolyte cell,
and might not be as effective for high rate/short duration discharges. In some respects, the gelled
design can be thought of as a vented cell in which the liquid has been immobilized by gelling it.
The gelled design has a greater electrolyte reserve than the AGM cell and is usually better-suited
for long duration applications. A gelled electrolyte cell is typically heavier and larger than an
absorbed electrolyte cell for a given capacity.
The gelled electrolyte cell is not as widely used as the AGM cell. The AGM cell is easier to
manufacture and recycle. Also, the AGM cell usually has a higher power density in a smaller
footprint.
2.4.2.3
Pressure Relief Valve
The VRLA cell is closed such that the user cannot access the cell for watering, specific gravity
checks, or internal inspections. But, the VRLA is not truly sealed; its design includes a pressure
relief valve to accomplish the following functions:
Limit the maximum internal pressure of the cell
Maintain a minimum internal pressure to promote recombination and minimize water loss
Prevent atmospheric oxygen from entering the cell and discharging the negative plates
Depending on the design, VRLA cells typically operate with a positive internal pressure of
0.5 psig to 6 psig. The pressure relief valve vents any pressure exceeding the design limit.
The pressure relief valve must be able to open and reseal within a fairly narrow pressure band.
Although the pressure relief valve must be capable of opening to prevent cell overpressurization
under abusive conditions, it is also critical that it reclose properly. Air (containing oxygen)
entering through an open pressure relief valve will discharge the negative plate and cause a
permanent loss of capacity. Proper pressure relief valve operation is vital to continued operation
of the cell. Typical design constraints placed on the pressure relief valve include:
The vent pressure should be low to minimize bulging of the container.
The vent pressure should change very little as the gassing rate increases.
The vent outlet should be as large as possible to insure rapid venting.
The valve elastomer material should be resistant to ozone cracking and acid.
Outside air should not be allowed to enter the cell.
2.4.3 Electrolyte Concentration

A vented lead-acid cell has a substantial electrolyte reserve and its capacity is usually limited by
the quantity of active material in its plates. The term starved electrolyte has been used to
describe VRLA batteries, typically referring to the limited quantity of electrolyte in an AGM
cell. Depending on the design, the capacity of a VRLA cell can be limited by its electrolyte
quantity.
2-37

Manufacturers have attempted to improve VRLA battery capacity by increasing the electrolyte
specific gravity of some AGM cells to as high as 1.300 (typical vented stationary batteries have a
specific gravity of 1.210 to 1.240). A higher specific gravity means that more sulfuric acid is
available to participate in the chemical reaction during discharge. Increasing the specific gravity
also affects VRLA operating characteristics such as float voltage range and rated life. The gelled
electrolyte design typically has a greater electrolyte reserve than the AGM design and generally
does not require as high of a specific gravity to compensate for electrolyte-limited capacity.
2.4.4 VRLA Cell Electrical Characteristics
Section 2.3.6.3 discusses the typical plate polarization voltage of vented lead-acid cells. A
VRLA cells polarization voltage characteristics are distinctly different from that of the vented
lead-acid cell. During normal operation, oxygen is generated at the positive plate, the oxygen
migrates to the negative plate, and suppresses hydrogen evolution at the negative plate. This
recombination process effectively depolarizes the negative plate, meaning that the excess
charging voltage is applied almost completely to the positive plate.
Figure 2-21 shows the typical polarization voltage of a VRLA cell. As can be seen, very little
polarization voltage is applied to the negative plates under normal conditions. The charging
current must be abnormally high before significant negative plate polarization occurs. Once the
negative plate polarizes, the cell performs similar to a vented cell, with the negative plate also
producing hydrogen. At this point, the rate of gas production exceeds the recombination ability
of the cell and it will periodically vent gas through the pressure relief valve to relieve the internal
pressure. A fine balance has to be maintained; the voltage has to be high enough to keep the
negative plates from self-discharging, but not so high that the cell vents periodically. The proper
float voltage is very important for VRLA cells.
Positive Plates
150
70 mV positive
plate polarization
100
Overvoltage for
cell is about 70 mV
50
Polarization
Voltage
(mV)
Charge Current
Virtually no negative
plate polarization
50
100
150
Negative Plates
Figure 2-21
Typical VRLA Cell Plate Polarization
2-38


Similar to vented lead-acid cells, VRLA cells exhibit a loss of capacity as temperature decreases
and a loss of life as temperature increases. The vented lead-acid battery changes in capacity as a
function of temperature provided in Table 2-3 or IEEE 450 do not necessarily apply to a VRLA
battery; it can perform differently from a vented cell in this regard. First, the specific gravity of a
VRLA battery is often higher than that of a vented battery. Second, a VRLA battery heats up
more upon discharge than does an equivalent vented lead-acid battery. Also, AGM cells have a
smaller electrolyte quantity, which changes the heat dissipation characteristics. The manufacturer
should be consulted for temperature effects applicable to VRLA batteries. Figure 2-22 shows one
manufacturers predicted VRLA cell capacity variation as a function of temperature.
120
VRLA AGM
Capacity
(percent)
100
Typical Vented
80
60
25
50
75
100
125
Temperature (F)
Figure 2-22
Capacity Variation with Temperature
2.4.6 Gas Generation During Operation

Some battery manufacturers literature markets little or no hydrogen gas emission as one more
attractive design feature of the VRLA cell. Although it is true that a VRLA cell operating in the
recombinant mode will vent very little gas, there are conditions under which the VRLA cell can
vent just as much hydrogen as a vented cell. For this reason, IEEE standards specify that VRLA
battery installations should include adequate ventilation to avoid hydrogen buildup in the
enclosure or area.
2-39

Under the following conditions, a VRLA cell will vent hydrogen:
During an equalize charge or elevated float charge
Whenever float voltage is set higher than recommended by the manufacturer regardless of
the reasondeliberately set, set in error, charger setpoint drift, charger failure, or the
ambient temperature is above the temperature for the set float voltage.
During the first few months of operation for a gelled electrolyte cell until it vents enough
water to operate in a steady-state recombinant mode. The same consideration applies to an
AGM cell that was overfilled at the factory.
Some system designers pay little attention to the possibility of hydrogen buildup, believing that
the manufacturers claim of little or no gas emission is true under all conditions. Not accounting
for hydrogen gas emission from a VRLA cell is dangerous and can lead to personnel injury, or
equipment or building damage.
Whenever a VRLA cell fails and is jumpered until a replacement cell can be installed, the float
voltage must be adjusted to maintain the proper average per cell voltage. High float voltages are
particular damaging to VRLA batteries (see Section 3.4).
2.5
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Although nickel-cadmium batteries are not as widely used as lead-acid batteries in power plants,
they have a reputation for reliability and long life. Nickel-cadmium batteries are not prone to
many of the failure modes observed for lead-acid batteries; however, their higher cost tends to
restrict their use. As the size of a battery increases, the cost per ampere-hour of a lead-acid
battery tends to decrease. However, the cost per ampere-hour of a nickel-cadmium battery
increases almost linearly with size.
In general, these batteries tend to be used in power plants for specialized applications such as
diesel-engine cranking power. But, they can also be used for UPS and other standby applications.
Nickel-cadmium batteries are particularly well-suited for operation in continuous high- or lowtemperature environments.
Nickel-cadmium batteries used for standby service are usually of the vented (flooded) style.
Sealed nickel-cadmium batteries are limited in capacity and are used mainly in small equipment
such as emergency battery lighting units or some very small UPS units. A typical vented nickelcadmium battery is shown in Figure 2-23.
2-40

Figure 2-23
Typical Nickel-Cadmium Vented Cell
2.5.1 Cell Construction

A nickel-cadmium stationary battery consists of individual cells connected together to provide
the desired battery output voltage. A single cell contains positive and negative plates assembled
inside a container that is filled with a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The following basic
components are assembled to make a single cell:
Container, including flame arrestor and terminals
Nickel hydroxide positive plates
Cadmium hydroxide negative plates
Separators
Potassium hydroxide electrolyte
Typically, nickel-cadmium batteries designed for different applications differ in plate

construction or thickness. Plate thickness is adjusted for different applications as follows:
Long duration/low discharge rates: Thick plates are used to maximize the total volume of
active material.
Short duration/high discharge rates: Thin plates are used to maximize the total plate surface
area.
Medium rates: Medium-thick plates are used to accommodate a combination of high and low
discharge rates.
2-41

2.5.1.1
Plate Constructions
Nickel-cadmium batteries are normally identified by their plate construction. The different types
of available constructions affect the high discharge rate performance, cycling capability, and
physical size and weight. The following types of constructions are available:
Pocket plate: The plates are built of flat pockets of perforated, nickel-plated steel strips that
are pressed around the active materials. The thin steel strips are perforated with a total hole
area of 15% to 30%. Nickel-plating is essential for the positive plate steel strips to prevent
"iron poisoning" of the positive active material. The plate is sealed in a steel frame and
welded or bolted to the plate bus that is attached to the terminal posts. In this design, the
active materials are totally enclosed in the steel pockets. The electrolyte has access to the
active materials through the perforated holes in the steel strips, but the holes are too small for
active material particles to escape. The perforated steel enclosure also applies physical
pressure against the active materials, and thus promotes conductivity and minimizes plate
swelling. Additives are combined with the active materials to improve performance. Graphite
is added to the nickel hydroxide in the positive plate to improve conductivity. Iron oxide is
added to the cadmium hydroxide in the negative plate to stabilize capacity and enhance cycle
life. Pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries represent over 90% of the nickel-cadmium
batteries used by utilities.
Sintered plate: A nickel powder is sintered at high temperature to pure nickel or nickelplated steel to create a porous structure, which is then impregnated with the active materials.
The plates are welded to tabs that are attached to the steel terminal posts. The sintered plate
design has high conductivity and its power density is greater than that of the pocket plate;
however, this type of battery construction is normally more expensive and is usually limited
to smaller batteries.
Fiber plate: The plates consist of a mat of nickel-plated fibers impregnated with the active
materials. The plate fibers are welded to nickel-plated steel tabs that are attached to the steel
terminal posts. Additives are not combined with the active materials as in the pocket plate
design; this feature can be an advantage for high temperature or repeated deep discharge
cycling operation.
Other plate designs are also available. These include plastic bonded plates or hybrid designs
involving two or more plate designs. As stated above, the pocket plate nickel-cadmium battery is
the type most often used by utilities. Figure 2-24 provides a more detailed view of the pocket
plate design. As shown in the figure, the active material is encased in a perforated, crimped
enclosure called a pocket. The individual pockets interlock in the plate frame to form the cell
plate.
2-42

Figure 2-24
Nickel-Cadmium Battery Pocket Plate Construction
2.5.1.2
Separators
Separators in nickel-cadmium cells provide electrical and physical isolation between the positive
and negative plates. Separator designs vary widely, from plastic rods or grids to perforated
plastic sheets.
Nickel-cadmium plates are not prone to the shedding and loss of active material experienced in
lead-acid plates. For this reason, retainers are not used in nickel-cadmium designs.
2.5.1.3
Electrolyte
The electrolyte in a nickel-cadmium cell is a mixture of potassium hydroxide and water. The
potassium hydroxide creates a base, rather than acid, solution. The lead-acid battery electrolyte is
an acid solution that contributes to the aging process. The potassium hydroxide electrolyte tends
to preserve the cell plates.
2.5.1.4
Container Design and Construction
The cell components are enclosed in a jar that functions as a leak proof container for the
electrolyte. The top cover is bonded to the jar. Most containers are made of a translucent
polypropylene to allow visual monitoring of electrolyte level. Stainless steel containers are
available for harsh environments. A flame arrestor vent is installed on the cover to allow gases to
escape.
Terminal posts are sealed with a gasket and O-ring to prevent electrolyte leakage. If the terminal
post seal fails, a gray-white potassium carbonate powder forms around the negative terminal.
Although this powder is not corrosive, it can cause grounding and shorting problems because it is
conductive.
2-43

2.5.2 Electrical Characteristics

A fully charged nickel-cadmium cell has an open circuit voltage of approximately 1.3 V. The
nominal voltage is normally defined at 1.2 V, and the end-of-discharge voltage is typically in the
range of 1.0 to 1.1 V.
The manufacturer's recommended float voltage is generally in the range of 1.40 to 1.47 V per
cell. Recommended equalize voltages typically range from 1.52 to 1.67 V per cell. The
maximum number of cells required for a given battery output voltage depends on the selected
float voltage and equipment voltage ratings. Typical battery voltages and the required number of
cells are:
12 V: 9 to 10 cells
24 V: 18 to 20 cells
48 V: 36 to 40 cells
125 V: 92 to 96 cells
250 V: 184 to 192 cells
Extended float operation of a nickel-cadmium battery can lessen the average discharge voltage;
this condition is termed voltage depression. Voltage depression is a normal occurrence, but can
affect the available capacity to a specified end-of-discharge voltage if not considered when the
battery size is selected during the initial design. When evaluating a battery, ensure that the
manufacturer derated the battery capability to account for this effect.
Nickel-cadmium battery capacity, like lead-acid battery capacity, is normally described in terms
of the number of ampere-hours that the battery can supply within a specified time. An example
of a battery capacity rating for a typical nickel-cadmium battery is provided in Table 2-5. The
manufacturer should be consulted for any correction factors applicable to a particular battery.
Table 2-5
Typical Nickel-Cadmium Battery Capacity Rating
Discharge Time
(hour)
Capacity
(ampere-hours)
Effective Discharge
Rate (amperes)
1,400
175
1,350
270
1,200
400
775
775
0.5
500
1,000
The resistance of a nickel-cadmium battery is almost constant at a low level during discharge.
The internal resistance does not start to increase until the battery is almost fully discharged, as
shown in Figure 2-25. This relatively constant low resistance helps maintain the voltage at a high
level during discharge.
2-44

3
Resistance
(milliohm)
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Amount of Discharge (percent)
Figure 2-25
Typical Nickel-Cadmium Battery Internal Resistance During Discharge

Nickel-cadmium batteries have a great tolerance for temperature extremes. The ability to operate
well at high and low temperatures is one of their most appealing attributes.
The electrolyte specific gravity of a nickel-cadmium battery does not change as part of the
chemical reaction. The potassium hydroxide electrolyte acts as an electrical conductor for the
chemical reaction but is not altered by the reaction. In contrast, the specific gravity of a lead-acid
battery decreases during the entire discharge period. Because the freezing temperature of the
electrolyte goes up as specific gravity decreases, the electrolyte of a discharged lead-acid battery
can freeze if exposed to low temperatures. The electrolyte of a nickel-cadmium battery is not as
susceptible to freezing during or after discharge because its specific gravity is not changed
during the discharge chemical reaction.
High temperatures harm a nickel-cadmium battery less than they do a lead-acid battery. Every
15F (9.4C) increase above 77F (25C) reduces the nickel-cadmium battery life by
approximately 20%. This is a substantial improvement over the life reduction in lead-acid
batteries, which can experience up to a 50% loss of expected life for each 15F (9.4C) increase
above 77F (25C).
The electrolyte temperature does affect battery capacity, but not to the extent as for lead-acid
batteries. Table 2-6 provides ranges of typical capacity factors for nickel-cadmium batteries; the
exact factor depends on the cell design. Figure 2-26 provides a comparison of the effect of
temperature on the capacities of lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries.
2-45

Table 2-6
Effect of Temperature on Capacity of Nickel-Cadmium Battery
(Adapted from IEEE 1106)
Electrolyte
Temperature
(F)
(C)
Percent Capacity
Available
-17.8
5091%
10
-12.2
6391%
20
-6.7
6791%
30
-1.1
7791%
40
4.4
83100%
50
10.0
91100%
60
15.6
91100%
70
21.1
91100%
77115
2545
100%
125
Nickel Cadmium
100
Capacity
(percent)
75
Lead Acid
50
25
50
75
Temperature (F)
Figure 2-26
Effect of Temperature on Battery Capacity
2-46
100
125
3
LEAD-ACID BATTERY AGING, DEGRADATION, AND
FAILURE
Section 3 presents lead-acid battery aging, degradation, and failure information. The primary
purpose of this information is to establish a baseline with which recommended maintenance
practices can be linked directly to an aging or degradation mechanism, or a failure mode.
Subsequent sections explain the bases for recommended tests and inspections by correlating
them to the reliability and failure data presented here.
The lead-acid battery is a sacrificial design, destined to eventually wear out even under ideal
conditions. And, when abused, it can fail even sooner. Under ideal conditions, both vented and
VRLA batteries fail by natural aging due to the following causes:
Expansion and corrosion of the positive grid structure due to oxidation of the grid and plate
materials. This degradation mechanism is unavoidable and is the most common natural
failure mode for lead-acid batteries maintained on a standby float charge.
Loss of active material from the positive plate.
Loss of capacity due to physical changes in the active material of the positive plate.
Some batteries survive longer than 20 years with little loss of capability. Others fail within a few
years of service. Several factors combine to affect battery life; examples are listed below.
Design life: Stationary batteries are typically available with an expected service life from 5
to 20 yearsthe longer the design life, the more expensive the battery.
Temperature: Elevated temperatures reduce battery life. An increase of 15F (9.4C) can
reduce lead-acid battery life by 50% or more.
Cycle service: Excessive deep discharge cycles reduce life. Lead-calcium batteries might be
rated for as few as 50 deep discharge cycles.
Overcharging: Excessively high float voltages cause a higher positive plate corrosion rate.
Overcharging also causes excessive gassing.
Undercharging: A low float voltage reduces capacity because of self-discharge.

Undercharging can also result in excessive sulfation, which can damage the plates.
Ripple current: Excessive dc ripple current might contribute to battery aging. VRLA
batteries are considered most susceptible to ripple current.
Manufacturing variations: Lot-to-lot processing variations can shorten battery life. Material
impurities and plate formation inconsistencies can reduce battery life.
3-1

Lead-Acid Battery Aging, Degradation, and Failure
Improper storage: Storing cells beyond the manufacturer's recommended duration promotes
sulfation, decreases cell capacity and life, and may require a special initial charging
procedure. Cells might be permanently damaged and require replacement.
Misapplications: Batteries are commonly designed for a specific use. If the battery is not
designed for a given application, it might not meet its life or performance expectations.
3.1
The Ideal Life Curve of a Lead-Acid Battery
If properly designed, built, and maintained, a battery can provide several years of reliable
service. The ideal profile of capacity during a lead-acid battery's operational life is shown in
Figure 3-1. A new battery might not initially provide 100% capacity. The capacity typically
improves over the first few years of service, reaches a peak, and declines until the battery reaches
its end of life. A reduction to 80% of the rated capacity is usually defined as the end of life for a
lead-acid battery. Below 80%, the rate of battery deterioration accelerates, and it is more prone to
sudden failure resulting from a mechanical shock (such as a seismic event) or a high discharge
rate. Note that even under ideal conditions, a battery is expected to eventually wear out.
110
Capacity
(percent)
100
90
80
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Battery Life (percent of rated)

Figure 3-1
Ideal Battery Life Curve
Figure 3-1 does not apply to Plant or round cell designs; they typically remain above 100% of
rated capacity up to the end of life, at which time they experience a steep decline in capacity.
Also, note that the ideal expected life curve shown in Figure 3-1 might not be realized; aging
factors discussed above can combine so that the battery never attains 100% capacity. The effects
can be dramatic; for example, a battery with an advertised life of 20 years can fail in less than 4
years in a harsh environment without proper maintenance. Figure 3-2 shows how the actual life
can vary from the ideal case.
3-2

120
Superior
Performance
100
Capacity
(percent)
80
60
40
Rated
Performance
Poor
Performance
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
Life (years)
Figure 3-2
Possible Variations from the Ideal Battery Life Curve
The following sections discuss the various mechanisms and failure modes that can affect battery
life.
3.2
Aging and Degradation Mechanisms
Aging and degradation mechanisms for vented lead-acid batteries are reasonably well
understood. If properly selected, installed, operated, and maintained, a lead-acid stationary
battery can provide many years of reliable standby service. However, a harsh environment, or
improper operation and maintenance, severely limits battery life and performance. In any event,
a lead-acid battery does eventually wear out from unavoidable aging.
Data on VRLA cells shows that these batteries are more sensitive than vented lead-acid batteries
to many of the identified degradation mechanisms. Additionally, VRLA batteries are susceptible
to unique failure modes rarely seen in vented batteries. These additional VRLA failure modes are
discussed in Section 3.4.
The following sections discuss specific aging and degradation mechanisms in greater detail. The
specific effects of these mechanisms on particular battery components are described in Section
3.3.
3.2.1 Temperature
Anticipated battery life is specified by the manufacturer for batteries installed in an environment
at or near the reference temperature of 77F (25C). Above this temperature, battery life is
reduced. The chief aging mechanism is accelerated corrosion of the positive plates, grid
structure, and strap. The corrosion rate increases exponentially as a function of temperature.
3-3

A general rule of thumb for a vented lead-acid battery is that the battery life is halved for every
15F (9.4C) above 77F (25C). Thus, a battery rated for 20 years of operation under ideal
conditions at 77F (25C) might only last 10 years at 90F to 95F (32.2C to 35C). Figure 3-3
shows the typical expected reduction in service life as a function of temperature.
Expected Life
(percent of rated)
100
80
60
40
20
0
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
Temperature (F)
Figure 3-3
Temperature Effect on Lead-Acid Battery Life
Figure 3-3 can be used to predict the expected life of a battery even when the battery temperature
varies throughout the year. If the average battery temperature can be estimated for discrete
periods throughout the year, the expected service life as a function of temperature can be
calculated by the following expression:
Lt c =
Rated Service Life @ 77F (25C )
# months@ T1 + 1 L # months@ T2 + ...+ 1 L # months@ Tn

L1
2
where,
Ltc
Temperature-corrected years of battery life
L1, 2, ,n
Percent life in Figure 3-3 at a given temperature
Months @ Tn
Number of months in a year at temperature Tn
3-4

Example 3-1
Suppose that a battery rated for 20 years of service at 77F (25C) normally experiences an
average of 4 months each year at 77F (25C), 4 months at 85F (29.4C), and 4 months at 90F
(32.2C). What is the expected service life of the battery under these conditions? Referring to
Figure 3-3, the battery has 100% (1.0) life at 77F (25C), 72% (0.72) life at 85F (29.4C), and
60% (0.6) life at 90F (32.2C). Using the above equation, the expected service life of this
battery under these conditions is given by:
Lt c =
240 months
( 11 4 months) + ( 10.72 4 months) + ( 10.6 4 months)
240
= 14.8 years
16.22
Example 3-2
Suppose the battery in Example 3-1 has a temperature near 77F (25C) for 9 months of the year
except for the summer months when the temperature averages 105F (40.6C). What is the
expected service life under these conditions? Referring to Figure 3-3, the expected life is only
32% (0.32) at this temperature. But, this temperature only occurs for 3 months. The expected
service life for the battery is given by:
Lt c =
240 months
240
. years
=
= 131
1 9 months + 1
18.38
3
months
1
0.32
) (
The above example shows that even a relatively short duration each year at an elevated
temperature can significantly reduce the expected battery life. Other factors can combine with
high temperatures to further shorten the battery life. Whenever long battery life is a design
requirement, the battery area heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system performance
should be monitored.
Another byproduct of battery operation at temperatures above or below the nominal 77F (25C)
is that the float voltage might not be optimal. Battery manufacturers specify a float voltage based
on operation at about 77F (25C). As the electrolyte temperature varies from this nominal value,
the following battery characteristics change:
Self-discharge rate
Self-gassing rate
Internal resistance
Current acceptance for a given voltage
Electrolyte viscosity
3-5

The net effect is that a float voltage specified for 77F (25C) can result in overcharging at
higher temperatures and undercharging at lower temperatures. If the battery is normally at a
temperature lower than 77F (25C) but is set for a float voltage appropriate for 77F (25C), the
battery can eventually exhibit symptoms associated with undercharging. Similarly, high
temperatures can result in overcharging. As stated previously, high temperatures in combination
with other factors can drastically reduce battery life. For example, an improper float voltage in
combination with a high temperature can cause battery failure in just a few years. Continuous
high temperatures can also deteriorate the separators and reduce insulation integrity.
Most manufacturer warranties are based on maintaining the average battery temperature below
80F (26.7C). The manufacturer should be consulted regarding warranty limitations in high
temperature environments.
3.2.2 Discharge Cycle Service
Battery failure rates, as defined by a loss of capacity and the corrosion of the positive plates,
increase with the number of discharge cycles and the depth of discharge. Lead-acid batteries
having lead-calcium grid structures are particularly susceptible to aging due to repeated cycling.
A deep discharge cycle is defined as any discharge over 80% of the rated capacity. Some
manufacturers provide warranties on lead-calcium batteries based on the number of deep
discharge cycles or the frequency of shallower discharge cycles. For example, one manufacturer
has provided a warranty based on not cycling the battery more frequently than shown in Table
3-1.
Table 3-1
One Manufacturers Warranty as a Function of Rate and Number of Discharges
Rate of Discharge
3-6
Number of Discharges Per Year

Calcium
Antimony
8 hr
7 hr
6 hr
5 hr
12
4 hr
12
3 hr
16
2 hr
16
1 hr
20
15 min
24
10 min
28
5 min
32

The number of cycles listed in Table 3-1 for different depths of discharge are usually considered
acceptable for a standby application. But, many more cycles would be needed by a different
application such as electric vehicles. Whenever cycling is part of the design requirement, the
manufacturer should be consulted for the most appropriate battery type.
Discharge testing at intervals specified by industry standards is not considered excessive cycling.
Batteries should not be degraded or adversely affected by periodic discharge tests.
3.2.3 Overcharging
Overcharging accelerates corrosion of the positive plate grids and produces excessive gassing,
which can loosen active material in the plates. Active material that becomes loose can cause
mossing and excessive sediment buildup.
Mossing refers to the accumulation of a sponge-like lead compound on the top of the negative
plates. The material, shed primarily from the positive plates, is carried upward by gassing. When
it comes in contact with a plate, it is converted to the active material of the plate it touches (lead
for a negative plate and lead dioxide for a positive plate). Material deposited on the positive plate
eventually is removed again because of gassing; however, material deposited on the negative
plate adheres to the plate. Over time, continuous buildup of material on a negative plate can
bridge a separator and make contact with a positive plate, and thus cause an internal short circuit.
If mossing is occurring in a battery, excessive sediment buildup is also probably occurring.
Excessive sediment is most often an indication of overcharging. Large mounds of dark sediment
below the positive plates is an indicator of overcharging. Significant amounts of gray sediment
under the negative plates indicates undercharging. Gray lead sulfate can also build up under both
the positive and negative plates as a result of cycling because of expansion and contraction of the
plate active material. At the extreme, sediment buildup can completely fill the sediment space,
touch the plates, and thus cause a short circuit.
An increase in the rate of gas generation is accompanied by a corresponding increase in the rate
of water consumption. The need for frequent water additions to a vented battery might indicate
overcharging. Overcharging is of particular concern for VRLA batteries. Gas generation rates
that exceed the recombination rate of a cell result in a buildup of gases that are eventually
vented. Gases vented from a VRLA battery constitute a permanent loss of electrolyte. A VRLA
battery, to which water cannot be added, can eventually dry out and fail. See Section 3.4.1.1 for a
discussion of dryout.
Overcharging can also cause battery overheating. Elevated temperatures reduce battery life, as
discussed in Section 3.2.1. VRLA batteries are prone to sudden failure due to overheating by
overcharging. The sudden failure is caused by thermal runaway. See Section 3.4.1.2 for a
discussion of thermal runaway.
Occasional charging at higher voltages, such as an equalizing charge, can benefit the battery by
removing plate sulfation and refreshing the plates. However, habitual overcharging damages the
plates. The charging voltage should be monitored to ensure that it does not exceed the
manufacturer's recommended voltage. As discussed in Section 3.2.1, overcharging can also be
caused by high temperatures if the float voltage is not adjusted to compensate for the elevated
temperatures.
3-7

3.2.4 Undercharging
Batteries lose capacity because of self-discharge if they are consistently undercharged. An
undercharge condition is indicated by a low specific gravity, low cell voltage, or lighter color on
the plates. An undercharged battery might not be at full capacity and can become permanently
damaged from sulfation.
Chronic undercharging results in a harmful buildup of lead sulfate on the plates, called sulfation.
Lead sulfate formed as a result of undercharging is inherently different in structure from lead
sulfate formed during normal cell discharge. The lead sulfate formed during normal discharge
has a very fine crystalline structure that is easily broken down by charging current (see Figure
3-4). The lead sulfate crystals formed as a result of undercharging continue to grow and
eventually reach a size that cannot be easily broken down by charge current (see Figure 3-5).
Additionally, the lead sulfate crystals physically occupy more space than the original active
material. An excessive buildup of lead sulfate can cause the plates to warp or buckle.
Figure 3-4
Crystalline Structure of the Active Material
3-8

Figure 3-5
Lead Sulfate Formed by Sulfation
An undercharged battery might not be at full capacity, and thus might be unable to perform its
design function. As discussed in Section 3.2.1, undercharging can also be caused by low
temperatures if the float voltage is not adjusted to compensate for the lower temperatures.
3.2.5 Ripple Current
The charger keeps the battery fully charged and ready to provide electrical energy upon a loss of
ac power. A charger with a significant ac ripple in its dc output can contribute to battery aging in
two ways:
Increased battery temperature
Increased positive plate corrosion
The long-term effects of ripple current are still not fully understood. Nonetheless, studies have
indicated a possible correlation between excessive ripple and accelerated battery degradation.
VRLA batteries are considered most susceptible to ripple current. The battery charger output
should provide a dc output conforming to the battery manufacturer's specifications.
3-9

3.2.6 Overdischarge
Hydration occurs in a lead-acid battery that is overdischarged and not promptly recharged, or a
battery that remains in a discharged condition for an extended time (which could occur during
storage). Hydration results when the lead and lead compounds of the plates dissolve in the water
of a discharged cell and form lead hydrate. When the cell is recharged, the lead hydrate plates
out within the separators causing multiple short circuits between the positive and negative plates.
Once hydration is evident, the cell is permanently damaged. Hydration is visible as a white
bathtub ring approximately halfway up the jar.
3.2.7 Impurities
Impurities in the electrolyte or active material can harm a battery in different ways. In general,
contaminants react with the lead compounds of the grid and plates in a harmful manner. Rapid
grid oxidation, shedding of active material, excessive gassing, increased self-discharge, and
separator deterioration can result from contamination. Water added to a cell should meet the
manufacturers specified purity standards to minimize the possibility of introducing
contaminants into the electrolyte.
3.3
Failure Modes
This section presents failure modes for each battery component. Familiarity with the aging and
degradation mechanisms described in the previous sections is crucial to an understanding of how
batteries fail. Table 3-2 summarizes the degradation mechanisms for specific components.
3-10

Table 3-2
Effects of Degradation on Lead-Acid Battery Components
Component
Material
Degradation Mechanism
Grid structure
Lead alloy
Elevated ambient temperature

Overcharging
Undercharging
Impurities
Active material
Lead dioxide and lead

sulfate

Overcharging
Undercharging
Loss of charge
Excessive cycling
Separators
Rubber or glass mat

Loss of charge
Electrolyte
Sulfuric acid and water
Impurities in electrolyte
Vent
Fused alumina
Mechanical abuse
Straps
Lead alloy

Overcharging
Terminals
Container and cover
Lead alloy, or copper

inserts in lead alloy
Oxidation and corrosion
Various types of plastic
Mechanical abuse
Mechanical abuse
Positive plate growth

Improper cleaning agents
3.3.1 Plates
The battery plates (grid and active material) and connection straps are the most age-sensitive
components in the battery. Even under ideal conditions, the plates degrade over time because of
unavoidable aging mechanisms. The positive plates are affected by aging to a greater degree than
the negative plates.
3-11

The age-related degradation of the positive plates is often generically referred to as corrosion of
the plates, which is actually oxidation of the positive plate grid structure. In a sulfuric acid
solution, the lead oxidizes to lead dioxide, lead peroxide, and lead sulfate. Oxidation of the
positive grid causes the following adverse effects:
Expansion of the positive grid: The lead compounds formed during oxidation have a larger
volume than the original material, so the grids continue to swell and distort over the life of
the battery. Grid growth places stress on the battery internal components and the jar. These
stresses can cause cracks in the jar and cover, and cause post seal failures.
Embrittlement and weakening of the grid and strap: The lead compounds formed during
oxidation are more brittle and less rugged than the original grid material.
Increased internal resistance: As the grid structure oxidizes, the cross-sectional area of the
grid wires is reduced. A decrease in the cross-sectional area of the grid reduces the size of the
conductors that carry current away from the plates. Also, the corrosion products are less
conductive than the original materials. The increased internal resistance reduces available
capacity.
Separation of active material from the grid: As the grids grow and distort, the active material
separates from the grid. This separation decreases the conductivity between the grid and
active material and reduces the capacity. The cell eventually fails once electrical contact
between the grid and active material degrades beyond a certain point. Battery designers
generally account for a 5% to 6% grid growth at end of life (80% rated capacity).
The active materials of the plates also undergo aging degradation. Over time, fine particles of
active material are shed from the plates. These particles show up as sediment at the bottom of the
battery. As is the case for corrosion, the positive plates are affected to a greater degree. The
shedding of active material reduces the amount of material available to constructively participate
in the chemical reaction during discharge, and therefore the capacity is reduced.
High ambient temperature, overcharging, and excessive cycling accelerate corrosion and
shedding. Degradation of the positive plates, as described above, is the expected failure mode for
a lead-acid battery operated under ideal conditions.
Other failure modes associated with the grid structure and plates are:
Permanent loss of capacity and plate buckling due to sulfation
Internal short circuit due to mossing and excessive sediment buildup
Plate and grid failure due to contamination
Internal short circuits due to hydration (hydration is not an expected failure mode if the
battery is properly maintained)
3-12

3.3.2 Container
The container includes the jar, cover, flame arrestor, and seals around the posts. Container failure
modes include:
Cracking of the container, which allows loss of electrolyte
Crazing, internal cracks in the plastic container that can reduce its structural integrity
Loss of seal integrity around posts or flame arrestor
Electrolyte leakage can corrode post terminations and increase termination resistance. An
inadequate seal can also allow gases to escape from the battery without passing through the
flame arrestor, thereby providing a flame path back into the cell. Container cracking and post
seal failure can result from expansion of the positive grid structure, mechanical abuse, or the use
of inappropriate solvents and greases.
3.3.3 Connections and Terminations
Terminations include the cell posts and all connections, including cell-to-cell connections and
connections to the external circuit. Degradation and failure modes include:
Loose connections
Dirty or corroded connections
Internal copper contamination from cell posts with exposed copper inserts
Loose or damaged connections, characterized by a higher cell-to-cell resistance, can lower the
battery output voltage. In extreme cases, a higher-than-normal resistance can result in failure of
the connection due to current-induced heating losses.
Many manufacturers use copper inserts in the battery posts to increase the high-rate discharge
capability of the battery. Each post consists of a lead casing around the copper to prevent direct
contact with the electrolyte. If the copper is exposed, the electrolyte attacks the copper, which
dissolves into the electrolyte and is subsequently deposited on the negative plates of the affected
cell. The condition decreases battery capacity and causes deterioration of the plates and posts.
The loss of copper inside the post also affects the posts current-carrying ability.
3.3.4 Electrolyte
The electrolyte is vital to proper operation of the battery. Degradation and failure modes include:
Inadequate electrolyte level
Contaminated electrolyte
Incorrect electrolyte specific gravity
3-13

An electrolyte level that remains below the top of the plates allows an abnormal amount of
sulfation, which leads to crumbling of the active material.
Water is periodically added to a cell to replace electrolyte loss due to evaporation and gassing.
The water added to a battery should be contaminant-free, distilled or deionized water.
Contaminants introduced into the battery can inhibit full capacity and cause cell failure.
Adding electrolyte to the battery to make up water loss can result in too high a specific gravity,
which can degrade the plates over a period of time.
3.4
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries
3.4.1 VRLA Battery Aging and Degradation

When they were first developed, VRLA batteries were justifiably viewed as an innovative leap
forward in lead-acid battery technology. Without question, VRLA batteries have a bright future
for various reasons discussed in Section 5. Unfortunately, in their early days, their unique failure
modes were not recognized and some marketing literature provided overly optimistic claims
regarding VRLA performance. VRLA battery technology has come a long way in the last 15
years; however, it is still developing and the degradation mechanisms are not fully understood.
What is known is that these batteries will fail before vented batteries if exposed to the same
service conditions and environment. VRLA batteries usually have a much tighter operating
window than their vented counterparts, making them more prone to degradation. VRLA batteries
are also much less tolerant of the following conditions:
High temperature
Overcharge
Discharge
Battery manufacturers have come to recognize the limitations of VRLA batteries and are more
candid regarding their reliability. For example, personnel from one battery manufacturer
published a 1995 paper stating:
VRLA products have encountered difficulty meeting life expectations. Over the years, the
VRLA products have improved significantly; however, they are still inferior to flooded products
in regard to life expectancy. In an effort to market these new VRLA products, manufacturers
made many attractive claims to compete with the proven flooded technology. Some
manufacturers claimed that VRLA batteries do not gas and require no ventilation. This led to the
early misconception that VRLA products are really maintenance free. Secondly, they claimed
that the VRLA products were sealed, which allowed for stacking the VRLA products
horizontally, creating a higher energy density footprint than their flooded counterparts.
Unfortunately, this configuration placed new demands on the cells vital seals (i.e., cover seal
and post seals) against leakage. Finally, the biggest misconception of all has been the claims of
the cells life. Manufacturers believed the only way this new technology could compete with the
proven flooded technology was to position it in the same 20 year warranty class.
3-14

Another battery manufacturer published a valuable paper on VRLA grid corrosion in 1995 with
the following conclusion:
It has to be emphasized that this work is still in the early stages as far as VRLA cells are
concerned. Grid corrosion, although most important from the design perspective, is still only one
of the factors that lead to field failure. Contributors such as dryout, improper charging and
thermal effects obviously also affect VRLA cells
A third battery manufacturers 1996 paper continues to emphasize the difference between vented
and VRLA cells:
VRLA batteries have characteristics that make them even more sensitive to proper operating
conditions than flooded batteries. In fact, several failure modes exist which are unique to VRLA
batteries relative to flooded designs.
Yet another manufacturer recommends the VRLA product only for non-critical applications. For
example, this manufacturer has consistently recommended against using VRLA batteries in
substation applications.
Sections 3.2 and 3.3 discuss traditional aging mechanisms for all types of lead-acid batteries. In
addition to these traditional aging mechanisms that are applicable to all lead-acid batteries,
VRLA batteries are susceptible to unique failure modes rarely seen in vented batteries.
Furthermore, the failure modes that were anticipated based on vented cell technology are not the
primary failure modes for VRLA cell technology. The following sections discuss additional
aging, degradation, and failure mechanisms for VRLA batteries.
3.4.1.1
Dryout
Loss of water from a VRLA cell is irreversible in most designs. As a VRLA cell loses water, it
can experience loss of capacity due to dryout. Water addition is not normally allowed by the
VRLA design. These batteries have been referred to as starved electrolyte, meaning that the
discharge capacity can be limited by the electrolyte. In this case, any loss of electrolyte can
adversely affect capacity. A vented battery is expected to require periodic watering to restore lost
water; however, any water loss from a VRLA battery is irreversible because water cannot
normally be added to the cell. One study determined that a 10% water loss can correlate to a 20%
loss of capacity. Any water loss from a VRLA cell is cause for concern.
The recombination process tends to be somewhat self-regulating in that recombination efficiency
improves as water is lost. In theory, a VRLA cell would lose water until it reached optimal
recombination efficiency, with little water loss thereafter. However, other effects that occur
during normal and abnormal operation also result in water loss:
Overcharging: This results in gassing that exceeds the recombination ability of the battery.
Thus, gases are vented from the battery through the pressure relief valve and the volume of
the electrolyte solution declines over time. Small amounts of gas are vented during normal
float operation. Larger gas quantities are vented during higher charging rates, such as an
equalize charge. Battery charger setpoint drift or failure can also cause increased gas venting.
3-15

Corrosion Process: The grid corrosion process that occurs during normal aging of a lead-acid
battery consumes part of the water in the electrolyte throughout the cells operational life.
One study showed that this normal aging process alone can consume enough of the
electrolyte water to impact capacity.
High Temperature: The gassing rate increases with temperature. At high temperature, some
gases are vented rather than recombined inside the cell.
Failure of the pressure relief valve: A failure of the valve to fully shut causes the battery to
operate like a vented cell, that is, it continuously vents. Charge gases are then allowed to
escape and the recombination process is ineffective.
Water vapor diffusion through the container: As the temperature increases, the water vapor
diffusion rate through the cell container also increases. The diffusion rate varies with the type
and thickness of container materials, operating temperature, and relative humidity around the
cell. Most manufacturers have selected container materials that minimize water vapor
diffusion.
Leakage: A cracked battery case or failed terminal post seal is similar to failure of the
pressure relief valve; the cell will continuously vent.
Two of the above causes of dryoutpressure relief valve failure and container leakageactually
represent another potential failure mode for a VRLA battery. The recombination process causes
the negative plate to be maintained in an almost depolarized condition. Air in-leakage through a
pressure relief valve, post seal leak, or container crack can cause eventual discharge of the
negative plate. The cell will lose capacity as the negative plate discharges.
3.4.1.2
Thermal Runaway
Thermal runaway is a failure mode in which a battery on a constant voltage charge at an elevated
temperature destroys itself through internal heat generation due to high charging current. Under
normal operating conditions, a VRLA battery on a float charge remains in a fully charged
condition and most gases that are produced are recombined internally. Any overcharge energy
results in heat generation. If the design of the battery in conjunction with its installed location is
such that the generated heat can be dissipated without a rise in the battery temperature, thermal
runaway is unlikely. However, if the battery temperature increases, higher current is required to
keep the float voltage at the set level. The additional current results in more gas generation inside
the cell, which generates more heat during recombination and further raises the battery
temperature. If the situation is not corrected, the battery can overheat and destroy itself. The
thermal runaway sequence is shown in Figure 3-6.
3-16

Excess charge current

converted to heat
Increased temperature
decreases battery
internal resistance
Positive
feedback cycle
Battery unable to
dissipate all heat
Battery charge
current increases
Internal battery
temperature rises
Additional internal
heat generated
created between
charge current &
internal heat
generation
Battery
overheats
and fails
Figure 3-6
Thermal Runaway Sequence
The design of VRLA batteries increases the probability of thermal runaway. Actually, thermal
runaway can occur even in vented lead-acid batteries, but does so only rarely because of their
better heat dissipation capability. In general, vented cells have the best heat dissipation
characteristics, followed in order by gelled electrolyte cells and absorbed electrolyte cells.
Inadequate heat dissipation is compounded by the installation design. Vented batteries are
usually installed with some separation between cells, whereas VRLA batteries are often packed
into the smallest possible footprint, and so have restricted air flow around the cells. In recent
years, manufacturers have improved VRLA installations by including more air space around
each module.
Improper float voltage appears to be the greatest contributor to thermal runaway. A higher than
recommended float voltage results in greater float current and thus battery overheating. The
initial battery temperature does influence the speed at which thermal runaway can occur;
however, an improper float current and voltage alone can cause thermal runaway.
As a precaution, some manufacturers recommend the use of temperature-compensated battery
chargers that limit current in order to prevent thermal runaway. A temperature sensor monitors
the highest temperature cell of the battery bank and limits charger float current if the temperature
starts to rise beyond desired levels. This design is not feasible for systems in which the charger
supplies current to various system loads in addition to recharging the battery.
VRLA batteries might be more sensitive to charger ripple; excessive ripple from the charger can
also contribute to higher battery temperatures. The manufacturer's recommendations regarding
charger performance must be reviewed carefully before a VRLA battery is installed.
3-17

3.4.1.3
Complexity of the Recombination Process
Although the principle of the recombination process might be relatively simple for the user to
understand, the actual implementation in a VRLA cell is quite complex. A delicate balance is
maintained at the negative plates between oxygen recombination, hydrogen evolution, and plate
sulfation. This complexity places stricter constraints on the design, manufacture, application, and
use of these cells compared to an equivalent vented cell. VRLA batteries are more sensitive to
float voltage variations. The proper float voltage is necessary to maintain each cell within the
proper operating range. If the float voltage is too low, the negative plates might be undercharged,
leading to capacity loss. If the float voltage is too high, the aging process will be accelerated and
the rate of dryout will increase.
Figure 3-7 shows the typical polarization voltage of a VRLA cell. As can be seen, very little
polarization voltage is applied to the negative plates under normal conditions. The charging
current must be abnormally high before significant negative plate polarization occurs. This low
level of polarization means that the negative plates can experience a loss of capacity over time by
partially discharging if the level of polarization is inadequate to prevent self-discharge.
Positive Plates
150
70 mV positive
plate polarization
100
Overvoltage for
cell is about 70 mV
50
Polarization
Voltage
(mV)
Charge Current
Virtually no negative
plate polarization
50
100
150
Negative Plates
Figure 3-7
Typical VRLA Cell Plate Polarization
Once the negative plate polarizes, the cell performs similar to a vented cell, with the negative
plate also producing hydrogen. At this point, the rate of gas production exceeds the
recombination ability of the cell; it will periodically vent gas through the pressure relief valve to
relieve the cell internal pressure.
3-18

If the float voltage (and float current) is too high, the life of a VRLA cell will also be reduced,
partly because of accelerated aging of the positive plate by the higher float current and partly
because of the increased rate of internal dryout by more frequent gas venting. For this reason, the
manufacturer typically specifies a maximum allowable float voltage and some manufacturers set
limits on the frequency and duration of periodic equalizing charges. For example, the GNB
operating manual for the Absolyte II VRLA battery specifies the following effect on expected
life as float voltage increases (vented cells also experience life reduction due to overcharging,
but not to the extent seen in VRLA designs).
Table 3-3
Reduction in VRLA Cell Rated Life as Float Voltage Increases
(Model Specific)
Float Voltage Range
Percent Reduction in
Battery Life
2.23 - 2.27
0%
2.28 - 2.31
50%
2.32 - 2.36
75%
3.4.1.4
Temperature Effects
VRLA batteries tend to be more susceptible to degradation and accelerated aging at higher
temperatures than are vented lead-acid batteries. The recombination process that allows these
batteries to operate without the need for water addition also releases heat. Older VRLA
installations tend to have the cells tightly packed, further limiting heat dissipation capability. In
UPS applications, these batteries are often enclosed inside a cabinet with little allowance
provided for heat dissipation. All of these factors can combine to cause the battery to operate at a
higher-than-ambient temperature, thereby decreasing its life. Higher temperatures also increase
the rate of dryout and increase the susceptibility to thermal runaway. Abnormally high
temperatures can cause a VRLA cell to fail completely.
3.4.1.5
Electrolyte Concentration
The electrolyte in VRLA cells is a limited resource that cannot normally be replenished. Any
loss of electrolyte during normal and abnormal operating conditions can reduce capacity. In
some cases, manufacturers have increased the electrolyte specific gravity up to 1.300 to improve
capacity (typical vented batteries have a specific gravity of 1.215). Increasing the specific gravity
increases capacity at the expense of cell life. A higher specific gravity results in increased
chemical activity, thereby causing an increased positive plate corrosion rate. Figure 3-8 shows
the effect of a higher specific gravity on positive plate grid growth during accelerated aging tests.
Grid growth is one indicator used to establish the rated life of a cell.
3-19

7
6
Percent
Growth
5
1.300 Sp. Gr.
4
3
2
1.215 Sp. Gr.
1
0
0
40
80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
Days at 160F
Figure 3-8
Specific Gravity Effect on Positive Grid Growth
3.4.1.6
Absorbed Glass Mat Compression Effects
VRLA batteries of the AGM design can experience changes in the mat position over time,
resulting in loss of compression between the mat and the plates. Compression between the
absorbed glass mat and the plates is necessary to ensure that the plates are in constant contact
with the electrolyte. Over time, small voids can develop between the mat and the plates,
increasing the internal resistance and decreasing the available capacity. This effect is referred to
as loss of compression and causes a permanent loss of capacity in an AGM cell. This loss of
compression can be caused by manufacturing errors, improper design or design tolerances, and
dryout. In particular, the design and manufacturing process have been important contributors to
loss of compression because battery manufacturers did not fully appreciate the importance of
compression on the performance of a cell. Dryout is an inevitable aging effect that also changes
the level of compression over a cells service life.
The absorbed glass mat performs a critical function in the AGM cell; it is not a simple separator
and sponge holding the electrolyte. The microglass fibers must be able to hold the mat in
position, maintain the necessary compression against the plates, keep the electrolyte suspended
equally throughout the mat, while also allowing oxygen to migrate through it to the negative
plates. In early designs, battery manufacturers were still learning how their product performed
and aged in service; compression of the mat against the plates was not recognized as a critical
design feature. Early tolerances for mat thickness, volume, and mass were as high as 20%, which
was too high to ensure adequate compression once the mat was assembled in the cell with
electrolyte added to the mat. Many factors influence the compression as a cell is manufactured,
placed in service, and allowed to sit on float charge throughout its life. Factors influencing the
compression include:
3-20

Mat thickness between the plates
Allowed tolerance for the glass mat
Variation of plate surface and thickness
Initial compression
Mat saturation
Density and surface area of the microglass fibers
Container material
Uniformity of compression between plates
Considerable effort is underway to understand how mat saturation affects the compressive force
applied to the plates. It appears that the mats effective thickness changes with saturation. At
least one major manufacturer has developed a method to add water to stationary VRLA cells in
the field to restore the intended compression.
The microglass fiber design continues to evolve, with fibers becoming finer with each generation
smaller (and more) fibers provide greater resiliency and compressive force, while also
providing greater protection against internal shorts. Battery manufacturers naturally attempt to
reduce their costs while still building an acceptable product. Finer fibers tend to be more
expensive than large, more coarse fibers. In one cost-reduction attempt, a manufacturer changed
to a coarser fiber that tended to boil to the top of the cell during the plate formation process at the
factory. The manufacturers are still learning their limits in this area.
Other effects related to the absorbed glass mat can also affect the cells performance. In taller
cells, there is evidence that a gravity effect can result in the mat being fully saturated in the
bottom of the cell and virtually dry near the top of the mat. The gravity effect is accentuated by
the typical VRLA cell design in which the grids tend to have a low width to height ratio, whereas
many vented cell grids are almost square. Figure 3-9 shows the typical grid configuration for a
larger capacity VRLA cell. The uneven mat saturation can increase the internal resistance,
change the current distribution across the plate, and reduce the available capacity. Most VRLA
battery manufacturers recommend that taller cells be installed horizontally to minimize this
effect. Also, the trend toward more, finer microglass fibers helps the mat maintain the electrolyte
in a more normalized suspension.
3-21

Figure 3-9
Grid Design for Larger VRLA Cells
(Positive Grid on Right Side)
Battery manufacturers have designed traditional vented batteries to allow for growth of the
positive plates, an inevitable consequence of the natural aging and oxidation of the grid
materials. Manufacturers typically design for a nominal growth of 5% by end of life. Failure to
design for the expected plate growth can result in cell failures due to plate buckling, container
cracking, and post seal failures. The absorbed glass mat VRLA cell requires a tight compression
of the glass mat against the plates; however, this is somewhat counter to the design requirements
for accommodating plate growth. Some older VRLA cells have the positive plates extend to the
bottom of the container, allowing little room for growth in the vertical direction. Smaller VRLA
cells also do not always provide much allowance for plate growth. Some manufacturers allow for
positive plate growth by making the positive plate slightly shorter than the negative plate. Figure
3-9 shows an example in which the negative grid (on the left) is almost inch (12.7 mm) longer
than the positive grid.
Plate growth that stresses the container can cause post seal failures. In a vented cell, a post seal
failure becomes a maintenance nuisance because of electrolyte leakage around the post. In a
VRLA cell, post seal failure allows a path for electrolyte evaporation. Even more important, post
seal failures allow a path for air in-leakage; oxygen in the air can discharge the negative plate
and disrupt the recombination process. Post seal leakage is a failure mechanism for VRLA cells.
3-22

The effects associated with the AGM design are largely outside of the users control.
Furthermore, the user really has no easy way to determine if the manufacturer has continued to
improve the cells design to minimize these effects. Operating the battery in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations can reduce the rate of dryout and monitoring each cell as
discussed in later sections might be able to detect loss of compression as it occurs.
3.4.1.7
Negative Strap Corrosion
Some VRLA batteries have shown a tendency for the negative plate straps to corrode and fail
prematurely. In an AGM VRLA cell, the negative strap is not immersed in the electrolyte;
instead, it is exposed to a nearly pure hydrogen environment in the void space above the plates.
With the negative strap exposed and the negative plates normally depolarized by the
recombination process, the negative strap can experience sulfation that ultimately leads to its
fracture and failure. Some manufacturers have redesigned their batteries to be more resistant to
negative strap corrosion. Design changes have included wrapping the negative strap with
absorbed glass mat material to help keep it wetted or more carefully matching the grip, strap, and
post alloys.
3.4.1.8
Over-Discharge
Some VRLA batteries can be damaged by over-discharge. Because excess electrolyte is not
available, the electrolyte specific gravity can become fairly low during a deep discharge,
increasing the cells susceptibility to hydration.
3.4.1.9
Design and Manufacturing Variations
VRLA batteries are not all equal; designs vary among manufacturers. Accordingly, the aging and
degradation effects described here vary also, depending on the manufacturer and model. Design
and manufacturing variations can affect a batterys susceptibility to the described aging and
degradation mechanisms. These include:
Grid design and type of alloy
Plate thickness
Allowance provided for grid growth
Method of electrolyte immobilization
Capacity-limiting component in electrochemical reaction
Material impurities
Container material
Plate formation process
Pressure relief valve design

3-23

Design internal pressure
Required compression between plates and absorbed glass mat (AGM)
Design tolerances
The more complex VRLA electrochemistry also places greater requirements on the
manufacturing quality. Battery manufacturers continue to improve the VRLA manufacturing
processes in the following areas:
Tighter control in the grid casting process to obtain the desired alloy microstructure
More precise limits for curing, drying, and formation of finished plates
Greater dimensional control of all components
Improved post seal assembly to preclude air in-leakage
Continuous improvement and testing of AGM material
3.4.1.10
VRLA Cell Failure Characteristics
Although it is a type of lead-acid battery, the VRLA battery is distinctly different from a vented
lead-acid battery with regard to how it ages, degrades, and ultimately fails. The various failure
modes described in the previous sections readily demonstrate these differences. Accordingly,
VRLA cell failures tend to show up differently than do vented cell failures. A high-quality
vented lead-acid battery tends to have its cells age at about the same rate. When periodic
discharge tests are performed, it is not uncommon to find that all of the vented cells perform in a
very similar manner during discharge. For example, Figure 3-10 shows the voltage profile of
individual cells in a vented lead-acid battery during a discharge test. Although it appears that
only a few cells are shown, there are actually 58 cells in this graph, all very close together.
Unless a manufacturing defect turns up, users of vented lead-acid batteries tend to take for
granted this sort of discharge behavior.
3-24

2.1
2.0
Cell
Voltage
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
0
30
60
90
120
Discharge Time (minutes)
Figure 3-10
Typical Performance of Vented Lead-Acid Cells During Discharge
VRLA cells tend to exhibit a different behavior during discharge. Although many of the cells
might perform quite well, some of the cells often randomly fail, with rapid voltage decline
during discharge. Figure 3-11 shows one example; this battery, consisting of 10 twelve-volt
modules, was three years old.
12
11
Voltage
10
8
0
12
18
24
30
Figure 3-11
Performance of a VRLA Battery During Discharge
Figure 3-12 shows another example of the relative voltage variation among cells during
discharge for a good capacity VRLA battery. Notice that even though no cells rapidly drop in
voltage during the discharge, there is still a wide variation in discharge voltage.
3-25

2.1
2.0
Cell
Voltage
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
0
50
100
150
200
Figure 3-12
Typical Variation in VRLA Cell Discharge Voltage
What this means for those users that perform periodic discharge tests is that the capacity test
becomes more of a tool to find bad cells rather than a trending tool to determine overall battery
capacity. Failed cells obviously require replacement; however, cell replacement can lead to other
problems. Remember the previous discussion regarding the complexity of the recombination
process. Some battery manufacturers literature attempts to address this inherent limitation of
float charge behavior with the following recommendations:
Minimize the number of cells in series to reduce the likelihood that some cells are
undercharged while other cells are overcharged.
Use cells of the same age and type in each string.
Avoid installing the battery near hot spots (or any location that can cause a temperature
differential across the battery).
If necessary, break up the string into smaller charging groups (seldom done for stationary
applications).
Although the above recommendations are well intended, they are not always achievable in the
field. For example, replacement cells for failed cells will be of a different age than the originally
installed cells. This will contribute to float voltage variations, but cannot be avoided because
replacement cells are required. Usually, the user cannot justify replacing the entire battery just
because a few cells fail. As more cells are replaced with each year, the chances of having equal
float characteristics across the battery become less and less probable. Figure 3-13 shows an
extreme case of float voltage variations; notice that some cells are below the desired charging
voltage while other cells are overcharged to the point of extreme gassing.
3-26

6
5
Number
of Cells
4
3
2
1
0
2.20
2.22
2.24
2.26
2.28
2.30
2.34
2.36
2.38
2.40
Cell Voltage
Figure 3-13
Float Voltage Variation Observed for a VRLA Installation
In addition to limiting the battery capacity, failed cells can also cause the battery to completely
fail when called upon to do its job. The next section discusses observed VRLA battery failure
rates.
3.4.2 VRLA Battery Failure Rates and Expected Operating Life
Users have expressed a desire for a 20-year life stationary battery that is inexpensive, completely
sealed from leakage, and never requires maintenance. Segments of the battery industry have
responded to the users desire for a perfect battery by making performance claims regarding
their VRLA battery lines that are based on limited test and field data, which can provide
misleading information regarding the actual cell capability. Unfortunately, other manufacturers
have sometimes been forced to make similar claims in order to remain competitive. Many VRLA
batteries are installed throughout the world and the industry is beginning to acknowledge that a
20 year VRLA battery life is difficult to obtain. Recent industry experience indicates that a 4 to 7
year VRLA battery life is more realistic, regardless of cell size or warranty claims.
Some manufacturers might offer a battery warranty life much longer than the actual design life.
The reader is cautioned that the warranty period is often a business and marketing decision, not
necessarily based on technical limitations. For example, some automobile tire dealers might offer
a lifetime warranty on their tires, but no one really expects their tires to actually last for the life
of the automobile.
The Seventeenth International Telecommunications Energy Conference (Intelec 1995) Report
(available from IEEE as 95CH35824) documents alarming failure rates with VRLA batteries.
Sections 3.4.2.1 through 3.4.2.3 summarize the conclusions from three papers presented at this
conference.
3-27

3.4.2.1
USA Study of 25,000 Cells
Traditionally, a cell is considered at its end of life when its capacity falls to below 80% of its
rated capacity; by the time capacity falls this low, the cell is usually degrading very rapidly.
Unfortunately, many VRLA batteries have experienced premature failures in which capacity fell
below 80% much sooner than expected. In one study of almost 25,000 VRLA cells from 9
different manufacturers, the failure rates ranged from 27% to 86%, depending on the
manufacturer. These cells were only 3 to 7 years old. The average failure rate was 64% for the
entire tested population. Evaluation of a sample of 13,448 cells revealed that 100% of those cells
older than 5 years failed to meet the 80% capacity criteria. Even if the user would have been
willing to accept only 50% of rated capacity, the cell failure rates exceeded 41% by the 6th year.
The above failures were for individual cells. Battery strings (that rely on the proper operation of
multiple cells in series) had 50% failure rates at the 50% capacity criterion at 4 years, increasing
from 60% to 100% failure rates during the 5th to the 7th year of service.
This study concluded that the failures were generic and appeared to be independent of size or
manufacturer over a range from 25 to 1,000 ampere-hours.
3.4.2.2
Swedish Study of 35,000 Cells
A Swedish study of over 1,000 installations, of various system voltages and cell capacities,
involving about 35,000 cells concluded that VRLA batteries require replacement after 5 to 8
years of operation. The shorter life (5 years) is associated with battery systems operating at 110
V or higher. The longer life (up to 8 years) is applicable to better quality batteries and those of
lower system voltages. AGM-type cells demonstrated a higher failure rate than did gel-type cells.
No single or systematic factor was found to be predominantly responsible for the shorter than
expected life.
3.4.2.3
Battery Manufacturer Evaluation of Expected Life
Representatives from one battery manufacturer provided another view of VRLA cells expected
life. Four different VRLA cells were tested, including three different AGM types and one geltype. The manufacturer concluded that 20-year class AGM cells actually have an expected life of
5 years at 77F (25C), dropping to about 3 years at 90F (32.2C).
3.4.2.4
1998 Study of VRLA Battery Failure Rates
The 1995 evaluation of 25,000 cells (refer to Section 3.4.2.1) demonstrated high VRLA battery
failure rates. A follow-up to the 1995 study was completed in 1998 to evaluate if VRLA battery
failure rates were improving when newer VRLA cell designs were included. Approximately
15,000 cells were included in the 1998 study and no real difference in battery/cell failure rates
was observed. Failure rates reached unacceptable levels within 2 years of service in some cases.
3-28

3.4.2.5
Concluding Remarks on VRLA Battery Reliability
VRLA batteries have improved considerably since their introduction. Furthermore, battery
manufacturers have continued to develop a better understanding of the design and operating
factors that influence their reliability. Until VRLA failure modes are completely understood and
accounted for in the design and manufacturing process, it is likely that not all VRLA batteries
will meet their service life projections or warranty life claims.
In summary, VRLA batteries appear to have a shorter-than-advertised life and some
manufacturers have shown a willingness to step forward and acknowledge this limitation. With
each generation, VRLA batteries will likely continue to improve. However, some of their
greatest strengths that make them so popular for use are also their greatest weaknesses in terms
of the users ability to identify degraded or failed cells. Users must be prepared to monitor
VRLA battery performance with an aggressive maintenance program for the most critical
applications.
3-29
4
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY AGING, DEGRADATION,
AND FAILURE
In general, nickel-cadmium batteries fail because of gradual aging of the active materials in the
plates. The aging is linear under steady-state conditions and is not subject to accelerated
degradation mechanisms applicable to lead-acid batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries have a
reputation for long life and high reliability. The actual operating lifetime, which can vary from 8
to over 25 years, depends on the service environment and application. Batteries for cranking
diesel engines normally last about 15 years, and stationary standby batteries typically have a life
of 15 years to 25 years.
Section 4 presents aging, degradation, and failure information for nickel-cadmium batteries. The
primary purpose of this information is to establish a way to correlate recommended maintenance
practices directly to an aging or degradation mechanism, or failure mode. Recommended
maintenance practices are discussed in Section 13. These sections explain the bases for
recommended tests and inspections by correlating them to the reliability data presented here.
4.1
Aging and Degradation Mechanisms
The pocket plate nickel-cadmium battery makes up over 90% of the installed nickel-cadmium
battery applications at utilities. Therefore, this discussion of battery aging and stress mechanisms
will focus primarily on the pocket plate nickel-cadmium battery.
Aging and degradation mechanisms are distinctly different for nickel-cadmium batteries and
lead-acid batteries. A lead-acid battery experiences continual corrosion of the positive plate and
grid structure throughout its operational life; a nickel-cadmium battery does not. In a nickelcadmium battery, the potassium hydroxide electrolyte does not react with the steel internal
components, therefore the supporting structure stays intact and unchanged for the life of the
battery. Actually, the electrolyte preserves the steel components in the cell mechanical structure.
Because the steel support structure inside a nickel-cadmium battery does not corrode with time,
only gradual aging of the active materials influences the service life of the battery. Degradation
is primarily due to recrystallization of the nickel hydroxide in the positive plates. This aging is
linear over time under steady-state conditions; there is no sudden degradation that can result in
the immediate failure seen in lead-acid batteries.
Nickel-cadmium batteries are rugged and can withstand severe mechanical abuse and rough
handling. The plates are bolted or welded in place, and the electrolyte does not attack any of the
cell components. Thus, there is no decrease in mechanical strength over the battery life. The
battery components have excellent thermal resistance and can withstand temperatures of 160F
(71.1C) or greater without mechanical damage.
4-1

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Aging, Degradation, and Failure
4.1.1 Temperature
The relative stability of nickel-cadmium batteries when exposed to low or high temperatures is
one of their chief advantages over lead-acid batteries. A nickel-cadmium battery produces power
at or near its rated capacity over a wide temperature range with little loss of expected service life.
A nickel-cadmium battery is not harmed by low temperatures or freezing. With normal
electrolyte, the battery operates at temperatures as low as -20F to -40F (-28.9C to -40C). The
available capacity is reduced at low temperatures, but at -40F (-40C) a nickel-cadmium battery
can still deliver 60% or more of its rated capacity. Lead-acid batteries are not even rated for
performance at these low temperatures.
The anticipated battery life is specified by the manufacturer for an environment at or about 77F
(25C). Above this temperature, battery life is reduced. A general rule of thumb is that nickelcadmium battery life is reduced 20% for each 15F (9.4C) above 77F (25C). This is
considerably less than the 50% reduction that a lead-acid battery might experience under similar
conditions. Figure 4-1 compares the life expectancies of lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries
as the service temperature is raised.
Expected Life
(percent of rated)
100
80
Nickel cadmium
60
Lead acid
40
20
0
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
Cell Temperature (F)

Figure 4-1
Effect of High Temperature on Battery Life
4.1.2 Discharge Cycle Service

Nickel-cadmium batteries can provide many deep discharge cycles over their service life. A
nickel-cadmium battery is typically rated for more than 1,000 deep discharge cycles, whereas a
lead-calcium battery might be rated for only 50 cycles.
4-2

Gradual aging of the active materials, primarily in the positive plate, influences the cycle life of
the battery. Because there is no plate corrosion, shedding of active material, or grid growth, some
capacity is always available.
4.1.3 Long-Term Float Operation
Nickel-cadmium batteries are not damaged by sustained overcharging or undercharging in the
same manner as lead-acid batteries. Overcharging results in excessive gassing, which requires
more frequent watering, but does not degrade the internal components.
A nickel-cadmium battery in long-term float operation can experience voltage depression, a
lowering of the average discharge voltage. This phenomenon is normal but can reduce the
available capacity to a specified end-of-discharge voltage. Most manufacturers account for
voltage depression in their battery ratings by derating the battery capacity by a compensating
factor.
4.1.4 Ripple Current
Nickel-cadmium batteries are not harmed by significant amounts of ripple current. The
impedance of each cell is very low and is nearly constant from a fully charged state to an almost
completely discharged condition. Nickel-cadmium cells maintain a useful ripple filtering
capability because of their low internal impedance.
4.1.5 Memory Effect
Memory effect is the tendency of a battery to assume the capacity normally demanded of it when
operated in successive cycles of an identical, but less than full, depth of discharge. This
phenomenon has been a problem with sealed nickel-cadmium batteries in some applications.
Memory effect occurs primarily in sealed, sintered plate nickel-cadmium batteries, and is a result
of very low charging rates coupled with repetitive cycling. A cell can have its memory effect
erased by complete discharge of the cell, followed by a full recharge at constant current (several
cycles might be needed to completely eliminate the memory effect).
As stated previously, pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries account for over 90% of nickelcadmium battery installations. Pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries do not develop a memory
effect.
4.2
Failure Modes
This section presents failure modes for each battery component. There are fewer failure modes
for nickel-cadmium batteries than for lead-acid batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries are tough,
durable, and very reliable. Unfortunately, they are also considerably more expensive than leadacid batteries.
4-3

4.2.1 Plates
The active materials in the plates undergo gradual aging during the entire service life. This aging
is linear with time under steady-state conditions and does not represent a mechanism for sudden
failure of the battery.
The potassium hydroxide electrolyte does not react with the steel internal components, so the
supporting structure and plates of a nickel-cadmium battery stay intact and unchanged for the life
of the battery. Actually, the electrolyte preserves the steel components in the cell mechanical
structure.
Because the steel support structure inside the nickel-cadmium battery does not corrode with time,
only gradual aging of the active materials influences the service life of the battery. Degradation
is primarily due to recrystallization of the nickel hydroxide in the positive plates.
4.2.2 Container
The container includes the jar, cover, flame arrestor, and terminal post seals. Degradation and
failure modes include:
Cracking of the container, which allows loss of electrolyte
Loss of seal integrity around posts or flame arrestor
Electrolyte leakage can develop into a shorting or grounding problem. Loss of seal integrity can
result in venting of gases without the benefit of the flame arrestor. Air in-leakage can react with
the electrolyte to form potassium carbonate. Container cracking and post seal failure can result
from mechanical abuse or the use of inappropriate solvents or greases.
4.2.3 Connections and Terminations
Terminations include the cell posts and all connections, including cell-to-cell connections and
connections to the external circuit. Degradation and failure modes include:
Loose connections
Dirty connections
Potassium carbonate formation on terminations
Loose or damaged connections, characterized by a higher cell-to-cell resistance, can lower the
battery output voltage. In extreme cases, a higher-than-normal resistance can result in failure of
the connection due to current-induced heating losses.
Potassium carbonate powder can form on the terminals because of post seal failure. Although the
powder is not corrosive, it can cause grounding and shorting problems because it is conductive.
4-4

4.2.4 Electrolyte
The electrolyte does not change the specific gravity during charge and discharge as in a lead-acid
battery. It retains its ability to transfer ions between the cell plates, independent of the battery
state of charge. Degradation and failure modes associated with the electrolyte include:
Inadequate electrolyte level
Carbonation
Vented nickel-cadmium batteries are designed with excess electrolyte to minimize the watering
interval. As discussed above, the electrolyte functions only to transfer ions between the positive
and negative plates. As long as the electrolyte is kept above the level of the plates, the battery
can deliver its expected capacity. However, an electrolyte level below the top of the plates
reduces the available capacity; complete plate dryout will result in cell failure.
Potassium carbonate is formed in the electrolyte when it is exposed to air. Manufacturers of
pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries add graphite to the positive plate. The graphite can oxidize
and form potassium carbonate. Manufacturers specify carbonation limits because this adversely
affects cell capacity and higher discharge rate performance. Section 16.2.2 provides additional
information regarding the effects of carbonation.
4-5
5
BATTERY APPLICATION AND SELECTION
A stationary batterys role in a dc system generally is to serve as an immediately available

backup source of electrical power should the systems normal power source fail. Stationary
batteries are used in many different applications. Typical utility applications include:
Plant-wide dc distribution systems that power a variety of plant loads, both dc and ac (via
inverters)
Specific-function dc distribution systems that power only dc loads of a certain type, such as
emergency lube oil pumps
Dedicated single loads, such as diesel engine cranking sources or individual emergency
lighting units
UPS equipment that powers dedicated ac loads, such as a computer system or

communications system
Substation switchgear loads
The basic design function of a battery is always the same, namely to provide power for some
duration. However, the specific design and performance requirements vary according to the
application. For example, the battery of a computer UPS might be designed to provide power
only for the short time needed to shut down sensitive computer equipment. This application calls
for a single battery with high-rate discharge characteristics for a short duration. In contrast,
nuclear plant Class 1E dc distribution systems typically contain multiple batteries designed to
power safety-related electrical loads for a longer time, generally 4 to 8 hours. For this longer
discharge application, reliability and good constant-discharge characteristics are desirable. The
end-use application greatly influences the type and construction features of the battery.
Section 5 discusses various battery designs and describes how the application drives certain
performance characteristics. The information provided in this section is intended to help the user
select the best battery style for a particular application.
5.1
The Evolution of the Stationary Lead-Acid Battery Industry
The stationary battery industry has significantly changed in the last forty years and the changes
have affected how batteries are selected, applied, and maintained. Any attempt to discuss
stationary battery applications should start with an overview of how stationary lead-acid batteries
have evolved.
5-1

Battery Application and Selection
Forty years ago, the stationary battery industry was considerably simpler than it is today. Four
distinctly different markets dominated the industry:
Telecommunications (standby power)
Electric utilities (switchgear operation and standby power)
Government (such as the U. S. Navy for submarine batteries)
Railroads (signaling systems)
Within each market segment, the organizations and companies that purchased batteries usually
had knowledgeable personnel who understood their applications and each batterys limitations.
In many cases, the users were very cautious with the introduction of new technology and were
often somewhat skeptical of the reduced-maintenance claims of the new innovation of the
daythe vented lead-calcium battery. Many users preferred to stay with their decades of
experience with a proven designthe lead-antimony battery. The users of this era were cautious
of new technology and, more importantly, did not place demands on the battery industry that
required any significant change to the fundamental design.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the lead-calcium battery grew to dominate the industry. The leadcalcium batterys longer-life and reduced watering claims were eventually demonstrated by
experience, and the use of the lead-antimony battery declined as lead-calcium batteries became
more commonly used. Older style batteries such as Plant and tubular plate batteries also
experienced a decline in market share. However, the basic market for stationary batteries was
largely unchanged. And, the users generally continued to have knowledgeable personnel on staff
that were capable of selecting, installing, and maintaining batteries for their systems.
The stationary battery industry changed in the 1980s with the rapid emergence of the
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) market. The UPS market quickly grew to become one of the
largest segments of the stationary battery industry. Unfortunately, UPS users often did not have
the technical background and experience to understand the inherent limitations of a battery. Even
worse, the new UPS market placed intense pressure on the battery industry to provide higher and
higher power density in smaller and smaller packages. Also, the users wanted to install and
forgetthe less required maintenance, the better.
Large industrial facilities can have dozens (or even hundreds) of UPS systems, ranging from
relatively small in size up to several hundred kVA. UPS systems can be installed in nontraditional locations, often without the knowledge of the personnel supposedly responsible for
the companys batteries. Figure 5-1 shows an example of a smaller UPS unit stuck in a corner
behind other equipment. The UPS was installed in response to a particular need for uninterrupted
power; however, it has remained in service for several years without any battery maintenance or
checks. The battery maintenance personnel did not even know that this UPS had been installed.
5-2

Figure 5-1
UPS Installed and Forgotten
The UPS market continued to expand in the 1980s and, almost overnight, the battery industry
was asked to provide the impossibleunheard of power densities, capable of discharging all of
that power in just a few minutes, in a leak-proof container, that never required maintenance, with
a rated life of 20 years. The VRLA battery was developed to meet these user demands.
When they were first developed, VRLA batteries were intended for non-critical applications
where an install and forget philosophy was reasonable. The battery would be installed, given
little or no attention and, when it eventually failed, it would be replaced. The battery failure
might be an inconvenience, but not catastrophic, similar to an automotive battery failing to start
your car.
Unfortunately, many users really did want a completely sealed, very small battery with high
power capability that required no maintenance throughout its very long life. And, they wanted it
for their most critical applications. Suddenly, it seemed, VRLA batteries were finding their way
into critical UPS applications. Aided by successful marketing campaigns, the use of VRLA
batteries expanded to the point that they grew to dominate other industries such as
telecommunications. VRLA batteries are now commonly found in switchyards and substations,
airport traffic control towers, and critical computer systems. Our nations defense network uses
many VRLA batteries.
Unfortunately, an alarming problem began to surfaceVRLA batteries with a rated life of 20
years were routinely failing in 3 to 5 years. The manufacturers and users were discovering new
failure modes with these batteries. Failures had become so noticeable that the IEEE Battery
Working Group (now known as the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 29Stationary
Batteries) commissioned a special task group to develop standards for VRLA batteries; the
industry started to realize that VRLA batteries really were different, with different failure modes
and monitoring requirements. The IEEE documents were issued in 1996.
5-3

As the battery industry entered the 1990s, battery manufacturers literature still commonly
referred to VRLA batteries as maintenance-free and 20-year warranties were common, even
though users experience was clearly to the contrary. Other manufacturers were forced (or chose)
to make similar claims just to remain competitive. During the same period, papers presented at
industry conferences identified new failure modes, rarely seen before in vented batteries. A new
language was being created just for VRLA batteries. Dryout, thermal runaway, loss of
compression, negative strap corrosion, impedance and conductance testing, and other terms
became a common part of VRLA discussions. However, misunderstandings continued
throughout the industry. Users continued to expand their use of VRLA batteries to more and
more critical applications without really understanding what should be done to monitor these
batteries.
By the mid-1990s, users and manufacturers were becoming more educated regarding VRLA
battery limitations. But, many users have become firmly committed to the use of VRLA
batteries. In some cases, users have concluded that their design advantages outweigh their
disadvantages.
Today, a greater variety of batteries are used in stationary applications than ever before. Some
battery technologies and types have demonstrated a reliable long-life capability; other batteries
are still evolving and have yet to consistently exhibit the desired reliability. Both vented and
VRLA batteries will continue to be used. But, the user is ultimately responsible for ensuring that
battery installations remain capable of fulfilling their design requirements.
5.2
Battery Design Variations
Typical batteries used in utility applications include:
Vented lead-acid batteries
VRLA batteries
Vented pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries
Most lead-acid batteries in use today are primarily of the lead-calcium type, although leadantimony and lead-selenium batteries are also commonly used. Nickel-cadmium batteries used in
stationary applications are almost entirely of the pocket plate design. Sealed nickel-cadmium
batteries are typically used only in smaller applications.
All batteries are not alike; even batteries of the same type, for example, the lead-calcium type,
are designed differently for specific applications. Installing the wrong battery for a given
application can result in unexpected system operating limitations or premature battery failure.
The following characteristics can be varied to design a cell for a specific application:
Grid alloy material, alloy concentration, and plate geometry
Number of plates and plate thickness
Separator material type and thickness
Retainer design
5-4

Expander to active material ratio
Terminal post design, including number of posts and copper inserts
Sealed or vented configuration
The above cell parameters are modified to satisfy specific performance criteria. The following
sections summarize typical key design features of various applications.
5.2.1 High-Rate UPS
A high-rate UPS application will discharge most of the batterys energy within a very short
amount of time. Accordingly, a high-rate UPS application might include the following design
features:
Many thin plates rather than fewer thick plates to maximize the active material surface area.
For a very high discharge, the chemical reaction tends to be limited more to the plate surface.
High specific gravity (1.300) to maximize the sulfuric acid in contact with the active
material.
Thin separator and retainer to minimize their volume, thereby providing more room for the
plates.
5.2.2 Long-Duration Discharge Application

A battery designed for a long-duration discharge at a relatively low discharge rate might include
the following design features:
Fewer thick plates rather than more thin plates to maximize the active material volume.
Thicker plates provide a greater volume of active material.
More expander added to the active material to encourage electrolyte access into the plates.
Deeper separator ridges to encourage electrolyte diffusion and mixing. Every effort is made
to ensure the electrolyte is not restricted in its access to the plates.
5.2.3 Cycling Application

A cycling application is different than a standby application in that the battery is routinely
discharged and recharged. A cycling application might include the following design features:
Lead-antimony or lead-selenium rather than lead-calcium grids. Lead-calcium typically

exhibits a greater degradation rate when subjected to repeated cycling. Lead-calcium
batteries might be rated for less than 50 deep discharges whereas the lead-antimony battery
might be rated for hundreds of deep discharges.
Retainer added to the separator. Cycling causes repeated expansion and contraction of the
plates. A retainer holds the active material in place and reduces shedding.
5-5

5.2.4 Motive Power Application

An automotive starting battery (often referred to as SLI, or starting, lighting, and ignition) will
usually include the following design features:
Many thin plates to maximize the available discharge current during engine starting.
Retainer material wrapped around the positive plates to minimize shedding.
True maintenance-free design because battery failure is an inconvenience rather than a

potential catastrophe. But, it should be noted that motive power batteries are in effect tested
on a frequent basis just by being in service.
5.2.5 Extreme Low Temperature Application

Extreme low temperatures cause a reduction in battery capacity, and lead-acid batteries exhibit
greater capacity reduction than do nickel-cadmium batteries. Also, the electrolyte specific
gravity in a lead-acid battery declines during discharge as the sulfuric acid is consumed by the
electrochemical reaction. In extreme low temperatures, the electrolyte can actually freeze during
discharge (see Figure 5-2).
1.300
1.250
Electrolyte
Specific
1.200
Gravity
1.150
1.100
1.050
1.000
30
10
-10
-30
-50
-70
-90
Temperature (F)
Figure 5-2
Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte Freezing Temperature with Specific Gravity
An extreme low temperature application might include the following design features:
Nickel-cadmium rather than lead-acid battery. The nickel-cadmium battery retains a greater
percentage of its rated capacity as temperature decreases.
If a lead-acid battery is used, a higher specific gravity electrolyte might be used to avoid
freezing during discharge.
5-6

5.2.6 Long-Life Requirement

A lead-acid battery long-life requirement will typically include very thick positive plates. The
inevitable aging process preferentially corrodes the positive plates. Everything else equal, a
battery with thicker plates will have a longer life than a battery with thinner plates (see Section 3
for more details regarding aging behavior of the positive plates).
5.3
When to Select a Nickel-Cadmium Battery Over a Lead-Acid Battery
Nickel-cadmium batteries have several desirable qualities, including:
Good high and low temperature characteristics
Long cycle life
Reliabilitypredictable characteristics and little maintenance required
Ruggednessable to withstand physical and electrical abuse
Excellent long-term storage characteristics
Good charge retention
The following characteristics and attributes explain why lead-acid batteries are commonly used
in the U.S. instead of nickel-cadmium batteries:
Higher initial cost than lead-acid batteries
Low energy densitythe largest available nickel-cadmium batteries are usually rated for less
than 1400 ampere-hours
Recycling centers for nickel-cadmium plates are not as readily available
Lack of user familiarity with nickel-cadmium technology
The low energy density is not a real problem for most applications and the recycling issues are
resolved by requiring the battery supplier to accept old batteries. But, the higher initial cost and
the lack of user familiarity with nickel-cadmium technology are real issues. The advantages of
nickel-cadmium batteries easily outweigh their disadvantages for a number of applications. The
following summarizes applications in which the nickel-cadmium battery should be considered.
5.3.1 Cold Temperature Applications
Nickel-cadmium batteries retain a greater percentage of rated capacity as temperature decreases
than do lead-acid batteries. Figure 5-3 shows a typical comparison between the two battery types.
5-7

125
Nickel Cadmium
100
Capacity
(percent)
75
Lead Acid
50
25
50
75
100
125
Temperature (F)
Figure 5-3
Effect of Temperature on Battery Capacity
Nickel-cadmium batteries are commonly used in unregulated cold temperature environments. In

addition to the greater loss of capacity, the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries can freeze in very
cold temperatures because the specific gravity decreases during discharge; the nickel-cadmium
battery electrolyte concentration does not change during discharge.
5.3.2 High Temperature Applications
Nickel-cadmium batteries retain a greater percentage of rated life as temperature increases than
do lead-acid batteries. Figure 5-4 shows a typical comparison between the two battery types.
This figure applies to pocket plate nickel-cadmium batteries and vented lead-acid batteries.
VRLA batteries can experience even greater life loss at high temperatures.
5-8

Expected Life
(percent of rated)
100
80
Nickel cadmium
60
Lead acid
40
20
0
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
Cell Temperature (F)
Figure 5-4
Effect of High Temperature on Battery Life
In general, a nickel-cadmium battery is better suited than a lead-acid battery for high temperature
operation. As shown in Figure 5-4, nickel-cadmium batteries have a predicted reduction in
expected service life of 20% for every 15F (10C) versus 50% for every 15F (10C) for lead
acid batteries. However, nickel-cadmium batteries should be designed for the high temperature
environment. Ensure the battery manufacturer is aware of the high temperature application. Refer
to Section 16.2.3 for additional information.
5.3.3 Engine Starting
Because of its low internal resistance, a nickel-cadmium battery can provide a very high-rate
discharge. A lead-acid battery cannot as easily provide the high cranking current required for
engine starting.
Figure 5-5 shows a typical engine starting battery. This particular battery (2 parallel strings) is
capable of 2800 amperes for 90 seconds to an end voltage of 0.85 VPC. This is well beyond what
most lead-acid batteries can provide, which is why nickel-cadmium batteries are so often used
for engine starting applications. Furthermore, the footprint (floor space) required for this nickel
cadmium battery is very compact as shown in Figure 5-5; a reliable lead-acid battery with even
close to the required capacity could never fit in this small of a footprint.
5-9

Figure 5-5
VRLA Battery in an Unregulated Temperature Environment
5.3.4 Reliable, Long-Life Applications

A high quality lead-calcium, lead-selenium, or Manchex battery can provide reliable service for
over 20 years. A high quality lead-antimony battery can last over 15 years. Lower quality vented
lead-acid and VRLA batteries do not yet appear to provide such a long life. Typical pocket plate
nickel-cadmium batteries can provide reliable service for over 25 years. Depending on the
battery and the application, the lifetime cost of a nickel-cadmium battery can be less than for
some lead-acid batteries. Section 5.5 discusses the lifetime battery cost of different battery types.
5.4
When to Use a VRLA Battery
The VRLA battery is an innovative design with many useful applications. It is effectively sealed
such that the user cannot gain access to the electrolyte. And, the electrolyte is immobilized so
that it is not a free liquid as in a vented cell, with the result that a VRLA cell should leak little or
no electrolyte if damaged. The VRLA battery market has quickly grown to fill the demand for a
battery with the following characteristics:
Immobilized electrolyte to prevent or minimize the potential for electrolyte leakage. This
allows users to avoid the imposition of some environmental regulations regarding sulfuric
acid spill contingencies in some states. This also allows users to install batteries in
commercial buildings and other locations that would not normally have vented batteries
installed.
5-10

Smaller installation footprints than vented equivalents. By immobilizing the electrolyte, the
battery can be installed in different configurations. A typical installation has the VRLA cells
oriented on their side rather than upright so that they can be stacked vertically. The result is
that less cabinet or floor space is required for the installation.
No electrolyte maintenance. The intent of the VRLA design is that no water needs to be
added over the cells life.
Higher power density for high-rate discharge UPS applications. Manufacturers developed
new designs and electrolyte concentrations to boost the high-rate capability.
VRLA batteries might be selected for the following applications:
Installations with small footprints such that a vented battery will not fit within the available
space.
Locations in which the consequences of electrolyte leakage are unacceptable. For example,
commercial buildings cannot tolerate electrolyte leakage into the internal wiring spaces
between floors.
Power density requirement exceeds the capability of a vented battery within the allowed
footprint.
Just as VRLA batteries have applications in which they might be preferentially used, there are
also applications in which their use should be avoided, if possible. Examples include:
Unregulated environments that can experience abnormally high and low temperatures. Figure
5-5 shows a common substation shed without any air conditioning or shielding from direct
sunlight. In the summer, the temperature inside this shed can easily exceed 110F (43.3C),
which is particularly detrimental for VRLA batteries.
Unmonitored locations that seldom receive periodic maintenance checks.
Critical applications, unless periodic operability checks are performed. Refer to Section 3.4
for additional information regarding VRLA battery reliability.
5-11

Figure 5-6
VRLA Battery in an Unregulated Temperature Environment
5.5
The True Cost of a Battery
The design engineer is responsible for selecting the best battery for a given application. The best
design balances system technical requirements and goals with cost and ongoing maintenance
requirements. When selecting the battery size and type, the engineer should consider several
factors:
Application and duty cycle requirements
System interface limitations
Service environment
Initial equipment cost
Installation cost
Ongoing maintenance cost
Periodic replacement cost
First and foremost, the battery must be suited for the application. For example, a nickel-cadmium
battery might be preferred over a lead-acid battery for high- or low-temperature service. But, the
higher cost of a nickel-cadmium battery might not be justified for a standard installation.
Considering another example, a shorter life VRLA battery might be selected because the
installation is inside a commercial office building where electrolyte leakage cannot be tolerated.
5-12

After determining which battery types meet the technical requirements, the engineer should
evaluate initial and long-term costs. The maintenance department should have input into the
battery selection because new maintenance procedures or practices represent an additional cost
and burden.
Some battery manufacturers have, in the past, provided work sheets showing huge savings for
VRLA batteries (based on the assumption of a 20-year life and virtually no maintenance). The
design engineer should make an assessment of a batterys actual cost based on realistic life
projections. The following costs should be considered:
Initial purchase of battery and rack, including freight.
Estimated installation cost, if different for the various battery types.
Periodic maintenance expense. The cost of monthly, quarterly, and annual maintenance
should be assessed. For example, a lead-antimony battery will most likely require watering
more frequently than a lead-calcium battery. The IEEE recommendations for VRLA batteries
go well beyond the recommended maintenance of some (but not all) manufacturers.
Periodic replacement. If a 10-year life battery is compared to a 25-year life battery, the cost
of periodic replacement should be considered.
Reliability cost. All batteries do not exhibit equal reliability. Battery types with a history of
early failure have real potential to cause additional unplanned expenses.
5.6
Warranty Considerations
Most manufacturers offer a 1- or 2-year complete replacement warranty with a pro-rated

warranty thereafter for larger lead acid stationary batteries. Because the manufacturer has little
control over how soon a battery is placed in service, the warranty might also set a time limit after
the shipping date. For example, the warranty might be based on 18 months after the shipping
date or 1 year after the installation date, whichever is less. If the battery fails during the fullreplacement period, the manufacturer will usually replace it at no charge.
After the full-replacement period, the warranty on stationary batteries provided in North America
is typically pro-rated based on the number of months in service, with the pro-rated amount based
on the original battery cost. The pro-rated amount is normally applied as a credit to the current
price of a replacement battery. Shipping and installation costs are usually excluded from the
warranty.
The warranty document will usually specify required maintenance that must be performed and
records that must be kept documenting that the battery was properly maintained. There might
also be restrictions on the average ambient temperature or the number of cycles placed on the
battery.
The battery warranty is a commercial issue, not necessarily related to the batterys capability or
design life. In some cases, the warranty can be negotiated. For example, after experiencing
numerous early failures of VRLA cells, the U.S. Air Force negotiated a contract with one battery
manufacturer that required a 3-year full replacement warranty, followed by a 3-year pro-rated
warranty. The benefits of a longer full replacement warranty were considered more important
than the pro-rated portion of the warranty.
5-13

As another example of the warranty used as a marketing tool, a 20-year pro-rated warranty is
somewhat unique to North America. Users in other parts of the world generally only receive a
short period full-replacement warranty.
Other battery types will often have different full replacement warranty periods. For example,
nickel cadmium battery manufacturers typically offer a 5-year full replacement warranty. Plant
batteries can be provided with a 3-year full replacement warranty.
5-14
6
BATTERY SIZING
The designer of a backup power system has to determine the battery size. Simply stated, how big
a battery is needed? The battery can carry more load or perform longer as it is made larger, but a
larger battery is more expensive and requires more floor space. For this reason, there should be a
basis for the battery size. Section 6 provides an overview of battery sizing. Different battery
sizing methods are presented to account for the various types of applications.
Selecting a battery size is simple in concept, but often difficult in practice. The following design
inputs are needed to determine a battery size:
Discharge capability of selected battery type
Load requirements, including duration
Minimum and maximum voltage limits
Temperature, aging, and design margin allowances
The user generally has some preference regarding the battery to use. However, the expected
battery load might not be known. Just as important, the duration that the battery must be capable
of carrying the load and other design inputs might not be known. The design engineer has to
make several decisions as part of sizing the battery. The following sections are intended to
provide a basic foundation to help with battery sizing.
6.1
Manufacturers Sizing Curves for Lead-Acid Batteries
The system designer will generally select the desired battery based on the application. It is
usually important to decide on a manufacturer (or group of acceptable manufacturers) early in
the selection process to keep the number of evaluated cell types to a manageable level. For
example, an engineer might decide that a C&D LCR battery is preferred for a particular
application. Once this decision is reached, the engineer has to determine which LCR cell size is
needed. Will an LCR-19 be adequate or will it be necessary to install a larger size? Suppose the
company requires a competitive bid process and several battery types have to be specified as
acceptable? How do we select an Exide or GNB battery of the same size as the LCR-19? An
important part of determining the necessary cell size is to understand how to interpret the
manufacturers battery discharge data. This battery capability information can be provided either
in tabular or graphical format; the information is usually the same in either case. This section
explains how the manufacturer typically establishes a cells capability and provides several
examples regarding how to interpret the manufacturers data.
6-1

Battery Sizing
Regardless of whether the manufacturer provides battery discharge information as a set of tables
or as a series of curves, the information was obtained by a similar method. In general, the
manufacturer states that a given cell can provide a certain discharge current (or power) for a
given period of time before reaching some minimum voltage. This information regarding the
batterys capability was developed by the manufacturer through a series of discharge tests.
A typical set of discharge curves is shown in Figure 6-1. The method by which these curves are
developed will be explained. By understanding what information is provided by the curves (or
tables), any mystery regarding a batterys capabilities can be removed.
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.70
5 hr
3 hr
Initial
Cell
Volts
2 hr
1.90
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-1
Example Battery Discharge Characteristics
Notice above that a typical set of discharge curves has several straight time lines (8 hour, 5 hour,
and so on) radiating out from the origin with another series of voltage lines (1.75 V, 1.80 V, and
so on) crossing these straight time lines. The x-axis and y-axis have similar sounding
coordinatesamperes per positive plate and ampere-hours per positive plate, respectively.
Finally, a separate line, labeled the initial volts line, is shown at the top. All of these lines are
interrelated and, taken together, define the batterys expected capability as a function of
discharge rate and duration.
In order to create these curves, a specific battery size is constant current discharge tested in a
series of tests at different discharge rates. Each tested cell is new (100% capacity) and the test
temperature is typically near the reference temperature of 77F (25C). The cell voltage is
monitored during each test so that the voltages can be plotted as a function of time for a given
discharge rate. The total energy removed from the cell can be computed from the constant
current discharge rate and the discharge time.
6-2

Battery Sizing
The cells performance can be characterized from the following information:
Discharge current for each test
Cell voltage at various times throughout the discharge
Ampere-hours removed from the cell at each recorded cell voltage point (calculated from
discharge rate and length of discharge)
Cell size or type
Example 6-1
The best way to explain the manufacturers battery capability curves is by an example. Lets
assume that the manufacturer has tested a 10-positive plate cell at different discharge rates while
monitoring voltage throughout each test. The test series results are shown in Figure 6-2.
2.10
2.00
Cell
Volts
1.90
1.80
700
amps
500
amps
300
amps
200
amps
1.70
1...
Minutes
Hours
Figure 6-2
Cell Voltage During Discharge
Depending on the manufacturer, the information might be presented based on the cell size or on
the number of positive plates. Some manufacturers prefer to provide the information on a perplate basis so that a common reference point is established for a range of cell sizes in a family.
Stationary cells typically have n positive plates and n+1 negative plates. Data is normally
presented in terms of the number of positive plates. In this case, the rating of a particular cell size
becomes the rating of a single positive plate times the number of positive plates.
6-3

Battery Sizing
Once the discharge tests have been completed, the test data is tabulated in a manner that allows
creating the actual battery curves. For example, the test data in Figure 6-2 can be tabulated at key
points as shown in Table 6-1. Remember that there are 10 positive plates in this example cell.
The test discharge currents have been divided by 10 to obtain a current per positive plate. The
ampere-hours is calculated based on the discharge rate and the time to reach the specified
voltage.
Table 6-1
Preliminary Discharge Test Data
Volts
20

30
50
70
1.90
93.0
67.5
25.0
--
1.85
120.0
97.5
62.5
29.8
1.80
133.0
115.5
85.0
56.0
1.75
142.0
125.0
95.0
70.0
Ampere-Hours
Per Positive
Plate
For any discharge rate, the cell voltage will immediately fall to some level. The manufacturer
will also record this initial voltage. As the discharge rate increases, the initial cell voltage
decreases. If the discharge rate is too high, the cell voltage will immediately fall to the defined
end-point voltage, which sets the discharge limit for the defined end-point voltage. For the
discharge rates shown in Figure 6-2, Table 6-2 provides the initial cell voltage for each discharge
rate.
Table 6-2
Initial Voltage at Each Discharge Rate
Ampere-Hours per
Positive Plate
Discharge Current
Initial Volts at
Discharge Current
20
1.98
30
1.96
50
1.93
70
1.88
Next, the data in Table 6-1 is transposed onto a graph with x-coordinates of amperes per positive
plate and y-coordinates of ampere-hours per positive plate. This shows the discharge capability
of a single cell positive plate to a particular final voltage. Figure 6-3 shows the data graphed for
the 1.75 V line. This line shows the relationship between amperes and ampere-hours for this
plate. The initial volts line has also been drawn based on the observed initial voltage upon
application of each discharge rate.
6-4

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
142 AH
1.70
Initial
Cell
Volts
95 AH
120
70 AH
80
1.75 Final Volts Line
40
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-3
1.75 V Capability Curve
The 1.75 V line shows the rate (amperes) and how much energy (ampere-hours) can be removed
before cell voltage falls to 1.75 V. The process is repeated for each voltage level on Table 6-1 to
create the family of capability curves shown in Figure 6-4.
6-5

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
Initial
Cell
Volts
1.90
80
40
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-4
Voltage Capability Curves
Next, the time lines are added to the plot. The user wants to know how long the cell plate can
provide a certain discharge rate before voltage falls to the specified level. This is the purpose of
the time lines. These straight lines radiate from the origin and are based on how long it takes at a
given discharge rate to remove a certain amount of energy (ampere-hours) from the positive
plate.
For example, it takes 8 hours to remove 160 ampere-hours at a discharge rate of 20 amperes (8
hours times 20 amperes = 160 ampere-hours). The 8-hour time line starts at the origin and goes
through the intersection of 160 ampere-hours and 20 amperes.
Similarly, it takes 3 hours to remove 120 ampere-hours at a discharge rate of 40 amperes, or 2
hours to remove 120 ampere-hours at a discharge rate of 60 amperes. Notice in each case that a
time line can be drawn based on this relationship as shown in Figure 6-5.
6-6

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
8 hr
5 hr
3 hr
2 hr
120
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-5
Time Lines Relating Amperes to Ampere-Hours
Finally, the time lines can be overlaid onto the voltage capability curves to obtain the
characteristic discharge curves (see Figure 6-6).
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.70
5 hr
3 hr
1.90
Initial
Cell
Volts
2 hr
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-6
Final Result
6-7

Battery Sizing
A similar process is used to determine the capability of a different cell model. The curves
provide a great amount of information regarding the characteristics of a particular cell type. The
following examples demonstrate how to interpret these curves for different applications.
Example 6-2
Continuing with the curves developed in Example 6-1, suppose we need a battery capable of
carrying a load of 400 amperes for one hour without the battery voltage falling below 1.75 V per
cell. How large (how many positive plates) must the battery be to fulfill this load requirement?
On Figure 6-7, follow the one-hour time line out to the intersection of the 1.75 V curve. The
capability of this positive plate is 70 amperes. Or, this plate can provide 70 amperes of current
for one hour before voltage will fall to 1.75 V. However, we need a total of 400 amperes for our
load. Divide the 400 ampere load by 70 ampere per positive plate to determine the required
number of positive plates, or 5.71 positive plates. So, choose 6 positive plates to fulfill the
required load.
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.70
5 hr
1 Hour Capacity Is
3 hr
1.90
2 hr
Initial
Cell
Volts
70 Amp to 1.75 Volt

1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-7
Capability for 1 Hour
Example 6-3
The initial volts line shows the expected instantaneous cell voltage for a given discharge rate.
This is the voltage seen immediately upon application of a load. Referring to Figure 6-8, what is
the expected initial voltage for discharge rates of 70 and 110 amperes, respectively? As shown,
the initial voltage is about 1.90 V for a discharge rate of 70 amperes per positive plate. The
voltage falls to about 1.82 V for a discharge of 110 amperes per positive plate.
6-8

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.70
5 hr
3 hr
1.90
Initial
Cell
Volts
2 hr
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-8
Evaluation of Initial Voltage
Suppose the minimum required cell voltage is 1.75 V to meet system requirements. There is a
discharge rate that will cause cell voltage to immediately fall to 1.75 V. As shown on Figure 6-8,
this discharge rate is about 133 amperes per positive plate.
Example 6-4
We can also use the manufacturers discharge curves to predict the cell voltage at various times
during a discharge. Suppose 80 ampere-hours per positive plate of energy has been removed
from the cell. What is the expected voltage if we continue discharging the battery at a rate of 40
amperes per positive plate?
Figure 6-9 shows that the expected voltage can be interpolated from the voltage curves at the
intersection of 80 ampere-hours per positive plate and 40 amperes per positive plate. As shown,
the expected voltage is about 1.86 V.
6-9

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
120
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
40 Amp Rate With

80 Amp-Hr Removed
8 hr
1.75
1.80
1.85
5 hr
3 hr
1.90
1.70
Initial
Cell
Volts
2 hr
1 hr
80
30 min
40
15 min
1 min
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-9
Voltage During Discharge
Example 6-5
The initial volts line can also be used to estimate cell internal resistance. Each point on this line
describes an expected instantaneous voltage for the associated discharge rate. Pick two points on
the initial volts line to obtain a difference in voltage for a difference in discharge rate (current).
Ohms Law can be applied to calculate the internal resistance.
6-10

Battery Sizing
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.94 Volt at
40 Amp Rate
Initial
Cell
Volts
1.83 Volt at
100 Amp Rate
120
80
40
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6-10
Cell Internal Resistance Calculation
Referring to Figure 6-10, the initial volts is about 1.94 V for a discharge rate of 40 amperes per
positive plate and 1.83 V for a discharge rate of 100 amperes. The slope of the line is the
effective internal resistance:
R=
V 194
. 183
.
=
= 0.001833 / plate
I
100 40
Notice that the internal resistance is very small. This is the internal resistance of this cell with a
single positive plate (and two negative plates). As additional positive plates are added to the cell
to increase its capacity, the positive plates can be modeled as parallel resistances. If the cell has
10 positive plates, there are 10 parallel resistances of 0.001833 each. Or, the cell resistance is
given by:
Cell Resistance =
0.001833
= 0.0001833
10
This is the equivalent internal resistance of the cell with 10 positive plates. Given that the cell
voltage is about 2 V, what is the expected short circuit current from the cell?
I =
V
2
=
= 10,909 amperes
R 0.0001833
6-11

Battery Sizing
In conclusion, the manufacturers discharge curves provide a great deal of data regarding the
expected cell performance. As shown in the previous examples, this data can be used in a
number of ways to characterize a cells response to different conditions.
6.2
Lead-Acid Battery Sizing for a Duty Cycle
The classic method of sizing a battery is based on determining the specific load requirements and
selecting a battery size capable of supplying that load for the specified time. IEEE 485, IEEE
Recommended Practice Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications, is the best
industry reference for this type of cell sizing and should be reviewed as part of a battery sizing
evaluation. The method presented in IEEE 485 is based on a 1954 AIEE paper by E. A. Hoxie,
Some Discharge Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries, and is occasionally referred to as the
Hoxie Method. Over 40 years later, the Hoxie Method of battery sizing is still commonly used
for those applications involving a specific duty cycle.
The battery duty cycle is simply the load that the battery is expected to supply for a specified
period of time. Generally, the duty cycle is described in terms of the worst case load that the
battery is expected to supply. The battery would have to carry all or part of the load under any of
the following conditions:
System load exceeds the battery charger capability.
Battery charger output is lost (could be by charger failure or loss of ac input).
All ac power is lost in the facility.
The worst case load usually occurs when all ac power is lost because other loads can be
energized in addition to the normally-energized loads. For example, loss of all ac power might
require the additional energization of emergency lighting, circuit breaker components such as
trip coils or spring charging motors, and emergency diesel engine cranking power. The duty
cycle should consider all of these loads.
6.2.1 Duty Cycle Load Categories
Consider the duty cycle presented in Figure 6-11. In this simple example, the duty cycle consists
of three periods:
Period 1:
The battery loading is very high during the first minute due to simultaneous
circuit breaker operations, emergency diesel generator field flash, motor in-rush,
and motor-operated valve cycling.
Period 2:
Only continuous loads operate during this period, so there is a fairly constant
battery load.
Period 3:
Continuous loads and several momentary loads are operated during the last
minute of the duty cycle as normal ac power is assumed to be restored.
6-12

Battery Sizing
900
Load
(amperes)
425
300
0 1
239 240
Figure 6-11
Example Battery Duty Cycle
A duty cycle can consist of continuous, noncontinuous, momentary, and random loads. Each
type of load is defined below.
6.2.1.1
Continuous Loads
Continuous loads are energized throughout the duty cycle. The duty cycle shown in Figure 6-11
has 300 amperes of continuous load. Some of the loads might have already been powered by the
battery charger and other loads might be energized immediately after loss of normal ac power.
Typical continuous loads include:
Inverters or UPS outputs
Continuously operating motors
Emergency lighting
Control panel loads such as indicating lights and annunciators
Communication systems
6.2.1.2
Noncontinuous Loads
Noncontinuous loads are energized during part of the duty cycle. These loads might be energized
at some point in the duty cycle and remain on for a short period or until the end of the duty cycle.
6-13

Battery Sizing
Noncontinuous loads can also be deenergized automatically or by operator action. Typical

noncontinuous loads include:
Emergency pump motors that only operate when required
Ventilation system motors that turn on and off
Fire protection system equipment
Non-critical inverter loads that are manually deenergized by the operators
Figure 6-12 shows the previous duty cycle, but with load shedding performed two hours into the
discharge. This type of duty cycle might be established for a nuclear plant station blackout in
which load shedding is performed to ensure adequate battery capacity. By shedding non-critical
loads at the 2-hour point, a continuous load becomes a noncontinuous load in terms of its
classification in the duty cycle. Notice that this also reduces the final minute peak load, which
might help in the battery sizing analysis.
900
Load
(amperes)
325
300
200
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 6-12
Example Battery Duty Cycle with Load Shedding
6.2.1.3
Momentary Loads
Momentary loads can occur at any time but are of short duration, less than a minute. The first
and last minute loads above 300 amperes and 200 amperes, respectively, in Figure 6-12 represent
momentary loads. Short duration loads longer than a minute would usually be considered
noncontinuous loads. Typical momentary loads include:
6-14

Battery Sizing
Switchgear operations, including trip coil, closing coil, and spring charging motor operation
Motor driven valves
Engine generator starting
In-rush and motor starting currents
In some cases, the momentary loads that occur during the first minute of the duty cycle can be
substantial (see Figure 6-12) and can affect the required battery size. A typical practice is to
assume that all momentary loads continue for the entire 1 minute duration, even though many of
the momentary loads only occur for a fraction of a second or only a few seconds. Sometimes,
two momentary loads might be mutually exclusive. One example is a circuit breaker in which the
trip coil is energized, followed by the spring charging motor energization to reset the trip
mechanism. If a discrete sequence of loads can be established, the total momentary load for any
minute should be the maximum expected load at any instant. If a discrete sequence of operation
cannot be established, the total momentary load for any minute should be the sum of all loads
occurring within that minute.
6.2.1.4
Random Loads
Random loads can occur at any time and can be either noncontinuous or momentary loads.
Random loads are typically added to the most limiting section of the duty cycle during a sizing
calculation. Typical random loads include:
Motor-driven valves that operate in response to process system setpoints
Diesel-engine field flash as operators try to start a emergency diesel generator
Critical HVAC equipment that cycles on and off
6.2.2 Types of Duty Cycle Loads

Figures 6-11 and 6-12 show the battery loads as constant current loads, in which the current was
assumed to be constant for each period of the duty cycle. Battery manufacturers typically provide
battery capability information in two formsconstant current and constant power. Very few, if
any, loads actually exhibit constant current behavior during a battery discharge as the battery
voltage falls from its nominal value to the minimum system voltage. The load current is likely to
change because the battery voltage is decreasing throughout the discharge. Loads can often be
classified as one of the following types:
Constant power in which load current increases as battery voltage decreases
Constant resistance in which load current decreases as battery voltage decreases
Constant resistance loads are loads such as emergency lighting. Constant power loads are usually
associated with inverter or UPS applications. Figure 6-13 shows a typical UPS duty cycle in
which the UPS is assumed to be loaded to some constant total power.
6-15

Battery Sizing
Load
(kW)
30
Figure 6-13
Typical UPS Duty Cycle
For the purpose of sizing to a duty cycle, loads are normally converted to a constant current to
allow direct comparison to the battery manufacturers data. Section 6.3 describes a simpler
method of battery sizing for a UPS constant power application.
6.2.3 Duty Cycle Duration
How long must the battery supply power to the specified loads? Answering this question is not
trivial. In some cases, the duty cycle duration might be specified by regulation or code, for
example, station blackout requirements for a nuclear plant or NFPA requirements for egress
emergency lighting.
The duty cycle duration varies widely with the industry and the application. Typical examples
are:
The original design of most nuclear plants had duty cycles ranging from 30 minutes to 2
hours. Subsequent station blackout regulations required most nuclear plants to extend the
duty cycles to either 4 or 8 hours.
Utility substations can have duty cycles ranging from 2 to 8 hours. Typical substation duty
cycles have higher momentary loads at the beginning and end of the duty cycle for
switchgear operations with a relatively small continuous load. At some utilities, the selected
substation battery size is not always based on a specific duty cycle duration. For example, a
utility might standardize on 100 ampere-hour size cells at their smaller substations because
this size battery fits in the available space and traditionally seems to be large enough for the
job. In other words, the substation equipment has, in the past, performed properly during an
outage with this size battery.
UPS applications might require backup power for several hours in which critical systems
must continue to function or for only a few minutes until the affected systems can be shut
down in an orderly manner. Some UPS applications are backed up by an engine generator
and the battery only has to provide power for the short time until the engine generator starts.
Other UPS applications either have no engine generator backup or are sized in critical
applications assuming that the backup engine generator initially failed to start.
6-16

Battery Sizing
Telecommunications duty cycles can vary from only a few hours up to 72 hours, depending
on the location, the available alternate power sources, and the local contracts for reliable
service. With the deregulation of the telecommunications industry and the manner in which
service areas have been bought and sold by the telecommunications companies, the duty
cycle might not always be known or even understood.
In many cases, the duty cycle duration becomes an engineering decision without the benefit of a
regulation or industry standard to simplify the decision process. The following questions should
be asked as part of an evaluation to determine the duty cycle duration:
How long must emergency equipment function following a loss of power to prevent damage
to facility equipment or personnel? For example, turbine generator emergency lube oil
pumps have to work during the entire turbine coast down.
How long will it take to place the affected systems into a safe configuration? For example,
computer systems should be shut down in an orderly manner if a prolonged ac power outage
is expected.
At what point do we assume that power will not be restored? The battery cannot be sized to
provide backup power indefinitely.
Is another standby power source available?
How long will it take for an emergency diesel generator to start and pick up the load? In this
case, the battery provides ride-through capability. Do we have to allow for a manual diesel
start in the event of failure of the automatic starting circuit?
The decision regarding how long the battery must supply the specified loads should not be made
lightly. As the duty cycle duration is made longer, the battery size becomes correspondingly
larger, thereby increasing the battery expense and possibly the required floor space for the
battery installation. Too short a duty cycle might not provide adequate protection against
outages.
6.2.4 Determining the Duty Cycle
The duty cycle is determined by tabulating all loads that are expected to be energized during the
evaluated period. Each load is classified as continuous, noncontinuous, momentary, or random.
The magnitude of each load and the duration of the duty cycle in which it is energized is
determined.
Although loads might be listed in design documents in terms of amperes or watts, all loads must
be converted to the same units of measure for the duty cycle. It is usually easier to convert the
constant power loads, such as inverters, to an equivalent current by the following expression:
Current ( I ) =
Power ( P)
Voltage (V ) Efficiency
6-17

Battery Sizing
As can be seen by the above expression, a constant power load will have the load current
increase in direct proportion to the decrease in battery voltage. The inverter efficiency can have a
significant effect on the battery current. Either of two approaches can be used to estimate the
load current:
Use the average battery voltage during discharge (Vmax - Vmin)/2 to obtain the average
expected current. This method determines a reasonable average of the load current.
Conservatively use the minimum battery voltage to obtain the maximum possible current.
This method overestimates the load current.
Once all of the loads have been expressed in the same basic units, the duty cycle can be derived.
Example 6-6
A nuclear plant dc distribution system has the following loads for a 4-hour station blackout duty
cycle:
L1: 300 amperes in the first minute for switchgear and emergency diesel generator
loadsmomentary load
L2: 120 amperes of continuous inverter load
L3: 50 amperes of continuous dc system loads
L4: 100 amperes of emergency lighting load for the first 2 hoursnoncontinuous load
L5: 20 amperes of emergency lighting load for the second 2 hoursnoncontinuous load
L6: 100 amperes in the last minute for switchgear and emergency diesel generator
loadsmomentary load
Figure 6-14 shows the location of each load in the duty cycle and Figure 6-15 shows the final
result.
6-18

Battery Sizing
600
500
400
Load
(amperes)
L1
300
L6
L4
200
L5
L3
100
L2
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 6-14
Example Duty Cycle Loads
600
500
400
Load
(amperes)
300
200
100
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 6-15
Example Duty Cycle Final Result
Figure 6-15 represents the duty cycle for the defined configuration. The next step is to size the
selected battery type so that it can supply this load for the specified time.
6-19

Battery Sizing
6.2.5 IEEE 485 Approach to Sizing

Before a battery size is chosen for a specific application, the duty cycle must be established as
discussed in Section 6.2. In other words, a battery cannot be sized until we first know how much
load it has to supply and for how long. Furthermore, the designer must ensure that the selected
battery can deliver sufficient capacity at a minimum acceptable voltage for all the periods of the
duty cycle.
The following design inputs are needed to size a battery:
Duty cycle
Battery discharge characteristics
Maximum acceptable system voltage
Minimum acceptable battery terminal voltage
Correction factors for battery aging, temperature, and design margin
The duty cycle is described in Section 6.2 and the battery discharge characteristics are described
in Section 6.1. The following sections describe how the other design inputs are determined.
6.2.5.1
Minimum and Maximum Voltage Requirements
Before starting a sizing calculation, the designer usually has some idea of the cell type(s) that
will be evaluated. This means that the cell capability information is available and the designer is
ready to select the proper size cell for the application. Determining the minimum and maximum
voltage requirements for the system is the next step in the sizing process. The maximum allowed
system voltage limits how many cells will be in the battery. The minimum allowed system
voltage establishes how low each cell voltage can fall during discharge and still meet the overall
system requirements.
A common dc system design will have the battery connected to the battery charger and to the
load at all times. If the battery needs an equalizing charge for any reason, the dc system loads
will also be exposed to this equalizing voltage. For many lead-acid cells, a recommended
equalizing voltage is 2.33 V per cell. If the battery is installed in a 125 V system, the electrical
devices in the system are often rated for proper operation between 100 to 140 V. However, the
maximum equipment rating is sometimes as low as 137.5 V for a 125 V system. The maximum
system voltage and the maximum expected cell voltage limits the number of cells in the battery
as follows:
Maximum Number of Cells =
6-20
Maximum System Voltage

Cell Charging Voltage

Battery Sizing
Assuming the maximum system voltage is 140 V and the maximum expected charging voltage
per cell is 2.33 V, the maximum number of cells is:
140
= 60.09 ( or 60 cells)
2.33
Once again, the maximum expected charging voltage per cell depends on the type of battery
selected and the dc system design. For example, some users have designed for off-line battery
equalizing charges, which allows for more cells under normal float conditions without exceeding
the maximum allowed system voltage.
The minimum allowed battery voltage is the minimum allowed voltage of the associated
equipment plus any voltage drop between the battery and the end-use equipment. For example,
some inverters and UPS systems contain a low voltage cut-out that turns off the system at 105 V.
In some systems at power plants, certain dc equipment can have very long cable runs from the
battery and the voltage drop along the cable raises the minimum voltage required at the battery.
Once the number of cells for the battery has been determined, the minimum allowed system
voltage, plus voltage drop, establishes the minimum required voltage per cell. The relationship is
given by:
Minimum Cell Voltage =
Minimum BatteryVoltage
Number of Cells
In the previous calculation for the maximum number of cells, 60 cells were selected. Assuming
that the minimum battery voltage must be 105 V, the minimum cell voltage is:
105
= 175
. VPC
60
Suppose voltage drop between the battery and the equipment required the minimum battery
voltage to be 108 V. In this case, the minimum cell voltage is:
108
= 180
. VPC
60
Suppose the designer had only selected 59 cells to avoid exposing equipment to its rated upper
voltage limit. If the required battery voltage is 108 V, the minimum cell voltage is:
108
= 183
. VPC
59
The minimum cell voltage is important to a determination of the required cell size. In the above
examples, as the minimum cell voltage is raised from 1.75 to 1.80 to 1.83 V, more energy is left
unused within the cell. This means that the selected cell size often becomes larger to satisfy the
same load demand but with a higher end voltage. Thus, the system designer often has to balance
the number of cells with the required cell size to obtain the optimal configuration.
6-21

Battery Sizing
6.2.5.2
Battery Sizing Methodology
IEEE 485 provides the methodology for sizing lead-acid batteries. The method presented in
IEEE 485 is based on a 1954 AIEE paper by E. A. Hoxie, Some Discharge Characteristics of
Lead Acid Batteries, and is occasionally referred to as the Hoxie Method. Over 40 years later, the
Hoxie Method is still commonly used.
The previous sections explained how the manufacturer provides the capability of each cell size.
The minimum cell voltage was determined based on the system requirements and the number of
cells. The minimum cell voltage is used with the manufacturers information to decide how large
the cell should be for the evaluated duty cycle.
The duty cycle is evaluated, section by section, to determine which section of the duty cycle is
limiting in terms of battery size. The cell size is selected based on the most limiting portion of
the duty cycle. The generalized equation that defines the sizing methodology is given below:
FS =
P=S
( AP A( P 1) )
P =1
RT
where,
FS = Cell size required for some section S. Cell size might be expressed in terms of
number of positive plates, ampere-hours, or watt-hours, depending on the nature of
the battery manufacturers method of presenting battery capability information.
AP = Amperes required for period P.
P = Period being analyzed, with a total of n periods in the duty cycle.
S = Section of the duty cycle being analyzed. Section S contains the first S periods of
the duty cycle. For example, if a duty cycle consists of several periods of differing
load requirements, section S5 contains periods 1 through 5.
T = Time in minutes from the beginning of period P through the end of section S.
RT = Amperes that each positive plate can supply for T minutes, at 77F (25C), to a
definite end-of-discharge voltage. This value is obtained from the manufacturer for
a particular battery model and is referred to as the capacity rating factor.
All of the above data is obtained from the duty cycle except for RT, which is obtained from the
battery manufacturers literature. Figure 6-16 shows the concept of periods and sections in more
detail. As can be seen, each period corresponds to a discrete load requirement. The next period
starts when the load changes. Section S1 contains only period 1; section S2 contains periods 1 and
2; and section S3 contains periods 1 through 3.
6-22

Battery Sizing
A(N)-A(N-1)
A2
A2-A1
Load
(amperes)
A(N)
A(N-1)
A1
A3-A2
A3
P1
P2
P3
P(N-1)
P(N)
S1
S2
S3
S(N-1)
S(N)
Discharge Time
Figure 6-16
Generalized Duty Cycle
The battery sizing analysis of a duty cycle determines the required cell size for each section.
Depending on the load profile, it is not guaranteed that the last section containing all periods will
be limiting. For example, the cell size might be established by the first minute of the duty cycle if
many loads are energized at once.
The first section consists of only the first period. Using the manufacturers capacity rating factor,
RT, a cell size is calculated that will satisfy the load requirements of the first section.
The evaluation becomes less intuitive with the second section, S2. The cell size is calculated by
assuming that the first period load, A1, continues to the end of section S2. The cell size is adjusted
by the change in load in the second period, A2 - A1. If the load increases in period 2, the cell size
becomes larger; if the load is decreased, the cell size becomes smaller. This same process
continues throughout the duty cycle for each section until the entire duty cycle has been
evaluated. The capacity, or cell size, required for each section is reviewed. Whichever section
requires the largest capacity sets the battery size.
IEEE 485 provides worksheets to assist with the calculation process. Some battery manufacturers
also provide worksheets. The easiest way to demonstrate the evaluation process is by example.
Section 6.2.7 provides a complete example of the evaluation process.
6-23

Battery Sizing
6.2.6 Cell Size Correction Factors

The battery sizing methodology determines the cell size for the defined duty cycle when the
battery capacity is 100% and at the reference temperature of 77F (25C). However, it is normal
for most batteries that end-of-life occurs at 80% of rated capacity. Also, depending on the
installation, the battery temperature might be well below 77F (25C), and battery capacity
decreases as temperature decreases. Correction factors are normally applied to the calculated cell
size to account for these effects. The net result is that the final cell size is larger so that it can
meet its design requirements at end-of-life at the design low temperature. The following sections
describe how the correction factors are determined and applied.
6.2.6.1
Aging Correction Factor
Lead-calcium, lead-antimony, lead-selenium, and lead-tin grid-type lead-acid batteries age in

service and eventually wear out. Under ideal conditions, a battery can have 90% to over 100%
capacity when new. As the battery ages, its capacity will eventually fall to 80%, which is the
commonly accepted point at which the battery should be replaced. Below this capacity, the rate
of degradation typically increases rapidly.
As part of the battery sizing process, the battery is sized so that it can fulfill the duty cycle
requirements at its end of life. The following correction factor is applied to the calculated cell
size:
Aging Correction Factor =
1
= 125
.
0.8
In other words, the calculated cell size is made 25% larger to ensure that it will supply the
required load at end of life.
Some pure lead, round cell, or Plant lead-acid batteries have a different expected aging
characteristic. These cells typically increase in capacity during the operational life. Near the end
of life, the capacity drops quickly and the battery is at its end of life when capacity falls to 100%.
For these type cells, the manufacturer should be consulted to determine if an aging correction
factor is appropriate. Additional design margin might be added to be conservative if the
manufacturer does not recommend an aging correction factor.
6.2.6.2
Temperature Correction Factor
The manufacturer specifies battery performance at the reference temperature of 77F (25C). As
the battery temperature falls below 77F (25C), battery capacity decreases. As the battery
temperature rises above 77F (25C), battery capacity increases. If the expected operating
temperature will be less than 77F (25C), the cell size should be adjusted to account for the
reduced capacity at the lower temperature.
6-24

Battery Sizing
Table 6-3 shows the correction factors for different battery temperatures. This table is based on
vented lead-acid cells with a nominal 1.215 specific gravity. For different specific gravities,
consult the manufacturer to confirm the applicability of these correction factors. VRLA cells can
have a completely different temperature response; consult the manufacturer for the appropriate
temperature correction factors.
Table 6-3
Cell Size Temperature Correction Factors
(Vented Cells with 1.215 Specific Gravity)
Electrolyte
Cell Size
Electrolyte
Cell Size
Electrolyte
Cell Size
Temperature Correction Temperature Correction Temperature Correction
(F)
(C)
Factor
(F)
(C)
Factor
(F)
(C)
Factor
25
-3.9
1.520
71
21.7
1.034
85
29.4
0.960
30
-1.1
1.430
72
22.2
1.029
86
30.0
0.956
35
1.7
1.350
73
22.8
1.023
87
30.6
0.952
40
4.4
1.300
74
23.4
1.017
88
31.1
0.948
45
7.2
1.250
75
23.9
1.011
89
31.6
0.944
50
10.0
1.190
76
24.5
1.006
90
32.2
0.940
55
12.8
1.150
77
25.0
1.000
95
35.0
0.930
60
15.6
1.110
78
25.6
0.994
100
37.8
0.910
65
18.3
1.080
79
26.1
0.987
105
40.6
0.890
66
18.9
1.072
80
26.7
0.980
110
43.3
0.880
67
19.4
1.064
81
27.2
0.976
115
46.1
0.870
68
20.0
1.056
82
27.8
0.972
120
48.9
0.860
69
20.6
1.048
83
28.3
0.968
125
51.7
0.850
70
21.1
1.040
84
28.9
0.964
6-25

Battery Sizing
6.2.6.3
Design Margin Correction Factor
The aging and temperature correction factors account for inevitable aging and temperature
effects. The battery is sized for a particular duty cycle and, depending on the facility, load
growth can occur over time. A design margin correction factor can be applied to provide
additional assurance that the battery will meet its future design requirements. The design margin
correction factor also adds a capacity margin to allow for less-than-optimum battery operating
conditions due to improper maintenance, recent battery discharge, lower than expected operating
temperatures, or other effects.
Simply stated, the design margin correction factor is an additional margin to help ensure the
battery has adequate capacity to perform its job. A design margin of 10% to 15% is typical.
The cell sizing process usually calculates a fractional number of positive plates needed to satisfy
the duty cycle, for example, 9.62 positive plates. Standard practice is to round up to the next
whole plate, or round 9.62 plates to 10 plates. The rounding process also adds margin that can be
considered part of the design margin.
As stated above, the design margin correction factor helps to account for any load growth that
might occur. Whenever loads are added to the battery, the duty cycle should be updated.
6.2.6.4
Manufacturers Cell Sizing Correction Factor
The battery manufacturer might provide a single set of sizing curves for the entire range of sizes
available for a particular model. But, the particular battery model under evaluation might exhibit
small variations from the published sizing curves as the cell size changes. For example, a cell
with 6 positive plates might have a 2% difference in capacity on a per-plate basis when
compared to the same model with 12 positive plates. The manufacturer accounts for this minor
variation by the application of cell sizing correction factors that are typically provided with the
sizing curves. When sizing a battery, these correction factors should also be considered. If
desired, the cell sizing worksheet (see Table 6-5 for an example) can be modified by including a
column specifically to adjust the positive plate capability by the manufacturers cell sizing
correction factor.
6.2.6.5
Application of Correction Factors
The selected cell size should, as a minimum, have adequate capacity to satisfy the duty cycle at
end of life at the lowest expected operating temperature. The cell sizing methodology calculates
a cell size for the specified duty cycle when the cell is at nominal (100%) capacity and at 77F
(25C). The aging, temperature, and design margin correction factors are applied to the
calculated cell size to obtain the corrected cell size.
6-26

Battery Sizing
Example 6-7
Suppose the cell sizing calculation determined that 5 positive plates were required per cell for the
specified duty cycle. What size cell is needed to account for aging and an expected low operating
temperature of 60F (15.6C)? Also, the designer would like to add a 10% design margin.
The aging correction factor is 1.25 to ensure adequate capacity when the battery is at end of life.
From Table 6-3, the temperature correction factor is 1.11 for an operating temperature of 60F
(15.6C). The design margin correction factor is 1.10. The required cell size is as follows:
Corrected Cell Size = (5 positive plates) 125

. 111
. 110
. = 7.63 positive plates
In this case, round up to 8 positive plates.
If the application of design margin causes the calculated cell size to slightly exceed the next size
cell, for example, 7.05 positive plates, the designer should, in this case, determine if 7 positive
plates are adequate. Rounding up to the next cell size does result in a more expensive battery.
The battery must be big enough to do its job throughout its service life, but a grossly oversized
battery is not desirable.
6.2.7 Battery Sizing Example
The cell sizing methodology will be applied to a station blackout duty cycle. The duty cycle is
shown in Figure 6-17 and consists of four periods as follows:
Period 1: A large load is placed on the battery during the first minute due to the
continuous loads as well as the momentary switchgear loading while breakers
open due to undervoltage.
Period 2: Continuous loads operate for the first two hours of the station blackout.
Period 3: At the 2 hour point, operators de-energize certain electrical equipment in
accordance with station blackout procedures to reduce the battery load.
Period 4: At the 4 hour point, the last minute of the duty cycle has additional load to
account for the emergency diesel generator starting and circuit breaker
operation.
6-27

Battery Sizing
640
Load
(amperes)
335
245
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 6-17
Example Duty Cycle
The following design inputs are needed to size the battery for this duty cycle:
Battery discharge characteristics
Maximum acceptable system voltage
Minimum acceptable cell terminal voltage
Correction factors: aging, temperature, and design margin
For this example, the desired battery cell will be a model ABC. The battery discharge
characteristics have been obtained from the manufacturer.
The following system and equipment limits will be used for the sizing calculation:
Maximum system voltage: 140 V
Minimum allowed battery terminal voltage: 105 V
Battery discharge characteristics: A model ABC cell is desired
Highest expected cell charging voltage: 2.33 V per cell
Battery end of life: 80% capacity
Lowest expected operating temperature: 60F (15.6C)
Desired design margin: 15%
With the above information, the cell sizing calculation can be completed.
6-28

Battery Sizing
Step 1 - Calculate Number of Cells

The maximum number of cells that can be used is given by the following expression:
Maximum System Voltage

Cell Charging Voltage
The maximum acceptable system voltage is 140 V and the highest expected average cell
charging voltage is 2.33 V per cell. Therefore, the maximum number of cells is:
140
= 60.09 ( or 60 cells)
2.33
We will use 60 cells for this example.

Step 2 - Calculate Minimum Acceptable Final Cell Voltage
The minimum acceptable battery voltage was specified as 105 V. Once the number of cells has
been determined, the minimum cell voltage can be calculated by:
Minimum Battery Voltage

Number of Cells
105
= 175
. VPC
60
or,
The minimum cell voltage is needed so that the proper cell capability information is obtained
from the manufacturer.
Step 3 - Obtain Cell Capacity Information for the Cell End Voltage
As discussed in Section 6.1, the manufacturers cell capacity information is provided in tables or
curves as a function of final cell voltage. Table 6-4 shows this example cell capability for the
various duty cycle times of interest for an end voltage of 1.75 V per cell.
6-29

Battery Sizing
Table 6-4
Example Battery Capacity Per Positive Plate
Capacity Per
Discharge Time Positive Plate to
1.75 V per Cell
(minutes)
(amperes)
1
150
119
55
120
55
239
35
240
35
Step 4 - Calculate Uncorrected Cell Size Using a Cell Sizing Worksheet

The calculation will be performed in terms of number of positive plates needed. Table 6-4 shows
the capability of 1 positive plate at the different discharge rates. For example, 1 positive plate can
provide 150 amperes for 1 minute, or 55 amperes for 120 minutes, or 35 amperes for 240
minutes. The difference in capacity between 119 and 120 minutes (and 239 and 240 minutes) is
insignificant and has been stated in Table 6-4 as the same effective capability.
The cell size can be calculated by application of the cell sizing equation as discussed in Section
6.2.5.2:
FS =
P=S
( AP A( P 1) )
P =1
RT
The value of RT is obtained from Table 6-4 for the different discharge times. As discussed
before, each section is evaluated to determine which section requires the largest cell size. Each
section of the example duty cycle shown in Figure 6-17 is evaluated below.
Section 1
Section 1 is the simplest to evaluate. Period 1 consists of 640 amperes for 1 minute. The number
of positive plates required is the load divided by the 1 minute rating of one plate.
FS1 =
6-30
A1 0
640
=
= 4.27 positive plates
RT1
150

Battery Sizing
Section 2
For Section 2, assume that the Period 1 load continues for the entire 120 minute duration. The
Period 1 load of 640 amperes is divided by the 120 minute rating of one plate. But, the duty
cycle does not call for this load in Period 2. So, the capacity requirement is adjusted in Period 2
by subtracting out the difference.
FS2 =
A1
A A1
640
335 640
+ 2
=
+
RT120
RT119
55
55
Section 3
The process continues in Section 3.
FS3 =
A1
A A1
A A2
640
335 640
245 335
+ 2
+ 3
=
+
+
RT239
RT238
RT119
35
35
55
Section 4
Section 4 is the final section and happens to be the limiting section in this example by requiring
8.54 positive plates.
FS4 =
FS4 =
A1
A A1
A A2
A A3
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
RT240
RT239
RT120
RT1
640
335 640
245 335
335 245
+
+
+
35
35
55
150
Although the cell sizing analysis can be performed mathematically as shown above, it is more
common to use a cell sizing worksheet. A cell sizing worksheet performs the same steps, but
provides a structured approach to the analysis. Table 6-5 provides the cell sizing worksheet for
this problem. As can be seen, the worksheet performs the same analysis as the equation process
and the answer is the same as before.
6-31

Battery Sizing
Table 6-5
Cell Sizing Worksheet
Period
Load
(amperes)
Load
Duration
Change of Period
(amperes) (minutes)
Time to
Capacity
Required Section
End of
(amperes Cell Size (positive
Section per positive
plates)
(minutes)
plate)
+ Values
- Values
Section 1 - First Period Only - If A2 is greater than A1, go to Section 2.

1
A1 = 640
640
150
Section 1 Total:
4.27
4.27
***
Section 2 - First Two Periods Only - If A3 is greater than A2, go to Section 3.

1
A1 = 640
640
120
55
A2 = 335
-305
119
119
55
Section 2 Total:
11.64
-5.55
6.09
***
Section 3 - First Three Periods Only - If A4 is greater than A3, go to Section 4.

1
A1 = 640
640
239
35
A2 = 335
-305
119
238
35
-8.71
A3 = 245
-90
119
119
55
-1.64
Section 3 Total:
18.29
7.94
***
Section 4 - First Four Periods Only - If A5 is greater than A4, go to Section 5.

1
A1 = 640
640
240
35
A2 = 335
-305
119
239
35
-8.71
A3 = 245
-90
119
120
55
-1.64
A4 = 335
90
150
Section 4 Total:
6-32
18.29
0.60
8.54
***

Battery Sizing
Before proceeding, a number of observations should be made regarding the use of the cell sizing
worksheet:
The calculated cell size has not yet been corrected for aging, temperature, and design margin.
Notice that Periods 2 and 3 each had a load reduction from the prior period, and both were
followed by Period 4 that had a load increase. Whenever the period following the section
being evaluated has a load increase, the section containing that period will require more
capacity. For this reason, the cell sizing worksheet does not require an evaluation of a
particular section if the next period is larger. In the case of Table 6-5, Sections 2 and 3 were
not required to be completed.
The problem is still not finished. The cell sizing correction factors still must be applied.
Step 5 - Apply Cell Sizing Correction Factors
The design inputs for this example were as follows:
Battery end of life: 80% capacity (aging correction factor = 1.25)
Lowest expected operating temperature: 60F (15.6C) (temperature correction factor =

1.11)
Desired design margin: 15% (design margin correction factor = 1.15)
The corrected cell size is as follows:
Corrected Cell Size = (8.54 positive plates) 1.25 1.11 1.15 = 13.63 positive plates
In this case, round up to 14 positive plates. This is the cell size needed to satisfy the duty cycle
requirements at the end of battery life at the design low temperature with the specified design
margin. Now, return to the battery manufacturers catalogue and select the Model ABC battery
with 14 positive plates. A total of 60 cells will be required for this installation.
6.3
Lead-Acid Battery Sizing for an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
UPS applications often involve a different approach to battery sizing. In Section 6.2, the battery
was sized based upon the amperes drawn from the battery throughout its duty cycle and the
battery load was estimated as a constant current. However, a UPS is a constant power load rather
than a constant current load. If the UPS is the only load placed on the battery (which is common
for many UPS systems), the battery can be sized more easily based on the constant power
requirements. Battery manufacturers provide sizing charts based on a constant power discharge
also. The method of analysis is particularly straightforward, generally consisting of the following
steps:
1. Determine total load (and duration) the UPS will place on the battery.
2. Apply cell sizing correction factors so that the battery can provide the required load at end of
life and the design low temperature.
6-33

Battery Sizing
3. Determine the minimum and maximum system voltage. Select the number of cells based on
the minimum and maximum voltage limits.
4. Calculate the load on each cell and select a cell size capable of supplying the required load.
As a battery discharges, the battery voltage declines in a predictable manner. For a constant
power discharge, the current will increase in direct proportion to the voltage decrease in
accordance with the following relationship:
Power = Voltage Current

Figure 6-18 shows a typical variation for a 7.5 kVA discharge as the battery is discharged from a
fully charged condition down to the UPS low voltage cutout of 105 V.
72
70
68
UPS
Input
Current
66
64
62
60
58
125
120
115
110
105
UPS Input Voltage
Figure 6-18
Current Variation for a 7.5 kVA Constant Power Discharge
Example 6-8
The easiest way to discuss battery sizing for a UPS application is with an example. Assume the
UPS specifications applicable to the battery are as follows:
Size: 7.5 kVA @ 0.8 PF (6.0 kW)
Inverter efficiency: 0.92 at full load
Output voltage: 120 VAC (not required for calculation)
Maximum input dc voltage: 140 V
Low voltage cutout: 105 V
6-34

Battery Sizing
The user specifies that the UPS must power critical loads for a minimum of 30 minutes following
a loss of normal power. The user believes that the UPS will be almost fully loaded for the entire
discharge duration.
First, calculate the total battery load. Assume the UPS is fully loaded at 7.5 kVA. The power
required from the battery is the real power produced by the UPS plus efficiency losses. The real
power produced by the inverter is 6.0 kW (7.5 kVA x 0.8 PF). Thus, the required battery load is:
Battery Load ( kW ) =
6.0 kW
= 6.52 kW
0.92
This is the nominal load that the battery must be capable of providing when the battery has 100%
capacity at 77F (25C). As we have learned, the battery will have less than rated capacity if the
temperature is less than 77F (25C). Also, a lead-acid battery is normally sized to be capable of
fulfilling its design load requirements at end of battery life (80% capacity). Apply the
appropriate correction factors to ensure the battery can meet this load requirement at end of
battery life at the lowest expected temperature. The correction factors are as follows:
Aging: 1.25 (corresponding to 80% capacity)
Temperature: 1.11 (assume for this example that lowest expected temperature is 60F
(15.6C)
The corrected battery load is:
Corrected Battery Load ( kW ) =
6.0 kW
125
. 111
. = 9.05 kW
0.92
Notice that we chose not to add design margin because the UPS is assumed to be fully loaded.
For this typical example, the duty cycle consists of the above constant load for 30 minutes.
9.05
Load
(kW)
30
Figure 6-19
Example UPS Duty Cycle
6-35

Battery Sizing
The UPS maximum dc input voltage was specified as 140 V. This voltage is the maximum
allowed voltage on the system. Also, assume that the manufacturer recommends a maximum
battery equalize voltage of 2.33 V per cell. The maximum number of cells is given by:
Maximum System Voltage 140

=
= 60.09 cells
Equalize Voltage
2.33
In this case, choose 60 cells. Next, determine the minimum allowed voltage per cell based on the
system minimum voltage requirement of 105 V:
Minimum System Voltage 105

=
= 175
. volts
Number of Cells
60
We need 60 cells capable of providing 9.05 kW for 30 minutes without allowing voltage to drop
below 1.75 V per cell. Each cell must deliver:
9.05 kW
= 0151
.
kW per cell
60 cells
We now have the information needed to select a cell from the manufacturers data sheets. We
need a cell capable of providing 0.151 kW for 30 minutes without individual cell voltage falling
below 1.75 V. Table 6-6 shows the available selection of cell sizes and capabilities for one
manufacturers cell type. As can be seen in this case, a XYZ-5 is capable of providing the
required power for the specified duration of 30 minutes.
Table 6-6
Example Battery Manufacturer Cell Selection
Per Cell kWMinutes to 1.75 End Volts per Cell at 77F (25C)
Type & Size
10
15
20
30
60
XYZ-5
0.295
0.249
0.218
0.194
0.155
0.097
XYZ-7
0.426
0.366
0.318
0.281
0.227
0.140
XYZ-9
0.559
0.476
0.416
0.367
0.296
0.200
XYZ-11
0.671
0.582
0.505
0.445
0.362
0.241
XYZ-13
0.772
0.683
0.588
0.517
0.423
0.280
Suppose the battery was installed in a location some distance away from the UPS. How would
that affect our calculation of required cell size in this case?
First, the battery current would be calculated based on the fully loaded UPS. The voltage drop
from the battery to the UPS would be calculated based on V = IR, where R is the cable
resistance. The current would be based on the maximum expected current that occurs at the end
of the battery discharge time.
6-36

Battery Sizing
The calculated voltage drop would be added to the minimum system voltage requirement. For
example, if the voltage drop was 2 V for the above case, the minimum system voltage
requirement would become 107 V rather than 105 V. For 60 cells, the minimum allowed cell
voltage would be 107/60 = 1.78 V.
6.4
Battery Sizing for Diesel Engine Cranking
Stationary batteries are also used to start diesel engines. In many cases, the associated batterys
only purpose is to provide cranking power to start the diesel engine. In these cases, battery sizing
is typically performed differently than described in the previous sections. Depending on the
design, a diesel engine might be started by an air system or an electric motor (starting motor).
Electric starting is the most convenient to use, is generally the least expensive, and is the most
adaptable method for remote control and automation. Figure 6-20 shows a typical installation in
which the battery is located next to the engine generator.
Figure 6-20
Typical Engine Generator Starting Battery
The starting ability of a diesel engine is affected by the ambient temperature and the lubricating
oil viscosity. The diesel relies on the heat generated by compression to ignite the fuel. When first
starting, this compression and heat is created by the diesel cranking (starting) process, which is a
function of the cranking speed and cranking time. When cold, longer cranking periods are
required to develop ignition temperatures. A starting motor is powered by the battery to
accomplish this cranking process. Lubricating (lube) oil imposes the greatest load on the
cranking motor; oil viscosity varies with oil type and temperature. For example, SAE 30 oil
viscosity approaches that of grease below 32F (0C).
6-37

Battery Sizing
Either lead-acid or nickel-cadmium batteries can be used for engine starting. The nickelcadmium type is often used so that the battery can be located very near the engine, which is
usually a higher ambient temperature environment.
The primary considerations for sizing a diesel engine battery are:
The lowest temperature at which the engine might be cranked. Oil viscosity increases with
decreasing temperature and affects how long the starter motor must turn before fuel ignition
temperature is reached. Note also that lower temperatures affect the batterys capacity. At
lower temperatures, the batterys capacity will require adjustment for oil viscosity and
decreased battery capacity.
How many start attempts will be allowed? A typical rule of thumb is to select a battery that
can provide at least four 30 second cranking periods (total of 2 minutes of cranking). Engines
are often rated for up to 30 seconds of cranking before the starter motors begin to overheat.
The Electrical Generating Systems Association (EGSA) provides guidance for sizing a diesel
engine starting battery in EGSA 100B, Engine Cranking Batteries Used with Engine Generator
Sets. This performance standard recommends providing the following information to the battery
manufacturer as part of a battery sizing evaluation:
Nominal volts needed for the starter motor
Starting current of starter motor
Engine model and make
Cubic inches displacement. Some battery manufacturers have sizing guidelines based on the
cubic inches displacement
Number of cranks and possible duration of each crank
Rest period for battery recovery, if needed
Worst case low battery temperature
Worst case low engine temperature and oil viscosity
Battery type and desired life
Seismic or vibration requirements
The sizing process for a diesel engine battery should consider voltage drop between the battery
and the starter motor. The starter motor usually draws significant current from the battery. For
this reason, batteries are often located very near the diesel engine to minimize the voltage drop
caused by the high current. Typical connecting devices between the battery and the starter motor
include:
Cableresistance varies with cable size and length
Contactors (relays, solenoid, switches)resistance less than 0.002 is typical
Connectionseach connection resistance less than 0.001 is typical
The diesel engine manufacturer typically specifies the minimum system requirements, including
the maximum connection resistance between the battery and the starter motor.
6-38

Battery Sizing
6.5
Additional Considerations for VRLA Batteries
The principles of lead-acid battery sizing discussed in the previous sections apply to VRLA
batteries also. The main difference to consider in the sizing evaluation is that VRLA batteries can
exhibit a different change in capacity than vented lead-acid batteries as temperature changes. The
difference in capacity as a function of temperature can be significant. Figure 6-21 shows a
comparison of one manufacturers stated performance as a function of temperature compared to
the typical rating of a vented battery. Notice the significant difference in predicted performance
at low temperatures.
1.6
1.4
Correction
Factor
1.2
1.0
0.8
25
50
75
100
125
Temperature (F)
IEEE-450 Correction Factor
AGM Cell
Figure 6-21
VRLA Battery Capacity Variation with Temperature for One Manufacturer
The manufacturer should be consulted to determine the effect of temperature variations on a

particular VRLA model.
6.6
Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
IEEE 1115, Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary
Applications, is the best industry reference for sizing a nickel-cadmium battery and should be
reviewed as part of a battery sizing evaluation. The principles of sizing presented in the previous
sections apply to nickel-cadmium batteries with the following clarifications:
Nickel-cadmium battery capacity is sensitive to both discharge rate and temperature. The cell
sizing worksheet includes an allowance for these differences. The manufacturer will provide
the needed information for the specified duty cycle and expected operating temperature.
6-39

Battery Sizing
The manufacturer should confirm that the discharge characteristics have been derated for
long-term float operation. Nickel cadmium batteries experience voltage depression, a
lowering of the average discharge voltage, during long-term float operation. Voltage
depression is referred to as the float effect by most manufacturers. This effect starts to set in
as soon as the charge input (ampere-hours) exceeds about 200% of the rated capacity and
reaches its full effect after about 3 months of float operation. It is an inevitable consequence
of float charging in which the long term overcharge causes the nickel hydrate positive active
material to gradually change its crystalline structure. This phenomenon is normal, but can
reduce the available capacity to a specified end-of-discharge voltage. Most nickel-cadmium
battery manufacturers originally certified their battery discharge characteristics by testing
from an open circuit configuration in accordance with IEC 623. By standardizing on IEC
623, equivalent performance information is provided by all manufacturers. Although most
manufacturers have also produced cell performance characteristics assuming long-term float
operation, this information has not always been provided with standard commercial
catalogues. Without confirming the applicability of a particular set of discharge curves, the
user can potentially obtain a battery undersized for the intended purpose. The difference in
rated capacity can be significant. Figure 6-22 provides an example of the capacity difference
for a typical battery.
1.4
Capacity Not
Corrected for
Float Charge
1.3
1.2
1.1
Voltage
1.0
Float Corrected
Capacity
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
1
10
100
Figure 6-22
Example of Capacity Difference Due to Float Effect
The float effect also needs to be considered when performing a capacity test. Refer to Section
14.5.1 for additional information.
6-40
7
DC SYSTEM PROTECTION
Section 7 discusses dc system protection. The nature of dc system short circuit current is
described, followed by a discussion of the various devices used to protect against the
consequences of a short circuit. Section 7 concludes with an overview of various protection
schemes used for dc systems.
7.1
Short Circuit Current
Any electrical system should be protected against the consequences of a short circuit. DC
systems are potentially more dangerous than ac systems. The alternating current in an ac system
passes through zero each cycle which facilitates the short circuit interruption process. A dc
current is essentially constant (not sinusoidal) and dc system protective devices must be capable
of clearing the fault without the benefit of the brief moment when the current passes through
zero.
Anyone that has dropped a tool across their car battery terminals knows that the short circuit
current can be dangerous and destructive. The consequences of a short circuit include:
Violent melting and vaporization of materials in contact with the released energy
Explosive arcing that can cause flashburns to skin and eyes
Damage to system equipment
Loss of the battery due to melting or destruction of strap weld joints, terminals, intercell
connections, or cable connections
Explosion due to ignition of hydrogen gas inside the cells vapor space
Section 7 focuses on the nature of short circuit currents so that protective devices can be properly
selected and sized to interrupt these fault currents. Section 10.4 provides additional information
regarding the personnel safety concerns of short circuits.
7.1.1 Battery Short Circuit Current
7.1.1.1
Short Circuit Current Magnitude
The protective equipment in a dc system must be capable of interrupting a short circuit safely. A
typical design requirement is that the protective device interrupting rating has to be larger than
the short circuit current to which it can be exposed. For example, if the available short circuit
7-1

DC System Protection
current is 7,000 amperes, the protective devices interrupting rating will probably be at least
10,000 amperes. If, instead, the protective devices interrupting rating is only 5,000 amperes, it
might fail catastrophically when exposed to 7,000 amperes. The first step in an evaluation is to
determine the magnitude of the worst-case short circuit current from the battery.
The amount of short circuit current available from a battery depends on several factors,
including:
Number of plates
Surface area of each plate
Separation between the plates
Conductivity of the current carrying members, including plates, grids, straps, terminals, and
intercell connections
State of charge for lead-acid batteries
As the batterys amp-hour rating increases, so does the available short circuit current. The
amount of available current also depends on whether the battery is designed for high rate or long
duration discharge. As batteries are replaced, the new battery is often larger than the original
battery to account for additional loads or a longer duty cycle. The larger battery will have a
correspondingly larger fault current that necessitates an evaluation to confirm that downstream
protective devices are adequately rated for the higher current.
The simplest method of determining the available short circuit current for a particular battery
size is to ask the manufacturer. For a quick analysis, the short circuit current at the battery
terminals can be estimated as 10 times the 1 minute ampere capability of the cell (at 77F (25C)
to 1.75 V per cell). This thumb rule applies to vented batteries with a nominal specific gravity of
1.210 to 1.215, and will generally provide conservative results.
Example 7-1
An ABC (200 ampere-hour at the 8-hour rate) battery has a 1 minute rating of 288 amperes. The
estimated maximum short circuit current is:
288 amperes 10 = 2880 amperes
Example 7-2
A DEF battery (2,320 ampere-hour at the 8-hour rate) has a 1 minute rating of 2,240 amperes.
The estimated maximum short circuit current is:
2,240 amperes 10 = 22,400 amperes
The above examples illustrate one accepted method for estimating the short circuit current.
Notice that the short circuit current increases with battery size. Using the simple thumb rule
described above, Figure 7-1 shows the variation in short circuit current for a particular line of
cells.
7-2

Short Circuit
Current (amperes)
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
Cell Size
Figure 7-1
Estimated Short Circuit Current for One Battery Size Range
Controlled tests have shown little effect on the short circuit current magnitude with the following
system variations:
Elevated cell temperature: Although lead-acid battery capacity does increase with
temperature, the short circuit current is effectively limited by the electrolyte in direct contact
with the plates. The capacity increase with temperature does not occur for the short duration
of a short circuit.
Starting from the higher float voltage rather than open circuit voltage: The float voltage
placed on each cell is higher than the open circuit voltage to overcome self-discharge effects.
However, this higher voltage does not imply greater capacity. Battery discharge depends on
an electrochemical reaction between the electrolyte and the active material in the plates that
is not affected by the float voltage.
Electrolyte specific gravity variation within a given range: Given that the cell is fully
charged, minor variations in specific gravity will not result in corresponding capacity
variations. The active material in the plates has not changed.
If the estimated short circuit current at the battery terminals (plus contributions from chargers
and motors) is less than the interrupting rating of downstream devices, no further analysis is
typically needed. Otherwise, the short circuit current should be calculated in more detail using
the resistance of all system elements. Section 6.1 describes how to interpret manufacturers
discharge curves and provides an example calculation of short circuit current by starting with the
cell resistance. Section 7.1.4 provides an example short circuit calculation for a complete dc
system.
7-3

7.1.1.2
Effect of Inductance
The previous section describes a simple method to calculate the maximum expected short circuit
current contribution from a battery. In some applications, it might also be important to consider
how quickly the current reaches this maximum value. The battery inductance limits how quickly
the short circuit current can reach its peak value. Current as a function of time through and
inductive/resistive circuit is given by:
Rt

V
i (t ) =
1 e L
R
where,
i(t) = Current as a function of time
V = Applied voltage
R = Circuit resistance
L = Circuit inductance
t
= Time (seconds)
Figure 7-2 shows that the effect of inductance is to slow the rate of current rise for a step input
(such as a short circuit). As the inductance increases, the current takes longer to reach its peak
value.
Less Inductance
Current
(amperes)
More Inductance
10
Time (milliseconds)
Figure 7-2
Inductance Effects on Short Circuit Current
7-4
15
20

A typical stationary battery alone might have a time constant on the order of less than 5
milliseconds at the battery terminals (the time constant is the time required to reach 63.2% of the
peak value). When the fault is located further from the battery, the system resistance between the
battery and the fault acts to limit the magnitude of the short circuit current. The system
inductance further lengthens the time required to reach this maximum value; the system time
constant might be as high as 15 milliseconds, or longer, depending on the fault location.
7.1.2 Battery Charger Contribution
The battery is usually the largest single source of current during a fault. However, the battery
charger also provides current to the fault. Depending on the charger size and design, the amount
of current can be significant. When exposed to a fault, the charger output capacitors immediately
discharge into the fault, resulting in a short spike on the order of microseconds. Until current
limiting elements take effect (within a few milliseconds), the charger contribution into the fault
is limited by its basic design and internal resistance. Thereafter, the charger provides its current
limit rating. Figure 7-3 shows a typical profile of the charger contribution to a fault.
Current
(amperes)
Long Term Current Limit
Time
Figure 7-3
Battery Charger Contribution to a DC System Fault
The amount of current provided by the charger depends on the following factors:
Charger type and size: Depending on the design, the charger can be inherently current
limiting to some degree. Ferroresonant and controlled ferroresonant chargers are usually
current limiting to between two to three times the rated output of the charger. Phase
controlled SCR chargers have little inherent current limiting ability and the response time of
the current limit circuit can vary from 15 to 100 milliseconds, depending on the design. Until
the current limit circuit takes effect, the charger output might be as much as 20 times the
rated charger output current. Switch model power supply chargers also have little inherent
current limiting ability, but a very fast current limit circuit is used to protect the internal
switching transistors.
Current limit of charger, including response time of the current limit control circuit:
The current limit of the charger will be specified by the manufacturer and depends on the
basic charger design as well as the design of the current limit circuit. The charger output can
exceed the specified current limit for the short period required for the current limit circuit to
take effect.
7-5

Size and design of output filters: Most chargers provide a combination of series resistance
and inductance, and parallel capacitance, to provide a filtered dc output. When a fault occurs,
the charger capacitors also discharge into the fault. The magnitude of the capacitors
contribution depends on the applied voltage and the total series resistance between the
capacitors and the fault. The capacitors contribution is a current spike, on the order of
micro-seconds, that exponentially decays.
Clearing time of the protective device(s): Battery chargers might have fuses or circuit
breakers on their output. Circuit breakers tend to have longer clearing times and might not
open when exposed to the charger output current. Fast acting internal fuses might open in
response to the initial current peak.
In a short circuit study of a dc system, it is usually acceptable to assume that the charger
contribution is its current limiting maximum value. The peak shown in Figure 7-3 usually occurs
and decays back to the current limit value well before the battery has reached its maximum
value. By assuming the maximum battery fault current without regard to inductance, the sum of
the battery contribution and the charger current limit contribution typically bounds the effect of
the short term charger pulse before the current limit circuit takes effect. Refer to IEEE 946 for
additional information.
7.1.3 DC Motor Contribution
Operating motors represent another source of current under fault conditions. The simplest
approach for determining the expected short circuit current from a motor is to ask the
manufacturer. If this information is not readily available, it is usually acceptable to estimate each
motors maximum contribution as 10 times the rated full load current. The effective transient
armature reactance (rd') typically varies from 0.1 to 0.15 per unit. The short circuit current
provided by the motor is given by:
If =
V
rd '
The above expression indicates that the maximum fault current for a short circuit at the motor
terminals can range from 6.67 to 10 times the motors rated armature current. This is the basis
for estimating the short circuit current to be bounded by 10 times the rated full load current.
If the combination of this simple estimate with the battery and charger contribution results in
currents that are near the interrupting rating of dc system equipment, a more detailed study
should be performed. In this case, the cable resistance and motor resistance should be modeled
with the motor as a voltage source. The motor contribution will then be the current allowed to
flow through this combined resistance. The effect of the cable resistance is to reduce the fault
current from either end of the cable.
7-6

7.1.4 Short Circuit Calculation for Sample System

The fault current available at any location in the dc system depends on the following features:
Location of the fault
Resistance between the battery and the fault
Battery state of charge (lead-acid batteries)
Battery charger contribution to the total fault current
Resistance between motors and the fault
If the sum of the available short circuit current from the battery, battery charger and running
motors is less than the rating of the system protective devices, no further analysis should be
necessary. However, if the battery is large enough that the available short circuit current might
be close to or larger than the protective devices interrupting ratings or the distribution system
equipment withstand ratings, a more detailed analysis should be performed.
7.1.4.1
Battery Contribution
The starting point of a short circuit study is to determine the battery internal resistance and
associated short circuit current. The initial volts line can also be used to estimate the internal
resistance (or call the manufacturer). Each point on this line describes an expected instantaneous
voltage for the associated discharge rate. Pick two points on the initial volts line to obtain a
difference in voltage for a difference in discharge rate (current). Ohms Law can be applied to
calculate the internal resistance. Use Figure 7-4 to determine the internal resistance of this
sample cell.
Ampere
Hours
Per
Positive
Plate
160
2.00
Initial Volts Line
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.94 Volt at
40 Amp Rate
Initial
Cell
Volts
1.83 Volt at
100 Amp Rate
120
80
40
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 7-4
Cell Internal Resistance Calculation
7-7

Referring to Figure 7-4, the initial volts is about 1.94 V for a discharge rate of 40 amperes per
positive plate and 1.83 V for a discharge rate of 100 amperes. The slope of the line is the
effective internal resistance:
R=
V 194
. 183
.
=
= 0.001833 per plate
I
100 40
Notice that the internal resistance is very small. This is the internal resistance of a single positive
plate (and two negative plates). As additional positive plates are added to the cell to increase its
capacity, the positive plates can be modeled as parallel resistances. If the cell has 16 positive
plates, there are 16 parallel resistances of 0.001833 each. Or, the cell resistance is given by:
Cell Resistance =
0.001833
= 0.00011456
16
This is the equivalent internal resistance of the cell with 16 positive plates. Given that the cell
voltage is nominally 2 V, what is the expected short circuit current from the cell?
I =
V
2 volts
=
= 17,458 amperes
R 0.00011456
Notice above that the cell voltage used for the short circuit calculation was 2 V. The float voltage
(maybe as high as 2.25 V) is not used for a short circuit analysis because this voltage is
artificially maintained by the charger and is not representative of the batterys actual available
energy. Although the open circuit voltage is still slightly higher than the 2 V used in the analysis,
not all of the cells energy can actually be released during a short circuit. In other words, the cell
voltage does not fall to zero during a short circuit.
For a short circuit study, we need to know the total battery resistance. If the battery under
evaluation has 60 cells in series, the total battery resistance is given by:
Battery Resistance = 60 cells 0.00011456 per cell = 0.006874

Regardless of whether we consider the fault current from one cell or 60 cells in series, the fault
current remains the same, provided that the short circuit values provided by the manufacturer are
based on the use of properly sized intercell connectors. For example, the fault current from the
above 60-cell battery is given by:
I =
120 volts
V
=
= 17,458 amperes
R 0.006874
The above exercise is important because we need to combine the battery resistance with the other
resistance elements in the dc system to calculate the fault current at a given point in the system.
Consider the dc system shown in Figure 7-5. In this case, we want to calculate the batterys
contribution to the short circuit current for a bolted fault at the 125 V bus.
7-8

AC
Rectifier
Battery
Cable and
Current Shunt
Cable
125 VDC Bus
M
DC Loads
DC Motors
Figure 7-5
Example DC System for a Fault Study
(Protective Devices Left Off for Clarity)
The resistance of the battery limits the short circuit current to the maximum value just calculated.
For a fault at the 125 V bus shown above, the resistance between the battery and the bus further
limits the fault current. Typical sources of resistance include:
Cableresistance varies with cable size and length
Connectionseach connection has some resistance
Current shunt resistancevaries with its relationship between amperes and volts
Breaker contact resistanceeach contact has some measurable resistance
Suppose we consider only the following components between the battery and the dc bus:
Cable (combined positive and negative length) = 0.002
Current shunt = 0.0008
For this example, the battery resistance was previously calculated to be 0.006874 . The total
resistance is the sum of the battery, cable, and current shunt resistances:
RTotal = 0.006874 + 0.002 + 0.008 = 0.009674

7-9

Now, the battery fault current available at the 125 V bus can be calculated:
I =
V
120 volts
=
= 12,404 amperes
R 0.009674
Notice that the cable and current shunt resistance reduced the available fault current by over
5,000 amperes, or almost 30%. Additional resistance sources would further reduce the fault
current. Also, faults at the loads (more likely than at the bus) would have additional cable
resistance that further reduces the fault current contribution from the battery.
7.1.4.2
Battery Charger Contribution
Assume for this example that the battery charger is rated for 300 amperes full load with a 150%
current limit under short circuit conditions. In this case, the battery charger contribution to the
fault is calculated by:
I charger = 300 amperes 150

. = 450 amperes
Notice that the battery charger is effectively a current source when operating at its current limit.
Thus, interposing resistance is not a factor in determining its contribution to a fault.
7.1.4.3
DC Motor Contribution
Assume that the two motors shown in Figure 7-5 are each 5 hp and rated for 32 amperes full load
current at 120 V. The simplest approach is to assume that the motor contribution is 10 times the
rated full load current, or:
I motors = 2 motors 10 32 amperes = 640 amperes

If the motor fault current requires closer review, the resistance of the cable (Rc) to the motor
should be combined with the motors effective transient armature reactance (rd') to calculate the
reduced fault current. The motor contribution is then calculated by:
I motor =
7.2
Motor Voltage
rd ' + Rc
DC System Protective Devices
A stationary battery application can be as simple as a battery hardwired in parallel with a charger
and the end-use load (see Figure 7-6). As the backup power needs grow to require a larger
battery or the consequences of failure become more intolerable, the dc system tends to also
become more complex. Figure 7-7 shows a more complete dc system with all protective devices.
7-10

AC
In
Battery
Charger
Battery
DC
Loads
Figure 7-6
Simple Battery System
AC Input
Battery
Charger
Battery
DC Output
Breakers
DC Loads
Figure 7-7
DC System with Protective Devices Included
7-11

The types of protective devices used can vary, depending on the original designers intent, the
systems size, or personal preferences. Low voltage power breakers, molded case circuit
breakers, fuses, fused safety switches, and simple disconnects have been used for protection
against short circuits, overloads, and circuit isolation. For example, the breakers shown in Figure
7-7 could be replaced with fuses or fused switches. The battery output might only have a simple
disconnect, fuse, or breaker. The following sections discuss each of these protective devices and
explain how they perform in a dc system, compared to an ac system.
7.2.1 Molded Case Circuit Breakers
Molded case circuit breakers (MCCBs) are widely used in dc systems, either for battery isolation
or on breaker panels leading to individual loads.
7.2.1.1
Application Considerations
The following standard application requirements must be considered whenever evaluating an

MCCB installation:
Voltage rating
Continuous current rating
Interrupting current rating
Number of poles
Trip unit type
Trip unit functions
Fixed or interchangeable trip unit
Accessories, for example, alarm units, shunt trip units, interlocks
Type of load, for example, lighting circuit, motor load, UPS
Protection scheme type, for example, fully rated, selectively coordinated, series-combination
rated
System and load classification, for example, Class 1E system with Class 1E loads, Class 1E
system with non-Class 1E loads, or non-Class 1E system with non-Class 1E loads
Depending on the application, other conditions might also require consideration:
Unusual ambient temperaturehigh or low
Wet conditions or high humidity
Corrosive atmospheres
Seismic qualification
Shock or vibration
Unusual mounting requirements
7-12

An MCCBs continuous current rating is the maximum continuous current that it can carry in a
specific ambient temperature. Most manufacturers calibrate MCCBs for an ambient temperature
of 104F (40C). The ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding the breaker.
Thermal-magnetic MCCBs are temperature sensitive. Above 104F (40C), an MCCB will carry
less current than the continuous current rating before nuisance tripping can become a problem
and terminal connections can develop high temperatures. Below 104F (40C), an MCCB can
carry more current than indicated by the continuous current rating and nuisance tripping is not an
expected problem. The mechanical operation of an MCCB can be adversely affected by ambient
temperatures significantly below 77F (25C); freezing conditions can cause lubricant failure or
binding due to differential contraction of parts. Consult the manufacturer whenever applying a
thermal-magnetic MCCB in unusual ambient conditions.
The interrupting rating of an MCCB is one of its most important characteristics. A short circuit
study is normally performed to determine the minimum required interrupting rating. Refer to
EPRI NP-7410-V3, Revision 1, Molded Case Circuit Breaker Application and Maintenance
Guide for additional information.
7.2.1.2
Comparison of AC to DC MCCBs
MCCBs are available for use in both ac and dc applications. In many cases, the MCCB design is
the same regardless of whether the end-use is for ac or dc; however, the user should understand
that an MCCB can respond differently to ac current than to dc current, depending on the
magnitude of the current and how the trip unit responds to the current. Refer to EPRI NP-7410V3, Revision 1, Molded Case Circuit Breaker Application and Maintenance Guide for additional
information.
7.2.2 Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers
Low voltage power circuit breakers (LVPCBs) are sometimes used as the battery output breaker
on larger systems. In terms of their design functionality, they share some similarities with
MCCBs. The overcurrent trip unit function is similar to MCCBs, operating on an inverse-time
current delay principle; the higher the primary current through the series coil, the faster the
device trips the breaker. The instantaneous trip occurs with no intentional time delay.
Although a time-delay function is included in the design for LVPCB overcurrent trip units, the
sensing element is unlike the thermal trip unit in an MCCB. For this reason, a LVPCB's response
can be different for ac and dc overcurrents in both the time delay and the instantaneous trip
regions. Manufacturers usually performed extensive testing of LVPCBs and the associated trip
units during their development to characterize the response to both ac and dc currents. This
information is reflected on the manufacturer's time-current curves; they should be reviewed to
determine any variations in response between ac and dc.
Low voltage circuit breakers for dc applications are often identical in design to standard ac
breakers. Breakers designed for ac applications, but used in dc systems, will generally have a
higher continuous current capability because of the absence of skin effect, hysteresis, and eddy
currents. However, for convenience, the manufacturer might provide the same current rating for
both applications.
7-13

The maximum current that a dc breaker can interrupt and the maximum voltage that can be
applied will be less than that for an equivalent design ac breaker because of the nature of dc
current. Interruption of dc current is distinctly different and is usually more difficult than
interruption of ac current at comparable voltages and currents. An ac current interrupter does not
have to develop a large voltage drop across the fault current arc between the breaker contacts
because the sinusoidal current passes through zero during each half cycle. DC current does not
pass through a current zero and a dc current interrupter must develop an arc voltage drop greater
than the applied circuit voltage while current is flowing to force the fault current to zero across
the contacts. For this reason, the dc breaker must absorb considerably more energy during the
fault clearing process than an equivalent ac breaker; a given breaker contact and arc chute design
will have a lower dc than ac voltage and current interrupting rating. For example, a breaker rated
for 65,000 rms symmetrical amperes at 480 Vac might only be rated for 10,000 amperes at
250 V.
7.2.3 Fuses
Fuses are readily available for both ac and dc applications; however, the great majority of fuses
are used in ac circuits. Although much information is available for applying fuses in ac
applications, there is little published information by comparison for dc circuits. Before applying
a fuse in a dc circuit, the following parameters should be defined:
Fuse characteristics and ratings in a dc application
Circuit operating parameters
Overcurrent conditions under which the fuse is expected to operate
This section provides an introduction to fuses in dc circuits. Additional information is available

in the references listed in Section 7.5.
7.2.3.1
Fuse Construction
A typical fuse consists of one or more elements enclosed by a fuse body with the element(s)
surrounded by an arc quenching medium such as silica sand (see Figure 7-8). The silica sand is
called the filler. The element is also called the fuse link.
7-14

Body
Blade
Filler
Element
Figure 7-8
Fuse Construction
Heat is generated inside the fuse at a rate dependent on the element resistance and the load
current. Under normal conditions, the filler conducts heat away from the element and to the outer
body where it can dissipate. The notches in the fuse element create the weak points that cause the
fuse to open under overcurrent conditions. Figure 7-8 shows one typical fuse link configuration.
Depending on the fuse design, the element might have more or less notches, additional parallel
elements, or different shapes. Regardless of the design, several weak points are designed into the
element to ensure that it opens and extinguishes the overcurrent arc.
A fuse is a calibrated current-carrying device designed to open under specific conditions. During
normal operating conditions, the fuse carries the load current without interruption. When a
sustained overcurrent occurs, the element generates heat faster than the filler can conduct it away
from the element. If the overcurrent condition lasts long enough, the element temperature will
reach the melting point at the notches, at which point the fuse opens and prevents further current
flow.
7.2.3.2
Fuse Clearing Characteristics
Fuses have an inverse time current characteristicthe larger the overcurrent condition, the faster
the fuse opens (see Figure 7-9).
7-15

10000
1000
100
Time
(seconds)
10
.1
.01
10
100
1000
10000
Current (amperes)
Figure 7-9
Fuse Time-Current Curve
7.2.3.3
Fuse Selection Guidelines
The following guidelines should be considered when applying fuses in dc circuits:

1. The fuse should be rated for dc circuits. Typically, fuses are rated for dc applications in
accordance with UL 198L or 198M.
2. Select fuses with dc voltage ratings equal to or greater than the maximum expected dc
voltage. Depending on the system design, this voltage might be the battery equalize charge
voltage provided by the battery charger.
3. Determine the required normal operation current rating of the fuse by evaluating the
downstream loads to be served by the fuse.
4. Determine the maximum available dc fault current that can pass through the fuse. Select a
fuse that is rated to withstand this level of fault current.
7-16

5. Evaluate the system time constant where the fuse will be applied. Fuse certification in
accordance with UL standards include time constant requirements that sets how long the
current takes to reach its maximum value. If the fuse is near the battery, the time constant
will generally be very short which is usually acceptable. However, if the fuse is electrically
far from the battery, or if there are motors, coils, or other sources of inductance, the time
constant can exceed the UL certified level. In this case, the fuse can be exposed to
overcurrent for a longer period than confirmed by a test. Consult the manufacturer for more
information.
6. Use time-delay fuses for general purpose circuits and individual circuits that do not require
fast overload protection.
7. Use fast-acting fuses to protect solid-state devices.
8. The entire fuse installation, including wiring and mounting, should comply with National
Electric Code criteria. The environmental conditions around the installation should be
appropriate for the fuse design and classification.
7.3
Short Circuit Protection Methods
As a dc system grows in size, importance, and complexity, its protection scheme tends to receive
greater design consideration. A number of protection schemes can be used; one method of
protection is not inherently better than another. The following types of system protection have
been used:
No protection (cable only) between battery and main dc panel
Disconnect switch between battery and main dc panel
Fused disconnect switch between battery and main dc panel
Fuses between battery and main dc panel
Circuit breaker between battery and main dc panel
Mid-span battery protection
Some form of protection should be used. The no protection method listed above has been used in
substations, but offers no battery protection unless the output cable functions as an overload
device. Smaller systems typically use fuses or fused disconnect switches. Larger systems often
use a combination of circuit breakers and fuses.
7.4
DC System Alarms
The types of alarms used in the dc system depends on the application, the facility, and whether
the facility is manned or not. IEEE 946 recommends the following alarms for a generating
facility:
7-17

DC bus undervoltage
DC system ground
Battery breaker/switch open
Battery charger dc output failure
Cross-tie breaker closed (if applicable)
Battery charger ac power failure
Charger low dc voltage
Battery test breaker closed (if applicable)
A small substation does not usually have provisions for all of the above alarms. Typically, a
substation charger will be equipped with a loss of ac power alarm and a low dc voltage alarm.
Remote alarm monitoring should be provided for unmanned stations. The system designer
should determine the alarm requirements for each facility.
7.5
Additional Information Sources
Section 7 provides only an introduction to the concepts of short circuit current and dc system
protection. The following industry standards and documents should be reviewed for further
information:
1. IEEE Standard 946-1992, Recommended Practice for the Design of DC Auxiliary Power
Systems for Generating Stations.
2. IEEE PAR 1375, IEEE Guide for the Protection of Large Stationary Batteries, June 1996,
unapproved draft as of the publication of this text.
3. Circuit Breaker Maintenance, Volume 3: Molded Case Circuit Breaker Application and
Maintenance Guide, EPRI NP-7410-V3, Revision 1.
Also, Appendix A.5 lists additional papers related to battery protection.
7-18
8
BATTERY CHARGING
Section 8 discusses battery charging. Many battery problems are actually caused by improper
charging practices. For this reason, battery users should understand the appropriate type of
charger to select, the proper size to use, the proper charging voltage, and the potential effects of
improper charging practices.
In addition to the information presented here, always review the battery manufacturers operating
manual to determine the appropriate charging parameters for a particular battery.
8.1
Charging Modes
After a stationary battery has been installed in a system, one of the following charge modes
normally describes the state of any stationary battery:
Charge
Discharge
Recharge
The goal of a charging system is to keep a battery ready to perform its design function, namely to
provide stored energy on demand. Once the battery has provided this energy, the charging
system has to restore the battery to full capacity as soon as possible, within the inherent design
constraints of the system.
8.1.1 Float Charging
Left alone on open circuit, all stationary batteries will eventually self-discharge. Periodic
charging is necessary on an open circuit battery (such as a battery unused and in storage) just to
keep it from eventually becoming damaged by the self-discharge process. A stationary battery in
service is normally kept continuously connected to a charger, called float charging, for the
following reasons:
To counteract a batterys tendency to self-discharge
To maintain each cell in the battery fully charged so that maximum capacity is available
To minimize any long-term internal damage associated with undercharging, such as sulfation
A simple float charge arrangement is shown in Figure 8-1.
8-1

Battery Charging
AC
In
Battery
Battery
Charger
DC
Loads
Figure 8-1
Float Charging
The proper charging voltage varies with the following parameters:
Battery typefor example, lead-acid or nickel-cadmium
Grid typefor example, lead-calcium or lead-antimony
Style of cellvented lead-acid, VRLA, or nickel-cadmium
Number of cells
Temperature
Table 8-1 shows the typical range of float voltage per cell for a lead-calcium cell at 77F (25C).
Consult the manufacturer's technical manual for recommended float voltages applicable to a
specific battery.
Table 8-1
Typical Vented Lead-Calcium Float Voltage Per Cell at 77F (25C)
Electrolyte
Specific Gravity
Nominal Open
Circuit Voltage
Minimum Float
Charging Voltage
With Periodic
Equalization
Typical Float
Charging Voltage
Range
1.210
2.05
2.17
2.202.25
1.215
2.06
2.18
2.212.26
1.225
2.07
2.19
2.222.27
1.250
2.09
2.20
2.252.30
1.280
2.12
2.24
2.272.32
1.300
2.14
2.27
2.332.38
8-2

Battery Charging
Table 8-1 provides typical values for a variety of specific gravities. The specific gravity varies
with cell design. Although most vented lead-calcium cells used for standby applications have a
specific gravity of 1.210 to 1.215, specific applications such as high rate duty or cold
temperature applications might make use of a cell with a higher specific gravity. As can be seen,
the open circuit voltage increases as the electrolyte specific gravity increases. The float voltage
should be at least 0.12 V per cell above the open circuit voltage to counteract the effects of self
discharge.
As can be seen in Table 8-1, there is a range of acceptable float voltages for a given nominal
specific gravity. The higher end of the float voltage range is usually recommended for a leadcalcium battery (almost 0.2 V per cell above the open circuit voltage) because this minimizes or
eliminates the need for periodic equalizing charges. The gas generation rate increases because of
the higher float voltage, but not to a degree that requires closer attention to the electrolyte level.
The information provided in Table 8-1 is on a per cell basis. The desired cell float voltage would
be multiplied by the number of cells to determine the actual charger voltage output. For example,
if the desired float voltage is 2.24 V per cell on a 60 cell battery, the desired battery float voltage
is 134.4 V. If a cell is removed from service or jumpered out, the charger output voltage should
be lowered to account for the reduced number of cells. Otherwise, the charger could provide a
per cell float voltage above the manufacturer's recommended range.
Table 8-2 shows typical float voltage values for lead-antimony batteries. Whereas lead-calcium
batteries are typically floated high in the allowed range to avoid the need for periodic equalize
charges, lead-antimony batteries are typically floated at a lower voltage (about 0.1 V per cell
above the open circuit voltage) to reduce the rate of water loss. Remember that lead-antimony
batteries tend to use several times as much water as an equivalent lead-calcium battery.
Table 8-2
Typical Vented Lead-Antimony Float Voltage Per Cell at 77F (25C)
Electrolyte
Specific Gravity
Nominal Open
Circuit Voltage
Average Float
Voltage
1.210
2.05
2.15
1.215
2.06
2.16
1.225
2.07
2.17
1.250
2.09
2.19
1.280
2.12
2.22
1.300
2.14
2.24
Float charge voltage ranges for VRLA cells are specified by the manufacturer. Although the
specific gravity tends to be higher in a VRLA cell, the negative plates are almost depolarized.
8-3

Battery Charging
The net effect is that the float voltage of a 1.300 specific gravity VRLA cell tends to be very
close to the specified float voltage of a 1.215 specific gravity vented lead-calcium cell.
Manufacturers typically recommend a float voltage range of 2.23 to 2.29 V per cell for high
specific gravity cells (1.290 to 1.300) and a float voltage range of 2.18 to 2.22 V for lower
specific gravity cells (1.240 to 1.250). Each manufacturer differs in their VRLA float voltage
recommendations; refer to the appropriate operating manual for specific guidance.
8.1.2 Recharge
When a battery is discharged, it has to be recharged so that it can perform its design function the
next time that it is needed. The electrochemical reaction that allowed the cell discharge is
reversible and the recharge process restores the active materials to their fully charged state. If the
recharge rate is too low, the battery takes too long to recharge or it may not fully recharge. If the
recharge rate is too high, each cell cannot accept all of the available current and the excess
current cause electrolysis (conversion of water in the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen).
Conceptually, the recharge process is fairly simple and only requires adhering to the following
guidelines:
The charging current at the beginning of a recharge must not be so large that it exceeds the
cells recharge ability. Too much charge current causes gassing because the excess charge
current forces electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte.
Throughout the recharge cycle, the charging current should remain below the level that will
cause gassing.
When the battery has been restored to 100% capacity, the charging current should fall to a
low level that maintains the battery fully charged.
In concept, the above principles are straightforward. In practice, many types of chargers are
available and battery chargers are becoming more sophisticated. The reason for this variety is
that a battery charger has to be matched to a particular battery type, size, and application. Many
battery problems are actually related to problems with the charger rather than the battery. Section
8.4 discusses the concepts of charger sizing.
8.1.3 Equalizing Charge
An equalizing charge is an extended charge at higher than normal float voltages, generally given
to correct any non-uniformity in the individual cell voltages or specific gravities. Each
manufacturer specifies the proper equalize voltage for a particular battery. An equalizing charge
can have the following beneficial effects:
Correct voltage or specific gravity inequalities between cells.
Remove sulfation buildup on the plates.
Mix the electrolyte and reduce electrolyte stratification.
Restore the battery to full charge rapidly after a complete discharge.
8-4

Battery Charging
In general, a lead-acid battery maintained within the manufacturer's recommended limits might
not routinely require an equalizing charge; the manufacturer should be contacted for
requirements applicable to a specific battery. For example, a lead-calcium battery might seldom,
if ever, require an equalizing charge if it is maintained near the upper end of the recommended
float voltage range. But, some manufacturers do recommend periodic equalize charges of leadantimony batteries, usually because they also recommend a lower float voltage to minimize the
need for periodic watering.
The following conditions are generally accepted as an indicator of when an equalizing charge
might be necessary:
If the corrected specific gravity of an individual cell is more than 10 points (0.010) below the
average of all cells
If the average corrected specific gravity of all cells drops more than 10 points (0.010) from
the average installation value
If any cell voltage is below 2.13 V (note that this generally applies to a vented lead-acid cell
with a nominal specific gravity of 1.215)
An equalizing charge occurs at a higher than normal float voltage. For example, a typical
equalize voltage is 2.33 V per cell which equates to 139.8 V for a 60-cell battery. This higherthan-normal voltage can exceed the voltage rating for some electrical equipment. The system
voltage limits must be reviewed if the higher voltage will be applied directly to the electrical
components during the equalizing charge.
Review the manufacturers operating manual for equalizing charge criteria applicable to a
specific battery. Some manufacturers might recommend the temporary application of higher
equalizing voltages to correct persistent cell problems. The manufacturer should provide voltage
and time limits before attempting this type of elevated voltage charge.
Contact the manufacturer before conducting an equalizing charge on a VRLA battery. Some
manufacturers do not recommend equalizing charging of a VRLA battery because of the
following concerns:
Generated gases are relieved via the pressure relief valve. Venting of gases from the cell can
contribute to the possibility of dryout.
Overcharging will result in higher cell temperatures. If not closely monitored, the cell can
overheat, which can lead to thermal runaway.
So far, the discussion has assumed that the entire battery receives an equalize charge at the same
time. Problem cells can receive a single-cell equalize charge as shown in Figure 8-2. When
performing single-cell charging online, the portable charger should be isolated from the
commercial ac line and no sparks should be generated when connecting to the cell. Connect the
charger cables and set the charger output voltage to the desired equalize voltage. The charge
voltage should be periodically checked to ensure that it remains stable throughout the charge.
The cell temperature should be monitored and the equalize charge terminated if the cell
temperature rises by 20F (-6.67C) or above 110F (43.3C).
8-5

Battery Charging
Single-Cell
Charger
Cell
Cell
Cell
Cell
Figure 8-2
Single-Cell Equalize Arrangement
8.2
Battery Charger Types
Float charging at constant dc output voltage is the most common type of charging for stationary
batteries. Numerous battery charger types are available, ranging from simple and cheap
unregulated chargers up to very sophisticated digital-controlled chargers. Typically, controlled
ferroresonant or silicon controlled rectifier chargers are used for utility applications. The
following sections briefly describe the two types.
8.2.1 Controlled Ferroresonant Charger
A controlled ferroresonant charger uses a ferroresonant transformer for the ac input and silicon
diodes perform the rectification to dc. Output regulation and current limiting characteristics are
controlled by the resonant winding. Figure 8-3 shows a simplified schematic of a controlled
ferroresonant charger.
8-6

Battery Charging
AC
Input
Rectifier
Diodes
A
DC
Output
Resonant
Winding
Figure 8-3
Controlled Ferroresonant Charger
8.2.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Charger

The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) charger uses SCRs rather than diodes for rectification.
SCRs function similarly to diodes in that they conduct only in one direction. But, no current is
allowed to flow until a signal is applied to the gate connection (see Figure 8-4). Output current
control is accomplished by controlling the gate signal.
A voltage amplifier sends the desired voltage signal to the SCR firing circuit, which sends a
conduct signal to the SCR gates. Current is allowed to flow and the output current is compared to
the desired current limit in the current amplifier. If the current exceeds the current limit, the
current amplifier overrides the voltage amplifier to reduce the output current.
SCRs
A
AC
Input
SCR
Firing
Circuit
V amp
V
DC
Output
Logic
Power
Supply
C amp
Shunt
Figure 8-4
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Charger
8-7

Battery Charging
8.3
Temperature-Compensated Chargers
Section 8.5.1.2 explains the effect of ambient temperature on the desired float voltage.
Temperature compensated chargers automatically adjust the float voltage for ambient
temperature variations.
Some manufacturers recommend using a temperature compensated charger for VRLA batteries.
The purpose of the temperature compensation is two-fold in this case. First, temperature
compensation ensures that the float voltage is set properly for the battery environment. Second,
the charger clamps down on its output voltage and current if the battery starts overheating. This
is intended to reduce the likelihood of thermal runaway. Temperature compensated chargers are
strongly recommended for VRLA batteries in hot unregulated environments. Chargers are
available with 20 to 30 foot temperature probes to ensure that the charger is sensing the battery
temperature, rather than the ambient temperature around the charger.
8.4
Charger Sizing
Battery chargers need to be large enough to satisfy the normal system loads while recharging a
discharged battery within a reasonable amount of time. Manufacturers typically recommend a
recharge time of 8 to 12 hours. Shorter recharge times require larger battery chargers and might
result in excessive current flow into the battery during the recharge process. For this reason, 8
hours is usually the minimum recharge time for a discharged battery. On the high end, 12 hours
is often recommended for an upper limit; however, this recharge time is somewhat arbitrary and
14 hours or 16 hours might be acceptable, depending on the application and how the recharge is
controlled. The point is that the charger should be sized to recharge the battery within a
reasonable amount of time.
The standard method of sizing chargers is to ensure the charger is large enough to supply the
normal continuous loads while also recharging the battery within a reasonable time period. The
charger sizing formula is as follows:
A=
kC
+ Lc
H
where
A = Output rating of the charger in amperes.
k = Efficiency factor to return 100% of ampere-hours removed. Use 1.1 for lead-acid
batteries and 1.4 for nickel-cadmium batteries.
C = Calculated number of ampere-hours discharged from the battery (calculate based
on duty cycle).
H = Recharge time to approximately 95% of capacity in hours. A recharge time of 8 to
12 hours is usually recommended.
Lc = Continuous load (amperes).
8-8

Battery Charging
The above sizing method is commonly used, but tends to provide an optimistic recharge time.
The actual recharge time is typically longer than indicated above because the charging current
tends to decrease as the battery voltage increases during recharge.
Example 8-1
Determine the charger rating if a) the continuous load is 100 amperes, b) 300 ampere-hours are
discharged from a lead-acid battery, and c) the battery is to be recharged within 10 hours.
A=
11
. 300
+ 100 = 133 amperes
10
Example 8-2
Suppose that the above system has 50 amperes of noncontinuous loads that can be energized at
any time. In this case, the total charger load is the sum of the continuous and noncontinuous load
before consideration of battery recharge requirements. At any time, the charger load can be as
high as:
A = Lc + Ln = 100 + 50 = 150 amperes

If we select the charger in Example 8-1 to have a capacity of 133 amperes, the battery would
have to supply the additional load whenever the noncontinuous load is energized. So, the charger
should be sized to provide the expected system loads, or 150 amperes in this example. Note that
this assumes the noncontinuous loads will not be energized for long periods when the battery is
being recharged. If we choose a charger capable of 150 amperes and the noncontinuous load
remains off during recharge, the expected recharge time for Example 8-1 is as follows:
H=
kC
11
. 300
=
= 6.6 hours
A Lc 150 100
If the noncontinuous load remains off, the expected recharge time is less than 7 hours. Some
manufacturers recommend discussing charger sizing with them whenever recharge time is less
than 8 hours.
8.5
Charging Problems
8.5.1 Improper Float Voltage

A stationary battery in full float operation is permanently connected to a battery charger. The
charger keeps the battery in a fully charged condition so that it can supply emergency power
upon loss of the normal power source. During normal operation, the battery charger voltage is
high enough so that a trickle charge current overcomes the battery's tendency to self-discharge
and keeps the battery in a fully charged condition. The charger float voltage must be carefully
controlled within prescribed limits; either too high or too low a voltage will have a detrimental
effect on battery performance.
8-9

Battery Charging
Nickel-cadmium batteries are more resistant to charging problems than lead-acid batteries.
Accordingly, the following information applies to lead-acid batteries. Section 3 provides
additional information regarding the detrimental effects of an improper float voltage in lead-acid
batteries.
8.5.1.1
Effects of Overcharging and Undercharging
Too high a float voltage is referred to as overcharging. Overcharging a lead-acid battery can
produce the following adverse effects:
The battery life can be reduced because of increased plate grid corrosion. The corrosion rate
of the positive plate grids, straps, and terminals is accelerated if the charging rate is too high.
The long-term effect is reduced battery capacity due to battery aging.
Gas generation is increased and therefore the battery must be watered more frequently. Also,
excessive gas generation can cause shedding of the plate active material. This will be evident
as mossing or excessive sediment.
The battery electrolyte temperature can increase, a condition known to reduce battery life. A
significant increase in the electrolyte temperature of properly installed vented cells is
unlikely because of their inherently good heat dissipation characteristics.
Symptoms of overcharging include:
Excessive sediment
Mossing
Plate deformation
Excessive water usage
Gassing
Low charger float voltage is referred to as undercharging. Undercharging a lead-acid battery can
The battery might not remain fully charged and might not be able to perform its design
function.
Lead sulfate can form on the plates, thereby decreasing battery capacity.
The symptoms of battery undercharging include:
A wide variation in per cell charging voltages
Declining specific gravity
Color change in the plates due to lead sulfate buildup
Reduced capacity
8-10

Battery Charging
Prolonged undercharging can result in an excessive buildup of lead sulfate on the plates. This
effect is called sulfation. Lead dioxide reacts with sulfuric acid during discharge to form lead
sulfate by the following reaction:
PbO2 +
Positive
Plate
Pb +
Negative
Plate
2 H 2 SO4
Electrolyte
2 PbSO4
+
Positive
and Negative
Plates
2 H2 O
Water
Lead sulfate physically occupies more space than lead dioxide, and an excessive buildup can
damage, warp, or buckle the plates. After a period of undercharging, the battery might require an
equalizing charge to restore the plates to their normal condition. In extreme cases, the
manufacturer might recommend multiple discharge and recharge cycles at higher than normal
equalize voltages to break down the lead sulfate crystals.
8.5.1.2
Effect of Ambient Temperature on Float Voltage
The lead-acid battery is an electrochemical device; heat accelerates chemical activity and cold
slows it down. In relation to float voltage, a higher than normal operating temperature affects a
lead-acid battery as follows:
Increases the rate of internal discharge
Increases the charging current for a given charge voltage (overcharging)
A lower than normal operating temperature has the opposite effects.

Because battery characteristics change with temperature; a float voltage specified for 77F
(25C) could result in overcharging at higher temperatures and undercharging at lower
temperatures. For example, if the battery is normally at a temperature significantly lower than
77F (25C) but is set for a float voltage appropriate for 77F (25C), the battery can eventually
exhibit symptoms associated with undercharging.
If the average battery temperature varies significantly from 77F (25C), adjustment of the float
voltage might be desirable. Adjustment of the float voltage to compensate for temperature should
only be made with the manufacturers concurrence. If an adjustment is performed, the float
voltage is generally compensated as follows:
For each 1F (0.6C) above 77F (25C), subtract 0.0028 V per cell from the recommended
voltage.
For each 1F (0.6C) below 77F (25C), add 0.0028 V per cell to the recommended voltage.
8-11

Battery Charging
8.5.1.3
Effect of Cell-to-Cell Float Voltage Variations
Float voltage across each cell in a battery is not identical. Lead-calcium cells normally vary by as
much as 0.04 V from the average cell voltage and VRLA batteries can have even greater cellto-cell float voltage variation. If an individual cell has a voltage significantly different from the
per cell average voltage for the battery, the cell should be investigated for possible problems.
Typical problems that could be encountered are listed in Table 8-3. The manufacturers technical
manual should be consulted for the maximum allowable cell-to-cell voltage variation. An
equalizing charge might be adequate to correct minor cell-to-cell voltage variations.
Table 8-3
Possible Causes of Abnormal Cell Float Voltages
Symptom
Low Float Voltage
High Float Voltage
8-12
Possible Problem
Corrective Action
Electrolyte on the cell cover. Electrolyte spilled

on the cell cover forms a conductive path
across the cell terminals.
Neutralize any spilled

electrolyte and clean the cell
cover.
Cell heated by an external source. A higher cell

temperature increases the current required to
maintain the cell at the same float voltage;
however, the float current is determined by the
average of all cells in the battery. Thus, a cell
at a higher temperature will show a lower float
voltage.
Shield the cell from the heat

source.
Contaminated electrolyte. If the electrolyte is

contaminated, the cell float voltage is reduced.
Perform a cell visual

inspection, electrolyte analysis,
or both. Consult the
manufacturer.
Internal damage. Internal damage or corrosion

can affect the individual cell float voltage.
Perform visual inspection.

Consult the manufacturer.
Cell cooled by an external source. A lower cell

temperature decreases the current required to
maintain the cell at the same float voltage;
however, the float current is determined by the
average of all cells in the battery. Thus, a cell
at a lower temperature will show a higher float
voltage.
Shield the cell from the source

of cooling.
Internal damage. This could indicate that the

cell has less capacity than the other cells.

Consult the manufacturer for
further action.

Battery Charging
8.5.2 Battery Tap Connections

Connections should not be made to a stationary battery for tapping a certain group of cells to
provide a voltage other than the total battery voltage. Tapping can cause a system imbalance
between cells during charging. For example, if the tapped cells are providing some load, the
parallel resistance of the tapped cells and their loads has an effective resistance less than that of
the untapped cells. As a result, the untapped cells can have greater voltage across them while the
tapped cells have a lower voltage per cell. Depending on the system loads, the tapped portion of
the battery might not remain fully charged, resulting in unsatisfactory performance during
discharge. It is possible for the tapped cells to be partially or fully discharged while the untapped
cells are overcharged.
Figure 8-5 shows the results of an actual lead-antimony battery that had 24 cells tapped to
provide 48 V to some loads. When the battery was checked, the 24 tapped cells were almost fully
discharged with an average voltage of 1.78 V per cell. Meanwhile, the untapped cells had an
average voltage of 2.44 V per cell.
2.75
Untapped Cells
Average 2.44 V
2.50
Cell
Voltage
2.25
Tapped Cells
Average 1.78 V
2.00
1.75
1.50
Cell Number (60 Cells Total)
Figure 8-5
Histogram of Cell Voltages on a Tapped Battery
If a lower voltage is needed for some circuit load, a separate battery and charger should be
provided. Most battery manufacturer operating manuals specifically warn against battery
tapping. Also, any damage caused as a result of tapping might not be covered by the
manufacturers warranty.
8-13
9
MAINTENANCE PROGRAM RECOMMENDED
PRACTICES
The guidelines and recommended maintenance practices presented here apply to the following
types of stationary batteries:
Vented lead-acid batteries
VRLA batteries
Vented nickel-cadmium batteries
The recommended practices are approached from a perspective of ensuring dc system reliability
through an understanding of the mechanisms that cause batteries to age and ultimately fail. By
understanding the fundamentals of battery design, aging processes, and failure modes, the
maintenance staff can develop a more successful maintenance program, and thereby provide a
higher degree of assurance that station batteries can fulfill their intended design functions.
An effective maintenance program cannot be developed without an understanding of battery
performance and how a battery is affected by its service environment. For this reason, a
substantial amount of background information has been provided in the previous sections.
Maintenance recommendations are discussed in the context of what each inspection or test
accomplishes in relation to identified degradation and failure modes. Inspections and tests are
also presented in a procedural format for ease of comparison to maintenance procedures already
in use at each plant.
The information presented here should provide maintenance personnel with a solid grasp of the
fundamentals upon which to develop and implement a successful battery maintenance program.
However, it is stressed that there is no single right maintenance program that applies equally to
all stationary batteries. The degree of maintenance invested into a particular battery depends on
its safety function, the potential effects of failure or degradation, and the desired level of
demonstrated reliability. If a particular battery application is considered more critical than other
typical applications, that battery might receive special attention by the maintenance program. In
general, users should consider the recommendations in the following sections to evaluate their
maintenance practices and adjust them for specific applications. The baseline recommendations
provided here apply to a critical application in which battery failure cannot be tolerated. Less
important applications might not warrant as stringent of a maintenance program.
9-1

Maintenance Program Recommended Practices
9.1
Historical Maintenance Problems
When applied to stationary battery applications, the concept of a maintenance-free battery is

considered an oxymoron at best. Personnel working with stationary batteries will eventually
encounter a failed battery. The goal of any maintenance organization should be to identify and
correct the failure before the battery is called upon to perform its job. Unfortunately, far too
many failures are discovered only because a battery failed to perform its job. In these cases, the
maintenance organization can only speculate on how many months or years that the battery was
actually broken.
Proper maintenance should detect problems before they have a chance to become catastrophic.
Typical real-life problems that occur include:
Inadequate battery capacity, or failed cells that limited capacity, that is not detectable by
simple voltage measurements, electrolyte checks, or visual examinations. As a result, the
battery fails prematurely during its discharge.
Corroded intercell connectors that can fail when exposed to the expected discharge current.
As a battery ages, terminal post corrosion is a common problem that is correctable by
periodic checking and cleaning.
Loose intercell connectors. Some installations have had battery failures simply because the
intercell connectors were not tight. This condition is readily corrected by the maintenance
staff.
Unknown batteries in the system. Although it might seem incredible, some maintenance
departments did not learn of the existence of some batteries in their system until they failed
to work. Unfortunately, some groups have installed batteries in their equipment without ever
considering longer term maintenance needs. In some cases, UPS users were not aware that
the UPS contained batteries.
Poor environmental conditions. Some industries have experienced chronic problems with
high battery temperatures. Simply stated, a battery will not last very long in a hightemperature environment. Unfortunately, high temperature conditions are sometimes allowed
to persist, much to the detriment of the installed batteries.
Improper maintenance. In one extreme case, the maintenance staff performed monthly deep
discharge tests on a UPS lead-acid battery because they did not want it to develop a memory
effect. Sometimes, a little knowledge applied incorrectly can do more harm than no action.
There is no substitute for a trained staff.
Marketing driven maintenance. Some users established maintenance plans based on warranty
expectations and marketing literature. Even when a battery manufacturers literature makes
maintenance-free claims, the battery operating manual usually specifies a minimum required
level of maintenance.
9-2

9.2
Industry Standards for Stationary Batteries
The maintenance practices recommended here were developed from the following sources of
information:
Industry standards
Industry papers
Manufacturers literature
Regulatory guidance
Industry experience
In particular, IEEE provides extensive standardized recommendations for design, installation,

inspection, testing, and maintenance of stationary batteries. These industry standards serve as an
important reference source of maintenance recommendations. The recommendations provided
here are not intended to take the place of industry standards, but should be viewed as a
supplement to existing industry guidance. The information presented here is meant to provide the
following information to a battery maintenance program:
An overview of battery design and construction fundamentals at a level appropriate for

maintenance departments
A discussion of battery aging and degradation mechanisms in relation to recommended

maintenance practices
A technical basis for each recommended inspection and test
Descriptions of what each inspection or test does and does not accomplish
Recommendations in a format that can be readily compared to existing plant maintenance

program documents
9.3
Maintenance Program Objectives and Conceptual Development
9.3.1 Maintenance Philosophy

Batteries are installed because uninterruptible power is needed following a loss of normal power.
However, all batteries do not arbitrarily require the same level of periodic inspection, testing, and
maintenance. The maintenance program should include a review of the design basis for each
battery and its role in the safe and reliable operation of the facility. Examples of application
differences to consider are provided below:
Not all batteries have equal safety importance. Class 1E, safety-related batteries necessary for
the safe shutdown of the plant certainly require a higher level of reliability than UPS batteries
providing backup power for personal computers.
Individual batteries might require different amounts of maintenance attention because of their
installed locations or environments. For example, a battery in an area with an average
temperature of 95F (35C) probably requires closer attention than the same type of battery
installed in an area with an average temperature of 70F (21.1C).
9-3

All batteries are not alike. Different battery designs degrade in different ways and at different
rates. The maintenance program should treat the following types of batteries differently:
Vented lead-acid (lead-calcium type)
Vented lead-acid (lead-antimony type)
VRLA
Nickel-cadmium
Batteries with known degradation, for example, copper contamination or excessive sediment,
should receive more detailed inspections so that the effect of the degradation on performance
is closely monitored.
The maintenance program philosophy should be based on ensuring component reliability, not
simply instituting maintenance requirements in response to manufacturer's recommendations or
industry standards. The basis for any maintenance recommendation and the potential
contribution of any maintenance practice to battery reliability should be fully understood.
9.3.2 Program Objectives
The objectives of a battery maintenance program are similar to the objectives of other
maintenance programs. An effective battery maintenance program should:
Maintain each battery in a high state of readiness as determined by an acceptable level of

reliability.
Demonstrate compliance with applicable regulatory and industry requirements.
Demonstrate that each battery can fulfill its design basis function.
Provide performance trending with which to predict when a battery will require replacement.
Establish streamlined practices and procedures that minimize the complexity and
administrative burden of implementing the program, without compromising other objectives.
Implement efficient and cost-effective maintenance practices that yield measurable results
and avoid costly practices that provide little or no payback.
9.3.3 Maintaining the Design Basis

The design basis of each battery must be fully understood before applicable maintenance and test
requirements can be established. By understanding the design basis for each battery, the
maintenance department can tailor the periodic inspection, test, and maintenance requirements to
achieve the desired level of reliability.
9-4

9.3.4 Practical Considerations

The maintenance program should take into account all relevant practical limitations. Typical
considerations for a maintenance department include the following:
Not all batteries have equal importance and thus should not receive equal maintenance. An
arbitrary decision to standardize all maintenance to the same level and periodicity as that
specified in the Technical Specifications for safety-related batteries can place an inordinate
emphasis on the battery maintenance program. Each maintenance department has limited
resources; these resources should be applied in a manner that provides maximum payback in
overall plant reliability.
Installed batteries have different reliability histories. Weekly specific gravity readings might
not be justifiable when several years of data demonstrates acceptable performance.
Test, inspection, and maintenance procedures should be streamlined and efficient. Overly
complex and cumbersome procedures are inefficient and costly; procedures that are too brief
might not provide adequate guidance for the required maintenance. Procedures can be
streamlined by considering the following:
What administrative controls must be satisfied and what level of documentation is

needed?
Are separate procedures required for each battery or is one procedure for a given class of
batteries more appropriate?
What training is needed to support the program? No procedure, no matter how well
written, can compensate for poor training. Properly trained personnel can directly support
an efficient, streamlined program. Improperly trained personnel make mistakes.
Development of complex procedures is often considered the solution to any maintenancerelated problem. Unfortunately, attempting to compensate for a lack of training by adding
more and more detail to procedures does not necessarily solve the real problem, and can
result in less effective procedures in the long run.
9.3.5 Personnel Training

Proper training of personnel is an integral part of a successful maintenance program. Properly
trained workers have an important role in maintaining and ensuring battery reliability.
Improperly trained personnel make mistakes or overlook problems. As a minimum, personnel
working on batteries should receive the following training:
Personnel and equipment safety precautions for working on batteries
Fundamentals of battery operation and maintenance
Degradation and failure modes observable during periodic inspections
Proper maintenance data recording practices to support future trending
9-5

9.3.6 Performance Trending

All battery inspection and test data should be compared to previous battery data. Although the
results from each inspection and test are worthwhile for evaluating the current state of a battery,
the data becomes even more valuable when compared to previous results to reveal performance
trends.
Trending of battery performance is crucial to a successful battery reliability program. During the
life of a power plant, all installed batteries eventually require replacement. If properly recorded
and evaluated, trending information allows the maintenance staff to predict in advance when a
battery will no longer meet its design requirements. A replacement battery can be installed in a
planned, organized manner rather than in a crisis mode. Trending data can even be used as part
of the basis for declaring individual cells operable when degradation such as copper
contamination has been identified.
The maintenance program should emphasize consistency and completeness in the recording of
inspection and test data to support a trending program.
9.3.7 Operators Role in Monitoring Battery Conditions
The operators should identify abnormal battery or battery area conditions during shiftly tours.
These tours are not intended to take the place of an in-depth battery inspection; they are only
meant to reveal conspicuous problems. The operators should request further investigation by
maintenance personnel for any of the following conditions:
Unusually high or low area temperatures
Area ventilation system not operating
Obvious signs of electrolyte leakage or cell damage
Battery charger current or voltage outside normal expected limits
Control room alarm response procedures should direct the operators response for any of the
following alarms, if available:
Bus undervoltage
System ground
Battery breaker/fuse open
Battery charger output breaker open
Battery charger dc output failure
Battery charger ac power failure
Battery charger low dc voltage
Battery charger high dc voltage
Battery test breaker closed
9-6

The response to any of the above alarms should address system operability requirements as well
as battery operability requirements.
9.4
Recommended Maintenance Practices and Periodicity
Maintenance, in the form of periodic inspections, periodic tests, preventive maintenance, and
corrective maintenance, is necessary for all stationary batteries. The required level of
maintenance and the maintenance periodicity for safety-related batteries are usually defined by a
plant's Technical Specifications. The required maintenance and maintenance periodicity for nonsafety-related batteries is often left to the judgment of the maintenance department unless set by
other plant commitments or design criteria.
Tables 9-1 through 9-3 provide an overview of the recommended periodicity for the inspections
and tests applicable to the types of batteries evaluated. The bases for the inspection and test
recommendations are discussed in detail in the applicable maintenance sections. Tables 9-1
through 9-3 state baseline recommendations, not requirements. The specific inspections and tests
performed or the periodicity should be modified, as appropriate, after consideration of the
following:
Safety function or importance of the battery
Technical Specification requirements
Environment (temperature and humidity) to which the battery is exposed
Plant-specific battery experience
Plant-specific commitments
Table 9-1
Vented Lead-Acid Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity
Inspection or Test
1. General visual inspection
Recommended Periodicity
Monthly
2. Float voltage checks
Monthly (pilot cells and battery)

Quarterly (all cells)
3. Electrolyte checks
Monthly (pilot cells) Quarterly

(10% of cells) Annually (all cells)
4. Battery grounds
Monthly
5. Detailed visual inspection
Annually
6. Connection resistance measurements
Annually
7. Battery rack integrity inspection
Annually
8. Performance test
See Section 14
9. Service test
See Section 14
9-7

Table 9-2
VRLA Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity
Inspection or Test
Recommended
Periodicity
Monthly
Monthly (pilot cells

and battery)
Quarterly (all cells)
3. Cell internal ohmic measurement
Quarterly
4. Cell temperature inspection
Quarterly
Annually
Annually (quarterly for

high-rate discharge
applications)
Annually
8. Performance test
See Section 14
9. Service test
See Section 14
Table 9-3
Nickel-Cadmium Battery Recommended Inspection and Test Periodicity
Inspection or Test
Recommended
Periodicity
Quarterly
Semi-annual (all cells)
Annually
Annually
Annually
6. Performance test
See Section 14
7. Service test
See Section 14
9-8
10
PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS
Batteries and dc system components are different from ac electrical system equipment. Batteries
contain acid, which is harmful to skin and eyes, and the electrical shock hazards associated with
dc power can be more severe than those associated with ac power for equivalent voltages and
currents.
A fully charged stationary battery contains a tremendous amount of energy. A short circuit
between the battery terminals can produce explosive fault currents.
Only authorized personnel who have been familiarized and trained on battery fundamentals and
maintenance procedures should be allowed to perform maintenance activities on a battery.
The following sections provide basic safety precautions for working around batteries and dc
equipment. Company policies, industry standards, and the manufacturers literature should also
be reviewed for any other applicable safety precautions.
10.1 Personnel Safety General Precautions

Batteries are inherently dangerous; they can generate lethal currents and contain acidic or caustic
electrolyte. The following personnel safety measures should be taken whenever working around
batteries or other dc system equipment.
1. Lead-acid batteries contain a sulfuric acid electrolyte that can cause burns and other serious
injury. Nickel-cadmium batteries contain a strong alkaline electrolyte, potassium hydroxide,
which is very caustic. Avoid any skin contact with the electrolyte. In the event of skin contact
with the electrolyte, flush immediately and thoroughly with water. If the electrolyte comes
into contact with eyes, flush immediately with water and seek medical assistance. Be familiar
with how to use emergency eyewash equipment, which should always be close at hand.
2. Neutralize sulfuric acid electrolyte spills on clothing or other material with a bicarbonate of
soda (baking soda) solution [1 pound (0.454 kg) of bicarbonate of soda per gallon (3.79
liters) of water]. Apply the solution to any spills until bubbling stops and rinse with clean
water. Neutralize potassium hydroxide electrolyte from nickel-cadmium batteries with a
boric acid solution of 7 ounces (0.199 kg) boric acid per gallon (3.79 liters) of water. When
mixing a sulfuric acid electrolyte solution, always add the acid to the water. Pour the acid
into the water slowly and stir constantly to avoid excessive heat or violent chemical reaction.
Never pour the water into the acid as this will cause a violent eruption of the acid as the
water is turned to steam. When preparing an electrolyte solution for a nickel-cadmium
battery, mix it carefully in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
10-1

Personnel and Equipment Safety Precautions
3. Wear proper safety clothing to prevent contact with acid or live electrical connections.
Whenever working around batteries, wear a rubber apron and rubber gloves. Ensure goggles
and face shields are available for personnel.
4. Batteries can generate hydrogen gas. Never bring burning materials such as matches,
cigarettes, or sparks of any kind near the battery. Avoid the use of spark-producing
equipment near batteries. Residual gases can remain within cells during storage and
shipment. Take these precautions at all times while handling batteries.
5. Use only insulated tools in the battery area to prevent accidental shorting across battery
connections. Never lay tools or other metal objects on cells; shorting, explosion, or personal
injury could result. As a general rule, the length of the exposed metal for any tool should be
less than the distance between the positive and negative posts of each cell.
6. Wear only nonconductive hard hats near batteries. Metal hard hats can fall across the battery
terminals or connections and create short circuits.
7. Remove all jewelry, wristwatches, or clothing with metal parts that could come into contact
with the battery terminals.
8. Do not make or break series connections within an operating group of cells. Before
proceeding, open the battery system circuit breaker to minimize the possibility of arcing.
9. Ensure that the exit from the battery area is unobstructed.
10. Do not overheat the anticorrosion grease when preparing it for battery terminations. Some
compounds have a flash point as low as 90F (32.2C). Follow the manufacturer's
instructions carefully.
11. Acquire training in the unique electrical hazards associated with dc voltage and current.
Exercise extreme caution whenever working on or around a battery.
12. Minimize access to the battery by personnel unaware of battery safety precautions.
13. Dispose of used cells properly.
14. Do not remove hardware from a rack under load.
10.2 Equipment Safety General Precautions

The previous section summarized safety precautions applicable to personnel. Improper handling
or maintenance can also damage the battery. The following summarizes common considerations
for the battery:
Install stationary batteries only on racks designed for the types of cells to be installed. Follow
the manufacturers guidance with regard to the design and material of the battery rack.
10-2

Do not lift any cell by its terminal posts. Use a lifting belt, spreader board, or other device
approved by the manufacturer to move cells; internal cell damage can result if the cells are
mishandled.
Do not adjust or tamper with seal nuts around cell posts, if installed.
Never use solvents or unapproved greases on cells or connections. Solvents can attack and
even crack the plastic cell case. Unapproved greases can also attack plastic materials on the
cell. Use only clean water and the proper neutralizing compound, as necessary, to clean the
battery racks and containers.
Do not use a steel brush, brass brush, emery cloth, sandpaper, steel wool or metal file to
clean cell posts and connectors; these tools can damage the lead plating.
Keep battery tops clean and neutralize any spilled electrolyte to minimize the possibility of
electrical shock and short circuit, and to reduce rack corrosion.
Use two insulated wrenches when checking the connection torque to minimize stress on the
connection hardware.
Follow the manufacturers instructions regarding the proper battery fire extinguishing
system. Some manufacturers do not recommend carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishers
because they can crack plastic jars and covers.
Unless required by the manufacturer for the particular battery design, do not remove flame
arrestors. Use the filling funnel to add water or check the electrolyte.
Provide proper support for cables connected to cell terminals. Excessive strain from improper
cable arrangements can damage cell terminal posts and seals.
Do not uses cables as handles. This practice can stress the termination points and cause
terminal post seal leakage.
Never interchange hydrometers and thermometers between lead-antimony, lead-calcium, and

nickel-cadmium batteries. Sulfuric acid will permanently damage a nickel-cadmium battery.
Antimony traces from a lead-antimony battery can contaminate a lead-calcium cell and result
in long-term degradation.
10.3 Hydrogen Generation Precautions

Hydrogen and oxygen gases can be released from a battery during operation. Oxygen evolves at
the positive plate and hydrogen at the negative plate. Gases are generated primarily during
battery charging; the rate of gas evolution depends on the charge voltage and the charge current
that is not absorbed by the battery. The excess charge current causes electrolysis of the water in
the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen.
The period after which the battery is fully charged and charging current mainly results in gas
generation is called overcharge. The worst condition for hydrogen generation exists when
maximum current is forced into a fully charged battery. Charging voltages at or above the
equalizing charge level encourage gas evolution. Table 10-1 summarizes the conditions during
which hydrogen gas can be generated.
10-3

Table 10-1
Battery Conditions That Generate Hydrogen
Hydrogen Gas Generation
Operating Condition
Open circuit, discharge, and initial recharge

(slight gas evolution can occur from cells on
open circuit as a result of local action).
Vented cells: float charge.

VRLA cells: occasional venting during float
charge as a result of grid corrosion and to
the extent that the recombination efficiency
is less than 100 percent.
Potential for maximum gas emission
Equalize charge and near end of recharge.
Maximum gas emission
Overcharge.
Cells are equipped with flame arrestors designed to allow gases to escape the battery while
preventing external sparks from igniting any gases inside the battery. A 4% hydrogen
concentration is flammable. The ventilation system in a battery area should be designed to keep
hydrogen concentration under 2%.
Some typical rules of thumb regarding hydrogen gas generation are provided below:
Gassing will double for each 0.05 V increase in float voltage for a fully charged cell.
Gassing will double for each 15F (9.4C) rise in temperature.
Gassing will increase by 10% for each 2,000 ft (609.6 meters) elevation change.
When all charging current is expended to liberate gases, each ampere-hour produces
3
0.01476 ft (0.418 liters) of hydrogen gas.
Per IEEE 484, the maximum hydrogen generation rate is 0.000269 ft3 (0.00762 liters)
/minute/ ampere/cell.
Some amount of hydrogen is almost always present inside a lead-acid battery. And, hydrogen, in
sufficient quantity, can be explosive. For these reasons, care should always be taken around a
battery; never assume that it is safe. Figure 10-1 shows an example of the results of a hydrogen
explosion that was caused by a static discharge. The static charge was developed by wiping the
top of the cell with a dry cloth. This is a vented cell with a flame arrestor to allow hydrogen to
escape from the top of the cell. Even so, enough hydrogen was still present inside the cell to
cause an explosion. Notice that the tops of two cells are completely blown off. Luckily, the
technician holding the cloth was unharmed.
10-4

Figure 10-1
Hydrogen Explosion Damage to Battery Cells
Particular care should be taken with older lead-antimony batteries. The float current of a leadantimony cell will increase throughout its life as a consequence of antimony poisoning of the
negative plate. The increased float current also increases the rate of gas emission. A leadantimony cell at end of life can generate up to 15 times as much hydrogen as an equivalent leadcalcium cell.
VRLA batteries are also a potential source of hydrogen gas. Under normal operating conditions
with a VRLA cell recombining gases internally, very little hydrogen gas is generated. However,
during equalize charge conditions, the rate of hydrogen gas generation can exceed the
recombination ability of the cell, resulting in hydrogen venting through the pressure relief valve.
For this reason, VRLA cells should be designed as if they will periodically vent hydrogen gas.
Container cracks and post seal failures also represent potential hydrogen leak paths out of the
cell. Care should be taken whenever working around batteries.
10.4 Short Circuit Dangers

Personnel can become complacent when working around batteries. DC systems are often
mistakenly considered to operate at innocent voltages. But, dc current represents a more severe
shock hazard than an equivalent ac current because the current has no zero crossing, thus making
it harder to break away from an electrical shock.
A single cell can produce a surprising amount of current when a small resistance is placed across
its terminals. Consider the simple model of a cell shown in Figure 10-2. A typical cell resistance
is on the order of 0.0002 ohms. A well-grounded short circuit can have a resistance on the order
of 0.000025 ohms.
10-5

R
2V
Figure 10-2
Short Circuit Current Generated Across Cell Terminals
The expected short circuit current in the above case is calculated by Ohms Law as:
I=
2.0 volts
V
=
= 8889 amperes
R S + R F 0.000225
The power generated by this current is given by:
P = I 2 R = ( 8889) 0.000225 = 17,778 watts

2
As shown above, batteries can produce lethal currents. Also, the effects of a short circuit across
battery terminals can create other personnel and equipment hazards, including damage from
vaporized or molten metal fragments, and flash burn damage to the skin and eyes. The need to
follow all appropriate safety precautions is again emphasized.
10.5 Electrolyte Spill Precautions

Lead-acid batteries contain a sulfuric acid electrolyte that can cause burns and other serious
injury. Nickel-cadmium batteries contain a strong alkaline electrolyte, potassium hydroxide,
which is very caustic. Avoid any skin contact with the electrolyte. In the event of skin contact
with the electrolyte, flush immediately and thoroughly with water. If the electrolyte comes into
contact with eyes, flush immediately with water and seek medical assistance. Be familiar with
how to use emergency eyewash equipment, which should always be close at hand.
10-6

Neutralize sulfuric acid electrolyte spills on clothing or other material with a bicarbonate of soda
(baking soda) solution [1 pound (0.454 kg) of bicarbonate of soda per gallon (3.79 liters) of
water]. Apply the solution to any spills until bubbling stops and rinse with clean water.
Neutralize potassium hydroxide electrolyte from nickel-cadmium batteries with a boric acid
solution of 7 ounces (0.199 kg) boric acid per gallon (3.79 liters) of water. When mixing a
sulfuric acid electrolyte solution, always add the acid to the water. Pour the acid into the water
slowly and stir constantly to avoid excessive heat or violent chemical reaction. When preparing
an electrolyte solution for a nickel-cadmium battery, mix it carefully in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
Wear proper safety clothing to prevent contact with acid or live electrical connections. Whenever
working around batteries, wear a rubber apron and rubber gloves. Ensure goggles and face
shields are available for personnel.
10-7
11
VENTED LEAD-ACID BATTERY INSPECTIONS
Section 11 provides detailed information relating to periodic inspection and maintenance of

vented lead-acid batteries. The information provided is based on industry standards, industry
papers, manufacturers literature, regulatory guidance, and industry experience. In particular,
IEEE 450 provides standardized maintenance guidance and is a principal reference source for
this section.
The recommendations in industry standards are intended to ensure that important battery
installations are maintained in a high degree of readiness. These recommendations, taken in their
entirety, might be more than is needed for a non-critical application. Ultimately, the user has to
determine the appropriate level of maintenance for particular applications. In addition to the
information presented here, the manufacturers literature should be reviewed for requirements
applicable to a specific battery, application, or configuration.
11.1 General Inspections

General inspections are normally performed at least once a month, but might be performed as
frequently as once a week. Some users perform these inspections as infrequently as quarterly, or
even less frequently. There is not necessarily a set inspection frequency that is appropriate for all
situations. The inspection frequency established for each battery will be influenced by the
following considerations:
Company or plant policy for maintenance
Maintenance program objectives and desired level of reliability
Technical Specification requirements at nuclear plants
Safety classification or importance of the battery
Available personnel resources (1 or 2 persons might be responsible for > 200 substations)
Historical experience
Battery types installed
Battery-related alarms that are available remotely
Battery monitoring system installation
11-1

Vented Lead-Acid Battery Inspections
The general inspections will be referred to here as monthly inspections for consistency with
industry standards and manufacturer's recommendations. This section presents the following
information related to monthly inspections:
The purpose of each inspection and what the inspection does or does not accomplish
Battery degradation and failures that are detectable by each inspection
A step-by-step description of how to perform each inspection
Precautions and limitations to observe while performing each inspection
Monthly inspections provide a general assessment of the batterys condition and verify that it is
being maintained within normal operating limits. All inspections should be made with the battery
operating under normal float conditions. Monthly inspections include the following:
Visual inspection of the battery, battery rack or cabinet, and battery area
Measurement of float voltage at the battery terminals
Check of charger output current and voltage
Visual check of electrolyte levels
Measurement of battery area ambient temperature and check of ventilation equipment

condition
Measurement of pilot cell voltage, specific gravity, and electrolyte temperature
Check for battery grounds
The monthly inspection results should be recorded on a data sheet or form to support a long-term
battery trending program. Typical data sheets are provided by the manufacturer.
11.1.1 Pilot Cell Selection Considerations
The following monthly checks are normally performed on vented lead-acid battery pilot cell(s):
Cell voltage
Electrolyte temperature
Pilot cells are intended to provide a general indication of the battery status with regard to
voltage, specific gravity, and temperature. Quarterly and annual inspections usually involve
some check of all the cells. The actual number of pilot cells is determined by the plant; battery
manufacturers sometimes specify only a single pilot cell for each battery installation. If the
battery uses more than one rack, one pilot cell per rack is sometimes selected to ensure that the
effects of ambient temperature variations in the area are detected.
11-2

Pilot cells should be periodically rotated, but generally no more frequently than annually.
Because the electrolyte checks can remove small amounts of electrolyte from the cell, periodic
rotation ensures that excessive electrolyte is not removed from any single cell.
The following factors should be considered in selecting pilot cells:
Is the pilot cell accessible? Although the cell might be representative of the general state of
the battery, personnel safety considerations should preclude its selection if it is in a hard to
reach spot.
Is the pilot cell near a ventilation duct? The temperature of the cell should be near the
average battery temperature.
Is the pilot cell one of the lower-voltage cells? Typically, the pilot cell has one of the lowest
voltages to ensure that minimum specifications are met. The lowest-voltage cell is often
selected to be the pilot cell. Periodic rotation of a pilot cell should be based on annual
inspection data.
Has the cell been a pilot cell in the past? Pilot cells should be periodically rotated, and the
same cell should not be used again unless there is a compelling reason for its selection.
11.1.2 General Visual Inspection

11.1.2.1
Purpose of Inspection
The purpose of the monthly visual inspection is to assess the general condition of the battery and
battery area. This monthly inspection is intended to check for the more conspicuous problems
that can be encountered. The following types of battery degradation can be detected during the
general visual inspection:
Abnormal battery area ambient temperature
Improper operation of the battery area ventilation system
Electrolyte leakage or presence of electrolyte on cell covers
Cracked cells or flame arrestors
A detailed visual inspection of each cell is recommended on an annual basis. See Section 11.3.1
for annual visual inspections.
11.1.2.2
Inspection Procedure
CAUTION: Review and observe all safety precautions before working with
energized dc equipment and batteries.
11-3

NOTE:
Whenever performing maintenance inspections, ensure that the

manufacturers instruction manuals for the battery and charger are
available for review.
1. Verify that battery area safety equipment is available and operational. This includes the eye
wash station, shower, and fire extinguisher, as applicable.
2. Verify that personal safety equipment is available and in good condition. This includes
goggles, face shields, plastic or rubber aprons, and gloves.
3. Verify that battery cleaning and acid neutralization supplies are available. Baking soda,
water, a nonconductive container for mixing, and wiping cloths are recommended.
4. Visually inspect the battery area for cleanliness. Assure that the area is dry and clear of
debris.
5. Measure and record the battery area ambient temperature. The desired temperature should be
in the range of 70F to 80F (21.1C to 26.7C).
NOTE:
Extended operation at a high temperature shortens battery life. In

general, battery life is reduced by approximately 50% for every 15F
(9.4C) of continuous operation above 77F (25C).
NOTE:
If a battery is normally maintained at a temperature significantly

different than 77F (25C), verify that the float voltage is set in
accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
6. If applicable, verify that the battery area ventilation system is operating by checking for air
flow through the ventilation exhaust ducts.
7. Visually inspect all cell jars and the battery rack for cleanliness and any signs of damage or
cracking. Clean cell jars and tops as follows:
a. Clean jars or covers with a lint-free cloth moistened with clean water.
b. electrolyte has been spilled on the cover or jar, moisten the cloth with an electrolyteneutralizing agent. The proper neutralizing agent is a solution of 1 pound (0.454 kg) of
bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) per gallon (3.79 liters) of water. Apply the moistened
cloth to the electrolyte spill until any bubbling stops.
c. When cleaning is complete, wipe the surface dry with a clean dry cloth.
11-4

CAUTION: Use only clean water for cleaning battery components. Solvents
and greases can damage the cell containers. Follow the
manufacturers instructions closely to avoid inadvertent harm to
the battery.
8. Visually inspect the cell posts for corrosion and damage. Wipe off any signs of corrosion
from the posts. Regrease the post with anticorrosion grease, if necessary. Check for any
obvious signs of corrosion on the battery rack or cabinet.
9. Verify that all cell vent and dust caps are present, and inspect each for damage.
10. Verify that electrolyte levels of all cells are between the high- and low-level marks on the
cells.
NOTE:
If the electrolyte level is below the low-level mark, water should be

added. Water addition is not urgently required as long as the
electrolyte is above the plates and the plates are not in immediate
danger of being exposed. The bottom of the flame arrestor also needs
to be covered for hydrogen safety considerations. Electrolyte above
the high-level line will not affect safety or capacity unless the cell
reaches an overflow condition. See section 11.1.4.2 for more
information.
11.1.3 Float Voltage Checks

11.1.3.1
Purpose of Float Voltage Checks
A stationary battery in full float operation is connected to a battery charger. The charger keeps
the battery in a fully charged condition so that it can supply emergency power upon loss of the
normal power source. During normal operation, the battery charger voltage is high enough so
that a trickle charge current overcomes the batterys tendency to self-discharge and keeps the
battery in a fully charged condition.
The charger float voltage must be carefully controlled within prescribed limits; either too high or
too low a voltage will have a detrimental effect on battery performance. The purpose of the float
voltage check is to verify that the battery is maintained within the manufacturers recommended
limits. Float voltage checks are important to perform; however, the float voltage does not alone
confirm adequate cell capacity. Figure 11-1 shows a typical example in which the float voltage
of each cell is compared to its capacity as measured by a discharge test (this particular example
includes over 1,100 cells). As can be seen, there is little or no correlation between float voltage
and capacity (the same concept applies to specific gravity since voltage and specific gravity are
related). Some cells with either low or high float voltages exhibited rated capacity while some
cells within the normal float voltage range exhibited low capacity. This discussion is intended to
cover normal or near normal voltage variations; the capacity of a cell with a grossly low voltage,
such as 1.8 V is clearly questionable.
11-5

140
120
100
Capacity
(percent)
80
60
40
20
0
2.18
2.20
2.24
2.26
2.28
2.30
2.32
2.34
Float Voltage Before Discharge Test
Figure 11-1
Lack of Correlation Between Float Voltage and Cell Capacity
Although float voltage checks do not alone provide an indication of cell capacity; float voltage is
still an important parameter. An improper float voltage can cause cell degradation and early
failure. The following sections provide additional information regarding the importance of float
voltage checks.
11.1.3.2
Effects of Overcharging and Undercharging
Too high a float voltage is referred to as overcharging. Overcharging a lead-acid battery can
The battery life can be reduced by increased plate grid corrosion. The corrosion rate of the
positive plate grids, straps, and terminals is accelerated if the charging rate is too high. The
long-term effect is reduced battery capacity due to accelerated battery aging.
Gas generation is increased and therefore the battery must be watered more frequently. Also,
excessive gas generation can cause shedding of the plate active material. This will be evident
as mossing or excessive sediment.
The battery electrolyte temperature can increase, a condition known to reduce battery life. A
significant increase in the electrolyte temperatures of properly installed vented cells is
unlikely because of their inherently good heat dissipation characteristics.
11-6

Low charger float voltage is referred to as undercharging. Undercharging a lead-acid battery can
The battery might not remain fully charged, which could affect its ability to perform its
design function.
Lead sulfate can form on the plates, thereby decreasing battery capacity and possibly
damaging the plates.
The symptoms of battery undercharging include:
Reduced capacity (due to the battery not being fully charged)
Prolonged undercharging can result in an excessive buildup of lead sulfate on the plates. Lead
sulfate physically occupies more space than lead dioxide and an excessive buildup can damage,
warp, or buckle the plates. After a period of undercharging, the battery might require an
equalizing charge to restore the plates to their normal condition.
11.1.3.3
Float Voltage Relationship to Cell Open Circuit Voltage
The proper float voltage for a battery is directly related to the battery open circuit voltage. The
nominal open circuit voltage is a function of the cell construction materials and electrolyte
concentration. Open circuit voltage is related to specific gravity by a constant, as shown in the
following equation:
Open circuit voltage = Specific gravity + 0.845
For example, the open circuit voltage of a cell with an electrolyte specific gravity of 1.215 is
2.06 V (1.215 + 0.845 = 2.06). The charging float voltage must be greater than the open circuit
voltage of the cell to overcome the cells internal resistance and allow charging current to flow
through the cell. The actual difference between the cell open circuit voltage and the desired
charging float voltage is a function of the grid alloy type, specific gravity, and temperature, but is
usually in the range of 0.10 V to 0.20 V at 77F (25C).
Table 11-1 shows typical float voltage ranges per cell for a lead-calcium battery at 77F (25C).
The information in this table is intended for general information; the manufacturers technical
manual should be consulted for recommended float voltages applicable to a specific cell type.
11-7

Table 11-1
Typical Vented Lead-Calcium Cell Float Voltage at 77F (25C)
Electrolyte
Specific Gravity
Nominal Open
Circuit Voltage
Minimum Float
Charging Voltage
With Periodic
Equalization
Typical Float
Charging Voltage
Range
1.210
2.05
2.17
2.202.25
1.215
2.06
2.18
2.212.26
1.225
2.07
2.19
2.222.27
1.250
2.09
2.20
2.252.30
As shown in Table 11-1, there is a range of acceptable float voltage for a given nominal specific
gravity. The higher end of the float voltage range is usually recommended for a lead-calcium
battery because this minimizes or eliminates the need for periodic equalizing charges. The gas
generation rate increases because of the higher float voltage, but not to a degree that requires
closer attention to the electrolyte level. Refer to the manufacturers operating manual for the
recommended float voltage range for a particular battery.
The information provided in Table 11-1 is on a per cell basis. The desired battery float voltage is
multiplied by the number of cells to determine the actual charger output voltage. For example, if
the desired float voltage is 2.24 V per cell for a 60-cell battery, the desired battery float voltage is
134.4 V. If a cell is removed from service or jumpered out, the charger output voltage should be
adjusted to account for the reduced number of cells. Otherwise, the charger could provide a per
cell float voltage above the manufacturers recommended range.
11.1.3.4
Effect of Ambient Temperature on Float Voltage
A lead-acid battery is an electrochemical device; heat accelerates chemical activity and cold
slows it down. In relation to float voltage, a higher than normal operating temperature affects a
lead-acid battery as follows:
The rate of self discharge is increased.
The charging current is increased for a given charge voltage (overcharging).
A lower than normal operating temperature has the opposite effects.
Because battery characteristics change with temperature, a float voltage appropriate for 77F
(25C) could result in overcharging at higher temperatures and undercharging at lower
temperatures. For example, if the battery is normally at a temperature significantly lower than
77F (25C) but is set for a float voltage appropriate for 77F (25C), the battery can eventually
exhibit symptoms associated with undercharging.
11-8

If the average battery temperature varies significantly from 77F (25C), adjustment of the float
voltage might be desirable. If an adjustment is performed, the float voltage is generally
compensated as follows:
For each 1F (0.6C) above 77F (25C), subtract 0.0028 V per cell from the recommended
voltage
For each 1F (0.6C) below 77F (25C), add 0.0028 V per cell to the recommended voltage
Adjustment of the float voltage to compensate for temperature should only be made with the
manufacturers concurrence. Contact the manufacturer for the proper amount of compensation
for a particular battery type and ambient temperature.
11.1.3.5
Effect of Cell-to-Cell Float Voltage Variations
Float voltage across each cell in a battery is not identical. Properly performing lead-calcium cells
can vary by up to 0.04 V from the average cell voltage under normal conditions. If an
individual cell has a voltage significantly different from the per-cell average voltage for the
battery, the cell should be investigated for possible problems. Typical problems that could be
encountered are listed in Table 11-2. The manufacturers technical manual should be consulted
for the maximum allowable cell-to-cell voltage variation.
Table 11-2
Possible Causes for Abnormal Cell Float Voltages
Symptom
Possible Problem
Corrective Action
Low Float Voltage
Electrolyte on the cell cover. Electrolyte

spilled on the cell cover forms a
conductive path across the cell terminals.
Neutralize any spilled

electrolyte and clean the
cell cover.
Cell heated by an external source. A

higher cell temperature increases the
current required to maintain the cell at
the same float voltage; however, the float
current is determined by the average of
all cells in the battery. Thus, a cell at a
higher temperature will show a lower
float voltage.
Shield the cell from the

heat source.
Contaminated electrolyte. If the

electrolyte is contaminated, the cell float
voltage can be reduced.
Perform a cell visual

inspection, electrolyte
analysis, or both. Consult
the manufacturer.
Internal damage. Internal damage or

corrosion can affect the individual cell
float voltage.

Consult the manufacturer.
11-9

Symptom
Possible Problem
High Float
Voltage
11.1.3.6
Corrective Action
Cell cooled by an external source. A

lower cell temperature decreases the
current required to maintain the cell at
the same float voltage; however, the float
current is determined by the average of
all cells in the battery. Thus, a cell at a
lower temperature will show a higher
float voltage.
Shield the cell from the

source of cooling.
Internal damage. This could indicate that

the cell has less capacity than the other
cells.

Consult the manufacturer
for further action.
1. Verify that the voltmeter calibration has not expired. Use a calibrated voltmeter with an
accuracy of at least 0.5% of the measured voltage to monitor battery and cell voltages.
Assure that the voltmeter test leads are well insulated and securely attached to the meter to
prevent them from falling onto a cell and causing a short circuit.
CAUTION: Because the per-cell float voltages are accurate cell indicators
only when taken on a fully charged, floating battery, be sure that
at least 72 hours have elapsed since the system was discharged or
equalized.
2. Record the charger output voltage and current. Verify that the output voltage is within the
desired range.
CAUTION: Always observe the proper polarity when taking voltage
measurements to avoid positive and negative calibration
differences in the voltmeter.
NOTE:
11-10
If possible, measure the float current going to the battery. The actual
battery charging current is another indicator of state of charge.

3. Measure and record the voltage at the battery terminals. Divide this measurement by the
number of cells in the battery to confirm that the average individual cell voltage is within the
range recommended by the manufacturer.
4. If float voltage is outside the recommended range, adjust the charger output to the
recommended value in accordance with plant procedures.
5. Measure and record the pilot cell float voltages.
6. Compare the pilot cell voltages to the range recommended by the manufacturer. Also,
compare the pilot cell voltages to the average individual cell voltage calculated above in Step
3. Ensure that the voltage readings are within the tolerance specified by the manufacturer for
the particular battery. If any individual cell measurements exceed the manufacturers
recommended tolerance, investigate for abnormal conditions.
7. Compare the results with previous inspection results to identify any trends in battery and cell
performance.
11.1.4 Electrolyte Checks
11.1.4.1
Background Information
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of the electrolyte to the density of water, or
in equation form:
Specific gravity =
Density of electrolyte
Density of water
The electrolyte in a lead-acid battery is a solution of sulfuric acid and water. The electrolyte in a
typical battery contains approximately 30% sulfuric acid and 70% water by volume to obtain a
nominal specific gravity of 1.215. The electrolyte participates in the battery chemical reaction to
produce electrical current. During a period of discharge, the sulfuric acid combines with lead
dioxide from the positive plates and lead from the negative plates to form lead sulfate and water.
As a result, the sulfuric acid concentration and electrolyte specific gravity decrease during
discharge. During a period of recharge, the process is reversed with the result that the original
sulfuric acid concentration is restored.
If the specific gravity of a cells electrolyte is low, the cell is not fully charged. The
interpretation of a low specific gravity is that the cell might not have the capacity needed to
perform its design basis discharge because it is not fully charged. In this case, corrective action is
needed to restore the cell to a fully charged condition. But, a perfectly normal specific gravity
does not alone mean that a cell has its full capacity; it only means that it is fully charged. This is
an important distinction; fully charged does not mean full-rated capacity. Both a brand-new cell
with over 100% capacity and a cell at its end of life (< 80% capacity) will usually have a normal
electrolyte specific gravity.
11-11

Summarizing, a low specific gravity is a sign that the cell is not fully charged and corrective
action is needed. However, a normal specific gravity only means that the cell is probably fully
charged, but is not alone an indicator of adequate cell capacity. Other factors, such as age and
condition of the battery plates, also have an impact on battery capacity. Figure 11-1 shows the
results of several tests to determine a correlation between cell float voltage and actual battery
capacity. As can be seen, the battery capacity demonstrated no correlation to the float voltage.
Because cell voltage and electrolyte specific gravity are directly related, these conclusions apply
equally to float voltage and specific gravity.
11.1.4.2
Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations
Keeping the battery fully charged during normal float operation means that there is always a
slight amount of charging current flow in excess of that required to offset the self-discharge of
the cells. The excess charging current through a fully charged cell causes electrolysis of water
into hydrogen and oxygen gas. These gases are often referred to as charge gases. Charge gases
escape through the flame arrestor of a vented cell. This dissociation of water into gas results in a
gradual and predictable decline in the electrolyte level. Evaporation also contributes to a loss of
electrolyte water.
Vented lead-acid stationary batteries are designed with excess electrolyte, termed highly flooded,
to minimize maintenance and the watering interval. A low electrolyte level does not indicate a
loss of sulfuric acid; only water is lost by evaporation or charge gases. Thus, the sulfuric acid is
still available to participate in the electrochemical reaction to produce electrical power. A
decrease in electrolyte level increases the concentration of sulfuric acid, thereby increasing
specific gravity. Unless the active material of the plates becomes exposed, the increase in
specific gravity can actually increase available capacity by a small amount. If a portion of the
plates becomes exposed, the exposed area is not fully capable of participating in the chemical
reaction and capacity might be reduced.
Cells are marked with high- and low-level marks so that maintenance personnel can judge when
to add distilled water to a cell, and how much. An electrolyte level below the low-level mark
does not necessarily mean that the battery is inoperable or incapable of producing its rated
capacity; as long as the electrolyte is above the battery plates, battery capacity should not be
affected.
If the electrolyte level falls below the bottom of the filling funnel, gases can exit the cell via the
funnel rather than through the flame arrestor, this situation could present an explosion hazard
during excessive charging because an unprotected path exists for flame back into the cell. For
this reason, the level should always be above both the plates and the bottom of the filling funnel.
If the plates are exposed because of a low electrolyte level, the exposed portion can experience
accelerated sulfation, which results in loss of battery capacity. Permanent damage to the plates
can also occur if a low level is allowed to persist. The manufacturer should be consulted if a low
electrolyte level has caused plate exposure.
11-12

Too high an electrolyte level could result in an overflow of electrolyte during an equalizing
charge when the cell is gassing vigorously. Overflowing electrolyte can result in shock and short
circuit hazards, and a loss of electrolyte acid.
11.1.4.3
Specific Gravity Measurements
Specific gravity measurements are taken with a hydrometer, a calibrated float device inside a
clear cylinder. When the cylinder is filled with electrolyte, the float indicates the specific gravity
by its position in the electrolyte. Stationary battery hydrometers are usually calibrated for 77F
(25C) with a calibrated range of 1.100 to 1.250 (or higher) specific gravity. The float sinks
lower in the electrolyte as the electrolyte specific gravity decreases. A typical hydrometer is
shown in Figure 11-2. Digital hydrometers are also readily available; the manufacturer's
literature should be reviewed for information specific to a given digital hydrometer.
Hydrometer Bulb
Hydrometer Float
Hydrometer
Hydrometer Tube (or Hose)
Battery Cell
Electrolyte
Withdrawal
Tube
Figure 11-2
Stationary Battery Hydrometer
Lead-acid batteries are rated for performance at 77F (25C). The desired average operating
temperature is 77F (25C), with a temperature variation among all cells of less than 5F (3C).
The specific gravity of the electrolyte varies with the electrolyte temperature. Higher
temperatures cause the electrolyte to expand, and result in a decrease in density and specific
gravity. The opposite is true for cooler temperatures. This temperature effect is often accounted
for during specific gravity measurements so that the readings can be compared against a
reference set of conditions as well as against different sets of data taken at different temperatures.
11-13

Most hydrometers are calibrated for use at 77F (25C), consistent with conventional battery
ratings. If the electrolyte temperature is not at 77F (25C), the electrolyte specific gravity
measurement can be corrected for temperature in accordance with Table 11-3.
Table 11-3
Specific Gravity Temperature Correction Factors
Temp
(F)
Correction to
Specific Gravity
Temp
(F)
Correction to
Specific Gravity
91
90
89
+ 0.004
74
73
72
- 0.001
88
87
86
+ 0.003
71
70
69
- 0.002
85
84
83
+ 0.002
68
67
66
- 0.003
82
81
80
+ 0.001
65
64
63
- 0.004
79
78
77
76
75
Referring to Table 11-3, if the electrolyte temperature is 83F (28.3C) and the measured
specific gravity is 1.210, the temperature corrected specific gravity is 1.210 + 0.002 = 1.212.
Notice that within the range of 63F to 91F (17.2C to 32.8C), the effect of temperature on
electrolyte specific gravity is minor, less than the accuracy of a typical hydrometer. As can be
seen, temperature correction will have a negligible effect on the specific gravity measurement if
the temperature is near 77F (25C). Digital hydrometers often automatically correct for the
ambient temperature.
Annex A of IEEE 450-1995 states that level correction is not required, provided that the
electrolyte level is between the high and low level marks, and the temperature-corrected specific
gravity is within the manufacturers nominal specific gravity range. This section provides
information for the benefit of any users that elect to perform level correction.
11-14

During float operation, water in the electrolyte slowly converts to hydrogen and oxygen gas
because of electrolysis caused by the float current; consequently, the electrolyte level gradually
drops. Only the water in the electrolyte is lost to the atmosphere by the electrolysis process. As a
result, the sulfuric acid concentration and the electrolyte specific gravity increase as the level
drops.
As the level drops from the high-level mark to the low-level mark, it is not unusual for the
specific gravity to increase from the nominal 1.215 to as high as 1.240. Table 11-4 shows level
correction factors for one particular type of cell. The level correction factors in Table 11-4 are
interpreted as follows. An electrolyte specific gravity measurement is taken. Then the measured
value is adjusted by the correction factor to predict the expected specific gravity at the high-level
mark.
Table 11-4
Example of Specific Gravity Level Correction Factors
Level Measured From High

Level Mark (inches)
Correction to
Specific Gravity
0 (high level mark)
0.000
-1/8
-0.004
-2/8
-0.008
-3/8
-0.011
-4/8
-0.015
-5/8
-0.019
-6/8
-0.023
-7/8
-0.026
-1
-0.030
CAUTION: Obtain specific gravity level correction factors for a particular

cell from the manufacturer; Table 11-4 is for illustrative purposes
only. The values vary according to cell size, type, and
construction.
As shown in Table 11-4, the reference point is the high-level mark. If the cell electrolyte level is
near the high level mark, a level effect is not expected.
As discussed in Section 11.1.3.4, the effect of temperature on electrolyte specific gravity is a
physical phenomenon applicable to any vented lead-acid battery. However, the effect of
electrolyte level variations on specific gravity for a given battery must be obtained from the
manufacturer. The amount of increase in electrolyte specific gravity as the level declines from
the high-level to the low-level line varies with the cell dimensions, construction, rated capacity,
and other manufacturer-specific factors. Manufacturers can provide the expected change in
specific gravity as the level drops from the high-level to the low-level mark.
11-15

11.1.4.4
Water Addition Considerations
Only water meeting the manufacturers purity specification should be added to a cell once it is in
normal float operation. An electrolyte solution should not be added unless there is reason to think
that electrolyte was removed or lost from the cell. Distilled water is generally used to minimize
the addition of impurities. During electrolysis, water is generated into gas, leaving any impurities
in the electrolyte (actually impurities tend to deposit on the positive or negative plates rather than
remain in the electrolyte). Over time, with repeated additions of impure water, the impurities can
build up to detrimental levels. Impurities in the electrolyte can affect the float current, selfdischarge rate, grid corrosion rate, recharge capability, and chemical reaction characteristics.
Adding distilled water to the high-level mark decreases the specific gravity. For a lead-calcium
battery under normal float charge, thorough mixing of the electrolyte can take up to 1016
weeks. This is typical and is not a cause for concern. A lead-antimony cell might stabilize within
2 weeks after water addition. The message here is that electrolyte specific gravity measurements
should be taken before, not after, water addition.
A lead-calcium cell operating under a normal float charge requires watering at intervals ranging
from 6 months to 18 months throughout its life. A lead-antimony cell might require watering at
3- to 6-month intervals when new and as frequently as monthly near end of life. The higher water
usage (and corresponding higher maintenance) of the lead-antimony battery is one of the reasons
that the lead-calcium battery became popular.
The rate of water decline can be estimated. One ampere of current will electrolyze 0.0018 pints
of water in 1 hour. If the normal float current is known, the water consumed per cell is:
Pints of water consumed = Float current (amperes) x 0.0018 Pints/Ampere-hour x Time
For example, a 1950 ampere-hour lead-calcium cell with an approximate float current of 0.23
amperes consumes 3.6 pints of water per year.
Water consumption increases with a higher temperature or float voltage. If the battery is floated
at too high a voltage, the float current increases and more water is consumed. The water
consumption rate approximately doubles for each 0.05 V per cell increase in the average per cell
charging voltage. Higher temperature results in an increased float current, and thus also causes
increased water consumption.
The criteria for water additions should be addressed by the maintenance program. In general,
adding water to near the high-level mark is desirable. Adding water all the way to the high-level
mark results in a level above the high-level mark during equalize charges (which is acceptable),
but it can also result in cell overflow in extreme cases. Some plants avoid any possibility of
overflow by adding water only to the midpoint between the low- and high-level marks; however,
this approach involves the expense of more frequent watering.
11-16

11.1.4.5
Electrolyte Stratification
Electrolyte stratification is a difference in electrolyte density between the top and the bottom of
the cell, and can occur after water addition or after a battery recharge following a discharge.
Stratification does not appreciably affect the ability of the battery to produce power, but the
overall capacity for shorter-term discharges might be slightly reduced.
When the battery is recharged, the lead sulfate on the plates is converted back to lead or lead
dioxide with a release of sulfate ions. These sulfate ions recombine to produce sulfuric acid with
a density greater than that of the dilute electrolyte. As a result, the heavier acid falls to the
bottom of the cell. A specific gravity measurement taken during or just after a recharge will
show that the specific gravity at the top of the cell is lower than the specific gravity at the bottom
of the cell.
For a lead-calcium cell on normal float charge, it can take several weeks before the electrolyte is
thoroughly circulated with a more uniform specific gravity. Stratification can also be corrected
by an equalize charge. The gassing produced by an equalize charge tends to agitate the
electrolyte and promote mixing.
This stratification effect during recharge also causes the measured cell specific gravity to lag
behind the true specific gravity because of the density variation across the cell. Charging current
can be monitored during recharge to determine the state of charge; the battery is fully charged
when the charging current is stabilized at a low value (typically < 2 amperes for a larger battery).
Some manufacturers place the electrolyte sampling tubes inside the cell so that the specific
gravity at the midpoint of the cell can be measured. This arrangement allows an average cell
specific gravity to be obtained.
11.1.4.6
CAUTION: Complete all electrolyte checks before adding any water. It can
take several weeks for the electrolyte to mix thoroughly in a leadcalcium cell in normal standby service.
NOTE:
This procedure is general in nature and applies to the monthly,

quarterly, and annual inspections. The monthly inspections of
electrolyte specific gravity and temperature are usually limited to the
pilot cell(s); the quarterly inspections might only check 10% of the
cells; and the annual inspection normally checks all cells.
11-17

1. Measure and record the cell electrolyte level. Measurement accuracy should be within 1/8
inch (3.175 mm). The high-level mark should be treated as the zero point.
CAUTION: Never interchange hydrometers and thermometers among leadantimony, lead-calcium, and nickel-cadmium batteries. Sulfuric
acid traces from a lead-acid battery will permanently damage a
nickel-cadmium battery. Antimony traces from a lead-antimony
battery will eventually contaminate a lead-calcium cell and result
in long-term degradation.
2. Measure and record the cell electrolyte temperature to the nearest whole degree.
NOTE:
The electrolyte temperature of all measured cells should be within

5F (3C) of one another for an ideal battery installation.
Temperature variations in excess of 5F (3C) should be investigated
and resolved, if possible. Minor temperature variations in excess of
5F (3C) do not represent a battery operability concern but can
reduce battery life. An excessive temperature variation can result in
some cells being overcharged or undercharged; this situation is
known to reduce battery life.
3. Measure and record the cell electrolyte specific gravity. Use the hydrometer (see Figure
11-2) as follows to determine specific gravity:
a. Slowly squeeze the hydrometer bulb to force air out of the hydrometer.
b. Place the hydrometer hose or tube in the cell electrolyte withdrawal tube opening.
c. Release pressure on the hydrometer bulb to allow electrolyte to draw up into the clear
barrel of the hydrometer. Ensure sufficient electrolyte is inside the hydrometer so that the
hydrometer float is floating freely.
d. Hold the hydrometer vertically so the float is not in contact with the sides of the
hydrometer barrel. Read the hydrometer at the true liquid level along the calibrated scale.
4. If temperature correction is desired, refer to the cell temperature measurement previously
recorded for the cell and obtain the appropriate temperature correction factor from Table 113. Calculate and record the temperature-corrected specific gravity. Refer to Section 11.1.4.3
for more information.
11-18

5. If level correction is desired, refer to the electrolyte level previously recorded for the cell and
obtain the appropriate level correction factor from information provided by the manufacturer
for the specific cell type and size. Calculate and record the fully corrected specific gravity by
applying the level correction factor to the temperature-corrected specific gravity. Refer to
Section 11.1.4.3 for more information.
6. Further investigation is warranted if the corrected specific gravity is outside the
manufacturers recommended range. An equalizing charge might be required if the corrected
specific gravity is less than approximately 1.200 because this indicates that the cell has been
undercharged and is not fully charged. Consult the manufacturers technical manual for
equalizing charge recommendations.
7. Review the specific gravity readings for all measured cells to determine whether the specific
gravity variation between cells is excessive. Investigate any specific gravity readings that
exhibit a significant variation from the rest of the measurements.
8. Compare the results to previous inspection results to identify any trends in specific gravity.
9. Specific gravity problems should rarely be a real technical issue for a properly maintained
and fully charged battery. If the specific gravity of a cell or group of cells appears to be out
of specification, consider the following possible problems for applicability:
Was the hydrometer read properly?

Is the hydrometer accurate?
If the specific gravity was corrected for temperature, was the calculation performed
properly?
If the specific gravity was corrected for level, was the calculation performed properly?
Were the levels read correctly?
Are the cells fully charged? Compare to the float voltages.
Has water been added recently? If so, stratification effects can cause incorrect readings.
Is water purity acceptable?
Have the cells been overfilled or overflowed during an equalize charge?
For a high specific gravity, is it possible that acid rather than water was added to the cell?
Does a visual inspection indicate an unusual plate condition or cell condition?
11.2 Quarterly Inspections

Quarterly inspections are normally performed every three months. Some users combine the
monthly and quarterly inspections. Others perform the monthly inspections, but defer the
quarterly inspections to an annual or semi-annual basis. This section refers to these inspections
as quarterly for consistency with industry standards and manufacturers recommendations. The
monthly inspections described in Section 11.1 are a part of the quarterly inspections. Section
11.1 also covers the technical design bases for all of the listed quarterly inspections of vented
batteries.
11-19

Quarterly inspections provide confirmation that a battery system and individual cells are being
maintained within normal operating limits. All inspections should be made with the battery
operating under normal float conditions.
Quarterly inspections include all monthly inspections. The only difference between the monthly
and quarterly inspections for vented lead-acid batteries is that voltage and electrolyte checks are
performed on more than just the pilot cells during a quarterly inspection. The monthly
inspections for pilot cells provide only a limited verification that the battery and cells are
maintained within the manufacturers recommended limits. Quarterly inspections provide greater
confirmation that the battery is being maintained within recommended limits.
The following checks should be performed quarterly:
General visual inspection as described in Section 11.1.2.
Float voltage checks as described in Section 11.1.3, except the cell voltage checks should be
performed on all cells.
Electrolyte checks as described in Section 11.1.4, except the electrolyte specific gravity and
temperature measurements should include 10% of the cells, unless a greater number is
required otherwise by a separate governing document (such as nuclear plant Technical
Specifications).
A quarterly check of cells ensures that any problems can be corrected before the long-term
reliability of the battery is affected. Also, this frequency provides enough data so that battery
performance can be trended over time.
The quarterly inspection results should be recorded on a data sheet or form to support a longterm battery trending program.
11.3 Annual Inspections

Annual inspections are normally performed once a year. Because of differences in operational
cycles, plant policies, maintenance program objectives, or the safety classification of the battery,
these inspections might be performed less frequently. This section refers to these inspections as
annual for consistency with industry standards and manufacturer's recommendations.
This section presents the following information related to annual inspections:
The purpose of each inspection and what the inspection does or does not accomplish
Battery degradation and failures that are detectable by each inspection
A step-by-step description of how to perform each inspection
Precautions and limitations to observe while performing each inspection
The monthly and quarterly inspections provide a general assessment of battery condition and
indicate whether the battery is being maintained within normal operating limits. The additional
inspections conducted annually allow a more detailed assessment of battery aging and
degradation. The following inspections are included in the annual inspections:
11-20

Monthly and quarterly inspections on all cells (see Sections 11.1 and 11.2)
Detailed cell inspection (see Section 11.3.1)
Connection resistance checks (see Section 11.3.2)
Battery rack integrity check (see Section 11.3.3)
The annual inspection results should be recorded on a data sheet or form to support a long-term
battery trending program.
11.3.1 Detailed Battery Visual Inspection
A detailed visual inspection is not a quick, cursory inspection. A thorough inspection can take
several hours on a 125 V battery system.
11.3.1.1
The purpose of the detailed battery visual inspection is to identify any battery degradation not
readily identifiable by the monthly and quarterly inspections. Expected degradation due to
natural aging, as well as abnormal conditions, can be detected by a visual inspection.
The following inspection procedure covers the typical parameters and component features that
should be examined during the visual inspection. The manufacturers literature should also be
reviewed for information specific to a particular battery.
11.3.1.2
NOTE:
A detailed visual inspection involves a close examination of each

cell. Signs of degradation observed during this inspection do not
necessarily mean that the battery cannot perform its intended
function. The manufacturer should be consulted for further guidance
on specific inspection findings.
1. Perform the monthly visual inspection of the battery, battery rack, and battery area.
11-21

2. Perform the following inspections on seismically qualified installations:

a. Inspect the battery to ensure that an intercell spacer is present between each battery jar.
b. Inspect the intercell spacers for deterioration (broken, warped, crumbling, or otherwise
damaged).
c. Verify that the gap between each of the battery rack end rails and the battery jars at each
end is less than or equal to the manufacturer's recommended value.
3. Verify that the battery rack rail insulators are present and in good condition.
4. Examine the plates in each cell for sulfation, abnormal colors, and abnormal conditions:
a. Inspect the plates to determine whether they appear normal. Fully charged positive plates
are usually a deep black-brown to charcoal black color. Negative plates are normally a
medium gray color. As the battery is discharged, the negative and positive plates
approach each other in color and are normally dark gray when fully discharged. A lighter
positive plate on a battery that should be fully charged is a symptom of improper
charging. Consult the manufacturer for specific guidance on normal plate coloration for a
particular battery.
b. Inspect the grids for signs of cracking or degradation. Cracked grids are a symptom of
aging and can be a sign of reduced capacity.
c. Inspect the plates for sulfation. Sulfation generally appears as white or yellowish sulfate
crystals, flakes, or spots on the surface of the plates. A flashlight can sometimes detect
glittering sulfate crystals on the edges of the plates. See Section 16.1.5 for more
information if sulfation is present.
d. If the terminal posts contain copper inserts, inspect the plates for copper contamination.
A reddish color on the negative plates or negative plate strap indicates the presence of
copper contamination. Descriptive terms frequently used to characterize copper
contamination include brick red, rusty red, and pink-red. Cells with copper contamination
cannot be repaired and should be replaced when convenient. See Section 16.1.3 for more
information.
e. Inspect the cell and plates for symptoms of hydration. The likelihood of hydration is
remote for batteries in normal float service. Hydration occurs when a battery is left in a
completely discharged state for a prolonged period. Symptoms of hydration include a
horizontal band of white residue on the plates and a residue on the walls of the cell
container approximately midway up the cell. A hydrated battery must be replaced. See
Section 16.1.4 for more information.
5. Examine, if possible, the strap or bus bar connection to each plate and to the post of each cell
for any abnormalities.
11-22

6. Examine the cell plates, separators, and sediment space of each cell for signs of deterioration.
NOTE:
Signs of cell deterioration include warped plates or separators,

shedding of material from the positive plates, shorted plates,
excessive sediment in the bottom of the cell, and plates that have
dropped lower than the other plates.
NOTE:
Some sediment accumulation at the bottom of a cell is normal and is

not a concern unless the buildup is rapid. The sediment space below
the plates is normally sufficient to hold all sediment that accumulates
over the life of the battery. In a healthy cell, the sediment looks like a
layer of dust.
NOTE:
Dark sediment located in hills below the positive plate indicates

continuous overcharge. A gray deposit in hills below the negative
plates indicates continuous undercharge. If the sediment is excessive
and shows both positive and negative plate material, the battery has
probably undergone random periods of undercharge and overcharge.
NOTE:
If excessive sediment is noted, the top of the plates should be

inspected for mossing. During periods of overcharge or high charging
rates, active material can be shed from the positive plates. Gassing
carries the material to the top of the cell where it adheres to the
negative plates. Mossing is the accumulation of material on top of the
negative plates or strap that can eventually bridge the separator, and
cause a partial short with the positive plate.
7. Examine the posts of each cell to determine whether any of them have lifted to a higher level
than other cell posts in the battery.
NOTE:
The positive plates of a lead-acid battery normally expand or swell

during the life of the battery. This expansion can stress the terminal
post and lift it, resulting in post seal failures. Post seal leakage can be
indicated by either a wet post or excessive corrosion of the post
surfaces.
8. Inspect all terminal post and cell-to-cell electrical connections to ensure that they are clean
and free of corrosion. Verify that the connections are coated with anticorrosion grease.
Reapply anticorrosion grease, if necessary.
11-23

CAUTION: Apply anticorrosion grease strictly in accordance with

manufacturers instructions. If the anticorrosion grease is
overheated, it might exceed its flash point and start a fire.
9. Verify that all cells are properly numbered. The positive end of the battery is usually labeled
as Cell #1.
10. Check flame arrestors for cleanliness. If there are signs of dust, dirt, or foreign particles in a
flame arrestor, remove and clean it with a baking soda solution of 1 pound (0.454 kg) of soda
per gallon (3.79 liter) of water. Rinse the flame arrestor with clean water before
reinstallation.
11.3.2 Connection Resistance Measurements
11.3.2.1
A high connection resistance can cause excessive heating or abnormal voltage drop during
discharge. An exceedingly high resistance can cause severe damage during periods of high-rate
discharge. The integrity of all battery electrical connections should be confirmed annually to
ensure that all connections are acceptable; this inspection includes cell-to-cell (intercell) and
external circuit terminations. The adequacy of electrical terminations is best determined by
resistance measurements. Connections should be disassembled, cleaned, and reassembled only
when resistance measurements indicate a high-resistance termination.
Normal termination resistance varies with the battery size and termination technique. Normal
resistance values can range from less than 10 micro-ohms for a large battery to well over 100
micro-ohms for a small battery. The manufacturer should be consulted to determine acceptable
values for a particular battery.
Intercell and termination resistance values are recorded as a baseline upon initial installation;
thereafter, annual measurements are trended against the baseline data to identify any degradation
in the battery connections. Acceptance criteria should be established for resistance values;
corrective action is required whenever the acceptance criteria is exceeded. The urgency of the
corrective action should be based on the extent to which the measured resistance exceeds the
acceptance criteria. For example, two levels can be established:
An absolute upper limit requiring immediate corrective action regardless of plant status
A lower limit requiring correction as a routine scheduled activity
11.3.2.2
Micro-Ohmmeter Measurements
Connection resistance measurements are normally taken with a micro-ohmmeter. Microohmmeter measurements should be recorded to the nearest micro-ohm. Any digital readings in
the milliohm range should be converted to micro-ohms. For example, a reading of 0.050
milliohms would be recorded as 50 micro-ohms. The micro-ohmmeter must be calibrated and
should be accurate to within 2 micro-ohms.
11-24

Micro-ohmmeter measurements are normally limited to bolted connections. Some manufacturers

use multicell jars in which the internal connections are welded in place. In this case, only the
bolted connections on each end of the multicell jar are normally checked because the internal
welded connections are inaccessible.
In principle, intercell measurements are always taken from the post of one cell to the post of the
next cell. The cell is not included in the measurement; the resistance check is intended to
determine the resistance of the bolted connection between the two posts. Micro-ohmmeters are
-6
capable of precise resistance measurements to a fraction of a micro-ohm (10 ohm). Care must
be taken during micro-ohmmeter measurements; Figure 11-3 conceptually shows the proper test
connection method for a micro-ohmmeter. It is important that the micro-ohmmeter probes touch
only the posts, not the intercell connector hardware. The resistance of the connection between the
post to the hardware is the concern, not the resistance of the connecting hardware.
MicroOhm
Meter
Leads
+
Cell
Leads
+
Cell
Figure 11-3
Proper Micro-Ohmmeter Connection Points
The micro-ohmmeter is very sensitive and can be permanently damaged if connected across a
cell. Care must be taken to prevent the test leads from simultaneously touching the positive and
negative posts of a single cell, or ends of a series of cells.
Because of the many cell designs and termination methods, it is not practical to cover all possible
connection resistance configurations. Instead, a few common methods are presented as examples
of how the measurement can be accomplished. Maintenance engineers should review the battery
installations for their plant and determine the most suitable test method for each battery.
11.3.2.3
Single Terminal Post Example
The intercell resistance measurement is simplest for cells containing one post each for the
positive and negative terminal. The intercell connection resistance is determined by measuring
the resistance from each cells positive post to the next cells negative post (see Figure 11-4).
Again, the reading must be obtained with the probe actually on the post, not on the intercell
connector.
11-25

Positive
Terminal
Post
MicroOhm
Meter
Negative
Terminal
Post
+
A
+
B
Figure 11-4
Single Terminal Post Resistance Measurement
11.3.2.4
Two Terminal Post Example
This common design has two terminal posts on each end of the cell. The intercell connection
bolts onto both posts as shown in Figure 11-5. Because there are four posts total, two
measurements are typically taken:
Terminal Post A to Terminal Post C
Terminal Post B to Terminal Post D
MicroOhm
Meter
Positive
Terminal
Post
+
A
Figure 11-5
Two Terminal Post Resistance Measurement
11-26
Negative
Terminal
Post

There is no single, most accurate method of determining intercell resistance for this case. The
previous method appears to be most common; however, the following methods are also
acceptable:
1. Two measurements are taken:
Terminal Post A to Terminal Post D
Terminal Post B to Terminal Post C
2. Four measurements are taken:
Terminal Post A to Terminal Post C
Terminal Post A to Terminal Post D
Terminal Post B to Terminal Post C
Terminal Post B to Terminal Post D
The four-measurement method has the advantage of pinpointing which terminal post has a
degraded connection, but it has the obvious disadvantage of requiring additional measurements.
Taking two measurementsA to C and B to Dis recommended here with four measurements
taken only if a problem is detected.
Three terminal post designs would follow the same basic approach as described above.
11.3.2.5
Inter-Tier or Inter-Rack Connection Example
Inter-tier or inter-rack connections usually are made with cables because of the distance between
cells. A lug is attached to each end of the cable and the lugs are bolted onto the appropriate cell
posts. This post configuration is shown in Figure 11-6. In this case, a post-to-post measurement
is still appropriate, but because the cable resistance is included in the measurement, termination
problems can be masked by the cable resistance contribution to the measurement.
11-27

Cable
Lug
Terminal
Reading
Lug
Post
Bolt
Post
Post
Terminal
Reading
Figure 11-6
Cable Bolted to Terminal Post
As a minimum, the post-to-post resistance should be recorded for a simple one post cell as
shown in Figure 11-7. In addition, post-to-lug measurements should be taken at each post to
remove the cable resistance from the measurement. This measurement is also shown in Figure
11-7.
11-28

Cable
Post-to-Lug
Reading
Lug
Post
Post-to-Post
Terminal
Reading
Bolt
Lug
Bolt
Post
Figure 11-7
Inter-Tier or Inter-Rack Resistance Measurement
A two post cell normally has a termination plate that bolts onto both posts. Cables connecting the
two cells attach to the termination plate. The method of measurement in this case is
fundamentally the same as for the two post cell method described in Section 11.3.2.4; post-topost measurements are taken between the two cells. In addition, post-to-lug measurements can be
recorded at each cell to obtain a more accurate measure of the actual termination resistance.
11.3.2.6
Correcting High-Resistance Connections
The following procedure is recommended for correcting high-resistance connections:

1. If a resistance measurement exceeds the acceptance criteria, perform the following steps
before resorting to disassembling the connection:
Inspect the connection for signs of corrosion.
Check the torque of the high-resistance bolted connection. If the connection hardware is a
bolt and nut assembly, use two insulated wrenches to minimize stress on the connection.
One of the two wrenches has to be a calibrated torque wrench. Do not exceed the
manufacturers recommended torque values. Recheck the resistance measurement after
retorquing the connection.
11-29

2. If retorquing the connection provides acceptable results, take no further action. If there are
signs of corrosion or if the resistance measurement still exceeds the acceptance criteria after
retorquing, disassemble, clean, and repair the connection per the following steps.
3. Determine which connection is the source of the high resistance by taking additional
resistance readings.
NOTE:
By taking additional readings, the source of the high resistance can

frequently be isolated to a single connection. This technique
minimizes the number of connections that must be disassembled.
4. Establish proper conditions to allow removing the battery from service and remove the
battery from service. Some applications might require system shutdown or the installation of
temporary backup while the battery removed from service.
CAUTION: Do not break the connection between an operating group of cells.
5. Disassemble the connection to be repaired.
6. Clean the connector and cell posts using a soft plastic-bristle brush or other soft tool until no
signs of corrosion or dirt remain. Small imperfections in the lead can be carefully removed
with a fine file if the imperfection is preventing good contact between the mating surfaces.
CAUTION: Do not use a steel brush, brass brush, steel wool, emery cloth,
sandpaper, metal file, or other abrasive device to clean
connections; they will damage the lead plating on the connectors
and posts.
NOTE:
If the cleaning results in exposing copper underneath the lead plating,

a new connector should be installed. Terminal posts must be cleaned
carefully because the posts cannot be replaced.
7. Reapply anticorrosion grease onto the connectors and posts in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
CAUTION: Apply anticorrosion grease strictly in accordance with
manufacturers instructions. If the anticorrosion grease is
overheated, it can exceed its flash point and start a fire.
8. Reinstall the connectors and torque the bolts to the manufacturers required values.
11-30

9. Perform the connection resistance measurement again to confirm that the cleaning has
corrected the problem.
11.3.3 Battery Rack Integrity Inspection
11.3.3.1
A battery rack is designed specifically for the battery that it contains. A seismically qualified
installation must be installed in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. The purpose of
this inspection is to verify that the battery rack is properly installed and has no degradation that
could weaken its structural integrity.
11.3.3.2
1. Visually inspect the battery rack or cabinet for obvious signs of physical damage or abnormal
deterioration. Check for signs of rust, corrosion, or paint deterioration.
a. Inspect the battery to ensure that an intercell spacer is present between each battery jar.
damaged).
c. Verify that the gap between each of the battery rack end rails and the battery jars at each
end is within the tolerance recommended by the manufacturer.
NOTE:
Steps 1 through 3 can be included in the battery visual inspection (see

Section 11.3.1).
4. Check the bolted connections on the rack for tightness. This check can be a sample of the
torque on a limited number of connections. Check the connections on the following parts of
the battery rack:
Frame
Braces
Rails
5. Check for missing parts such as braces, nuts, bolts, and insulated covers. Replace as
necessary.
11-31

11.4 Special Inspections

The purpose of a special inspection is to ensure that the battery has not been damaged by an
unusual condition or event. The annual inspection, including monthly and quarterly checks,
should be performed whenever the battery has experienced an unusual condition. Examples of
cases where either a battery should receive a special inspection include:
Severe discharge
Severe overcharge
Exposure to extreme high temperature
Seismic event
Exposure to abnormal environments, such as storm leakage through the roof onto a battery
11-32
12
VRLA BATTERY INSPECTIONS

VRLA batteries. The information provided is based on industry standards, industry papers,
manufacturers literature, regulatory guidance, and industry experience. In particular, IEEE 1188
provides standardized maintenance guidance and is a principal reference source for this section.
entirety, might be more than is needed for non-critical applications. Ultimately, the user has to
determine the appropriate level of maintenance for a particular application. In addition to the
12.1 Monthly Inspections

Most of the vented lead-acid battery monthly inspections described in Section 11.1 should also
be performed on VRLA batteries. However, the following inspections are not performed because
of the design of a VRLA battery:
Electrolyte level: An electrolyte level does not actually exist; the electrolyte is suspended in
microporous glass mats or a gel surrounding the plates. Access to the electrolyte is not
allowed by the design. Furthermore, VRLA batteries typically have an opaque container, so
the interior cannot be seen anyway.
Electrolyte specific gravity: Access to the electrolyte is not allowed by the design. The cell
is completely sealed with the exception of the pressure relief valve.
VRLA batteries are still a developing technology and they have failure modes different from
those of the more conventional vented lead-acid batteries. For this reason, these batteries should
receive at least the same level of attention as vented batteries in a maintenance program.
Standardized maintenance guidance for VRLA batteries is provided by IEEE 1188. Guidance
from the manufacturers is inconsistent, partly because failure modes for these cells are not fully
understood. At this time, IEEE 1188 is the only industry-approved document on the subject of
VRLA battery maintenance.
The following inspections should be performed monthly on VRLA batteries:
Battery, battery rack (modules), and battery area (visual inspection)
Float voltage (measured at the battery terminals)
Charger output current and voltage
Ambient temperature and condition of ventilation equipment

12-1

VRLA Battery Inspections
The monthly inspection results should be recorded on a data sheet or form to support a long-term
battery trending program. Typical data sheets are provided by the manufacturer.
12.1.1 General Visual Inspection
A monthly inspection is intended to be a general check for the more conspicuous problems that
can be encountered.
12.1.1.1
The purpose of the monthly visual inspection is to assess the general condition of the battery and
battery area. The following types of battery degradation can be detected during the monthly
inspection:
Abnormal battery area ambient temperature (high temperature can reduce battery life and
contribute to dryout)
Electrolyte leakage from pressure relief valve, cracked container, or post seal
12.1.1.2
NOTE:

1. Verify that the battery area safety equipment is available and operational. This includes the
eye wash station, shower, and fire extinguisher, as applicable.
3. Verify that battery cleaning and acid neutralization supplies are available. Baking soda,
water, a nonconductive container for mixing, and wiping cloths are recommended.
CAUTION: Use only clean water for cleaning battery components. Solvents
and greases can damage the cell containers. Follow the
manufacturer's instructions closely to avoid inadvertent harm to
the battery.
12-2

debris.
5. Measure and record the battery area ambient temperature. The desired temperature should be
in the range of 70F to 80F (21.1C to 26.7C).
NOTE:
If the battery is located in an enclosure, the ambient temperature

should be measured inside the enclosure, not in the surrounding area.
NOTE:
Extended operation at a high temperature shortens battery life. In

general, VRLA battery life is reduced by at least 50% for every 15F
(9.4C) of continuous operation above 77F (25C). At very high
temperatures, VRLA batteries are also more susceptible to other
failure modes such as dryout or thermal runaway.
NOTE:
If a battery is normally maintained at a temperature significantly

different than 77F (25C), verify that the float voltage is set in
accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
6. Verify that the battery area ventilation system is operating by checking for air flow through
the ventilation exhaust ducts. If the battery is enclosed in a cabinet, ensure that the cabinet
ventilation is working properly (if so equipped) and that ventilation panels are not blocked.
CAUTION: Inadequate ventilation can result in the dangerous buildup of
hydrogen gas.
7. Visually inspect all cell jars or battery modules, and the battery rack for cleanliness and any
signs of distortion or damage.
8. Verify that the cells have protective covers in place to minimize short circuit safety hazards.
Figure 12-1 shows an example of an installation with and without the protective covers in
place.
12-3

Figure 12-1
VRLA Battery with and without Protective Covers
12-4

9. Visually check for cracks or signs of electrolyte leakage in each cell. Check for signs of
electrolyte leakage from the pressure relief valve in each cell. Inspect the flooring below the
cells for symptoms of past leakage. Figure 12-2 shows an example of floor corrosion caused
by electrolyte leakage. If electrolyte leakage is observed, contact the manufacturer to
determine if the cells require replacement. Electrolyte leakage can cause a loss of capacity
and can lead to other VRLA failure modes.
Figure 12-2
Signs of Electrolyte Leakage from a VRLA Battery
from the posts. Regrease the post with anticorrosion grease, if necessary. Corrosion on the
cell posts can indicate a loss of post seal integrity, which can result in rapid dryout and
failure of a VRLA battery. Consult with the manufacturer if post seal failure is suspected.
Just as with a vented lead-acid battery, the float voltage must be periodically checked on VRLA
batteries to verify that the battery and individual cells are maintained in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions. Proper float voltage is even more critical for VRLA batteries; they
are particularly sensitive to overcharging and undercharging. Overcharging a VRLA battery can
result in thermal runaway, a condition in which a battery on constant voltage charge at an
elevated temperature destroys itself through internal heat generation due to high charge current.
Overcharging also causes excessive gassing, which can result in premature failure due to dryout.
Undercharging can allow the negative plates to slowly self-discharge.
12-5

VRLA batteries tend to have a wider float voltage variation between cells than do vented leadacid batteries. Manufacturers literature often provides the expected float voltage range.
The float voltage checks described in Section 11.1.3 for vented lead-acid batteries apply equally
to VRLA batteries. The inspection procedure in Section 11.1.3.6 should be followed for VRLA
batteries. If temperature compensation of float voltage is desired, it is especially important to
consult with the manufacturer to obtain guidance. The compensation factors listed in Section
11.1.4.3, Table 11-3 might not apply to VRLA batteries.

The battery maintenance program must recognize and address the failure modes unique to VRLA
batteries. Fewer inspections are possible on a VRLA battery than on a vented battery because of
the inherent design differences. However, the inability to perform all the vented battery
inspections does not mean that the VRLA battery is more reliable or less prone to degradation. In
fact, quite the opposite appears to be true. The VRLA battery design conceals many of its
possible failure modes and additional monitoring is warranted to ensure that the battery can
fulfill its design function.
Quarterly inspections provide confirmation that the battery and individual cells are being
maintained within normal operating limits. Also, quarterly inspections for a VRLA battery are
intended to confirm that excessive internal battery degradation has not occurred.
The following inspections are recommended on a quarterly basis:
Monthly inspections as described in Section 12.1, except the cell voltage checks should be
performed on all cells.
Cell internal ohmic measurements as described in Section 12.2.1.
Temperature of the negative terminal of each cell as described in Section 12.2.2.
The recommended quarterly maintenance for VRLA batteries is more detailed than for vented
batteries because of different degradation and failure modes for these batteries. The bases for
recommended quarterly inspections of VRLA batteries are provided in this section.
12.2.1 Internal Ohmic Measurements
Internal ohmic measurements are used to determine the internal resistance of a battery. An
internal ohmic measurement can be obtained in different formsresistance, impedance, or
conductance. Compared to the many decades that the lead-acid battery has been in use, the
application of internal ohmic measurements is still a new and developing technology.
12-6

IEEE 1187 and 1188 recommend the use of internal ohmic measurements for VRLA batteries.
The following explains why this technology has been endorsed in this case:
VRLA batteries cannot be visually inspected internally; in vented batteries, the visual
inspection often provides early visual indication of battery problems.
Cell voltage measurements do not indicate internal problems until significant cell damage or
degradation has occurred.
Dryout is a recognized failure mechanism for VRLA batteries. Traditional inspections are
unable to detect this condition.
VRLA batteries have shown a tendency to be more susceptible to sudden death (that is, an
unexpected failure when a load is placed on the battery) than vented lead-acid batteries. Yet,
the VRLA battery design precludes monitoring for this failure mode by conventional means.
VRLA batteries are more sensitive to high temperature, overcharge, and over-discharge than
vented lead-acid batteries. Therefore, a method of monitoring the internal rate of degradation
is needed.
Other conventional battery inspections do not necessarily provide a true indication of battery
health. For example, specific gravity and cell voltage measurements do not indicate the
available capacity. Either of these measurements offers general information regarding the
quality of the electrolyte and the adequacy of the float voltage; however, neither provides
information regarding the internal cell conduction paths. In any event, specific gravity
measurements are not possible for VRLA batteries.
Finally, there is no other measurement technique that offers the user any ability to see inside
the cell. Some type of internal monitoring is needed. In some respects, an internal ohmic
measurement of a VRLA battery is a limited substitute for the visual inspection of a vented leadacid battery.
IEEE 1188 recommends quarterly internal ohmic measurements. Because the subject is rather
complex, additional information on the following topics is provided in Appendix E of this guide:
Background information about the need for internal ohmic measurements
Overview of typical test equipment
Technical discussion of how internal resistance varies with different parameters
Description of measurement uncertainties associated with internal ohmic test equipment
Recommendations for the use of internal ohmic test equipment, including general inspection
procedures
Recommendations for the interpretation of test results
The information in Appendix E provides a solid foundation in the technology and its potential
role in a VRLA battery maintenance program.
12-7

12.2.2 VRLA Battery Cell Temperature Inspection

The electrolyte temperature is normally checked quarterly in a representative number of cells in
vented lead-acid batteries. The electrolyte temperature cannot be checked in a VRLA battery
because the design does not allow access to the electrolyte. Nonetheless, a check of cell
temperature is still prudent because a high temperature can indicate problems.
12.2.2.1
The following problems can occur in VRLA batteries as a result of improper cell temperatures:
High temperatures reduce battery life by accelerating grid corrosion. A common rule of
thumb for vented lead-acid batteries is that a 15F (9.4C) rise in temperature decreases the
expected life by 50%. For the same temperature rise, a VRLA battery experiences at least the
same life reduction as a vented cell.
High battery temperatures can contribute to thermal runaway, a condition in which a battery
on a constant voltage charge at an elevated temperature destroys itself through internal heat
generation due to high internal current.
At higher cell temperatures, the water diffusion rate through the cell container increases and
contributes to cell dryout. The diffusion rate varies with the type and thickness of the
container materials, operating temperature, and relative humidity around the cell.
If the float voltage is too high for the actual cell temperature, the cell will be overcharged. A
VRLA battery can suffer from thermal runaway due to overcharging at high temperatures.
A cell (or group of cells) with an abnormally high temperature in comparison to other cells
can indicate that significant dryout has occurred or that a localized temperature dissipation
problem exists.
12.2.2.2
1. Use a temperature measurement device such as an electronic meter with attached temperature
probe for this measurement. Verify that the calibration has not expired and that the calibrated
measurement accuracy meets or exceeds 1F (0.6C).
CAUTION: Be sure the uninsulated portion of the temperature probe is not
long enough to simultaneously touch the positive and negative
posts.
12-8

2. Measure and record each cell temperature to the nearest whole degree by placing the
temperature probe against the negative terminal of each cell.
NOTE:
The temperature of all measured cells should be within 5F (3C) for

an ideal battery installation. Temperature variations in excess of 5F
(3C) should be investigated and resolved.
3. Investigate any higher than expected temperatures. If the cell temperature is more than 5F
(3C) above the ambient temperature, investigate further.
NOTE:
High cell temperatures can contribute to thermal runaway in a VRLA

battery. Every effort should be made to keep the cell temperatures
within the design limits.

The annual inspection for a VRLA battery should include the following inspections:
Monthly inspections
Visual inspection (see Section 12.1.1)
Float voltage checks (see Section 12.1.2)
Quarterly inspections
Internal ohmic measurement (see Section 12.2.1)
Temperature inspection (see Section 12.2.2)
Detailed battery visual inspection (applicable portions of Section 11.3.1)
Connection resistance measurements (see Section 11.3.2)
Battery rack integrity inspection (see Section 11.3.3)

cases where a battery should receive a special inspection include:
Severe discharge
Severe overcharge
Seismic event
12-9
13
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY INSPECTIONS

nickel-cadmium batteries. The information provided is based on industry standards, industry
papers, manufacturers literature, regulatory guidance, and industry experience. In particular,
IEEE 1106 provides standardized maintenance guidance and is a principal reference source for
this section.
entirety, might be more than is needed for non-critical applications. Ultimately, the user has to
determine the appropriate level of maintenance for a particular application. In addition to the

Quarterly inspections are normally recommended to be performed at least once every three
months. The quarterly inspections are also referred to as general inspections. IEEE 1106-1995
changed the recommended frequency of these inspections from monthly to quarterly. However,
there is not necessarily a set inspection frequency that is applicable to all users. The inspection
frequency established for each battery will be influenced by the following considerations:
Company or plant policy for maintenance
Maintenance program objectives and desired level of reliability
Technical Specification requirements at nuclear plants
Safety classification or importance of the battery
Available personnel resources (1 or 2 persons might be responsible for > 200 substations)
Historical experience
Battery types installed
Battery-related alarms that are available remotely
Battery monitoring system installation
Quarterly inspections provide a general assessment of the batterys condition and whether it is
being maintained within normal operating limits. All inspections should be made with the battery
operating under normal float conditions.
13-1

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Inspections
Quarterly inspections include the following:
Visual inspection of the battery, battery rack, and battery area
Measurement of float voltage at the battery terminals
Check of charger output current and voltage
Visual check of electrolyte levels
Measurement of the battery area ambient temperature and check of ventilation equipment
condition
Measurement of the pilot cell electrolyte temperature
13.1.1 Battery Visual Inspection
The purpose of the quarterly visual inspection is to assess the general condition of the battery and
battery area, and is intended to check for the more conspicuous problems that can be
encountered.
13.1.1.1
The following types of degradation can be detected during the quarterly inspection:
Abnormal battery area ambient temperature
Electrolyte leakage or presence of electrolyte on cell covers
Cracked cells
13.1.1.2
NOTE:

1. Verify that battery safety equipment is available and operational. This includes the eye wash
station, shower, and fire extinguisher, as applicable.
13-2

3. Verify that battery cleaning supplies are available. Water, a nonconductive container, and
wiping cloths are recommended.
CAUTION: Use only clean water to clean battery components; solvents and
greases can damage the cell containers. Follow the
manufacturers instructions closely to avoid inadvertent harm to
the battery.
debris.
5. Record the battery area ambient temperature. The desired temperature should be in the range
of 70F to 80F (21.1C to 26.7C).
6. Verify that the ventilation system is operating by checking for air flow through the
ventilation exhaust ducts.
7. Visually inspect all cell jars and the battery rack for cleanliness and any signs of damage.
Remove any potassium carbonate formation from the jar tops by using clean water.
NOTE:
Potassium carbonate appears as a gray-white deposit. Gases escaping

the cell through the vent can also carry small amounts of electrolyte.
The electrolyte reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form
potassium carbonate. These deposits are not corrosive, but are
conductive when damp.
8. If necessary, clean the cell jars and tops as follows:

a. Clean the jars or covers with a lint-free cloth moistened with clean water.
b. If electrolyte has spilled on the cover or jar, moisten the cloth with an electrolyteneutralizing agent. The proper neutralizing agent is a boric acid solution of 7 ounces
(0.199 kg) of boric acid per gallon (3.79 liters) of water. Apply the moistened cloth to the
electrolyte spill until any bubbling stops.
c. Wipe dry with a clean dry cloth.
from the posts. Reapply an anticorrosion compound to the post, if necessary.
10. Verify that all cell vent and dust caps are present; inspect each for damage.
13-3

11. Verify that electrolyte levels of all cells are between the high- and low-level marks on the
cells.
NOTE:
If the electrolyte level is below the low-level mark, water should be

added. Water addition is not urgently required as long as the
electrolyte level is above the plates and the plates are not in
immediate danger of being exposed. The battery is operable and will
not experience a change in capacity as long as the plates are not
exposed. Electrolyte levels above the high-level line do not affect
safety or capacity unless the cell reaches an overflow condition.

A stationary battery in full float operation is permanently connected to a battery charger. The
charger keeps the battery in a fully charged condition so that it can supply emergency power
upon loss of the normal power source. During normal operation, the battery charger voltage is
high enough so that a trickle charge current overcomes the batterys tendency to self-discharge
and keeps it in a fully charged condition.
13.1.2.1
Background Information and Purpose of Inspection
The purpose of the float voltage check is to verify that the battery is maintained within the
manufacturers recommended limits.
Compared to a lead-acid battery, a nickel-cadmium battery is relatively insensitive to variations
in float voltage. Overcharging within reasonable limits does not harm the battery but does
increase water consumption. Allowing the water level to fall below the top of the plates reduces
the battery capacity.
Undercharging a nickel-cadmium battery does not cause permanent damage. However, similar to
a lead-acid battery, undercharging results in partial discharge, which can leave the battery with
insufficient capacity to fulfill its design function.
13.1.2.2
1. Verify that the voltmeter calibration has not expired. Use a calibrated voltmeter with an
accuracy of at least 0.5% of the measured voltage. Assure that the voltmeter test leads are
well insulated and securely attached to the meter to prevent them from falling onto a cell and
causing a short circuit.
13-4

2. Record the charger output voltage and current. Verify that the output voltage is within the
desired range.
CAUTION: Always observe the proper polarity when taking voltage
measurements to avoid positive and negative calibration
differences in the voltmeter.
3. Measure and record the voltage across the battery terminals. Divide this measurement by the
number of cells in the battery to confirm that the average individual cell voltage is within the
range recommended by the manufacturer.
4. If float voltage is outside the recommended range, adjust the charger output to the
recommended value in accordance with plant procedures.
13.1.3 Pilot Cell Temperature Check
Although the nickel-cadmium battery is capable of acceptable performance over a wide
temperature range, the battery should be installed in a 70F to 80F (21.1C to 26.7C) range for
optimal performance.
13.1.3.1
Poor ventilation or excessive charging current can also contribute to higher cell temperatures.
The temperature check verifies that the temperature is within normal expected limits.
13.1.3.2
1. Verify that the thermometer calibration has not expired and that the calibrated measurement
accuracy meets or exceeds 1F (0.6C).
CAUTION: Never interchange hydrometers or thermometers between leadacid and nickel-cadmium batteries. Sulfuric acid traces from a
lead-acid battery will permanently damage a nickel-cadmium
battery.
2. Measure and record the temperature of the pilot cell(s) to the nearest whole degree.
13-5

NOTE:
Considerations applicable to the selection of a pilot cell are provided

in Section 11.1.1.
3. Investigate and resolve the cause of any higher than expected temperatures.
13.1.4 Electrolyte Specific Gravity Measurements
Specific gravity measurements are not necessary for a nickel-cadmium battery. The electrolyte
serves as a conductor for the battery electrochemical reaction but is not altered by the reaction.
Therefore, the specific gravity does not provide any meaningful information about the status of
the cell.
13.2 Semi-Annual Inspections

Semi-annual inspections are normally performed every six months.
The semi-annual inspection includes all inspections performed as part of the general inspection.
In addition, the float voltage of each cell should be measured. Compare the individual cell
voltages to the range recommended by the manufacturer. Also, compare the individual cell
voltages with the average individual cell voltage. Ensure that the voltage readings are within the
tolerance specified by the manufacturer for the particular battery. If any individual cell
measurements exceed the manufacturer's recommended tolerance, investigate for abnormal
conditions.

The quarterly and semi-annual inspections provide a general assessment of the battery condition
and indicate whether the battery is being maintained within normal operating limits. The
additional inspections conducted annually allow a more detailed assessment of battery aging and
degradation. The following inspections are included in the annual inspections:
Quarterly inspections (see Section 13.1)
Semi-annual inspections (see Section 13.2)
Connection resistance checks (see Section 13.3.1)
Battery rack integrity check (see Section 13.3.2)
The annual inspection results should be recorded on a data sheet or form to support a long-term
battery trending program.
13-6

13.3.1 Connection Resistance Measurements

A high connection resistance can cause excessive heating or abnormal voltage drop during
discharge. An exceedingly high resistance can cause severe damage during periods of high-rate
discharge. The integrity of all battery electrical connections should be confirmed annually to
ensure that all electrical connections are acceptable; this inspection includes cell-to-cell
(intercell) and external circuit terminations. The adequacy of electrical terminations is best
determined by resistance measurements. Connections should be disassembled, cleaned and
reassembled only when resistance measurements indicate a high-resistance termination.
Normal termination resistance varies with the battery size and termination technique. Normal
resistance values can range from less than 10 micro-ohms for a large battery to well over 100
micro-ohms for a small battery. The manufacturer should be consulted to determine acceptable
values for a particular battery.
Intercell and termination resistance values are recorded as a baseline upon initial installation;
thereafter, annual measurements are trended against the baseline data to identify any degradation
in the battery connections. Acceptance criteria should be established for resistance values;
corrective action is required whenever the acceptance criteria is exceeded. The urgency of the
corrective action should be based on the extent to which the measured resistance exceeds the
acceptance criteria. For example, two levels can be established:
An absolute upper limit requiring immediate corrective action regardless of plant status
A lower limit requiring correction as a routine scheduled activity
Section 11.3.2 provides detailed guidance for performing connection resistance measurements.
Connection resistance measurement principles are the same for both lead-acid batteries and
nickel-cadmium batteries.
13.3.2 Battery Rack Integrity Inspection
A battery rack is designed specifically for the battery that it contains. A seismically qualified
installation must be installed in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
13.3.2.1
The purpose of this inspection is to verify that the battery rack is properly installed and has no
degradation that could weaken the racks structural integrity.
13.3.2.2
1. Visually inspect the battery rack for obvious signs of physical damage or abnormal
deterioration. Check for signs of rust, corrosion or paint deterioration.
13-7


a. Inspect the battery to ensure that an intercell spacer is present between each battery jar, if
applicable.
damaged).
c. Verify that the gap between each of the battery rack end rails and the "end" battery jars is
less than or equal to the manufacturer's recommended value.
4. Check the bolted connections on the rack for tightness. This check can be a sample of the
torque on a limited number of connections. Check the connections on the following parts of
the battery rack:
Frame
Braces
Rails
5. Check for missing parts such as braces, nuts, bolts, and insulated covers. Replace as
necessary.

cases where a battery should receive a special inspection include:
Severe discharge
Severe overcharge
Seismic event
13-8
14
STATIONARY BATTERY CAPACITY DISCHARGE TESTS
Section 14 describes how to perform capacity tests. It also offers insight into what each type of
capacity test accomplishes and the role of each test in assuring battery reliability. A discussion of
the failure mechanisms that the test might detect, as well as any inherent test limitations, is
provided. The test requirements, limitations, and methods presented in this section apply to
vented lead-acid, VRLA, and nickel-cadmium batteries, unless noted otherwise. Specific
considerations applicable to a particular battery type are discussed. This section primarily
discusses capacity tests for lead-acid batteries. Differences for nickel-cadmium batteries are
discussed in the final section.
Battery testing is distinctly different from the inspections presented in the previous sections.
Inspections identify conspicuous battery problems and assure that batteries are being maintained
within specified limits. Inspections do not necessarily provide definitive information about a
battery's capacity or produce trending information that indicates the state of battery aging. A
capacity test is the only method of determining a batterys capacity.
Some stationary battery users never perform a capacity test. When questioned about the basis for
not periodically checking battery capacity, these users offered the following reasons:
No maintenance budget for test equipment
No maintenance budget for personnel to use the test equipment (the allocated maintenance
staff can barely keep up with routine inspections and have no extra time for capacity tests)
Battery testing is too expensive and time-consuming
Too many batteries in their system (which is actually another way of saying that personnel
resources are already overloaded)
No history of battery problems, so no need for testing
Capacity testing hurts batteries (if so, the user selected the wrong battery because virtually all
stationary batteries are capable of periodic deep discharges)
As previously stated, a capacity test is the only true measure of a batterys capacity. If battery
failure can be tolerated and the consequences of failure only mean that some personnel are
slightly inconvenienced, then battery testing might not be warranted (although one might wonder
why the battery is installed if this is the case). But, if battery failure can not be allowed because
the end-use application is particularly important, the user should consider periodic battery
capacity testing.
14-1

Stationary Battery Capacity Discharge Tests
The following types of capacity tests are discussed:
Performance test
Service test
Acceptance test
Modified performance test
The type and amount of capacity testing needed depends on the application. The amount of
testing specified for a particular battery depends on its safety purpose and on maintenance
department policy. For example, a safety-related battery at a nuclear plant might receive the
following capacity tests during its life:
Acceptance test at the factory or upon installation
Initial performance test within 2 years of installation
Service test each year or refueling cycle
Performance test at 5-year intervals
Performance test as frequently as annually (or possibly each refueling cycle) once battery
degradation has been detected
The following sections discuss each type of test in detail. IEEE 450, IEEE 1106, and IEEE 1188
are acknowledged as the principal reference sources for this section. In addition to the
information presented in this section, the manufacturer's literature should always be reviewed for
requirements applicable to a specific battery, application, or configuration.
14.1 Performance Test

14.1.1 Purpose of Test and Background Information
The performance test determines the extent to which a battery is capable of supplying the
manufacturer's rated discharge current for a given duration under a specific set of conditions. It is
designed to allow trending of the battery's capacity by discharging the battery at a constant
current or power to a predefined endpoint voltage and comparing the actual discharge time to the
manufacturer's rated discharge time.
If the data has been properly obtained and recorded, the performance test provides the most
information about the battery's capacity and degree of internal deterioration. Even more
important, the user has a means of estimating where the battery is along its life curve. Figure
14-1 shows the typical life curves that might be observed for different battery installations. As
will be seen in the following sections, the performance test provides the best means of
determining the batterys capacity at a particular point in time. By trending all of the
performance tests for a battery, the user can readily identify the onset of capacity-limiting
degradation and can estimate where the battery is along its life curve.
14-2

120
Superior
Performance
100
Capacity
(percent)
80
60
40
Rated
Performance
Poor
Performance
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
Life (years)
Figure 14-1
Typical Lead-Acid Battery Life Curves
14.1.2 Performance Test Discharge Duration

In general, the performance test duration should correspond to the duty cycle duration as closely
as possible. For example, if the duty cycle consists of a load profile for 4 hours, the performance
test should also be conducted at the manufacturer's 4-hour discharge rate. Because of the margins
normally designed into the battery size, a performance test duration corresponding to the duty
cycle duration should provide reasonable assurance that the battery can meet its design
requirements.
As an example, consider the 4-hour duty cycle shown in Figure 14-2. The ideal case would be to
conduct the performance test at the manufacturers rated 4-hour discharge current for that
battery. In this case, the performance test load current might be as shown in Figure 14-3.
14-3

600
500
400
Load
(amperes)
300
200
100
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 14-2
Example 4-Hour Duty Cycle
385
Discharge
Rate
(amperes)
240
Figure 14-3
Example Performance Test Load Current
Although it is ideal for the performance test length to match the duty cycle duration, exceptions
do exist. Valid reasons for having the performance test length be different from the duty cycle
length include:
The duty cycle is too long to test in a reasonable amount of time (some users have a 72 hour
duty cycle).
The maintenance group is not willing to completely drain the battery because of operational
considerations (a shorter discharge time leaves more energy in the battery for reserve use).
Duty cycle is not known; the battery size is based on experience.
Duty cycle length has changed, but there is already many years of performance test results at
the original duty cycle length. By changing the test duration, the ability to trend the test
results is degraded by some amount.
Company has dedicated limited resources to battery testing and thus chooses to limit test
times in order to increase efficiency of resources.
14-4

Once again, the goal of a performance test is to determine the capacity of a battery at a particular
point in time and use the results of previous performance tests to determine the trend in capacity.
This particular goal can be met with a 1-hour, 2-hour, or 4-hour (or longer) test.
14.1.3 Performance Test Periodicity for Vented Lead-Acid Cells
For users that follow IEEE recommendations, the performance test is normally performed at the
following intervals for vented lead-acid cells:
Within the first 2 years of service
Every 5 years until degradation is detected
Every 2 years if the battery has reached 85% of its expected service life and the battery
capacity is still greater than 100% (no observed battery degradation1)
Every year if:
- Battery degradation is detected1

- The battery has reached 85% of its expected service life and the battery capacity is less
than 100%
The definition of "85% of expected service life" requires some discussion with the manufacturer.
A battery can have a 20-year expected service life under ideal conditions, but might have less
than a 10-year expected service life if operated under harsh conditions or in a high-temperature
location. Section 3.2.1 provides examples of the expected service life if the normal average
battery temperature is above 77F (25C).
The above test schedule of a performance test every 5 years implicitly assumes that the battery is
of high quality, typically with a 20-year expected life. If the battery is of lower quality or has a
shorter expected life (which might be the case for a high-rate battery or a battery in a higher
temperature environment), the performance test frequency should be reevaluated for the specific
application. For example, a 5-year test frequency should not be used if the expected battery life is
less than 5 years.
The above criteria apply to a stationary battery under normal service conditions. A maintenance
department might choose to test more frequently because of other factors. As an example,
consider the following circumstances for a particular battery:
1. The battery has reached 85% of its expected service life for the application and environment.
2. Also, it has a capacity greater than 100% but its capacity has dropped by 8% since the last
test.
3. And, the average battery temperature is consistently near 90F (32.2C).
1
Battery degradation is defined as any of the following conditions:

A drop in battery capacity by more than 10% from the previous capacity test
A battery capacity less than 90% of rated capacity
14-5

In the above case, the maintenance department could perform a performance test every 2 years,
per the criteria listed previously. However, the maintenance department might instead choose to
conduct a performance test annually because degradation has clearly occurred and the elevated
temperature will accelerate the degradation process.
14.1.4 Performance Test Periodicity for VRLA Cells
The periodic capacity testing recommendations in IEEE 1188 for VRLA batteries are
substantially different than for vented lead-acid batteries. Table 14-1 provides a comparison of
the IEEE recommendations for vented and VRLA batteries.
Table 14-1
IEEE Recommendations for Performance Tests of Vented and VRLA Batteries
IEEE 450
Recommendation for
Vented Cells
IEEE 1188
Recommendation for
VRLA Cells
Initial installation
Within 2 years of being

placed in service
Performed by
manufacturer or upon
initial installation
Periodic performance test

frequency
Every 5 years
Annually
Test frequency after

degradation observed
Annually
Semi-annually
Event
The IEEE 450 performance test frequency is based on a relatively long-life battery such that
trending information can be established by performance tests every 5 years. However, industry
failure data (see Section 3.4) indicates that many VRLA batteries might have an operational life
of only 4 to 7 years. In this case, a performance test frequency of every 5 years in accordance
with IEEE 450 would have little meaning; a battery might have insufficient capacity before it
receives its first performance test. If the expected battery life is less than 10 years, the
performance test frequency should be increased to obtain equivalent trending information. For
this reason, IEEE 1188 specifies an annual capacity test frequency.
Section 3.4 describes failure modes that are more likely for, if not unique to, VRLA batteries.
When these new and, in some cases, not well understood failure modes are considered, the need
for more frequent capacity testing becomes evident.
Remember that IEEE recommendations are based on critical applications in which the user must
have the maximum possible reliability within practical maintenance limits. The recommended
performance test frequency could possibly be relaxed for a particular VRLA battery if it is used
in a non-critical application. Depending on the desired level of battery reliability and the
consequences of failure, a reduced test frequency might well be justifiable. Manufacturers can
provide additional guidance regarding the performance test periodicity for a given application.
14-6

14.1.5 Calculating Battery Capacity

Determining the actual battery capacity involves dividing the total test discharge time by the
manufacturer's rated discharge time for a specified discharge current or power, as follows:
Percent Capacity at 77 F (25C ) =
Ta
100
Ts
In the above expression, Ta is the actual discharge time and Ts is the rated discharge time for the
specified end voltage.
Example 14-1
If a test at the 4-hour discharge rate continues for 4 hours and 15 minutes before the test
termination criteria are reached, the available battery capacity is:
255 minutes
100 = 106.25%
240 minutes
Example 14-2
If a test at the 4-hour discharge rate continues for only 3 hours and 30 minutes before the test
termination criteria are reached, the available battery capacity is:
210 minutes
100 = 87.5%
240 minutes
The above examples assume a fairly long discharge time. As the performance test duration
becomes shorter, the calculated capacity becomes increasingly sensitive to the actual discharge
time. Consequently, the accuracy of the results obtained for a discharge of less than 1 hour will
not be as good as for a longer discharge test. For example, a 1-minute difference in the actual test
time for a discharge duration of 4 hours equates to an approximate change of capacity of 0.4%.
This same 1-minute difference for a 15 minute test duration correlates to a 6.7% capacity change.
To ensure that test results are sufficiently accurate for trending purposes, it is suggested that the
performance test duration be no shorter than 1 hour, even if the duty cycle is less than an hour. In
this case, the general guidance to make the performance test duration equal to the duty cycle
duration is outweighed by practical considerations affecting test accuracy. If the user still
chooses to conduct performance tests for a duration of less than 1 hour because of concerns with
the battery's high-rate capability, the test results should be evaluated carefully. In this case,
calculate capacity in accordance with the above method, but also evaluate the battery's rated
discharge current ability for the test discharge time in relation to the actual test current.
14-7

14.1.6 Performance Test Initial Conditions and Pretest Requirements

Either of two approaches to a performance test is acceptable:
Test the battery after it has been prepared for optimal performance. The battery is equalized,
all battery parameters are within specification, and any problems have been corrected before
the test. This approach provides the most accurate information for battery trending because it
ensures optimal battery performance.
Test the battery in the as-found condition. The battery is subjected to a performance test
without prior preparation unless battery damage is possible because of a discrepancy. This
approach includes the effect of maintenance practices in the performance test.
The following sections explain the initial conditions and pretest requirements for testing with and
without maintenance practices included within the test.
14.1.6.1
Adjusting the Battery for Optimal Performance
In general, adjusting the battery for optimal performance before the test provides the highest
quality information because it ensures that the battery begins the test from a known baseline each
time.
The following initial conditions should be met before a performance test begins:
1. Equalize the battery if recommended by the manufacturer and return it to float charge for a
minimum of 72 hours but less than 30 days before the start of the test.
NOTE:
Some manufacturers do not recommend equalizing VRLA batteries

to minimize gassing and water consumption. Contact the
manufacturer before performing an equalize charge on a VRLA
battery.
2. Check all battery connections and ensure that battery connection resistance measurements are
within the expected tolerances. Correct any potential problems before starting the test.
3. Measure and record the specific gravity (vented batteries only) and float voltage of each cell
just prior to the test.
4. Measure and record the electrolyte temperature of 10% or more of the cells just prior to the
test to establish an average temperature. IEEE 450 recommends checking every sixth cell as
one method for a 60-cell battery. For VRLA batteries, obtain the temperature measurement in
accordance with Section 12.2.2.
5. Measure and record the battery terminal float voltage.
6. Take adequate precautions (such as isolating the battery to be tested from the dc system) to
ensure that a failure will not affect other equipment.
14-8

14.1.6.2
Testing the Battery in the As-Found Condition
For safety-related batteries, some nuclear plant Technical Specifications state that the
performance test can be conducted instead of the service test every 5th year (the performance test
frequency). In this case, the performance test should include the effects of maintenance practices
by testing the battery in the as-found condition. For other batteries, the maintenance department
might choose to include the effects of maintenance practices within the test scope to simplify the
pretest preparation.
The following initial conditions should be met before a performance test is begun if maintenance
practices are included within the test scope:
within the expected tolerances. Take no action prior to the test unless battery damage could
occur during the test. Damage can occur if the connection resistance is too high for the test
current such that excessive heat will be generated at the connection.
accordance with the procedure outlined in Section 12.2.2.
14.1.7 Test Procedure
1. Verify that the pretest requirements described in Section 14.1.6 have been completed.
2. Verify that the battery area ventilation is operating normally.
3. Determine the discharge rate by dividing the manufacturer's rated discharge (for the desired
duration) by the appropriate temperature correction factor (based on the initial electrolyte
temperature readings).
14-9

Temperature correction factors for typical vented batteries are provided in Table 14-2.
The values provided in Table 14-2 might not apply to a particular VRLA battery; consult
the manufacturer for the proper discharge correction factors for a specific battery.
NOTE:
The temperature correction factors provided in Table 14-2 are based

on vented cells with a specific gravity of 1.215. Consult the
manufacturer for cells with a different specific gravity or for VRLA
batteries.
NOTE:
Table 14-2 provides the discharge correction factors for a wide

temperature range. However, manufacturers usually recommend that
battery testing be performed between 65F and 90F (18.3C and
32.2C). Even though this table represents the best available
information for a vented battery, it might not entirely represent
battery performance over the wide range of temperatures shown. The
most consistent results are obtained when the battery average
temperature is approximately the same for each test.
EXAMPLE:
NOTE:
14-10
At temperatures above (below) 77F (25C), the battery has

greater (less) capacity. Therefore, the test discharge rate must
be corrected to allow an equivalent comparison to the 77F
(25C) rated capacity. For example, assume the manufacturer's
rated discharge is 360 amperes at the 4-hour rate at 77F
(25C). If the initial electrolyte temperature is 85F (29.4C),
the necessary test discharge rate is 360 amperes divided by the
85F (29.4C) correction factor (0.96). The temperaturecorrected test discharge rate is 375 amperes for this example.
Some users elect to temperature correct the discharge time rather than
the discharge rate. Consult the battery manufacturer for the correction
factors in this case.

Table 14-2
Discharge Temperature Correction Factors
(Obtained from IEEE 450)
Initial Temperature
(C)
(F)
Temperature
Initial Temperature
Correction
(C)
(F)
Factor
Temperature
Correction
Factor
-3.9
25
1.520
25.6
78
0.994
-1.1
30
1.430
26.1
79
0.987
1.7
35
1.350
26.7
80
0.980
4.4
40
1.300
27.2
81
0.976
7.2
45
1.250
27.8
82
0.972
10.0
50
1.190
28.3
83
0.968
12.8
55
1.150
28.9
84
0.964
15.6
60
1.110
29.4
85
0.960
18.3
65
1.080
30.0
86
0.956
18.9
66
1.072
30.6
87
0.952
19.4
67
1.064
31.1
88
0.948
20.0
68
1.056
31.6
89
0.944
20.6
69
1.048
32.2
90
0.940
21.1
70
1.040
35.0
95
0.930
21.7
71
1.034
37.8
100
0.910
22.2
72
1.029
40.6
105
0.890
22.8
73
1.023
43.3
110
0.880
23.4
74
1.017
46.1
115
0.870
23.9
75
1.011
48.9
120
0.860
24.5
76
1.006
51.7
125
0.850
25.0
77
1.000
14-11

4. Set up a test discharge load capable of maintaining the required constant current or constant
power test discharge rate. The load bank typically generates a considerable amount of heat
during the test; locate the load bank where it will not overheat other installed equipment.
5. Disconnect the battery charger from the battery and connect the load bank to the battery.
CAUTION: Be careful not to short circuit the battery while making the
connections to the load bank. One approach is to connect the
cables first to the load bank, followed by the connection to the
battery. The reason for this order of events is that the connection
of the positive and negative leads at the load bank can be very
close together with little room for error.
NOTE:
If the battery charger cannot be disconnected from the battery, the

test discharge rate must be adjusted to compensate for the battery
charger contribution.
NOTE:
The battery should not sit on open circuit for an extended period
before starting the test. It is intended that the test start as soon as
practical once the float charge is removed.
NOTE:
Cell jumpering equipment should be available and ready for use in

case a cell(s) needs to be jumpered during the test.
6. Start the timer and begin the load test at the temperature-corrected test discharge rate.
7. Monitor the test current throughout the test and adjust the load bank as needed to maintain a
constant test current.
8. Measure and record individual cell voltages and the battery terminal voltage. Take the
readings just prior to starting the test, at the beginning of the test when load is first applied, at
periodic intervals during the test, and at the completion of the test. At least three sets of
readings under load should be taken. Measure individual cell voltages between respective
posts of like polarity of adjacent cells, as shown in Figure 14-4, to include the intercell
connector voltage drop.
14-12

Figure 14-4
Typical Cell Voltage Measurement
9. Maintain the test discharge rate until the battery terminal voltage decreases to the specified
average end-of-discharge voltage per cell times the number of cells in the battery. Do not
continue the test below the specified cutoff point; stop at the cutoff point to ensure that the
battery capacity is always calculated with the same reference conditions from test to test, and
to prevent overdischarge of some cells.
EXAMPLE: A test performed on a 60-cell battery with a specified end voltage
of 1.75 V per cell would terminate at 105 V per the following
equation:
Vend = (1.75 V) (Number of connected cells)
10. Use the following criteria to determine whether a test should be terminated because of a lowvoltage cell(s).
a. If a cell is approaching cell reversal (1.0 V) and the test is ~90% complete, continue the
test until the specified battery terminal voltage is reached.
b. If the test is not near completion, an individual cell is approaching cell reversal (1.0 V),
and the battery has not yet reached the specified terminal voltage, stop the test.
Disconnect the low-voltage cell from the battery and bypass it by installing a jumper of
adequate ampacity between the adjacent cells.
c. Calculate the new battery end terminal voltage limit due to removal of the cell and restart
the test.
EXAMPLE: If the test termination voltage was 105 V for 60 cells based on
1.75 V per cell, the new test termination voltage would be
103.25 V if one cell is jumpered out.
14-13

NOTE:
Once a cell has reached 1.0 V, the cell voltage drops rapidly and the
cell is nearing or has reached complete exhaustion. Continuing the
test without jumpering the cell is acceptable only if the test is near
completion.
NOTE:
The time required to jumper a cell and restart the test should be
minimized. The downtime should be less than 10% of the intended
test duration or 6 minutes, whichever is shorter. A longer downtime
allows the battery to recover capacity. The downtime should not be
included as part of the total duration of the capacity test.
NOTE:
Only one downtime is allowed per test. Additional downtimes allow

the battery to recover and falsely indicate a higher battery capacity.
NOTE:
If a cell does require jumpering, the cell will require corrective after
the test. During a battery discharge in an emergency, this cell would
not be jumpered and, depending on the degree of impairment, it could
adversely affect the batterys capacity.
11. Observe the battery during the test for intercell connector heating.
12. Terminate the test when the battery terminal voltage decreases to the level specified in Step
9. Record the total test time.
13. Disconnect the test equipment.
14. Recharge the battery in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and restore it to
normal standby service.
15. Calculate battery capacity using the following equation for discharge times greater than 1
hour:
Percent capacity at 77F (25C) = (Ta/Ts) x 100
where:
Ta = actual time of test to specified terminal voltage
Ts = manufacturer's rated time to specified terminal voltage
NOTE:
14-14
Refer to Section 14.1.5 for additional guidance for the calculation of

battery capacity.

16. Compare the battery capacity to the capacity obtained by previous performance tests to
determine the trend in battery capacity. Determine whether battery degradation is sufficient
to warrant more frequent performance testing, in accordance with the criteria provided in
Section 14.1.3.
14.2 Service Test

14.2.1 Purpose of Test and Background Information
The service test demonstrates that a battery meets the design basis discharge requirements set by
its duty cycle at a particular instant during its installed life. The test is performed with the battery
in the as-found condition, that is, the battery is not adjusted for optimal performance as might be
the case in the performance test. The service test is intended to include the effects of
maintenance practices and to demonstrate that the battery can meet its design requirements on
demand.
The service test is usually performed only on safety-related stationary batteries, with the test
requirements and frequency established by the plant's Technical Specifications. In some cases, a
plant might elect to perform a service test on a non-safety-related battery.
The service test is distinctly different from the performance test. The performance test
determines the actual battery capacity (based on the manufacturer's rating) and provides
excellent information for trending a battery's capacity over its installed life. The service test has
only one goalverifying that the battery as installed and maintained can meet its duty cycle
requirements. The service test results can be trended also. For example, monitoring and
recording the battery voltage during critical portions of the duty cycle can support a prediction of
when the battery will no longer meet its design requirements.
Plant Technical Specifications state the required periodicity for the performance test and the
service test. Some plants are allowed to conduct the performance instead of the service test,
provided that the service test initial condition requirements are met. In this case, the performance
test includes the effects of maintenance practices by testing the battery in the as-found condition.
14.2.2 Service Test Duty Cycle
A typical duty cycle is shown in Figure 14-5. The service test is intended to verify that the
battery can provide the power required by the duty cycle for which it was sized.
14-15

600
500
400
Load
(amperes)
300
200
100
0 1
120
239 240
Figure 14-5
Typical Duty Cycle
The design engineer should assist in the selection and setup of the test duty cycle. The service
test load profile should be functionally equivalent to the duty cycle established by the battery
sizing calculation. When the battery was originally sized, the designer should have added
margins to account for temperature, aging, and load growth. The aging, temperature, and design
margins should not be incorporated into the service test load profile. The basis for excluding
these factors is provided below.
14.2.2.1
Aging Factor
The battery has to meet the design duty cycle when first installed and must still be able to meet it
near end of life. Early in a battery's life, it should achieve the service test profile easily because a
substantial margin is included in the battery sizing. As the battery ages, the margin at critical
points of the service test is reduced.
The service test profile should not include a correction for the size aging factor. The factor
accounts for the gradual loss of capacity over time and is inherently incorporated into the test. A
battery will pass the service tests with less and less margin as it ages and its capacity decreases.
A battery might not be replaced until its capacity declines to 80%; if properly sized, the battery
will still meet the service test profile when its capacity is 80%.
14.2.2.2
Design Margin Factor
IEEE 485 suggests a design margin factor of 10% to 15% to account for load growth. This
margin should not be included in the service test profile; the test should be based only on the
actual duty cycle. If the system has experienced load growth, the battery duty cycle should be
reevaluated and the service test profile adjusted as appropriate. In all cases, the service test
profile should be based on the actual duty cycle, without any load growth design margin.
14-16

14.2.2.3
Temperature Correction Factor
Batteries are sized for performance at the lowest expected temperature in accordance with IEEE
485. As stated previously, the service test demonstrates that a battery can fulfill its design
function at that particular time in its installed life, including the temperature at the time of the
test. In this regard, the service test is not attempting to verify design basis conditions; it is only
testing the battery to the defined duty cycle under the current environmental conditions. For this
reason, the service test discharge rate is not corrected for temperature.
With regard to the temperature correction factor, the service test results should still be evaluated
with care. For example, consider a battery in which the design basis low temperature is 40F
(4.44C). If the service test is performed when the battery temperature is 90F (32.2C) and it
just barely passes the test, then the user should not expect that the battery would be capable of
fulfilling its design discharge requirements at 40F (4.44C). The difference in expected capacity
between the test temperature [90F (32.2C)] and the design basis temperature [40F (4.44C)] is
almost 40%. The user still has the responsibility of evaluating the test results.
14.2.3 Service Test Periodicity
The service test frequency will normally be established by nuclear plant Technical Specification
requirements or company policy.
14.2.4 Service Test Initial Conditions and Pretest Requirements
The following initial conditions should be met before a service test begins:
within the expected tolerances. Take no action unless battery damage could occur. Damage
can occur if the connection resistance is too high for the test current such that excessive heat
will be generated at the connection.
accordance with Section 12.2.2.
14-17

14.2.5 Test Procedure

1. Verify that the pretest requirements described in Section 14.2.4 have been completed.
2. Verify that the battery area ventilation is operating normally.
3. Determine the discharge rate for each portion of the duty cycle.
NOTE:
To eliminate any potential ambiguity in the test results, it might be

beneficial to account for test equipment measurement accuracy when
developing the service test load profiles for safety-related batteries.
4. Set up a test discharge load capable of maintaining the required test discharge rate during
each period of the battery duty cycle. The load bank typically generates a considerable
amount of heat during the test; locate the load bank where it will not overheat other installed
equipment.
5. Disconnect the battery charger from the battery and connect the load bank to the battery.
CAUTION: Be careful not to short circuit the battery while making the
connections to the load bank. One approach is to connect the
cables first to the load bank, followed by the connection to the
battery. The reason for this order of events is that the connection
of the positive and negative leads at the load bank can be very
close together with little room for error.
NOTE:
If the battery charger cannot be disconnected from the battery, the

test discharge rate must be adjusted to compensate for the battery
charger contribution.
NOTE:
The battery should not sit on open circuit for an extended period
before starting the test. It is intended that the test start as soon as
practical once the float charge is removed.
6. Start the timer and begin the test at the required test discharge rate.
14-18

CAUTION: Personnel should not be allowed in the battery area during high
discharge portions of the duty cycle.
7. Monitor the test current throughout the test and adjust the load bank as needed to maintain
the required test current.
8. Monitor the battery terminal voltage throughout the test to ensure that the test acceptance
criteria are met. Measure and record individual cell voltages and the battery terminal voltage
during the critical portion of the service test load profile. Measure individual cell voltages
between respective posts of like polarity of adjacent cells, as shown in Figure 14-6, to
include the intercell connector voltage drop.
NOTE:
Cell voltage measurements must be recorded during the most critical

portion of the duty cycle. If obtained consistently from test to test,
this information is valuable as a trending tool.
Figure 14-6
Typical Cell Voltage Measurement
9. Continue the test for the entire duty cycle. At no time during the test should the battery
voltage fall below the design limit. For example, the design limit for a 125-V battery might
be 105 V; the engineering department should provide the proper test acceptance criteria for
each battery.
10. Observe the battery during the test for intercell connector heating.
11. Disconnect the test equipment once the test is complete.
12. Recharge the battery in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and restore it to
normal standby service.
13. Compare the voltage measurements taken during the service test to the measurements taken
in previous tests to determine the trend in test results.
14-19

14.2.6 Test Failure Considerations

If the battery does not meet its design requirements and fails the service test, the basis for the
battery sizing should be reviewed to determine whether the battery was improperly applied or the
service test was incorrectly specified.
The battery should be equalized and the annual battery inspections should be performed to
identify reasons for the test failure. Section 14.6 provides additional potential problems to
consider. A battery performance test might be needed to determine whether the battery capacity
is degraded. Once the source of the problem has been corrected, the service test should be
repeated. A battery that cannot pass its service test should be replaced as soon as possible.
14.3 Acceptance Test

The acceptance test is identical to the performance test except that it is completed only upon
purchase or initial installation. Either of the following approaches is allowable:
Acceptance test is performed by the manufacturer before shipment.
Acceptance test is performed by the user after installation.
Given the tight schedules during a maintenance or refueling outage, it is usually advantageous to
require the manufacturer to perform the acceptance test. This practice also ensures that the
battery meets its purchasing requirements before shipment.
Batteries can have less than rated capacity when first placed into operation. Unless 100%
capacity upon delivery is required by the purchasing specification, the battery capacity might be
as low as 90% of the rated value. This initially low capacity will improve during the first years of
float service operation and should rise at least to the rated capacity. The reason a new battery
might not have 100% capacity is because the plates are not yet fully formed. During the first few
months to years of float service, the plates gradually become fully formed. The termed formed
refers to the process of converting the lead oxide in the plates into lead dioxide (positive plate)
and lead (negative plate) during the manufacturing process.
Individual replacement cells should undergo an acceptance test before installation into the
battery. See Section 14.7 for additional information regarding replacement cells.
14.4 Modified Performance Test

A modified performance test is a regular performance test that is augmented to include a highrate, short duration discharge period (usually the first minute). The modified performance test is
intended to establish a batterys capacity while also confirming its ability to meet the critical
discharge period of the batterys duty cycle. Implemented as intended, the modified performance
test is a combination of a regular performance test and a service test. Figure 14-7 shows an ideal
modified performance test; the first minute discharge is based on the limiting high-rate period
from the duty cycle, which is followed by a constant-current discharge at the standard
performance test rate. Note that the modified performance test discharge profile must fully
envelope the service test profile if the modified performance test is to be used in lieu of a service
test.
14-20

Modified Performance
Test Discharge Profile
Load
(amperes)
30
120
10
20

Duty Cycle
Figure 14-7
Ideal Modified Performance Test
The driving force behind development of the modified performance test was a desire to
maximize the usefulness and efficiency of testing performed on nuclear plant Class 1E batteries.
Most nuclear plant Technical Specifications require a service test every refueling outage and a
performance test every 5 years. The concept behind the modified performance test is that it could
be used to meet the service test requirements of the Technical Specifications and also provide
useful capacity information for trending purposes - in essence two tests in one. Other potential
benefits of a modified performance test may also exist:
The modified performance test may be easier to conduct since it probably only consists of
two distinct discharge rates. A typical service test load profile may have six, seven, or more
different rates involved.
The modified performance test deep discharges the battery, which fully exercises the plates.
The modified performance test has additional inherent margin in relation to the duty cycle.
This can be advantageous if an error is found in the duty cycle or if the duty cycle is
increased for any reason. As long as the test profile still bounds the revised duty cycle, the
issue of operability is never in question.
For Class 1E batteries, the primary objective of the modified performance test is to confirm the
batterys ability to meet the duty cycle. Thus, the battery is tested in the as-found condition,
just as it for a service test. And, jumpering out cells is not allowed. Although the high-rate
discharge period of a modified performance test can involve quite high discharge rates, relatively
few total ampere-hours are actually removed from the battery. Thus, the test can be conducted
without measurably impacting performance test results.
The modified performance test is not appropriate for all duty cycles. Figures 14-8 and 14-9 show
two such cases. In Figure 14-8, the performance test discharge rate does not envelope a
significant period of the duty cycle. In Figure 14-9, excluded portion of the duty cycle is small in
terms of ampere-hours, but it occurs at a critical point in the discharge. A modified performance
test is not appropriate for either of these two examples.
14-21

Discharge Does Not

Envelope Duty Cycle
for Over 30 Minutes
Load
(amperes)
20
30
120

Duty Cycle
Figure 14-8
Significant Portion of Duty Cycle Not Bounded
Discharge Does Not

Envelope Duty Cycle
at a Critical Point
Load
(amperes)
30
120

Duty Cycle
Figure 14-9
Critical Last Minute of Duty Cycle Not Bounded
The question that arises is can the modified performance test profile be adjusted to encompass
periods in the duty cycle that would otherwise be excluded? The 30 minute excluded period in
Figure 14-8 is a good example. This question is not easily answered. Certainly the load profile
can be adjusted, but does it still meet the definition of a modified performance test in accordance
with IEEE 450? IEEE 450 states that the modified performance test typically consists of only
two periods, so it can be construed that more than two periods are allowed. Does this mean that
10 periods are acceptable? Probably not. Considerable confusion has arisen over this issue; until
clarified in IEEE 450 or other governing documents, it is recommended that users exercise
14-22

conservative judgment in using a modified performance test for Class 1E safety-related batteries
that have a duty cycle not clearly enveloped by the classic two-period modified performance test
profile.
Other issues have also surfaced with regard to the modified performance test and Technical
Specification requirements:
When the battery capacity falls below 100%, the actual discharge time of the modified
performance test will not envelope the duty cycle time if they are of the same intended
duration. Although it can be inferred by analysis that the battery has sufficient capacity to
meet the duty cycle, does the test meet the strict requirements of the Technical
Specifications?
As specified by IEEE 450, the performance test is temperature compensated, but the service
test is not. Thus, should the performance test part of the modified performance test profile be
temperature compensated (that is, should the test discharge current be adjusted)? Or, should
the compensation factor be applied to the test duration? Should a correction factor be applied
at all? If not, the capacity test results will be of little use.
In determining a course of action for addressing the above issues, users must ensure the test, as
performed, conforms to Technical Specification requirements. Users should also consult with the
battery manufacturer to ensure that all relevant concerns have been addressed. For non-safetyrelated batteries, more flexibility is available for simply exercising good engineering practices in
implementing modified performance testing.
14.5 Nickel-Cadmium Battery Considerations

Capacity testing of nickel-cadmium batteries is similar to lead-acid batteries. In this regard, the
information provided in the previous sections can be applied to nickel-cadmium batteries with
the clarifications of the following sections. Refer to IEEE 1106 for additional information.
14.5.1 Test Specifications
Nickel cadmium batteries experience voltage depression, a lowering of the average discharge
voltage, during long-term float operation. Voltage depression is referred to as the float effect by
most manufacturers. This effect starts to set in as soon as the charge input (ampere-hours)
exceeds about 200% of the rated capacity and reaches its full effect after about 3 months of float
operation. It is an inevitable consequence of float charging in which the long term overcharge
causes the nickel hydrate positive active material to gradually change its crystalline structure.
This phenomenon is normal, but can reduce the available capacity to a specified end-ofdischarge voltage.
Battery manufacturers account for the float effect in their cell performance specifications with a
derating factor or separate specifications (non-float corrected and float corrected). Cell
performance specifications that are designated as the capacity after prolonged float charging
have accounted for the float effect. Cell performance specifications that are designated as the
fully charged capacity might not have accounted for the float effect.
14-23

With regard to battery capacity testing, the float effect should be considered as follows:
A capacity test should be based on the appropriate cell performance specifications,

depending on whether the float effect has had time to develop.
Factory acceptance testing should be based on non-float corrected cell performance

specifications because the float effect will not yet be present. Although an acceptance test
will confirm that a battery has adequate capacity, the acceptance test results cannot easily be
compared to future performance test results because of the float effect. For this reason, it is
recommended that the first onsite performance test be completed on each battery within the
first 2 years of service to provide a separate baseline for subsequent trending.
Discharging a battery tends to remove the float effect. The degree to which the float effect is
removed depends on the depth of discharge. The active material that is converted to nickel
hydroxide during discharge will have the float effect temporarily removed and the active
material that has not converted will still have the float effect. Upon recharge, the float effect
again fully returns over the next few weeks or months, depending on the amount of active
material converted during the discharge. For this reason, a performance test should not be
conducted for some period of time after the battery has been discharged and subsequently
recharged; the battery could perform better than would really be expected for prolonged float
charging. Furthermore, there is no practical method of scaling between float corrected and
non-float corrected data.
14.5.2 Performance Test Frequency

The performance test is normally performed at the following intervals:
Within the first 2 years of service
Every 5 years until degradation is detected
Every year after battery degradation is detected
Battery degradation is defined as a drop in capacity of more than 1.5% per year since the
previous performance test.
The above criteria apply to a nickel-cadmium stationary battery under normal service conditions.
The maintenance department might choose to adjust the actual test frequency to suit the
application and service environment.
14.5.3 Performance Test Discharge Rate
The information provided for lead-acid batteries applies also to nickel-cadmium batteries. The
most important consideration for nickel-cadmium batteries is to verify that the proper discharge
rate is used. Section 6.6 discusses the difference in rating between the normal IEC 623 rating
process and a rating properly corrected for float charging operation. Both types of information
might be available. If IEC 623 discharge information is used when the battery is normally on
float charge, the battery will likely not indicate acceptable capacity. Section 14.5.1 explains the
applicability of cell performance specifications to each type of capacity test.
14-24

14.5.4 Acceptance Criteria

The method of calculating capacity specified in Section 14.1.5 also applies to nickel-cadmium
batteries. But, performance test results should be viewed with some care, particularly if the
capacity appears to be less than 80%. If the battery was sized in accordance with IEEE 1115, it
was originally 25% larger than required to ensure that it has adequate capacity at end of life
(80% or less of rated capacity). The impact of this size increase needs to be understood. A
battery from a given model range that is 25% larger in ampere-hours from another in the same
model range will provide 25% more current for a given discharge time. But, for a fixed discharge
current, the 25% larger battery will provide substantially more than a 25% increase in discharge
time. Thus, by making the battery 25% larger, it is actually capable of more than 25% extra
discharge time at the actual required discharge rate. Whenever evaluating performance test
results that indicate the battery is near end of life, the actual system requirements should be
reviewed also. The following provides an example:
Example 14-3
Suppose that a user needed a nickel-cadmium battery capable of 110 amperes for 30 minutes at
77F (25C). Referring to one manufacturers catalogue, the user determines that a Model ABC
has a capability of 110 amperes for 30 minutes at 77F (25C) when it is at 100% capacity.
However, to account for aging and an intention to replace the battery when its capacity falls to
80%, the user applies a 1.25 aging factor as follows:
Required Size = 1.25 110 = 137.5 amperes

Referring to the manufacturers catalogue, the user then selects a cell capable of 137.5 amperes
to account for the aging process. In this case, the user selected a Model ABC which has a
capacity of 143 amperes for 30 minutes at 77F (25C). Figure 14-10 shows the capability of the
ABC at 100% capacity.
300
250
Discharge
Rate
(amperes)
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Figure 14-10
Model ABC Discharge Capability
14-25

Notice that an increase of 25% current to account for aging actually means much more than a
25% increase in discharge time at the original requirement of 110 amperes for 30 minutes. Figure
14-10 shows that this cell is capable of about 62 minutes at a discharge rate of 110 amperes, or
twice the actual requirement!
By the method that the performance test is conducted, the battery would be considered at its end
of life when it can no longer provide 80% of its rated discharge time, in this case, 143 amperes
for 30 minutes. But notice that this cell would still be capable of 0.8 x 62 minutes = 49.6 minutes
at a discharge rate of 110 amperes. This is still over 65% more than the original requirement of
110 amperes for 30 minutes.
Nickel-cadmium batteries exhibit different failure modes than do lead-acid batteries. By the time
that a lead-acid batterys capacity has fallen to 80% of its rated value, its capacity can be
declining rapidly with a very short expected remaining operating life (see Figure 14-1),
regardless of how oversized it might be. In comparison, the nickel-cadmium battery capacity
tends to decline in a more linear and predictable manner (refer to Section 4). Thus when a nickelcadmium batterys capacity has fallen to 80% of its rated value, failure of the battery is neither
imminent or expected; its capacity will continue to decline at somewhat predictable levels. As a
result, the battery might still be acceptable for use, especially if it was initially oversized, as
shown in the above example.
14.6 Continuity Test

14.6.1 Background Information
A continuity test is a short duration test of the batterys capacity by having the battery carry the
available system load. A continuity test is normally initiated by turning off the associated battery
charger. A continuity test might be performed instead of a capacity test if the necessary discharge
test equipment is not available.
The continuity test was developed as an alternate method of assessing internal VRLA cell
degradation. The continuity test is conceptually very simpleplace a short duration, high rate
discharge on the battery and monitor its response. If battery terminal voltage falls too far during
the discharge, the battery may not be acceptable.
The continuity test represents an actual test of the batterys ability without connecting special
discharge test equipment. The system load is intended to supply the necessary discharge on the
battery during the test. Because the system load is used to test the battery, the continuity test may
not satisfy the needs of all users for the following reasons:
Many users might be justifiably uncomfortable with the thought of deliberately forcing the
battery to perform its design function. In the event that the battery fails during the test, even a
momentary disruption of power can be damaging or costly to some users. In some system
designs, a low battery voltage will actuate low voltage cutout relays, causing a complete loss
of power to the system. A continuity test requires close monitoring of battery voltage
throughout the test to ensure that a loss of power does not occur.
14-26

Not all systems carry sufficient load during normal operation to allow an adequate test. The
key to the continuity test is that the discharge current should be high enough to test the
batterys ability. A very low test discharge rate could possibly be satisfied even by a battery
on the verge of complete failure. The continuity test should provide some level of confidence
that the battery will fulfill the design discharge rate.
14.6.2 Procedure
CAUTION: Conduct a continuity test during stable system conditions (no
thunderstorms in the area or other events that might require
battery backup power). Because the battery is partially discharged
by the continuity test, stable system conditions are needed to
ensure that the battery is recharged as soon as possible.
1. Before starting a continuity test, check the charger output current to determine the system
load. Review the manufacturers data sheet for the battery to predict how long the battery
should be capable of carrying this load. Based on the total load and the batterys rated
capability, determine how long to conduct the continuity test; it is not intended that a
continuity test fully discharge the battery. The battery should have greater than 50% of its
original capacity when the test is complete. Also, determine the minimum allowed dc voltage
and establish test termination criteria above this minimum voltage.
2. Initiate the continuity test by turning off the battery charger.
CAUTION: Monitor battery voltage closely at the beginning of (and
throughout) the test. Immediately restore power to the charger if
battery voltage is falling rapidly.
3. Constantly monitor battery voltage during the continuity test. Terminate the test by reenergizing the battery charger if the battery voltage falls to the low voltage limit established
for the test. Otherwise, terminate the test when the battery has discharged for the planned
duration.
4. Evaluate the test results by comparing the discharge rate and discharge time to the
manufacturers rating for the battery.
5. Ensure that the battery charger is operating normally and recharging the battery.
14-27

14.7 Capacity Test Failure Considerations

Whenever a capacity test indicates that the battery has insufficient capacity as defined by the test
criteria, the test setup should be reviewed in detail to ensure that the failure really is a battery
failure rather than a test setup error. Review the following items to ensure that the test was
performed properly.
Are the test equipment connectors and cables properly sized for the test discharge rate?
Are all connections good? Check with a micro-ohmmeter.
Was the capacity test cut-off voltage measured at the battery terminals?
Is the battery test discharge rate correct?
Was the battery fully charged before the test?
If the battery had an equalize charge before the test, was it allowed to sit on float charge for
72 hours before the test?
Are the load banks and all meters calibrated?
Was any load inadvertently placed on the battery during load bank setup that could have
partially discharged the battery?
Was the test discharge rate corrected for temperature (performance or acceptance test)?
14.8 Battery Replacement Considerations

The battery should be replaced if trending information indicates that the remaining margin above
the required capacity will be used up in about 1 year. The recommended maximum time for
battery replacement is 1 year unless additional margin is available in the original battery sizing
calculation with respect to the actual load on the system.
If individual cells are replaced because of poor performance during a performance test, the
battery capacity should be reestablished by a combination of test and analysis. It is usually
impractical to conduct another complete battery performance test. Instead, a performance test
should be conducted only on the replacement cells.
One method of accomplishing a capacity test on the replacement cells is to require the
manufacturer to complete an acceptance test of the cells before shipment. Unless required
otherwise by the purchasing documents, replacement cells can initially have a capacity as low as
90% of rated capacity. The purchasing documents for replacement cells should require that
greater than 100% capacity be demonstrated by the acceptance test before shipment. With this
approach, the replacement cells can be installed into the battery with assurance that overall
battery capacity demonstrated by the performance test for the existing cells will not be
inadvertently degraded by the replacement cells. This method simplifies the analysis necessary to
calculate the actual battery capacity for trending of the performance test results.
14-28

Furthermore, this approach provides further justification for not repeating the performance test
because 100% capacity cells were installed. For critical applications it might be beneficial to
maintain at least one spare cell onsite.
Connection resistance measurements of the replacement cells should be taken after cell
installation in accordance with Section 11.3.2. These measurements are necessary to eliminate
the possibility of connection problems capable of limiting battery capacity.
Replacement of individual cells is usually not recommended for batteries nearing their end of
life. Instead, a complete battery replacement should be considered.
14-29
15
BATTERY INSTALLATION AND REPLACEMENT
Over the life of a plant, all installed batteries eventually require replacement. By means of
trending data, the maintenance staff should be able to predict the end of life for each on-site
battery, unless unusual degradation occurs.
Replacing a stationary battery is distinctly different from replacing other failed electrical
components. Often, the batterys end of life is predicted well in advance and the replacement is a
planned activity. Sometimes, a battery with over 100% rated capacity might require early
replacement. For example, the engineering department might require a larger battery or a
different type of battery to resolve any of the following concerns:
Load growth on the dc system
Lower than desired margins in the original battery sizing calculation
Seismic qualification issues associated with a particular manufacturer's battery
Perceived reliability or design improvements with a particular battery
When the predicted end of life for a battery is less than 2 to 4 years away, the maintenance
department should ensure that the engineering staff is aware of the impending need for
replacement. Larger battery installations should be planned as far in advance as possible. Smaller
batteries might not need as much lead time for evaluation.
Section 15 discusses the important factors to consider as part of a battery replacement.
15.1 Battery Replacement Criteria

The engineering department might require a battery upgrade to meet a particular design
requirement. However, the maintenance department will most likely identify the need to replace
a battery because of aging and degradation. Any of the following conditions can require a battery
replacement:
Capacity below, at, or approaching 80%
Age approaching the manufacturers predicted service life
Service test failure that cannot be corrected
Excessive number of cell failures so that the entire battery is replaced
Load growth that prevents the battery from meeting its duty cycle
New or revised design requirements
Severe battery degradation, such as hydration, copper contamination, or degraded grids or

plates
15-1

Battery Installation and Replacement
Except for cases of sudden battery degradation, trending of battery performance should allow the
maintenance department to predict when replacement will be necessary.
15.2 Sizing Considerations for a Replacement Battery

15.2.1 Verification of Required Battery Size
Some well built and well maintained batteries can last 20 to 25 years. For a battery that was
originally installed 25 years ago, it is likely that the design of other equipment in the facility or
the design criteria for the facility has changed. Consider the following sizing guidelines for
replacement batteries:
The facility might have more load on the battery than anticipated when it was originally
sized. A load evaluation should be performed as part of a battery replacement to confirm that
the replacement battery is properly sized.
The original criteria for battery sizing might have assumed a shorter duty cycle than desirable
for newer installations today. For example, some substation batteries might originally have
been sized for a 2 hour duty cycle, but the utility standard for new installations might be for 4
or 8 hours. Replacement batteries could require a larger size just to meet the current criteria
for the facility.
Verify the manufacturers characteristic curves for the battery. In the 25 years since the last
battery was installed, battery manufacturers have changed the way in which batteries are
rated. In particular, the short time discharge ratings are likely to be less than in the past.
Verify, if possible, that the battery was properly sized, including allowances for aging,
temperature, and design margin. It is possible that the battery was too small to fulfill its
original design requirements with all factors considered.
15.2.2 System Design Verification if a Larger Battery Is Installed

Once the decision has been made to install a larger battery, other attributes in the system
equipment should be checked. The following design features should be checked:
Verify that the larger battery, including the new battery rack will physically fit within the
available footprint and that the allowable floor loading is not exceeded.
Check the new battery fault current and determine if protective devices and distribution
equipment are still within their interrupting or withstand ratings.
Determine if the existing charger can recharge battery in a reasonable time. A larger charger
might be required as part of the battery replacement.
Verify that the battery cables are large enough to carry the larger battery output current.
15-2

15.3 New Battery Installation Considerations

The installation of a new battery or the replacement of an existing battery represents a significant
effort for the maintenance department. The following IEEE standards provide specific guidelines
that should be reviewed prior to the installation:
ANSI/IEEE Standard 450-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and
Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 484-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and
Installation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
IEEE Standard 485-1997, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for
Stationary Applications.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 1106-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing,

and Replacement of Vented Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications.
IEEE 1187-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of
Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
Safety-related batteries at nuclear plants require seismic qualification in accordance with IEEE
535 and NRC Regulatory Guide 1.158.
The installation details for proper battery installation and commissioning are provided by the
manufacturer. Even if the actual battery installation is performed by a separate construction
group, the maintenance staff should be involved because they will own the battery after
installation. The quality of inspection and test data obtained during the installation will influence
the ability to trend performance in later years.
15.3.1 Preparation and Review for a Battery Replacement
The design and maintenance organizations should actively work together during the preliminary
design stages of a battery replacement or installation of a new battery system. The following
factors should be considered:
Are the maintenance and test requirements of the battery well understood? Are current
resources adequate to perform the required maintenance? Has the cost of maintenance been
factored into the selection process? The type of battery selected (vented lead-acid, VRLA,
nickel-cadmium) will directly impact maintenance requirements. Economic analyses
involving VRLA batteries should be based on a realistic estimated service life, not the
optimistic life projections contained in marketing literature.
Does the footprint of the battery allow for adequate room to perform maintenance and
testing?
Is the rack height appropriate for the room dimensions to allow access to the tops of the cells
without undue hazard?
Does the rack height, room arrangement, and footprint allow for proper arrangement of
rigging equipment?
15-3

Is the selected battery appropriate for the expected operating environment? Specifically, is
the average ambient temperature for the installation location known and is the battery
expected to perform well in the environment? Temperature will have a major impact on the
battery's overall performance and service life; ambient temperature extremes must be given
careful consideration. If the battery is to be located in an enclosure, the expected ambient
temperature extremes inside the enclosure should be determined.
Has the need for on site spare cells been evaluated? If spare cells will be maintained on site
permanently, where will the cells be stored and how will they be charged?
Is existing test equipment adequate or is additional equipment necessary? For example, is

the load bank large enough to perform a performance test on the new battery? If it is the first
VRLA battery installation, will special test equipment be needed, such as internal ohmic test
equipment?
Is ventilation adequate for the new installation? If the battery is to be located in an enclosure
(such as a UPS battery), ventilation requirements should be clearly addressed.
Will the new battery arrangement cause disruptions in air flow that could result in
unacceptable cell temperature variations?
Does the new installation allow for convenient connection to load test equipment? A case in
point is a battery that was installed in a building basement and the available load bank was
too large for the stairs.
Is the existing charger compatible with the new battery? Consider the following design
features:
Recharge rate
Output ripple
Equalizing voltage
Has a means of monitoring float charging current been considered?
All related maintenance inspection and test procedures might require revision if the battery
type is changed.
The performance test load profile requires revision if the battery size is changed.
Are electrical protective device sizes and setpoints appropriate?
15.3.2 Preplanning for the Installation

The following factors should be considered when coordinating the battery shipment planning the
battery installation onsite:
15-4

When should the battery be scheduled to arrive on site? The schedule should contain enough
contingency time to obtain replacement cells should any cells be damaged during shipment
or receipt and storage. However, this should be balanced against the undesired effects of
leaving batteries in long-term storage and not on charge. Charging a battery in storage can be
difficult and should be avoided if at all possible. Typically, manufacturers limit storage to 6
months at normal ambient temperatures before a charge is required. Higher ambient
temperatures increase the rate of self-discharge.
Are adequate facilities available to store the battery until installation?
Will the acceptance test be performed at the factory or onsite after installation? Will a
company representative inspect the cells or witness the acceptance test prior to shipment?
Note: The acceptance test should be performed with the type of hardware that will be
used for the installation.
Have existing maintenance and operating procedures been updated? Have the performance
and service test profiles been updated, if applicable? Is training required for maintenance and
operation of the new battery?
Has disposal of the old battery been addressed? Have all environmental aspects of battery
disposal been considered?
Have provisions been made to train personnel on the hazards and precautions for batteries?
This is particularly important for individuals that will be associated with the replacement but
do not normally work with batteries.
Have the logistics of battery movement and rigging been considered?
Breaching of fire or security barriers

Establishing construction barriers and impeding normal traffic flow and access to the
battery area
Load bearing capability of floors and elevators
Interference with other planned work
Structural considerations for rigging equipment
Stairs
Is extra hardware available?
Has coordination between work groups been addressed? It is not uncommon for one group
to install the battery and another to test it. Whenever possible, it is recommended that the
work group responsible for ongoing maintenance of the battery install the intercell
connectors in order to establish baseline resistance readings.
Is a receipt inspection plan in place:
Visual inspection for damage and electrolyte leakage
Electrolyte level check to ensure plates are covered
Other checks - the detail appropriate for receipt inspection will depend on the facility and
its process for design changes
15-5

If purchased, should spare cells be shipped wet or dry?
Are spare cells available in the event of damage to any cells during shipping or installation?
Is lighting adequate in all work areas?
Include a step in the battery installation procedure for verification of proper cell orientation
prior to installation of intercell connectors.
For seismic installations, consider a survey to determine rebar locations before beginning
rack installation.
15.3.3 Battery Rack Considerations

The battery rack should be selected to fit within the defined footprint while also satisfying the
need for maintenance access. Although this may seem to be an obvious design consideration,
many batteries are installed in a manner such that access to some (or all) cells is severely limited.
Examples of actual poor battery installations include:
Stepped battery racks without consideration of access to the rear row. The worst installations
require personnel to reach over two rows to get access to the last row, thereby exposing
personnel to the risk of short circuits during maintenance. In this case, access should have
been provided behind the battery rack to allow access to the last row.
Vertical two-high arrangements in which the lower row is completely blocked by the upper
row. Access to the lower row requires complete disassembly and removal of the upper row.
This is an example of a maintenance-proof design; because access to the lower row is so
difficult, adequate maintenance might not be performed on this battery.
Sealed battery cubicle inside a UPS with insulated terminal covers in which the battery
requires disconnection to gain access. This is another maintenance-proof design; on-line float
charging measurements are not even possible. Some UPS enclosures require partial or
sometimes almost complete disassembly just to reach the batteries, and thus cannot be
inspected while in service.
VRLA installations that are so tall that a ladder is needed to reach the upper rows.
Battery installations hidden behind other equipment (also in violation with the local building
codes at that site).
Figures 15-1 and 15-2 show typical battery rack configurations for vented cells. Regardless of
the design, maintenance personnel should think through how they will have ready access to each
cell. Larger VRLA cells are often installed in a vertical configuration as shown in Figure 15-3.
VRLA installations typically have plastic safety covers over the terminals as shown in Figure
15-4.
15-6

Cell
Cell
Cell
Should Be Open
in Front of Rack to
Provide Access
Cell
a. Two-tier battery
b. Two-step battery
Figure 15-1
Different Battery Rack Configurations (End View)
Cell
Cell
Should Provide Clearance
Behind Rack for Access
Cell
Cell
Cell
Should Be Open
in Front of Rack to
Provide Access
a. Three-step battery
Cell
Cell
b. Two-tier, two-step battery
Figure 15-2
Larger Battery Rack Configurations (End View)
15-7

Figure 15-3
Vertical VRLA Battery Installation
Figure 15-4
VRLA Battery Installation with Protective Covers
15-8

15.3.4 Initial Measurements and Battery Setup

The following maintenance-related tasks are necessary as part of the replacement:
All cells should be thoroughly inspected for damage before installation. Verify that the cells
were stored in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
A baseline set of intercell and termination resistances should be taken and included in the
annual inspection procedure as future acceptance criteria.
Baseline internal ohmic measurements should be taken for VRLA batteries.
An initial charge should be applied in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations

after installation.
An acceptance test is recommended as part of the installation if the manufacturer did not
perform an acceptance test before shipment.
A performance test is recommended within 2 years of installation.
If a VRLA battery is installed, all manufacturer's recommendations for the installation and
operation of the battery should be closely reviewed. The installed location and configuration
must comply with the manufacturer's requirements.
The old battery must be disposed of in accordance with applicable regulations. One method
of facilitating disposal is to require that the battery vendor coordinate disposal of the old
battery.
15.3.5 Lead-Acid Battery Electrolyte Addition

Normally, only water is added to a cell. Occasionally, it might be necessary to add electrolyte.
Before adding electrolyte, confirm with the manufacturer that an electrolyte addition is
appropriate. In these cases, add the appropriate specific gravity electrolyte to the cell in
accordance with the manufacturers guidance.
In rare cases, it might be necessary to change the electrolyte specific gravity of the cell. Such a
change will usually be directed by the manufacturer. If the electrolyte specific gravity is to be
changed, some electrolyte is withdrawn and replaced by electrolyte of the proper concentration.
Determine how much electrolyte to replace in accordance with the following equation:
V1 = V2
(G
(G
1
3
G2 )
G2 )
where
V1 =
V2 =
G1 =
G2 =
G3 =
Volume of electrolyte removed and replaced with an acid solution or water

Total volume of electrolyte required in the cell
Desired specific gravity
Original specific gravity
Specific gravity of concentrated acid to be added or 1.000 if adding water
15-9

Example 15-1
Change 5 gallons (18.9 liters) (V2) of 1.210 acid (G2) to 1.250 (G1) by using 1.500 acid (G3).
V1 = V2
(G
(G
1
3
G2 )
G2 )
=5
.
. )
1210
(1250
0.04
=5
= 0.7 gallons (2.65 liters)
0.29
.
. )
1210
(1500
15.4 Checkout of Other DC System Equipment

For a good battery installation, a battery replacement is a relatively rare event, occurring
approximately every 20 years or longer. The rest of the system should be checked and upgraded,
as needed, as part of the battery replacement. While the battery is out of service for replacement,
consider the following:
Perform inspection and testing of dc system breakers.
Inspect cabling for aging or damage. Replace as necessary.
Inspect the battery rack for damage or corrosion. Replace as necessary.
Replace older fuses in the dc system as a precautionary measure.
The charger should receive special attention as part of a battery replacement. The following
checks or maintenance should be performed:
If the new battery has a larger capacity, confirm that the charger size is still adequate.
Check the voltmeter calibration at the float and equalize voltages.
Check for loose connections and evidence of overheating.
Check the charger failure alarm by opening the ac breaker. Check the setting of other voltage
relays.
Inspect contacts on relays for signs of pitting or burning.
Evaluate the output filter capacitors and replace if necessary.
As part of the battery replacement, make everything in the system as new as possible, not just the
battery. The other equipment also ages. If it is not inspected and upgraded during the battery
replacement, it might be another 20 years before it is looked at closely again (unless it fails
sooner).
15-10
16
BATTERY PROBLEMS
This section discusses various problems that can be encountered with batteries. The purpose of
this section is to:
Explain the effect of the problem on battery performance
Discuss immediate operability issues associated with the problem
Provide adequate detail so that the longer-term significance of the problem is understood
Present necessary corrective actions to eliminate or minimize the effect of the problem.
16.1 Lead-Acid Batteries

16.1.1 Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations
Keeping the battery fully charged during normal float operation means that there is always a
slight amount of charging current flow in excess of that required to offset the cell self-discharge.
The excess charging current through a fully charged cell causes electrolysis of water into
hydrogen and oxygen gas. These gases are often referred to as charge gases. Charge gases escape
through the flame arrestor of a vented cell. This dissociation of water into gas results in a gradual
and predictable decline in the electrolyte level. Evaporation also contributes to a loss of water.
Vented lead-acid stationary batteries are designed with excess electrolyte, termed highly
flooded, to minimize maintenance and the watering interval. A low electrolyte level does not
indicate a loss of sulfuric acid; only water is lost by evaporation or charge gases. Thus, the
sulfuric acid is still available to participate in the electrochemical reaction to produce electrical
power. A decrease in electrolyte level increases the concentration of sulfuric acid, thereby
increasing specific gravity. Unless the active material of the plates becomes exposed, the
increase in specific gravity can actually increase available capacity by a small amount. If a
portion of the plates becomes exposed, the exposed area is not available to participate in the
chemical reaction and capacity can be reduced.
Cells are marked with high- and low-level marks so that maintenance personnel can judge when
to add distilled water to a cell and how much. An electrolyte level below the low-level mark does
not necessarily mean that the battery is inoperable or incapable of producing its rated capacity.
As long as the electrolyte level is above the battery plates, the battery capacity should not be
affected. NUREG-1431, Standard Technical Specifications, Table 3.8.3-1, supports this position.
16-1

Battery Problems
If the electrolyte level falls to below the bottom of the filling funnel, gases can leave the cell
through the funnel rather than through the flame arrestor; this situation could present an
explosion hazard during excessive charging. For this reason, the level should always be above
both the plates and the bottom of the filling funnel.
If the plates are exposed because of a low electrolyte level, the exposed portion experiences
accelerated sulfation which results in loss of battery capacity. Permanent damage to the plates
can occur if a low level is allowed to persist. Consult the manufacturer if a low electrolyte level
has caused plate exposure.
Too high an electrolyte level can result in an overflow of electrolyte during an equalizing charge
when the cell is gassing vigorously. Overflowing electrolyte can result in shock and short-circuit
hazards, and a loss of electrolyte acid.
16.1.2 Electrolyte Stratification
Electrolyte stratification is not actually a battery problem, but it does affect the battery.
Electrolyte stratification is a difference in electrolyte density between the top and the bottom of
the cell, and can occur after water addition or after a battery recharge following a discharge.
Stratification does not appreciably affect the ability of the battery to produce power, but the
overall capacity might be slightly reduced for short duration discharges.
When the battery is recharged, the lead sulfate on the plates is converted back to lead or lead
dioxide with a release of sulfate ions. These sulfate ions recombine to produce sulfuric acid with
a density greater than that of the dilute electrolyte. As a result, the heavier acid falls to the
bottom of the cell. A specific gravity measurement taken during or just after a recharge will
show that the specific gravity at the top of the cell is lower than the specific gravity at the bottom
of the cell.
In a lead-calcium cell on a normal float charge, several weeks might pass before the electrolyte is
thoroughly circulated with a more uniform specific gravity. Stratification can also be corrected
by an equalize charge. The gassing produced by an equalize charge tends to agitate the
electrolyte and promote mixing.
This stratification effect during recharge also causes the measured cell specific gravity to lag
behind the true specific gravity because of the density variation across the cell. Charging current
can be monitored during a recharge to determine the state of charge; the battery is fully charged
when the charging current is stabilized at a low value (typically < 2 amperes).
Some manufacturers locate the electrolyte sampling tubes inside the cell so that the specific
gravity at the midpoint of the cell can be measured. This design allows an average cell specific
gravity to be obtained.
16-2

Battery Problems
16.1.3 Copper Contamination

Copper contamination causes premature cell failure, but it is readily identifiable during the
annual battery visual inspection if the cell jar is transparent. Copper contamination degrades the
battery over time, but does not result in immediate, catastrophic cell failure. Thus, if copper
contamination is identified in the early stages, there is sufficient time to obtain replacement cells
from the manufacturer. A cell confirmed to have copper contamination cannot be repaired.
Batteries susceptible to copper contamination usually have copper inserts in the terminal posts. A
lead coating is applied over the copper inserts to protect the copper against damage from
exposure to electrolyte. Copper contamination is most frequently caused by a manufacturing
defect. Misalignment of the copper insert during manufacturing causes some parts of the copper
to have an abnormally thin lead coating. As the battery ages, these thinly coated areas eventually
allow the electrolyte to come into contact with the copper insert. Voids in the lead plating
(another type of manufacturing defect) have also caused problems.
The electrolyte attacks the exposed copper. The copper reacts with the electrolyte to form copper
sulfate, which is deposited onto the negative plates. In its early stages, copper contamination
appears as a rusty brown color on the negative strap above the plates (refer to Figure 16-1). Over
time, the color change works its way down the strap and onto the negative plates. The rate of
degradation depends on the amount of exposed copper; there are no set guidelines regarding the
expected cell life once copper contamination is discovered.
Figure 16-1
Copper Contamination Visible on Negative Strap
16-3

Battery Problems
In the advanced stages of contamination, the cell will require increasing levels of float current to
maintain the proper voltage. Ultimately, it will not be possible to keep the cell voltage within the
required limits. Efforts to raise battery voltage by increased charging can be self-defeating; the
higher charging current increases the chemical reaction.
A cell with copper contamination can be considered operable as long as its measurable
parameters are within the battery specification limits. Vendor concurrence regarding battery
operability should be obtained. The battery should be monitored more frequently until the
contaminated cells are replaced. The contaminated cells should be treated like pilot cells until
they are replaced.
In summary, copper contamination results in slow battery degradation. The rate of degradation
depends on the amount of exposed copper. Past operating experience indicates that a thorough
visual inspection can detect copper contamination in its early stages and the rate of degradation
is usually slow enough to allow cell replacement in a planned, rather than crisis, manner.
Whenever copper contamination is discovered, the manufacturer should be consulted as soon as
possible.
16.1.4 Hydration
A battery that has been overdischarged and left in a discharged condition for an extended time
without immediate recharge is subject to permanent damage by hydration. A properly maintained
battery should not experience hydration.
Hydration can occur when the electrolyte specific gravity has been reduced to a very low value
by discharging; a low specific gravity allows the lead on the plates to dissolve into the
electrolyte. The dissolved lead forms several compounds and salts, referred to as hydrate. Upon
recharge, these compounds precipitate out and clog the pores of the separators. Some of the
compounds react to form metallic lead on the surface of the separators, resulting in numerous
short circuit paths between the positive and negative plates.
Hydration can go unnoticed except for a slight increase in the charging current. As the reaction
continues, these internal short circuits increase until it is almost impossible to keep the cell
charged.
Early signs of hydration are usually visible as a horizontal band of white residue on the plates
and possibly on the walls of the cell container approximately mid-way up on the cell. A cell or
battery that becomes hydrated should be replaced. Very often, if at least one cell exhibits visible
signs of hydration, the remaining cells are only weeks or months away from also showing sign of
hydration.
16.1.5 Sulfation
A low charger float voltage, also referred to as undercharging, might not keep the battery fully
charged. Lead sulfate will form on the plates, resulting in decreased battery capacity. The effect
of low charger float voltage on the battery can be observed as:
16-4

Battery Problems
Reduced capacity due to the battery not being fully charged
Prolonged undercharging can result in an excessive buildup of lead sulfate on the plates. This
effect is called sulfation. Lead dioxide reacts with sulfuric acid during discharge to form lead
sulfate by the following reaction:
PbO2 +
Positive
Plate
Pb +
Negative
Plate
2 H 2 SO4
Electrolyte
2 PbSO4
+
Positive
and Negative
Plates
2 H2 O
Water
Lead sulfate formed as a result of undercharging is inherently different in structure from lead
sulfate formed during normal discharge. The lead sulfate formed during normal discharge has a
very fine crystalline structure that is easily broken down by the charging current. The lead sulfate
crystals formed as a result of undercharging continue to grow and eventually reach a size that
cannot be easily broken down by the charge current (see Figure 3-5).
Lead sulfate physically occupies more space than lead dioxide and an excessive buildup can
damage, warp, or buckle the plates. After a period of undercharging, the battery might require an
equalizing charge to restore the condition of the plates to normal. In extreme cases, the
manufacturer might recommend discharge and recharge cycles at higher than normal equalize
voltages to break down the lead sulfate crystals.
Sulfation can be prevented if the manufacturer's recommended battery float voltage is
maintained.
16.1.6 Excessive Sediment
Some sediment accumulation at the bottom of a cell is normal and is not a concern unless it
builds up rapidly. The sediment space below the plates is normally sufficient to hold all sediment
that accumulates over the life of the battery. In a healthy cell, the sediment looks like a layer of
dust.
Sediment that is dark and located in hills below the positive plates indicates continuous
overcharge. A gray deposit in hills below the negative plates indicates continuous undercharge.
If the sediment is excessive and shows both positive and negative plate material, the battery has
probably undergone random periods of undercharge and overcharge. Gray lead sulfate can also
build up under both the positive and negative plates as a result of cycling because of expansion
and contraction of the plate active material.
16-5

Battery Problems
Excessive sediment buildup is a sign that the battery is aging abnormally. Excessive sediment
buildup can also be part of the reason for any observed loss of capacity. Further loss of material
from the plates can be minimized if the battery is maintained in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommended limits; however, battery performance is permanently affected by
the loss of active material from the plates.
If excessive sediment is noted, mossing is also likely. During periods of overcharge or high
charging rates, active material can be shed from the positive plates. Gassing carries the material
to the top of the plates where it adheres to the negative plate. Mossing is the accumulation of this
material on top of the negative plates or strap that can eventually bridge the separator, causing a
partial short with the positive plate.
16.1.7 Prolonged Open Circuit Storage
New batteries are frequently stored in a warehouse before installation in the plant. Batteries sent
to nuclear plants are usually shipped in a charged and wet state because the manufacturer often
performs an acceptance test before shipment.
As soon as the battery is removed from a charger, local action starts. Local action is the internal
losses, or self discharge, of the battery on open circuit. A typical self discharge rate for a leadcalcium cell is approximately 1% to 2% of full charge per month. Lead-antimony batteries
discharge about 10 to 100 times faster than equivalent lead-calcium cells because of antimony
transfer from the positive plate to the negative plate.
Prolonged storage of cells on open circuit might cause sulfation as discussed in Section 16.1.5.
The manufacturer's recommendations regarding periodic recharge and maximum allowed length
of storage must be followed to protect the battery from sulfation damage. An acceptable battery
can become less reliable as a result of improper storage practices before installation.
16.1.8 Spare Cell Maintenance
Maintaining spare cells onsite for the safety-related batteries can reduce the likelihood of an
extended outage in the event of single cell failures or degradation. The decision of whether to
keep spare cells onsite depends on the maintenance staff. Several options are available:
Maintain spare cells onsite so that failures or degradation of cells in the safety-related
batteries can be corrected promptly.
Obtain assurance from the manufacturer that replacement cells can be shipped on short
notice.
Perform an analysis that documents the number of cells that can be removed from each
battery and still meet the design basis duty cycle. Appendix D describes how to perform this
evaluation.
16-6

Battery Problems
If spare cells are kept onsite, they should be maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. Keeping spare dry cells or spare wet cells on open circuit storage is generally
not cost-effective. If a plant decides to keep spare cells onsite, the spare cells should be
maintained on continuous float charge by a small charger.
Periodic capacity tests of spare cells might not be cost-effective; consult the manufacturer for
guidance. Spare cells should receive an acceptance test by the manufacturer or the maintenance
staff. Before installation into a safety-related battery, spare cells should receive a capacity test to
confirm that the performance of the safety-related batteries will not be degraded below
acceptable levels.
16.2 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

16.2.1 Electrolyte Level Operability Considerations
Keeping the battery fully charged under normal float conditions means that there is always a
slight amount of charging current flow in excess of that required to offset the self-discharge of
the cells. The excess charging current through a fully charged cell causes electrolysis of water
into hydrogen and oxygen gas. These gases are often referred to as charge gases. Charge gases
escape through the flame arrestor of a vented cell. This dissociation of water into gas results in a
gradual and predictable decline in the electrolyte level. Evaporation also contributes to a loss of
water, although nickel-cadmium batteries often contain a layer of oil on top of the electrolyte or
special flame arrestors that minimize evaporation loss from the cell.
Nickel-cadmium stationary batteries are designed with excess electrolyte and are termed highly
flooded; this design minimizes maintenance and the battery watering interval. Cells are marked
with high- and low-level marks so that maintenance personnel can judge when to add distilled
water (and how much) to a cell. An electrolyte level below the low-level mark does not mean
that the battery is inoperable or incapable of producing its rated capacity. As long as the
electrolyte level is above the battery plates, the battery capacity should not be affected by a level
below the low level mark. As discussed in Section 2.2.3, the electrolyte does not change specific
gravity as part of the chemical reaction. The potassium hydroxide electrolyte acts as an electrical
conductor for the chemical reaction but is not altered by the reaction. Thus, as long as the
electrolyte is above the plates, the batterys capacity is not affected. If the plates are exposed, the
exposed portion does not participate readily in the electrochemical reaction resulting in a loss of
battery capacity.
Too high an electrolyte level can result in an overflow of electrolyte during a high-rate charge if
the cell is gassing vigorously. Overflowing electrolyte can cause shock and short-circuit hazards.
Any electrolyte on the cell cover should be promptly removed.
16-7

Battery Problems
16.2.2 Carbonation
The potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte in a nickel-cadmium battery reacts with carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere to form potassium carbonate (K2CO3). This effect is termed
carbonation. The electrolyte can also react with graphite additives in the nickel hydroxide
positive plate to form carbonate.
Electrolyte carbonation reduces the electrolyte conductivity. For example, an electrolyte
containing 5% potassium carbonate has a conductance 10% lower than a normal potassium
hydroxide electrolyte. The conductivity decrease results in an increase in internal resistance and
an effective loss of capacity. Most manufacturers recommend replacing the electrolyte when the
concentration of potassium carbonate reaches certain limits, typically in the range of 40 to 80
grams/liter of potassium carbonate.
16.2.3 High Temperature Performance
As discussed in Section 5.3.2, the nickel cadmium cell can have better life performance
compared to the lead acid cell when operating in a high temperature environment. However, the
nickel cadmium cell might require special consideration in its design and manufacture if it will
be used in higher temperatures.
The rate of potassium carbonate formation tends to increase with temperature. Lithium is often
added to the cell to improve cycling capability and lithium carbonate can also form,
preferentially at higher temperatures. These carbonates can plate out onto internal cell surfaces.
By themselves, potassium carbonate and lithium carbonate are non-conductive. However, other
conductive impurities can also plate out onto these deposits, forming conductive paths between
plates, which can affect cell performance.
Manufacturers might consider the following design features for a high temperature application:
Iron oxide is used as an expander to ensure the cadmium is finely divided in the negative
plate, which improves cycle performance. Nickel plating the negative plate might be included
to reduce the likelihood of iron poisoning. This would also reduce the development of
conductive paths between plates.
Graphite is important for conductivity of the positive active material. But, the presence of
this graphite can contribute to the formation of carbonates. For this reason, the positive plate
will normally be nickel plated. Also, the graphite milling process has improved over the
years to reduce the availability of graphite for carbonation.
Lithium hydroxide is important to improving cell cycle life, particularly at high temperatures.
Unfortunately, high temperatures and high float voltage tend to increase the rate of lithium
carbonate buildup. Cobalt might be added to the cell design to reduce the tendency for
lithium and potassium carbonation to form. Cobalt has long been recognized as beneficial to
capacity and life of the active material.
The rate of graphite oxidation increases with float voltage. The manufacturer might
recommend a lower float voltage to reduce the oxidation rate.
The manufacturer should be made aware of any high temperature applications to ensure that the
cell is designed for the expected environment.
16-8
A
REFERENCES
A.1
Industry Standards (Stationary Battery and DC Systems)
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard 450-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing,

and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard 484-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and
Installation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
3. IEEE Standard 485-1997, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries
for Stationary Applications.
4. ANSI/IEEE Standard 535-1986, IEEE Standard for Qualification of Class 1E Lead
Storage Batteries for Nuclear Power Generating Stations.
5. IEEE Standard 946-1992, Recommended Practice for the Design of DC Auxiliary Power
Systems for Generating Stations.
6. ANSI/IEEE Standard 1106-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance,
Testing, and Replacement of Vented Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary
Applications.
7. IEEE Standard 1115-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium
Batteries for Stationary Applications.
8. IEEE 1184-1994, IEEE Guide for the Selection and Sizing of Batteries for
Uninterruptible Power Systems.
9. IEEE 1187-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of
Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
10. IEEE 1188-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing and
Replacement of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.
11. IEEE 1189-1996, IEEE Guide for Selection of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA)
Batteries for Stationary Applications.
12. IEEE 1375-1998, IEEE Guide for the Protection of Stationary Battery Systems.
13. EGSA 100B-1992, Electrical Generating Systems Association Performance Standard for
Engine Cranking Batteries Used with Engine Generator Sets.
A-1

References
A.2
Industry Standards (Miscellaneous)
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard 446-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and

Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications.
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard 944-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Application and
Testing of Uninterruptible Power Supplies for Generating Stations.
3. ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code.
4. ANSI/NFPA 70B-1990, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance.
5. ANSI/NFPA 70E-1988, Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee
Workplaces.
A.3
EPRI References
1. Circuit Breaker Maintenance, Volume 3: Molded Case Circuit Breaker Application and
Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: Revision 1, 1991. NP-7410-V3.
2. Emergency Battery Lighting Unit Maintenance and Application Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: Revision 1, 1997. TR-100248.
3. UPS Maintenance and Application Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1994. 100491.
4. Field Testing of Overcurrent Trip Units for Low Voltage Circuit Breakers Used in DC
Applications. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1994. TR-104513.
5. New Industry Guidelines for the Maintenance of Stationary Valve-Regulated Lead Acid
Batteries. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-106769.
6. Battery Performance Monitoring by Internal Ohmic Measurements, Emergency Lighting
Unit Batteries. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-106826.
7. Battery Performance Monitoring by Internal Ohmic Measurements, Application
Guidelines for Stationary Batteries. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997. TR-108826.
A.4
IEEE Papers, INTELEC Articles, and Related Papers
A.4.1 VRLA Design and Application

1. Brecht, William B. and O'Leary, Norman F. Comparison of Recombinant Lead Acid
Battery Techniques, 1988 IEEE Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 35-42.
2. Migliaro, Marco W. Installation Design for Valve-Regulated Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries
in Generating Stations, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 4, No. 1, March
1989.
3. Pompon, J. P. and Bouet, J., Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries Gas Recombination
Mechanisms, 1989 Intelec Conference Proceedings, Paper 17.4.
A-2

References
4. Brecht, William B., An Investigation of the Effects of Silica Addition on the Rate of
Oxygen Transfer in Lead-Acid Batteries, 1990 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 219 225.
5. Harrison, A. I. Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries for Standby Power Applications,
1991 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 14-19.
6. Casasanzio, D. Charging Abuse - How Well Can a VRLA Battery Cope?, 1992 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp 22-27.
7. Vaccaro, F. J. et al, Valves for Immobilized Electrolyte Lead-Acid Batteries
Requirements, Design, and Performance, 1994 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 47 53.
8. Zguris, George C., VRLA SeparatorsPast, Present, Ideas for the Future, 1996 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp. 344349
9. Lodi, Giuseppe, et al, VRLA BatteriesDesign, Manufacturing, and Operation
Overview, 2000 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 97102.
A.4.2 VRLA Aging, Degradation and Reliability
1. Camp, Sharon R., Performance Evaluation of Recombinant Lead-Acid Battery Valves,
1990 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 464 - 467.
2. Karlsson, Gunder, Valve Regulated Batteries - Losses of Water and Hydrogen Through
the Valves and the Battery Containers at Elevated Temperatures, 1991 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp. 26 - 31.
3. Misra, Sudhan S. et al, Thermal Effects in VRLA Cells and Comparison With Wet LeadAcid Cells Under Different Operating Conditions, 1992 Intelec Conference Proceedings,
pp. 35 - 40.
4. Berndt, D., et al, Aging Effects in Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries, 1993 Intelec
5. Biagetti, R. V. et al, Influence of Compression on Microfiber Glass Separator and Effect
of Orientation on Battery Performance, 1994 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 39 46.
6. Feder, Dr. David O., Performance Measurement and Reliability of VRLA Batteries, 1995
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 22 -27.
7. Moore, Michael R. et al, Real-Time Expected Life on VRLA Products, A Manufacturers
Perspective, 1995 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp.65 - 69.
8. Vaccaro, F. J. et al, Negative Strap Corrosion in Valve-Regulated Lead Acid Batteries
and Its Analysis by Accelerated Life Testing, 1995 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp.
70 - 77.
9. Selanger, Per A. et al, End-User Experience of VRLA Batteries, 1995 Intelec Conference
Proceedings, pp. 143 - 147.
10. McMenamin, Dan, A Maintenance Engineers Perspective on Battery Performance
Relative to Network Reliability, 1995 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 137 - 142.
A-3

References
11. Feder, Dr. David O. and Jones, William E. M., Gas Evolution, Dryout, and Lifetime of
VRLA CellsAn Attempt to Clarify Fifteen Years of Confusion and Misunderstanding,
1996 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 184192.
12. Schmitt, Robert J., et al., Loss of Compression of the Absorbent Glass Mat in VRLA
Batteries, Battcon 97, Paper 5.
13. Cantor, William P. et al, Performance Measurement and Reliability of VRLA Batteries
Part II: The Second Generation, 1998 Intelec Conference Proceedings, Paper 16-3.
14. Brecht, William B., Strategies for Overcoming the Adverse Effect of Imbalances in the
Second Order Reactions in Valve Regulated Lead Acid Cells, 1998 Intelec Conference
Proceedings, Paper 19.1.
15. Jones, William E. M., Quantifying Secondary Reactions in VRLA Batteries, 2000 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp. 447452.
A.4.3 VRLA Thermal Runaway
1. Berndt, D., Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries - Gas and Heat Management, 1988
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 89 - 96.
2. Gerner, Scott D., et al, Thermal Management of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries, A
Comparison of Gelled vs. Absorbed Electrolyte Technologies, 1990 Intelec Conference
Proceedings, pp. 161 - 164.
3. McMenamin, Dan. Thermal Runaway - A System Solution For a System Problem, 1992
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp 18-21.
4. Harrison, A. I. Thermal Management of High Energy Density Battery Equipments, 1992
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp 28-33.
5. Misra, Sudhan S., et al. Thermal Effects in VRLA Cells and Comparison With Wet LeadAcid Cells Under Different Operating Conditions, 1992 Intelec Conference Proceedings,
pp 35-40.
6. Thacker, H. D. Thermal Runaway Prevention by Control of Float Voltage as a Function
of Battery Temperature", 1992 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp 47-50.
A.4.4 Impedance and Conductance Testing
1. J. Appelbaum and R. Weiss, An Electrical Model of the Lead-Acid Battery, 1982 Intelec
2. Vaccaro, F. J. and Casson, P., Internal Resistance: Harbinger of Capacity Loss in
Starved Electrolyte Sealed Lead Acid Batteries, 1987 Intelec Conference Proceedings,
pp. 128 - 131.
3. Markle, Gary J. AC Impedance Testing for Valve Regulated Cells, 1992 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp 212-217.
4. Feder, Dr. David O., et al. Field and Laboratory Studies to Assess the State of Health of
Valve-Regulated Lead Acid Batteries: Part 1 Conductance/Capacity Correlation Studies,
1992 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp 216-233.
A-4

References
5. Gary J. Markle, Variables That Influence Results of Impedance Testing for Valve
Regulated Cells, 1993 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pages 444-448.
6. Mark Hlavac, et al, Field and Laboratory Studies to Assess the State of Health of ValveRegulated Lead Acid and Other Battery Technologies: Part II - Further
Conductance/Capacity Correlation Studies, 1993 Intelec Conference Proceedings.
7. Mark Hlavac and Dr. David O. Feder, Analysis and Interpretation of Conductance
Measurements Used to Assess the State-of-Health of Valve Regulated Lead Acid
Batteries: Part III - Analytical Techniques, 1994 Intelec Conference Proceedings.
8. E. Willihnganz and Peter Rohner, Battery Impedance: Farads, Millohms, and
Microhenrys, AIEE Transactions, September 1959, pages 259-262.
9. Ziyad M. Salameh, Margaret A. Casacca, and William A. Lynch, A Mathematical Model
for Lead-Acid Batteries, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, March 1992, pages
93-97.
10. Hiram Gu and T. V. Nguyen, A Mathematical Model of a Lead-Acid Cell, Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, December 1987, pages 2953-2960.
A.4.5 UPS Applications
1. Harrison, A. I. Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries for Standby Power Applications,
2. Rutledge, W. T. Service Life Limitations of Flooded Lead Acid Batteries in UPS Service,
3. Nilsson, Arne O. Nickel Cadmium Batteries in UPS Design Features, 1988 Intelec
Conference Proceedings, pp. 388-393.
4. Harrison, A. I. Batteries and AC Phenomena in UPS Systems, 1989 Intelec Conference
Proceedings, Section 12.5.
5. Carle, Richard H. UPS Applications: A Mill Perspective, 1993 IEEE Annual Pulp and
Paper Industry Technical Conference, pp. 20-24.
A.4.6 Battery Protection
1. Nailen, Richard L. Battery Protection - Where Do We Stand?, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, Vol. 27, No. 4, July/August 1991, p. 658.
2. Brozek, James P. DC Overcurrent Protection - Where We Stand, IEEE Conference
Record for Industry Applications Society, Publication Number 0-7803-0634-1/92, p.
1306.
3. Smith Jr., Robert L. DC Control Battery System Protection & Coordination, IEEE
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference, Publication Number 07803-0937-5/93, pp. 175-187.
4. Mollet, Ron. Overcurrent Protection of DC Power Plant Equipment Using Modern High
Performance Current Limiting Fuses, 1995 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 379-383.
A-5

References
5. Gregory, George D. Applying Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers in Direct Current Systems,

1995 American Power Conference Proceedings, pp. 14-19.
6. Cline, H. Cynthia. Fuse Protection of DC Systems, 1995 American Power Conference
Proceedings, pp. 20-25.
7. Giancaterino, Jim, Application Considerations for Multiple Battery Disconnects, 2000
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 765770.
A.4.7 Battery Maintenance
1. Buldini, Pier Luigi, et al. The Influence of Traces of Impurities in the Lead-Acid Battery
Electrolytes, 1989 Intelec Conference Proceedings, Section 17.1.
2. Miller, Paul E. Batteries Supporting Power Conditioning Equipment - Government
Lessons Learned, 1995 Powersystem World Conference.
3. Hodgson, Robert L. and Oman, Henry. Highlights From the First International
Workshop on Battery Testing, American Chemical Society, Publication Number 84120986-3/86/0869, pp. 1062-1065.
4. David O. Feder and Gino Carosella. The Never-Ending Pursuit of Float Voltage
Uniformity in Stationary Reserve Battery Plants, 1994 Intelec Conference Proceedings,
pp. 609-617.
A.4.8 Battery Capacity Testing
1. Anderson, James W. Testing of Large Lead Stationary Batteries, IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol EC-1, No. 3, September 1986, pp. 76-79.
2. Meyer, Brian. Applications of Single Cell Discharge/Recharge Test Set for Battery Plant
Capacity Determination, 1990 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 480-486.
3. Disosway, John. Comparison of Service Test Results With Analytical Predictions for a
Lead Acid Battery, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 7, No. 3, September
1992.
4. Uhlir, Kurt W. and Fletcher, Robert J. Modified Performance Test of Vented Lead Acid
Batteries for Stationary Applications, 1995 American Power Conference Proceedings, pp.
6-9.
A.4.9 Battery Sizing
1. Migliaro, Marco W. Sizing Batteries for Generating Stations, IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol. EC-1, No. 4, December 1986, p. 25.
2. H. V. Joshi. Considerations for Selecting & Sizing UPS Systems for Critical Loads, 1991
Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 453-458.
3. Michael J. Hartman. Considerations for DC Calculations, 1994 American Power
4. Michael J. Hartman. Battery Terminal Voltage Calculations, 1994 American Power
5. Hoxie, E. A. Some Discharge Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries, AIEE Transactions,
March 1954, Volume 73, pp.17-22.
A-6

References
A.4.10 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

1. Jonker, Jan, and Vleeskruijer, Dick. Use of Nickel Cadmium Batteries for
Starting/Controlling of Emergency Diesel Gen. Sets at Different PTT Installations, 1987
2. Nilsson, Arne O. Nickel Cadmium Batteries in UPS Design Features, 1988 Intelec
A.4.11 Miscellaneous Battery Articles
1. Migliaro, M. W. Stationary Batteries - Selected Topics, Presented at the Annual Meeting
of the American Power Conference, April 13-15, 1993.
2. Fletcher, R. R. Cell Selection Considerations, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
Vol. EC-1, No. 4, December 1986.
3. Hadfield, J. A. Testing for Post Seal Leakage and Jar-to-Cover Seal Leakage in
Stationary Lead Acid Batteries, 1990 Intelec Conference Proceedings, pp. 256-259.
4. Rutledge, W. T. Service Life Limitations of Flooded Lead Acid Batteries in UPS Service,
5. Yamanaka M., et al. A Life Indicator of Stationary Type Sealed Lead-Acid Battery, 1991
6. Reid, Don, et al. Guidelines for Lead-Acid Battery Telecommunications Applications,
7. Gerner, Scott D., and Ruhlmann, Tom E., Effect of AC Ripple on VRLA Battery
Performance, Battcon 99, Paper 12-1.
A.5
Miscellaneous References
1. Air Force Pamphlet 32-1186, Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary

Applications.
2. Bode, Hans. Lead-Acid Batteries, John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
3. Crompton, T. R. Battery Reference Book, Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1990.
4. Falk, S. Uno, and Salkind, Alvin J. Alkaline Storage Batteries, John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
5. Griffith, David C. Uninterruptible Power Supplies, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989.
6. Herrity, Robert M. and Finney, Nick. Capacity Testing of Nicad Batteries - The
Influence of IEC Data on Expected Results and Optimization of the Application
Engineering When Selecting This Technology, presented at the 1997 Albercorp Batcon.
7. Hubert, Charles I. Preventive Maintenance of Electrical Equipment, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Second Edition, 1969.
8. Linden, David, Editor-in-Chief. Handbook of Batteries and Fuel Cells, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1984.
A-7

References
9. Miller, Paul E. Batteries Supporting Power Conditioning Equipment - Government

Lessons Learned, presented at the 1995 Powersystem World Conference.
10. On-Site Power Generation: A Reference Book, Electrical Generating Systems
Association, Second Edition.
11. Sandia Report SAND93-7071, Aging Management Guideline for Commercial Nuclear
Power Plants - Stationary Batteries, March 1994.
12. Treble, Fred C., Editor. Generating Electricity from the Sun, Pergamon Press, 1991.
13. Tuck, Clive D. S., Editor. Modern Battery Technology, Ellis Horwood Limited, 1991.
14. Vinal, George Wood. Storage Batteries, John Wiley & Sons, Fourth Edition, 1955.
A.6
NRC Documents
1. NRC Generic Letter 91-06, Resolution of Generic Issue A-30, Adequacy of SafetyRelated DC Power Supplies, April 29, 1991.
2. NRC Information Notice 83-08, Component Failures Caused by Elevated DC Control
Voltage, March 9, 1983.
3. NRC Information Notice 83-11, Possible Seismic Vulnerability of Old Lead Storage
Batteries, March 14, 1983.
4. NRC Information Notice 84-83, Various Battery Problems, November 19, 1984.
5. NRC Information Notice 85-74, Station Battery Problems, August 29, 1985.
6. NRC Information Notice 88-86, Supplement 1, Operating With Multiple Grounds in
Direct Current Distribution Systems, March 31, 1989.
7. NRC Information Notice 89-17, Contamination and Degradation of Safety-Related
Battery Cells, February 22, 1989.
8. NRC Information Notice 92-48, Failure of Exide Batteries, July 2, 1992.
9. NRC Information Notice 94-24, Inadequate Maintenance of Uninterruptible Power
Supplies and Inverters, March 24, 1994.
10. NRC Information Notice 95-21, Unexpected Degradation of Lead Storage Batteries,
April 20, 1995.
11. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.32 (Revision 2), Criteria for Safety-Related Electric Power
Systems for Nuclear Power Plants.
12. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.128, Installation Design and Installation of Large Lead Storage
Batteries for Nuclear Power Plants.
13. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.129 (Revision 1), Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of
Large Lead Storage Batteries for Nuclear Power Plants.
14. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.158, Qualification of Safety-Related Lead Storage Batteries for
Nuclear Power Plants.
15. NUREG-1144, Revision 1, Nuclear Plant Aging Research (NPAR) Program Plan,
September 1987.
A-8

References
16. NUREG-1377, Revision 1, NRC Research Program on Plant Aging and Summaries of
Reports Issued Through May 1990.
17. NUREG-1431, Volumes 1 - 3, Standard Technical Specifications, Westinghouse Plants,
Draft Report for Comment, January 1991.
18. NUREG/CR-4099, Age-Related Degradation of Naturally-Aged Class 1E Battery Cells,
April 1986.
19. NUREG/CR-4457, Aging of Class 1E Batteries in Safety Systems of Nuclear Power
Plants, July 1987.
20. NUREG/CR-4533, Program to Analyze the Failure Mode of Lead-Acid Batteries, April
1986.
21. NUREG/CR-5448, Aging Evaluation of Class 1E Batteries: Seismic Testing, August
1990.
22. NUREG/CR-5643, Insights Gained From Aging Research, March 1992.
23. NUREG-1306, Improvements to Technical Specifications Surveillance Requirements,
December 1992.
A-9
B
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS
The definitions provided in this appendix were obtained from the references listed in the report.
A
Absorbed Glass MatA micro-glass material used to contain the electrolyte and also function
as a separator in a valve-regulated lead acid battery.
ACAlternating Current (ac).
Acceptance CriteriaSpecified limits placed on the characteristics or performance of an item,
process, or service as defined in codes, standards, or other requirement documents.
Acceptance TestA constant current or power capacity test made on a new battery to determine
whether it meets specifications or manufacturer's ratings.
Activated Shelf LifeThe period of time, at a defined temperature, that a cell can be stored in a
charged condition before its capacity falls below a specified level.
ActivationThe process of making a cell without electrolyte functional, either by introducing
an electrolyte or by immersing the cell into an electrolyte.
Active MaterialsThe materials of the plates which react chemically to produce electrical
energy when the cell discharges and which are restored to their original composition, in the
charged condition, by a chemical reaction produced by the charging current.
Ambient Temperaturesee Temperature, Ambient.
Ampere-Hour CapacityThe number of ampere hours which can be delivered under specified
conditions, including temperature, rate of discharge, and final voltage.
AnodeAn electrode at which an oxidation reaction (loss of electrons) occurs; in secondary
cells which electrode becomes the anode depends on the direction of current flow.
Available CapacityThe total capacity, in ampere-hours or watt-hours, that will be obtained
from a cell or battery at a defined discharge rate under specified operating conditions.
B-1

Glossary of Terms and Acronyms
B
BaffleA nonconductive barrier inserted in a vented cell above the plate assembly and used as a
reference for electrolyte level. It also protects the top edges of the plates from objects dropped
into the vent cap hole.
BatteryTwo or more cells connected to form one unit for producing electric energy at the
required voltage and current levels.
Battery Duty CycleThe group of load currents a battery is expected to supply over a specified
discharge period.
Battery RackA structure used to support a group of cells.
C
C RateThe discharge or charge current in amperes, expressed in multiples of the rated
capacity. For example, the C5 rate is the capacity in ampere hours available at the 5-hour
discharge rate to a specified end voltage. A discharge of 0.5C5 is a discharge at 50% of the C5
rate.
Cable ConnectorA length of insulated cable terminating at each end in a casting or a lug and
used to connect one cell to another.
CapacityAmpere-hours available from a fully charged cell or battery.
Capacity TestA discharge of a battery at a constant current or power to a designated terminal
voltage.
CarbonationThe formation of potassium carbonate in a nickel-cadmium battery, usually
because of electrolyte exposure to the atmosphere, resulting in decreased electrolyte
conductivity.
CathodeAn electrode at which a reduction (gain of electrons) occurs. In secondary cells which
electrode becomes the cathode depends on the direction of current flow.
CellAn electrochemical device, composed of positive and negative plates, separator, and
electrolyte, that is capable of storing electrical energy; when encased in a container and fitted
with terminals, it is the basic component of a battery.
Cell ConnectorAn electric conductor used for carrying current between adjacent storage cells.
Cell SizeThe rated capacity of a cell or the number of plates in the cell.
Cell Reversalsee Reversal.
B-2

ChargeThe conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy within the cell or battery.
This restoration of the active materials is accomplished by maintaining a unidirectional current in
the cell or battery in the opposite direction to that during discharge. A cell or battery which is
said to be charged is understood to be fully charged.
Charged and DryThe condition of a storage battery when it is assembled with charged and
dried plates, with dry separators, and with no electrolyte.
Charged and WetThe condition of a storage battery when it is filled with electrolyte and is
fully charged.
Charging RateThe current expressed in amperes at which a battery is charged.
Class 1EThe safety classification of the electric equipment and systems that are essential to
emergency reactor shutdown, containment isolation, reactor core cooling, and containment and
reactor heat removal, or are otherwise essential in preventing significant release of radioactive
material to the environment. The terms Class 1E and safety-related are used interchangeably
in this report.
Constant-Current ChargeA charge in which the current is maintained at a constant value.
Constant-Voltage ChargeA charge in which the voltage at the terminals of the battery is held
at a constant value.
ContaminantUndesirable element, usually in the electrolyte, that reduces the capacity of the
cell.
ContractionThe shrinkage of active material.
Coup-de-FouetThe voltage dip followed by a subsequent voltage recovery that occurs when
initially discharging a battery that has been on long-term float operation.
Copper ContaminationThe formation of copper sulfate on the negative plates, usually caused
by unintentional exposure of terminal posts' copper inserts to the electrolyte.
CorrosionThe oxidation of a metal electrode.
CoverThe lid of an enclosed cell or jar.
CrazingThe small internal cracking around a point of mechanical stress which sometimes
occurs in plastics.
Critical PeriodThat portion of the duty cycle which is the most severe or the specified time
period of the battery duty cycle.
Current DensityThe current per unit active area of the surface of an electrode.
B-3

Current LimitingThe limiting of dc output current to a preset maximum value when load
demand exceeds the charger rating.
Cutoff VoltageVoltage at which a charge or discharge is terminated.
CycleA battery discharge followed by a complete recharge. A deep, or full, cycle is described
as the removal and replacement of 80% or more of the cell's design capacity.
Cycle LifeThe number of cycles the battery can experience before its capacity falls to a point
considered a failure.
CyclingThe repeated charge/discharge cycle of a storage battery. Some batteries are rated as
to their ability to withstand repeated, deep discharge cycles.
D
DCDirect current (dc).
Deep DischargeWithdrawal of at least 80% of the rated capacity of a cell or battery.
Deionized WaterWater that has been freed of ions by treatment with ion-exchange resins.
Depth of DischargeThe ratio of the quantity of energy (usually in ampere-hours) removed
from a cell or battery on discharge to its rated capacity.
Design MarginAdditional capacity above requirements to allow for unforeseen additions to
the dc system or less than optimum operating conditions due to improper maintenance, recent
discharge, or ambient conditions lower than anticipated.
DischargeThe conversion of the chemical energy of the battery into electrical energy.
Discharge RateThe rate, usually expressed in amperes, at which electrical current is taken
from the cell or battery.
DischargingThe withdrawing of electrical energy from a battery or cell.
Distilled WaterWater that has been freed of ions by a process of vaporization and subsequent
condensation.
DrainWithdrawal of current from a cell or battery.
Dry Charged BatteryA battery in which the plates are in a charged state, ready to be
activated by the addition of the electrolyte.
Duty Cyclesee Battery Duty Cycle.
B-4

E
EfficiencyThe ratio of the output of a rechargeable cell or battery on discharge to the input
required to restore it to the initial state of charge.
ElectrolyteThe conducting medium in which the flow of electric current takes place by the
migration of ions. For example, the electrolyte for a lead-acid cell is an aqueous solution of
sulfuric acid.
End of LifeThe point in a batterys life cycle when it is no longer capable of fulfilling its
design requirements. A stationary battery is commonly described to be at its end of life when its
capacity falls to 80% of the rated value.
Energy DensityThe ratio of the energy available from a cell or battery to its volume (watthour/liter) or weight (watt-hour/kilogram).
Equalization VoltageThe voltage applied to a battery that is higher than the normal float
voltage used to correct inequalities among battery cells (voltage or specific gravity) that can
develop in service.
Equalize ChargeAn extended charge to a measured end point that is given to a storage battery
to insure the complete restoration of the active materials in all plates of the cells.
Equipment QualificationThe generation and maintenance of evidence to assure that the
equipment will operate upon demand to meet the system performance requirements.
F
FailureTermination of the ability of an item to perform its required function.
Failure MechanismThe physical, chemical, or other process that results in failure.
Failure ModeThe effect by which a failure is observed.
Failure RateThe expected number of failures of a given type, per item, in a given time
interval or a given number of operating cycles.
Faur Platesee Pasted Plate.
Flame Arrestor VentA cell-venting device which prevents the propagation of an external
flame into the cell.
Float ChargeThe method of maintaining a cell or battery in a charged condition by
continuous, long-term constant-voltage charging at a level to balance self-discharge.
B-5

Float Service ApplicationsStorage batteries applied for reserve use and maintained at a
"float" voltage point selected to just exceed the batteries' internal losses.
Float VoltageThe voltage applied to a battery to maintain the proper voltage for each cell of
the battery during normal operation.
Flooded Cellsee Vented Cell.
Full Float OperationOperation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all
connected in parallel, and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any selfdischarge or charging current, or both, required by the battery. The battery will deliver current
only when the load exceeds the charger output.
G
GassingThe evolution of gases from one or more of the electrodes during electrolysis.
Gelled ElectrolyteA type of valve-regulated lead-acid battery configuration in which the
electrolyte is gelled with a silica material to prevent electrolyte leakage.
Gravity DropThe change in the specific gravity of the electrolyte upon discharge of the cell.
GridA framework employed in a storage cell for supporting the active material and
conducting the electric current.
GroupAn assembly, in a storage cell, of plates of the same polarity connected in parallel.
H
High-Rate ChargeA constant potential charge application to a partially or fully discharged
battery to recharge it.
HydrationA condition whereby lead dissolves into the electrolyte in a discharged cell and
plates out onto the separator during recharge, resulting in numerous short circuit paths between
the positive and negative plates.
I
IEEEInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Impedancesee Internal Impedance.
Initial ChargeThe charge given to a new storage battery before putting it into service.
Initial Test TemperatureThe average temperature of the electrolyte in the battery cells at the
beginning of discharge.
B-6

Initial VoltageThe closed-circuit voltage at the beginning of a discharge. It is usually taken

after the current has been flowing for a sufficient period of time for the rate of change of voltage
to become practically constant.
InspectionExamination or measurement to verify whether an item or activity conforms to
specified requirements.
Installed LifeThe interval from installation to removal, during which the equipment or
component thereof might be subject to design service conditions and system demands.
INTELECInternational Telecommunications Energy Conference.
Intercell ConnectorA conductor used to connect adjacent cells.
Inter-Tier (Inter-Rack) ConnectorThe conductor used to connect cells between racks or
adjacent rows.
Internal ImpedanceThe opposition or resistance of a cell or battery to an alternating current
of a particular frequency.
Internal ResistanceThe opposition or resistance to electrical current flow within a cell or
battery. Its value is dependent upon battery design, state of charge, temperature, and age.
J
JarThe container that holds the cell, or group of cells, and electrolyte.
K
KOHsee Potassium Hydroxide.
L
Level IndicatorA float or reference mark which indicates the electrolyte level within a cell.
LifeThe duration of satisfactory performance, measured as usage in years or as the number of
charge/discharge cycles.
Local ActionThe internal losses of a battery standing on open circuit or on float charge
without considering any losses incidental to any discharge.
M
MaintainabilityThe ease with which equipment can be maintained, including the ease with
which maintenance can be performed in accordance with prescribed requirements.
B-7

MaintenanceThe combination of all technical and corresponding administrative actions

intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform its required function.
Maintenance-Free BatteryAn inappropriate term sometimes used to describe a VRLA
battery.
Maintenance IntervalThe period, defined in terms of real time, operating time, number of
operating cycles, or a combination of these, during which satisfactory performance is required
without maintenance or adjustments.
ManchexA type of Plant cell in which the positive plate is cast with openings provided for
the active material, which are buttons of soft-lead ribbon. The active material is corrugated and
rolled into spirals, which are forced into the grids by hydraulic pressure.
Mandatory MaintenancePeriodic maintenance required by insurance, operating license,
vendor warranty, government regulations, or other safety regulations.
MarginThe combination of design, temperature, and aging factors originally used in
determining the battery's initial capacity requirements.
Memory EffectA phenomenon in which a nickel-cadmium battery, operated in successive
cycles of identical, but less than full, depth of discharge, assumes the capacity normally
demanded of it, temporarily rendering the rest of its capacity inaccessible at a useful voltage
level.
Midpoint VoltageThe battery voltage at the halfway point in the discharge between the fully
charged state and the fully discharged state of a cell.
Mild EnvironmentAn environment that would at no time be significantly more severe than
the environment that would occur during normal plant operations, including anticipated
operational occurrences.
N
Negative PlateConsists of the grid and active material to which current flows from the
external circuit when the battery is discharging.
Negative TerminalThe terminal toward which positive electric charge flows in the external
circuit from the positive terminal when the cell discharges.
NEMANational Electrical Manufacturers Association.
NFPANational Fire Protection Association.
Nominal GravityThe specific gravity of the electrolyte selected for the determination of the
rated capacity of the storage battery when it is fully charged and correctly leveled.
B-8

Nominal VoltageThe characteristic operating voltage or rated voltage of a cell or battery.

Normal FloatA constant-potential charge application to a battery to maintain it in a charged
condition.
NRCNuclear Regulatory Commission.
O
Open Circuit VoltageThe voltage at a cell or battery terminals when no appreciable current is
flowing.
OperableFor a given point in time, a device or equipment that has been demonstrated by
testing at that time to have met a set of functional performance requirements under specified test
conditions.
OverchargingContinuing charge after the battery has accepted its maximum amount of
charge. In a vented cell, a result will be decomposition of water in the electrolyte into hydrogen
and oxygen gases. In a VRLA cell, a result will be increased cell temperature and venting of
gases through the pressure relief valve.
OxidationThe release of electrons, by the cell's active material, to the external circuit. During
discharge, active material at the negative electrode is oxidized.
Oxygen RecombinationThe electrochemical process in which oxygen generated at the
positive plate during overcharge is reacted (reduced) with water at the negative plate at the same
time, thereby producing heat.
P
Pasted (Faur) PlateA plate consisting of a grid filled with active material applied as a paste.
Performance TestA constant current or constant power capacity test made on a battery after
being in service to detect any change in the capacity.
PeriodAn interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the current is assumed to be
constant for purposes of cell sizing calculations.
Periodic TestA test performed at scheduled intervals to detect failures and verify operability.
Pilot CellA selected cell whose condition is assumed to indicate the condition of the entire
battery.
Plant PlateA formed lead plate of large area, the active material of which is formed directly
from a lead substrate.
B-9

PlateAn assembly of active material on a supporting framework grid, frame, or support strip.
PMPeriodic maintenance.
Pocket PlateA plate for a nickel-cadmium cell in which the active materials are held in
perforated metal pockets on a support strip.
Point (of Specific Gravity)0.001 of specific gravity. A 0.010 change in specific gravity would
be referred to as a "10-point" change.
PolarityAn electrical condition determining the direction in which current tends to flow on
discharge. By common usage, the discharge current is said to flow from the positive electrode
through the external circuit.
PolarizationThe change in voltage at the terminals of the cell or battery when a specified
current is flowing; it is equal to the difference between the actual and the equilibrium (constant
open-circuit condition) potentials of the plates, exclusive of the internal resistance drop.
Positive Plate LimitedThe operating characteristics (performance) of the cell are limited by
the positive plate.
Positive PlateThe grid and active material from which current flows to the external circuit
when the battery is discharging.
Positive TerminalThe terminal from which the positive electric charge flows through the
external circuit to the negative terminal when the cell discharges.
Potassium HydroxideA chemical compound which, when mixed with pure water in the
correct proportions, is the electrolyte solution used in nickel-cadmium cells.
Preventive MaintenanceRegularly scheduled inspections, tests, servicing, repairs, and
replacements intended to reduce the frequency and impact of equipment failures.
Primary CellA cell designed to be used only once, then discarded. It is not capable of being
returned to its original charged state by the application of current.
Q
Qualified LifeThe period of time for which satisfactory performance can be demonstrated for
a specific set of service conditions.
R
Rated CapacityThe ampere-hour capacity assigned to a storage cell by its manufacturer for a
given discharge time, at a specified electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given endof-discharge voltage.
B-10

RatingThe designated limit for a given parameter for the operating characteristic of the
device.
RechargeReturn of electrical energy to a battery.
Recombinant CellA cell designed so that generated oxygen and hydrogen are recombined to
form water rather than being vented from the cell (see Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Cell).
RecombinationThe chemical reaction of gases at the electrodes to form a nongaseous
product.
ReductionThe gain of electrons. In a cell, it refers to the inward flow of electrons to the active
material.
ReliabilityThe characteristic of an item expressed by the probability that it will perform a
required function under stated conditions for a stated period of time or operating cycles.
RetainerAny material which is used to prevent the loss of active material from the positive
plate.
ReversalA change in normal polarity of the cell or battery.
Reversible ReactionA chemical change which takes place in either direction, as in the
reversible reaction for charging or discharging a secondary battery.
Ripple VoltageThe ac component of the dc output voltage.
S
Sealed CellA cell that is free from some routine maintenance and can be operated without
regard to position. All reactants are retained within the container.
Sealing CompoundSealing compound is any material which is used to seal a storage cell
cover to the jar.
Secondary BatteryA system which is capable of repeated use through chemical reactions that
are reversible, i.e., the discharged energy can be restored by supplying electrical current to
recharge the cell.
SedimentThe active material that separates from the battery plates and falls to the bottom of
the jar.
Seismic-Protected RackA rack which is used to protect the storage battery during seismic
disturbances.
B-11

Self-DischargeThe spontaneous decomposition of battery materials from a charged to a

discharged state.
SeparatorA spacer employed to prevent metallic contact between plates of opposite polarity
within the cell.
Service ConditionsThe conditions under which the equipment is to be applied.
Service Life CapacityMinimum battery capacity needed to meet design requirements,
including temperature correction but excluding margin.
Service TestA special test of the battery's ability, as found, to satisfy the design requirements
(battery duty cycle) of the dc system.
Short CircuitFor a battery, two plates of opposite polarity make electrical contact with each
other.
Short-Circuit CurrentThe initial value of the current obtained from a cell or battery in a
circuit of negligible resistance.
SpallingThe flaking off of active material from a plate or electrode.
Specific Gravity of ElectrolyteThe specific gravity of an electrolyte is the ratio of the weight
of a given volume of electrolyte to the weight of an equal volume of water at a specified
temperature.
Standby BatteryA battery designed for emergency use in the event of a main power failure.
Starved ElectrolyteA term occasionally applied to a VRLA cell, meaning that the cell
contains little or no free electrolyte.
State of ChargeResidual capacity of a cell expressed in terms of fully charged capacity.
Stationary BatteryA storage battery designed for service in a permanent location.
Storage BatteryA battery consisting of one or more cells electrically connected for producing
electric energy.
SulfateLead sulfate (PbSO4) that forms on the positive or negative plates.
SulfationA state in which a lead-acid battery has developed an abnormal amount of sulfate
and its capacity is impaired.
B-12

T
TapA connection to the battery that allows obtaining a voltage less than the total battery
voltage.
Temperature, AmbientThe average temperature of the battery's surroundings.
Temperature, CellThe average temperature of the battery's components.
Terminal Connection DetailConnections made between rows of cells or at the positive and
negative terminals of the battery, which can include terminal plates, cables with lugs, and
connectors.
Terminal ConnectorAn electrical conductor for carrying current from the battery to the
external circuit.
TerminalsThe parts of a storage battery to which the external circuit is connected.
Thermal RunawayA condition whereby a battery on constant-potential charge at elevated
temperature will destroy itself through internal heat generation due to high internal currents.
Trickle ChargeA continuous charge at a low rate approximately equal to the internal losses
and suitable to maintain the battery in a fully charged condition.
Tubular PlateA plate in which the active material is contained in porous tubes, each tube
having a centrally located grid.
U
UnderchargingApplying less than the amount of current required to recharge a battery.
UPSUninterruptible Power System.
V
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) CellA lead-acid cell that is sealed with the exception
of a valve that opens to the atmosphere when the internal gas pressure in the cell exceeds the
atmospheric pressure by a pre-selected amount. VRLA cells provide a means of recombination
of internally generated oxygen and the suppression of hydrogen gas evolution to limit water
consumption.
VDCVolts direct current
VentA normally sealed mechanism which allows the controlled escape of gases from within a
cell.
B-13

Vented CellA lead-acid cell in which the gaseous products of electrolysis and evaporation are
allowed to escape to the atmosphere as they are generated. A vented cell is also referred to as a
flooded cell.
VPCVolts per cell.
VRLAValve-regulated lead-acid.
W
WetIndicates that the liquid electrolyte in a cell is free flowing.
Wet Shelf LifePeriod of time a battery can stand in the wet discharged condition before losing
charging capability.
B-14
C
OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRY STANDARDS
Industry standards are used to define accepted practices for system or product design,
application, installation, service, operation, or maintenance. Many standards are available for
batteries. However, the user must be careful because standards are commonly directed at a
particular battery type or application. The following sections discuss some of these standards and
their applicability to stationary battery design, application, and maintenance.
IEEE has taken a leadership role in the development of standards for stationary batteries. Figure
C-1 provides an overview of the applicability of each IEEE standard to a particular battery type.
Also, a number of other standards affect backup or dc power systems as discussed in the
following sections.
Lead Acid
Batteries
Vented
Stationary
Batteries
IEEE 450
IEEE 484
IEEE 485
IEEE 535
IEEE 1184
Nickel Cadmium
Batteries
Valve-Regulated
Stationary
Batteries
IEEE 1187
IEEE 1188
IEEE 1189
IEEE 485
IEEE 1184
Vented
Stationary
Batteries
IEEE 1106
IEEE 1115
IEEE 1184
Related Standards for All: IEEE 946, IEEE 1375

Figure C-1
Applicability Matrix of Industry Standards
C-1

Overview of Industry Standards
C.1
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard 446-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications (IEEE Orange Book)
The IEEE Orange Book provides guidance on the design, construction, and maintenance of
stored energy systems for emergency and standby use. Battery system design, sizing, and
maintenance are generally described.
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard 450-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and
Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 450 provides the most definitive recommendations regarding lead-acid stationary
battery inspection, testing and maintenance. This standard has evolved into a key document
for vented lead-acid stationary batteries. The 1995 revision to IEEE 450 made many
substantial changes that are described in detail elsewhere in this report:
Added a modified performance test
Clarified the setup for the service test
Added intercell resistance measurement guidance
Added guidance for the battery detailed visual inspection
Modified the frequency of specific gravity checks
3. ANSI/IEEE Standard 484-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and
Installation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 484 establishes the recommended methods for installing lead-acid stationary batteries.
This standard offers useful guidance for an initial battery installation, a battery replacement,
or for a review of an existing battery installation. The 1996 revision clarified the
recommendations regarding installation and initial checks of the battery.
4. IEEE Standard 485-1997, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for
Stationary Applications
This standard provides a basis for sizing lead-acid stationary batteries and is considered a
companion document to IEEE 450 and IEEE 484. Detailed guidance is presented regarding
how to determine a battery duty cycle and select a battery size capable of meeting the duty
cycle load requirements. The 1997 revision to IEEE 485 provides more guidance for battery
sizing and provides a methodology for calculating battery terminal voltage during discharge.
C-2

5. ANSI/IEEE Standard 535-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Qualification of Class 1E

Lead Storage Batteries for Nuclear Power Generating Stations
This standard establishes the qualification test methods for safety-related Class 1E stationary
batteries. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.158 endorses IEEE 535 and states that replacement
safety-related batteries installed after February 28, 1989, should meet this standard unless
there are sound reasons to the contrary.
6. IEEE Standard 946-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Safety-Related DC
Auxiliary Power Systems for Nuclear Power Generating Stations
This useful standard provides design guidance for dc power systems and discusses a number
of battery-related topics, including battery charger rating for a desired battery recharge time
and battery short-circuit characteristics. The appendices to IEEE 946 contain sample
calculations to support these topics. The 1992 revision provided a number of useful changes,
including additional guidance regarding short circuit characteristics and calculations.
7. ANSI/IEEE Standard 1106-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing,
and Replacement of Vented Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications
This standard establishes the recommended test methods for nickel-cadmium stationary
batteries in a manner similar to IEEE 450 for lead-acid batteries. The 1995 revision relaxed
some of the traditional battery inspections and checks that are more applicable to lead-acid
batteries than nickel-cadmium batteries.
8. IEEE 1115-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for
This standard provides information, similar to IEEE 485 for lead-acid batteries, for sizing of
nickel-cadmium stationary batteries. Detailed guidance is presented regarding how to
determine a battery duty cycle and select a battery size capable of meeting the duty cycle
load requirements. Correction factors specific to nickel-cadmium batteries are included.
9. IEEE 1184-1994, IEEE Guide for the Selection and Sizing of Batteries for Uninterruptible
Power Systems
This guide was initiated to inform users of the various battery technologies available when
selecting a battery for an uninterruptible power system. Lead-acid and nickel-cadmium
batteries, including vented and VRLA designs, are described. Overall, this guide provides an
excellent overview of battery design and construction and should be a standard reference
document for battery users.
10. IEEE 1187-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of
Valve-Regulated Lead Acid Storage Batteries for Stationary Applications
This IEEE guide establishes the recommended methods for installing VRLA batteries.
Design requirements for VRLA batteries are included.
C-3

11. IEEE 1188-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement
of Valve-Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 1188 provides the IEEE recommended inspection, test, and maintenance practices for
VRLA batteries. The recommended practices address failure modes more applicable to
VRLA batteries.
12. IEEE 1189-1996, IEEE Guide for Selection of Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries
for Stationary Applications
This IEEE guide addresses design considerations for VRLA batteries. Failure modes and
reliability issues associated with VRLA batteries are discussed in detail.
13. IEEE 1175-1998, IEEE Guide for the Protection of Stationary Battery Systems
This IEEE guide provides general information regarding various methods of electrical
protection for battery systems.
C.2
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
1. ANSI/NFPA 70-1999, National Electrical Code

This code is a nationally accepted guide for the safe installation of electrical conductors and
equipment, and is the basis for all electrical codes used in the United States.
2. ANSI/NFPA 70B-1990, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance
The purpose of this document is to reduce the hazards to life and property that can result
from failure or malfunction of industrial electrical systems and equipment. Stationary battery
maintenance is discussed only briefly.
3. ANSI/NFPA 70E-1988, Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee
Workplaces
This standard addresses electrical safety requirements that are necessary for the practical
safeguarding of employees in the work place. Practices relating to battery areas and
stationary batteries are presented.
C-4
D
OVERVIEW OF BATTERY-RELATED NUCLEAR
REGULATORY COMMISSION (NRC) DOCUMENTS
Appendix D presents detailed information on NRC-sponsored battery aging research and other
battery-related problems identified by NRC Information Notices. The NRC has sponsored
extensive research into battery aging and reliability as part of the Nuclear Plant Aging Research
(NPAR) program. The NRC Information Notices discuss battery problems that have been
encountered by other plants.
D.1
NRC-Sponsored Battery Aging Research
The NPAR program was initiated by the NRC to investigate aging effects on installed equipment
in nuclear power plants. The program included a significant research effort into the aging and
reliability of lead-acid batteries. The general objectives of the NPAR program, as explained in
NUREG-1144, include:
Identify and characterize aging and service-wear effects associated with electrical and
mechanical components, interfaces, and systems likely to impair plant safety.
Identify and recommend methods of inspection, surveillance, and condition monitoring of

electrical and mechanical components and systems that will be effective in detecting
significant aging effects before loss of safety function so that timely maintenance and repair
or replacement can be implemented.
Identify and recommend acceptable maintenance practices that can be undertaken to mitigate
the effects of aging and to diminish the rate and extent of degradation caused by aging and
service wear.
Several NUREGs have been issued regarding the age-related degradation of lead-acid batteries.
The most significant NUREGs for stationary batteries are listed below.
NUREG/CR-4099, Age-Related Degradation of Naturally-Aged Class 1E Battery Cells
NUREG/CR-4457, Aging of Class 1E Batteries in Safety Systems of Nuclear Power Plants
NUREG/CR-5181, Nuclear Plant Aging Research: The 1E Power System
NUREG/CR-5448, Aging Evaluation of Class 1E Batteries: Seismic Testing
NUREG/CR-5643, Insights Gained From Aging Research
The conclusions presented in these NUREGs are discussed in the following sections.
D-1

Overview of Battery-Related Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Documents
D.1.1 NUREG/CR-4099
NUREG/CR-4099, Age-Related Degradation of Naturally-Aged Class 1E Battery Cells,
evaluates the survivability of aged batteries when exposed to a seismic event. The associated test
program involved a broad range of battery age, type, and manufacturer. Two distinct failure
modes were observed in certain batteries:
Complete physical separation at the terminal post-plate hanger interface
Cell capacity of less than 80% of nominal rating following a simulated seismic event
The significant age-related effects in terms of seismic survivability were determined to be:
Formation of brittle, corroded positive bus material
Excessive sulfation of positive plate active material causing hardening and expansion of
positive plates
This test program concludes that the formation of brittle bus material has the more significant
aging effect since it could lead to an abrupt failure of a cell during a seismic event. Hardening
and expansion of the positive plates (caused by excessive sulfation) can affect the post-seismic
discharge capacity, and the ability of the cells to be recharged and maintain a charge.
D.1.2 NUREG/CR-4457
NUREG/CR-4457, Aging of Class 1E Batteries in Safety Systems of Nuclear Power Plants,
provides the results of an in-depth evaluation of battery aging effects and failures. Conclusions
reached by the report include:
The most common aging-related degradation mechanism for batteries is thermally induced
oxidation of the grids and top conductors that are made of a lead-calcium alloy. Lead
experiences a 21% plate growth as it oxidizes to lead dioxide. This growth causes the plates
(including grids) to swell, causing poor contact between the grid and the active material in
the plate, and results in decreased capacity of the battery.
Plate growth can also result in stressing the container and covers, causing cracks to develop
in the container with a subsequent loss of electrolyte. A loss of electrolyte can corrode
battery supporting racks and decrease capacity.
High temperatures can result from overcharging, battery charger ac ripple current, or the
environment. Ambient temperature increases from 77F to 95F (25C to 35C) can reduce
the life of a battery by 50% by accelerating oxidation and deterioration of battery
components.
NUREG/CR-4457 provides considerable data compiled from the Nuclear Plant Reliability Data
System, NRC Licensee Event Report system and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's In-Plant
Reliability Data System. It concludes "that maintenance performed correctly leads to the long
use of batteries and batteries maintained in accordance with the recommended practices in
Regulatory Guide 1.129 and IEEE Std 450-1980 should be expected to provide reliable service
for their qualified life."
D-2

D.1.3 NUREG/CR-5181
NUREG/CR-5181, Nuclear Plant Aging Research: The 1E Power System, provides a summary
report of aging mechanisms for components within the Class 1E power system at all levels; a
substantial amount of reliability information pertinent to stationary batteries is presented.
D.1.4 NUREG/CR-5448
NUREG/CR-5448, Aging Evaluation of Class 1E Batteries: Seismic Testing, provides the results
of seismic testing of C&D LCU-19 battery cells. The report concludes that when batteries are
maintained and operated in accordance with IEEE 450 and Regulatory Guide 1.129, the
following can be expected of equivalently designed and manufactured lead-calcium batteries:
Little, if any, electrical capacity will be lost as a result of seismic shaking at levels that are
typical of the most severe levels projected for a safe shutdown earthquake (SSE) in the US.
Adequate seismic ruggedness exists in batteries and racks of equivalent design and material
to meet the requirements for the most severe SSE events.
Some internal damage to the plate separators can be expected at the most severe seismic
levels. However, this damage is not expected to prevent the batteries from providing at least
80% of their rated capacity following the most severe seismic event.
Naturally aged batteries can show evidence of corrosion at the joint between the positive
plates and the positive plate strap (bus). In a well made joint, this corrosion should not cause
the seismic ruggedness to be inadequate for the most severe SSE events expected in the US.
However, batteries should not be expected to avoid this corrosion at elevated temperatures or
if charged excessively. In these cases, the corrosion rate can progress rapidly enough to result
in inadequate seismic ruggedness.
NUREG/CR-5448 states that because most aging mechanisms cause both decreased electrical
capacity and reduced seismic ruggedness, it appears that the tests recommended by IEEE 450 not
only provide a method of monitoring electrical capacity, but also provide an indication of
adequate seismic capability when the batteries are maintained and operated in accordance with
IEEE 450 and Regulatory Guide 1.129.
D.1.5 NUREG/CR-5643
NUREG/CR-5643, Insights Gained From Aging Research, provides a summary of the
conclusions reached from the previously discussed NUREGs. In particular, this report discusses
the information presented in NUREG/CR-4457 and NUREG/CR-5448. In general, the
recommendations in this summary NUREG follow the guidance of IEEE 450.
D.1.6 NUREG Conclusions
The NRC-sponsored NUREGs primarily focus on the ability of aged stationary batteries to
perform their safety-related function following a design basis seismic event. The natural aging
process and corrosion of the positive plate that occurs within a cell are acknowledged to degrade
D-3

battery performance over time. However, the conclusions presented in these NUREGs are
significant in that they clearly infer a link between IEEE 450 tests and the ability of the battery to
withstand a seismic event. Key conclusions resulting from the research are listed below.
The most significant age-related battery degradation mechanism in terms of seismic

survivability is corrosion of the positive bus material, which becomes increasingly brittle as it
corrodes. The formation of brittle bus material could lead to abrupt failure of a cell during a
seismic event.
The most common aging-related degradation mechanism for batteries is thermally induced
oxidation (corrosion) of the grids and top conductors that are made of a lead-calcium alloy.
Lead experiences a 21% plate growth as it oxidizes to lead dioxide. This growth causes the
plates (including grids) to swell; consequently, contact between the grid and the active
material in the plate decreases, as does the capacity of the battery.
Plate growth can also cause cracks in the container and covers, with a subsequent loss of
electrolyte. A loss of electrolyte can corrode battery supporting racks and decrease capacity.
High temperatures can result from overcharging, battery charger ac ripple current, or the
environment. An increase in ambient temperature from 77F to 95F (25C to 35C) can
reduce the life of a battery by 50%, by accelerating oxidation and deterioration of battery
components.
Correctly performed maintenance prolongs the life of batteries. Batteries maintained in

accordance with the recommended practices in Regulatory Guide NRC 1.129 and IEEE Std
450-1980 should be expected to provide reliable service for the qualified life.
Maintaining and operating lead-calcium batteries in accordance with IEEE Std 450 and
Regulatory Guide 1.129, should have the following effects:
Little, if any, electrical capacity will be lost as after seismic shaking at levels typical of
the most severe levels projected for a safe shutdown earthquake (SSE) in the United
States. Adequate seismic ruggedness exists in batteries and racks of equivalent design
and material to meet the requirements for the most severe SSE events.
Some internal damage to the plate separators might be expected at the most severe
seismic levels. However, this damage is not expected to prevent the batteries from
providing at least 80% of their rated capacity after the most severe seismic event.
Naturally aged batteries can show evidence of corrosion at the joint between the positive
plates and the positive plate strap (bus). In a well-made joint, this corrosion should not
cause the seismic ruggedness to be inadequate for the most severe SSE events expected in
the United States. However, batteries subjected to elevated temperatures or excessive
charging will corrode. In these cases, the corrosion rate can progress rapidly enough to
result in inadequate seismic ruggedness.
Because most aging mechanisms cause both decreased electrical capacity and reduced
seismic ruggedness, it appears that the tests recommended by IEEE Std 450 provide not only
a method of monitoring electrical capacity, but also an indication of adequate seismic
capability when the batteries are maintained and operated in accordance with IEEE Std 450
and NRC Regulatory Guide 1.129.
D-4

The NRC research is significant in that it clearly infers a link between IEEE 450 tests and the
ability of a battery to withstand a seismic event. From this perspective, maintenance departments
play a key role in assuring the continued qualification of safety-related batteries. Also, NRC
Regulatory Guide 1.158 requires that new safety-related batteries meet the seismic qualification
criteria specified in IEEE 535, IEEE Recommended Practice for Qualification of Class 1E Lead
Storage Batteries for Nuclear Power Generating Stations.
D.2
NRC Information Notices
Over the past 15 years, several NRC Information Notices (INs) have been issued to address
design, operational, or maintenance concerns with stationary batteries. The INs discussed in this
section highlight typical battery problems that have been encountered, including the methods by
which the problems were corrected. Some of the information contained in the INs relates to
design and application issues rather than battery aging and failure effects. However, most of the
design and application problems discussed here do indirectly affect maintenance activities. The
problems identified by the INs are addressed or discussed elsewhere, as appropriate.
Battery-related problems identified by the INs include:
DC system voltage in excess of component ratings causing component failures
Cell container cracking due to cell aging
Cell container cracking due to use of inappropriate solvents and greases
Cell plate swelling
Load addition to dc buses such that the battery can no longer meet the FSAR duty cycle
Battery testing and maintenance performed inconsistently or in a manner contrary to IEEE

450
Inadequate float voltage resulting in out-of-specification specific gravities
Copper contamination of the cell
Accelerated plate corrosion due to manufacturing defects
Post seal failures
D.2.1 NRC Information Notice 83-08

NRC Information Notice 83-08, Component Failures Caused by Elevated DC Control Voltage,
describes three incidents in which dc electrical components apparently failed because of dc
system voltages above the component ratings. These events demonstrate that a sustained period
of operation at elevated voltages or voltages above the component design rating can accelerate
degradation. Corrective actions include:
Component replacement with components rated for a higher voltage
Removal of cells to lower the system dc voltage
D-5

The issues raised in this Information Notice are still valid design considerations for a dc system.
The components should be rated for the voltage extremes that can occur during operation,
including an equalizing charge if off-line charging capability does not exist.
NRC Information Notice 83-11, Possible Seismic Vulnerability of Old Lead Storage Batteries,
presents several examples of cells cracking because of swollen plates or design defects in the cell
container. Weakening of the plates or container was considered a concern for seismic events.
Surveillance tests and discharge capacity testing monitors the capability of the battery to deliver
the rated voltage and current, but it would not necessarily indicate the battery's seismic
resistance.
Note: Since the issuance of this Information Notice, the NRC has completed a substantial
amount of research regarding the ability of aged batteries to withstand a seismic event.
As noted in NUREG/CR-5448, the tests recommended by IEEE 450 not only provide a
method of monitoring electrical capacity, but also provide an indication of adequate
seismic capability when the batteries are maintained and operated in accordance with
IEEE 450.
The issues raised in this Information Notice are legitimate; however, a comprehensive
maintenance program in accordance with IEEE 450 for safety-related batteries provides
assurance that the batteries can withstand a seismic event.
NRC Information Notice 84-83, Various Battery Problems, presents two problems:
Overloading of the dc buses such that the batteries cannot meet the FSAR duty cycle
Cell container cracking due to use of inappropriate solvents and greases
The battery is normally sized for a given load and duty cycle. Although the battery sizing
calculation might include design margins to account for future load growth, the dc system
loading should be periodically reviewed to determine whether it is still bounded by the original
battery sizing calculation. In the instance cited in this IN, the dc system load had grown to the
point that the battery could have provided power for approximately 4 hours; the FSAR
commitment was for 8 hours.
The second problem identified in this IN was cell cracking due to the inappropriate use of
solvents and greases on the containers. Vented cell containers are usually constructed of a clear
plastic case such as styrene-acrylonitrile. Solvents and greases can attack this plastic, and thus
cause cracks and failures of the jar-to-cover bond. In the reported case, the safety-related
batteries were ultimately replaced. The battery manufacturer specifies approved cleansers and
greases that can be applied to the cell. Failure to follow the manufacturer's instructions can result
in failure of the plastic case.
D-6


Maintenance program deficiencies identified during NRC Performance Appraisal Team audits
are described in NRC Information Notice 85-74, Station Battery Problems. The identified
deficiencies include:
Battery discharge rate significantly less than the manufacturer-specified discharge rate for a
battery performance test
Specific gravity measurements not corrected for temperature and level
Single cell chargers connected to safety-related batteries for about 2 years without the issues
of electrical independence and Class 1E separation of the Class 1E dc power systems being
addressed
Float voltages exceeding manufacturer's recommendations
Battery performance tests terminated at 8 hours instead of at the minimum specified voltage
Equalizing charges not performed when specified by the manufacturer or not properly
terminated if performed
Inadequate or nonexistent maintenance and test procedures
Float voltage not adjusted to account for the reduced voltage after jumpering out cells
Battery capacity test not performed within 2 years of battery installation
Pilot cells not rotated annually
Operation, maintenance, and test practices contrary to manufacturers' recommendations can

affect the long-term reliability of a battery or limit the usefulness of test data in performance
trending. A battery operation and maintenance program should ensure that the above items are
properly addressed.
Two cases of degraded batteries are discussed by NRC Information Notice 86-37, Degradation
of Station Batteries. At one plant, severe flaking of the plates was observed; previous visual
examinations did not detect the flaking. The battery manufacturer recommended battery
replacement.
In another case, battery degradation occurred because of inadequate float voltage. The lower than
required float voltage resulted in specific gravity in some cells decreasing to below acceptable
values. As a result, the plant declared three out of four station batteries inoperable. The battery
manufacturer establishes limits for acceptable float voltages per cell, and the maintenance
program must ensure that battery float voltages are within the specified range.
Prolonged low float voltages contribute to premature failure of the battery. A low float voltage
allows the buildup of lead sulfate on the plates, and ultimately results in plate damage if not
corrected. The conversion of lead to lead sulfate can be observed by a declining cell specific
gravity.
D-7


NRC Information Notice 89-17, Contamination and Degradation of Safety-Related Battery
Cells, describes cases of unexpected degradation. In the first case, copper contamination of cells
occurred because of electrolyte attack on exposed copper inserts in the cell posts. The copper
plated out on the negative plates, inhibited battery capacity and caused general battery
deterioration. Copper contamination can result from improper alignment or casting of the cell
during manufacture. This type of degradation is usually observed first as a brick red
discoloration of the negative plates.
In another incident, positive plates corroded and crumbled within a short time. The manufacturer
determined that the extreme plate corrosion was due to impurities introduced into the plates by
welding during manufacture. The impurities caused a galvanic corrosion reaction that, once
started, progressed rapidly.
In both types of degraded conditions, the battery manufacturer played a key role in the diagnosis
of the problem. The plant implemented increased battery monitoring to ensure that the extent of
degradation was understood.
NRC Information Notice 92-48, Failure of Exide Batteries, discusses a mechanism by which
post seal leakage can occur. In this case, a repair method was developed that prevented further
post seal leakage; however, the repair technique masked further cracking of the cell case until
catastrophic failure occurred. The example cited in this IN resulted in loss of one-third of the
electrolyte and the battery was declared inoperable. The battery required replacement to resolve
the problem.
NRC Information Notice 94-24, Inadequate Maintenance of Uninterruptible Power Supplies and
Inverters, documents an incident in which a UPS battery failed to provide adequate power when
required. Other UPS problems were also identified, including wiring defects and a failed breaker.
NRC Information Notice 95-21, Unexpected Degradation of Lead Storage Batteries, discusses
incidents in which two types of stationary batteries exhibited abnormally low capacity. Although
a definitive reason for the capacity loss was not identified, the manufacturers suspected that
either contamination or manufacturing errors were the root cause.
D-8
E
INTERNAL OHMIC MEASUREMENTS
The use of internal ohmic measurement (conductance, impedance, and resistance) test equipment
has increased in recent years. Industry standards now endorse this technology for assessing the
health of certain battery types. This appendix discusses how this equipment is currently used or
recommended for use. Technical information is provided regarding what is measured by an
internal ohmic measurement.
E.1
Background Information
Internal ohmic measurement test equipment has been introduced as another means of verifying
the health of a battery. The following sections discuss applications in which this equipment has
been endorsed or used.
E.1.1 VRLA Batteries
VRLA batteries have been called sealed batteries because they are completely sealed except for a
pressure control valve that opens periodically to vent excess internal pressure. They have also
been called maintenance-free batteries because periodic water addition is not allowed by the
design. However, VRLA batteries are neither truly sealed or maintenance free. The term valveregulated has been adopted by the battery industry to describe this type of battery.
Periodic maintenance is at least as important for a VRLA battery as it is for a vented lead-acid
battery. Industry experience to date indicates that VRLA batteries are more sensitive to their
installed environment and operating conditions than are conventional vented lead-acid batteries.
Therefore, more, rather than less, attention is needed to ensure they are capable of performing
their design function.
Unfortunately, conventional battery inspections and checks are not readily performed on VRLA
cells. VRLA batteries are housed in a closed, opaque container. As a result, the following
inspections that would periodically be performed on a standard vented cell cannot be performed:
Electrolyte level: The electrolyte is not accessible because each cell is effectively sealed.
Furthermore, an electrolyte level does not actually exist in a VRLA cell; the electrolyte is
suspended in microporous mats or a gel surrounding the plates. The user does not have any
conventional method of verifying the presence of adequate electrolyte.
Visual internal inspection: The opaque container of a VRLA cell does not allow for a check
of the sediment space, or color and condition of the plates and grids. The internal inspection
of a conventional vented lead-acid battery is an important method of detecting excessive or
abnormal degradation.
E-1

Internal Ohmic Measurements
Although battery manufacturers have improved their designs in the last ten years, VRLA battery
technology is, to some degree, still developing. In general, these batteries will fail before vented
batteries if exposed to the same operational conditions and environment. VRLA batteries usually
have a much tighter operating window than their vented counterparts, making them more prone
to degradation. VRLA batteries are also less tolerant of the following conditions:
High temperature
Overcharge
Over-discharge
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has recognized the need for industry
guidance regarding VLRA battery maintenance. Three IEEE documents have been approved to
provide VRLA battery selection, installation, maintenance, and test recommendations:
IEEE 1187-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of
Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Storage Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 1188-1996, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement
of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for Stationary Applications
IEEE 1189-1996, Guide for Selection of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries for
In particular, IEEE 1187 and 1188 recommend the use of internal ohmic measurements for
VRLA batteries. The following explains why this technology has been endorsed in this case:
E-2
VRLA batteries cannot be visually inspected internally; in vented batteries, the visual
inspection often provides early visual indication of battery problems.
Cell voltage measurements do not indicate internal problems until significant cell damage or
degradation has occurred.
Dryout is one of the most common failure mechanisms for VRLA batteries. Traditional
inspections are unable to detect this condition.
VRLA batteries have shown a tendency to be more susceptible to sudden death (i.e., an
unexpected failure when a load is placed on the battery) than vented lead-acid batteries. Yet
design of the VRLA battery does not allow monitoring of this failure mode by conventional
means.
VRLA batteries are more sensitive to high temperature, overcharge, and over-discharge than
vented lead-acid batteries. Therefore, a method of monitoring the internal rate of degradation
is needed.
Other conventional battery inspections do not necessarily provide a true indication of battery
health. For example, specific gravity or cell voltage measurements do not indicate the
available capacity. Either of these measurements offers general information regarding the
quality of the electrolyte and the adequacy of the float voltage; however, neither provides
information regarding the internal cell conduction paths. In any event, specific gravity
measurements are not possible for VRLA batteries. The primary failure mode of a lead-acid
battery is corrosion and degradation of the positive grid and plate, which is not assessed by
either a specific gravity or a cell voltage measurement.
Finally, there is no other measurement technique that offers the user any ability to see
inside the cell. Some type of internal monitoring is needed.

E.1.2 Companies Unable to Perform Routine Capacity Tests

IEEE 450, IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented
Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications, recommends conducting a capacity discharge
test every 5 years on vented lead-acid stationary batteries. IEEE 1188, IEEE Recommended
Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA)
Batteries for Stationary Applications, recommends annual capacity discharge testing for VRLA
batteries. Not all industries or companies have the personnel resources to perform discharge
testing at this frequency (even if they are concerned about stationary battery capacity and
reliability). For example, the maintenance department of a large utility can be responsible for
several hundred substations and some telecommunications company divisions have thousands of
stationary batteries. Some of these battery users have already adopted the use of conductance,
impedance, or resistance test equipment as a supplemental method of identifying any significant
battery degradation. Although research or field test data might not be readily available that
correlates capacity to some form of internal resistance, these users are applying the technology in
an attempt to monitor for any sign of internal degradation.
E.1.3 Battery Manufacturer Production Line Testing
Some battery manufacturers have already incorporated the use of conductance or impedance test
equipment into standard production line quality tests. The purpose of this equipment is to
identify a significant internal manufacturing defect that causes the internal resistance to be higher
than normal.
E.2
Test Equipment Description
Although the method of internal ohmic measurement varies, each type of test equipment
monitors a similar internal property - some form of internal resistance. Conductance is the real
portion of the admittance (the inverse of impedance) and resistance is the real portion of
impedance (refer to Section E.3.8 for a detailed description of these relationships). The following
sections describe the type of test equipment available.
E.2.1 Conductance Test Equipment
Conductance describes the ability of a circuit to facilitate current flow. In a typical conductance
test, an ac voltage of known frequency and amplitude is applied across a cell or battery, and the
ac current that flows in response to the applied voltage is observed. The measured conductance is
the ratio of current to voltage, where the current is the component in-phase with the ac voltage.
The measured conductance value varies with battery manufacturer, type, and size.
A older analog tester is shown in Figure E-1. The measured conductance (mhos) is displayed on
an analog scale. The rated instrument accuracy for measuring conductance is 1.5% of scale.
The analog display provides a resolution of 5 mhos on the low-range setting and 12.5 mhos on
the high-range setting. This tester has been used for emergency lighting unit batteries. Figure E-2
shows a newer digital tester used for testing all types of cells.
E-3

Figure E-1
Midtron 3200 Battery Conductance Tester
Figure E-2
Micro Celltron Conductance Tester
E-4

E.2.2 Impedance Test Equipment

A battery impedance tester capacitively couples a low-frequency current to the battery and
measures the small ac voltage drop across the battery terminals. The voltage measurement is
divided by the ac current passing through the battery to calculate the battery impedance.
Consisting basically of a transmitter and receiver, an impedance tester applies an ac current to
the battery under test. The ac test current is applied via a series capacitor (capacitive couple) to
block the dc voltage of the battery. The receiver is clamped around a battery terminal and probes
are used to measure the ac voltage across the battery. The instrument circuitry measures the rms
current and voltage, then computes and displays these values as an impedance (milliohm). Figure
E-3 shows the Miniature Battery Impedance Test Equipment (MBITE) test system in use. Figure
E-4 shows the Enhanced Battery Impedance Test Equipment (EBITE) test system.
Figure E-3
MBITE Battery Impedance Tester in Use
E-5

Figure E-4
EBITE Battery Impedance Tester
E.2.3 Resistance Test Equipment

A battery resistance measurement is taken by monitoring the instantaneous change in voltage
when the battery is discharged by a specific amount. When a load is applied to a battery, an
instantaneous voltage drop occurs and, when the load is removed, an instantaneous voltage
recovery subsequently occurs. By monitoring the current and cell voltage just prior to removal of
the load and the recovered cell voltage, the internal cell resistance can be calculated by:
Rinternal =
V
I
where,
Rinternal
= Internal resistance
V = Voltage change
I
= Test discharge current
A typical resistance tester is shown in Figure E-5. This tester provides a resistance measurement
in terms of micro-ohms.
E-6

Figure E-5
Cellcorder Resistance Tester
E.3
Factors Affecting a Batterys Internal Resistance
Resistance, impedance, and conductance (internal ohmic) test equipment all measure some form
of a batterys internal resistance. Section E.3 provides an overview of the battery model in terms
of what is measured by internal ohmic test equipment. The effect of various factors on model
parameters and internal ohmic measurements is explained. The observed correlation between
resistance, impedance, and conductance measurements is also discussed.
E.3.1 Battery Model
Defining the battery model is an important part of understanding what is measured by a
resistance, impedance, or conductance test. A lead-acid battery can be modeled electrically by a
series-parallel combination of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. The most straightforward
battery model is represented by a series resistance with some series inductance and parallel
capacitance (see Figure E-6). This model is adequate for explaining internal ohmic measurement
theory.
E-7

R
terminals
plates
straps
electrolyte
X
C
intercell welds
Figure E-6
Typical Lead-Acid Battery Model
The battery inductance is normally very small, ranging from 0.05 to 0.15 microhenries for
common battery sizes. The capacitance tends to be substantially larger, ranging from 1.5 to 2.0
farads per 100 ampere-hour of capacity. The internal resistance varies from less than a milliohm
for a large cell to greater than 2 milliohms as the cell size decreases to less than 100 amperehour.
The resistance of the terminals or posts, straps, plate-to-strap welds, and intercell welds is often
referred to as the metallic resistance and represents the resistance of the internal conduction
paths. Changes in this resistance do not typically occur during the discharge and recharge cycle.
However, the conduction path resistance can change over time. The battery inductance is
normally associated with internal conduction elements.
The resistance of the plates, separators, and electrolyte is referred to as the electrochemical
resistance. Unlike the metallic resistance, the electrochemical resistance does change during the
discharge and recharge cycle.
E.3.2 Aging Effects on Internal Resistance
A lead-acid battery exhibits an increase in its internal resistance with age. A typical graph of
internal resistance and capacity as a function of age is provided in Figure E-7.
E-8

Capacity or Normalized
Resistance (percent)
150
140
Internal Resistance (%)

130
120
110
100
Capacity (%)
90
80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Battery Life (percent of rated)
Figure E-7
Lead-Acid Battery Internal Resistance as a Function of Age
Both the metallic resistance and the electrochemical resistance contribute to the increase in
internal resistance. The metallic resistance increase is mainly due to corrosion of the conduction
path components, and poor welds in the intercell and plate-to-strap connections. Age-related
changes in the electrochemical resistance are mainly due to aging of the plate and grid materials.
This includes all effects attributable to aging, including grid corrosion, shedding of active
material, and loss of contact between active material and the grid structure.
The separator is designed to minimize the possibility of internal shorts between the positive and
negative plates while remaining porous enough to still allow the uninhibited passage of ions
between plates. The separator resistance is not expected to change significantly with age in a
vented battery unless contaminants or other effects cause the separator pores to close (sometimes
referred to as separator clogging).
The electrolyte resistance of a vented battery is not expected to change with age provided that the
electrolyte level is properly maintained and the electrolyte remains contaminant-free. The
electrolyte resistance can change significantly in a VRLA battery if:
Some level of dryout has occurred.
The required compression between the plates and the absorbed glass mat is not adequately
maintained.
E-9

The expected increase in the metallic and electrochemical resistance as a result of the aging
process forms the underlying theory behind internal ohmic measurement technology. As shown
in Figure E-7, the aging mechanisms responsible for increasing resistance also have a predictable
effect on capacity. The key to the technology is to establish a correlation between this resistance
increase as capacity decreases.
E.3.3 State of Charge Effect on Internal Resistance
A lead-acid battery exhibits an increase in internal resistance as it is discharged, primarily
because of changes in the electrochemical resistance. The discharge process causes the
electrochemical resistance to increase because:
The electrolyte specific gravity drops, resulting in a decrease in electrolyte conductivity.
The active material on the plates changes by the electrochemical reaction from Pb and PbO2
to PbSO4, which has a larger resistance.
The change in internal resistance is not necessarily linear as a battery is discharged. As shown in
Figure E-8, very little internal resistance change occurs over a substantial portion of the
discharge time. The internal resistance increases quickly near the end of a discharge once the
lead sulfate (PbSO4) has formed to the extent that many pores in the plates are closed, severely
restricting electrolyte access deep into the plates where active material (Pb or PbO2) is still
available. Notice also from Figure E-8 that voltage and internal resistance have a clear inverse
relationship as would be expected from the battery model.
7.0
40
6.5
30
Resistance
(milliohm)
6.0
Voltage
20
5.5
10
5.0
4.5
0
Discharge Time (Hours)

Resistance
Figure E-8
Internal Resistance During Discharge
E-10
Volts

E.3.4 Temperature Effect on Internal Resistance

A lead-acid battery exhibits an increase in internal resistance as its temperature decreases. This
variation with temperature tends to follow the temperature-resistivity relationship of the
electrolyte and is not linear. Near 77F (25C), only a very moderate change in resistance occurs
as a function of temperature. As temperature falls below 50F (10C), the rate of resistance
change increases.
The temperature effect varies with electrolyte specific gravity, type of battery, and the internal
battery design. One battery manufacturer provides the temperature-resistance relationship shown
in Figure E-9 for their VRLA batteries.
280
GEL
250
220
Percent of
Resistance
at 77F
190
160
AGM
130
100
70
-30
-10
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
Temperature (F)
Figure E-9
Temperature-Resistance Relationship
One test equipment manufacturer provides the following temperature correction factors for
battery conductance measurements:
VRLA AGM: 0.5% per F
Vented and VRLA Gel: 0.75% per F
Given that internal resistance changes with temperature, the purpose of the above correction
factors is to reference all measurements to a common temperature of 77F (25C). Measurements
taken above 77F (25C) are corrected down in accordance with the above correction factors and
measurements taken below 77F (25C) are corrected up in accordance with the above correction
factors.
E-11

Another test equipment manufacturer provides the following temperature correction factor for
impedance values of vented lead-acid cells:
Z b @77 F =
0.088 x Z m
(T + 30)-0.52
where,
Zb = impedance corrected to 77F
Zm = measured impedance
T = electrolyte temperature at measured impedance in F
In another study of vented and VRLA batteries, little change in impedance was noted as
temperature was varied from 77F to 167F (25C to 75C), conflicting with the direction
provided above by some test equipment and battery manufacturers. This study did not evaluate
temperatures below 77F (25C).
As can be seen, different companies provide different recommendations regarding the
temperature effect on internal resistance. However, the sources generally agree that the
temperature effect varies with the type of battery. Regardless of the actual resistance change with
temperature, the important point to remember is that a resistance measurement taken at a
temperature significantly lower than 77F (25C) should indicate higher than a measurement
taken with the same battery at 77F (25C). Similarly, a resistance measurement taken at a
temperature significantly higher than 77F (25C) can indicate lower than the same measurement
taken with the battery at 77F (25C).
E.3.5 Electrolyte Effect on Internal Resistance
Evaporation and gassing from a vented battery can cause electrolyte level to drop. However, only
water is normally lost by this process, meaning that as level drops the electrolyte specific gravity
increases, its conductivity increases, and the electrolyte portion of the internal resistance
decreases slightly. If electrolyte level falls below the top of the plates, the increase in electrolyte
conductivity is offset by the increased resistance of the exposed plates. If water level is
maintained within the manufacturers recommended range, little effect is expected due to normal
level variations.
Dryout of a VRLA battery can cause inadequate electrolyte between plates, resulting in greater
internal resistance. A dryout-induced internal resistance change is possibly an indicator of loss of
capacity. Loss of compression between the plates and glass mat material can also cause an
internal resistance increase.
E-12

E.3.6 Internal Resistance as a Function of Rated Capacity

A cell often has more positive plates added to increase its capacity. For example, a particular
battery model can be available in sizes ranging from 1 positive plate to over 16 positive plates
per cell. With the addition of each parallel positive plate, the cells internal resistance decreases
(analogous to a decrease in resistance when resistors are connected in parallel). Figure E-10
shows the trend in measured impedance as the cell size increases; specific values of impedance
have been intentionally left off because they are measurement dependent, varying with the test
equipment and its test frequency
Resistance
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
Capacity (ampere-hours)
Figure E-10
Internal Resistance as a Function of Capacity
The decrease in internal resistance as the cell capacity increases is not linear as shown in Figure
E-10. With the addition of each parallel plate, the cells internal capacitance increases which also
influences the internal resistance measurement, depending on the method of measurement and
the test frequency. Within a given family of cell sizes for a particular model, the smooth curve
shown in Figure E-10 might not always apply. For example, larger cells can have multiple posts
or copper inserts in the posts, causing a step-change reduction in the internal resistance.
The tendency for measured internal resistance to decrease with rated capacity applies to multicell
monobloc batteries also. A 50 ampere-hour 6 V monobloc battery will have a larger internal
resistance than an equivalent design 200 ampere-hour monobloc battery.
E-13

E.3.7 Internal Resistance and Discharge Rate

Battery capacity as a function of discharge rate is well understood. As the discharge rate (current
or power) increases, the amount of energy that can be removed from the battery decreases for a
given end voltage. As a battery ages, its capacity might change even more as a function of its
discharge rate. For example, as a battery ages, the plate grids can corrode and degrade such that
they are incapable of supporting a high rate discharge. However, a lower-rate discharge might
still be quite possible because the current-carrying members of the grid structure are not as
severely stressed by the lower current.
Regardless of the batterys application (low rate or high rate discharge), it will have the same
measured internal resistance prior to the discharge. The test equipment does not know the
batterys required duty cycle. The net result might be that a measured internal resistance
correlates to an acceptable battery capacity at a low discharge rate and an unacceptable capacity
at a higher discharge rate.
E.3.8 Ohmic Relationships and the Effect of Test Equipment Frequency
As shown in Section E.3.1, a lead-acid battery can be modeled electrically by a series-parallel
combination of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. The battery inductance is normally very
small, ranging from 0.05 to 0.15 microhenries for typical battery sizes. The capacitance tends to
be substantially larger, ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 farads per 100 ampere-hour of capacity. The
internal resistance varies from less than a milliohm for a large cell to greater than 2 milliohms as
the cell size decreases to less than 100 ampere-hour.
Internal ohmic measurement test instruments typically operate at a set frequency. Depending on
the method of measurement, the battery inductance and capacitance can influence the measured
value of resistance. The inductive reactance, XL, is defined by
X L = L = 2fL
where,
XL = Inductive reactance
L = Inductance
f
= Frequency
= 3.1415
= 2f
The capacitive reactance, XC, is defined by
XC =
E-14
1
1
=
C
2fC

The units of inductive and capacitive reactance are ohms and, as can be seen above, reactance is
frequency dependent. At low frequencies, inductive reactance becomes very small, having little
effect on the operation of a circuit, but inductive reactance dominates the overall impedance at
high frequencies. As the frequency becomes very low, capacitive reactance becomes very large,
or the capacitor appears to be an open circuit. At a measurement test frequency of 60 Hz or less,
the capacitive reactance can affect the measured impedance but the inductive reactance tends to
be negligible.
The internal impedance, Z, is obtained by combining the resistance, inductive reactance, and
capacitive reactance and is given by
Z =
2
R2 + ( X L + X C )
where,
Z = Impedance in ohms
R = Resistance
XL = Inductive reactance
XC = Capacitive reactance
As can be seen, impedance is affected by frequency whenever inductive and capacitive elements
are included. Test equipment operating at 60 Hz will measure a different impedance than test
equipment operating at 1,000 Hz.
The expression for impedance often combines the inductive and capacitive reactances into a
single term, X, that is 90 out of phase with the resistance, or
Z = R + jX
Impedance can be measured in a battery by applying Ohms Law to a known current and voltage.
The magnitude of the impedance can be calculated by injecting a specified ac current into a
battery and measuring the resultant ac voltage developed across the terminals. Ohms Law is
given by
V = IZ,
or Z =
V
I
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance or

Y =
1
= G + jB
Z
E-15

where,
Y = Admittance
Z = Impedance
G = Conductance
B = Susceptance
Conductance is the real portion of admittance and is typically measured by capacitively coupling
an ac voltage to a battery and measuring the resultant ac current that flows. The admittance is
calculated as the inverse of the impedance using Ohms Law and the conductance is the real
portion of the admittance. Conductance can be calculated by the following expression:
G =
R
R + X2
2
The above relationships are important to an understanding of what is measured by the test
equipment. Figure E-11 shows how impedance can vary with frequency (the axes are unlabeled
because this graph is for illustrative purposes only). Lead-acid batteries are predominantly
inductive at high frequencies, predominantly capacitive at low frequencies, and resistive in midrange. Commercially available test equipment is generally operating in the resistive region;
however, the available instruments do operate at different frequencies, thereby possibly
complicating any attempt to directly compare instrument measurements.
Impedance
XL
XC
Frequency
Figure E-11
Relationship Between Impedance and Frequency
E-16

Studies have shown that the inductive reactance is similar regardless of the battery size,
supporting the assumption that inductance is principally associated with the metallic components
in the conduction path. However, capacitance varies significantly with battery size and does
influence the measured impedance as a function of frequency. Batteries appear resistive within a
certain frequency range, but this range varies with battery type and size. The practical
implication of this observation is that internal ohmic measurement test equipment operating at a
single frequency might possibly be more suitable for use with certain batteries, and less suitable
for other sizes or types.
E.3.9 Effect of Metallic and Electrochemical Resistance on Discharge Voltage
The electrochemical resistance of a battery increases as the battery is discharged. Under ideal
conditions, all changes in internal resistance would be due to the electrochemical resistance; the
metallic resistance would remain constant. Unfortunately, conduction path problems can occur
and, when they do, a measurable effect on the total battery resistance is seen. Figure E-12 shows
the normal voltage profile during a battery discharge and Figure E-13 shows the typical effect of
a conduction path problem on the battery discharge voltage profile. A larger conduction path
resistance has an immediate effect on the battery voltage during discharge, but this effect does
not change further during the discharge. Compare this to Figure E-14 in which the plates have
experienced significant aging. In this case, the electrochemical resistance limits the battery
capacity; the discharge profile can initially look normal until a certain point at which voltage
then falls quickly.
100% Capacity
Discharge
Voltage
End Voltage
Discharge Time
Figure E-12
Typical Discharge Profile of 100% Capacity Battery
E-17

100% Capacity
Discharge
Conduction Path
Problem
Voltage
End Voltage
Discharge Time
Figure E-13
Effect of Metallic Resistance Problem on Typical Discharge Profile
Electrochemical
Resistance Problem
100% Capacity
Discharge
Voltage
End Voltage
Discharge Time
Figure E-14
Effect of Electrochemical Resistance Problem on Typical Discharge Profile
E-18

E.4
Battery Ohmic Measurement Uncertainty Considerations
Although internal ohmic measurements can provide valuable insight into the potential presence
of internal degradation, these measurements alone do not necessarily provide absolute
verification of a batterys capacity. As discussed in the Section E.3, a number of parameters can
influence the internal resistance of a battery. Consequently, some level of uncertainty in the
interpretation of an internal ohmic measurement is unavoidable. The following sections discuss
various contributors to uncertainty.
E.4.1 Battery Variables That Contribute to Measurement Uncertainty
Section E.3 provides a discussion of the battery model and describes the effect of different
parameters on a cells internal resistance. Not all influences on a cells internal resistance
necessarily affect the capacity. Some of these influences can be limited or eliminated by the user;
others are outside the users control. The following summarizes the most prominent contributors
to measurement uncertainty.
Battery Model: As discussed in Section E.3.1, the battery can be modeled as a series-parallel
combination of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Although the various elements in the
battery model each can influence the capacity, one should not expect that they do so in a
linear manner. The practical implications of this might be that internal ohmic measurements
work well when identifying very good or very bad batteries, but might have mixed results
mid-range. A number of minor factors can contribute to internal resistance changes without
significantly affecting capacity (or vice-versa). Hopefully, a major change in internal
resistance is accompanied by a measurable change in capacity.
State of Charge: A partially discharged (or not fully charged) battery will not have an internal
resistance fully indicative of its capacity (see Section E.3.3). This variable is within the
users control; internal ohmic measurements should be taken on fully charged batteries to
obtain consistent results.
Temperature: Temperature affects the internal resistance (see Section E.3.4). Internal
resistance appears to have the greatest variability below 60F (15.6C). Lesser effect has
been noted above 77F (25C). Battery manufacturers and test equipment manufacturers
have provided correction factors to apply to internal ohmic measurements so that each
measurement can be referenced to 77F (25C); however, the correction factors are not
consistent among manufacturers, indicating that they might not yet fully understand this
effect. Because of the variation noted among manufacturers, some uncertainty will be present
regardless of which temperature correction method is used. Further manufacturer testing is
needed in this area.
Manufacturing Variations: Variations in the battery manufacturing process can affect the
observed relationship between internal ohmic measurements and capacity. Improper curing
of the active material lead paste can affect capacity, possibly without affecting internal
resistance to the same degree. Cells from a given manufacturing lot can have small
differences in capacity; cells from different lots might vary even more.
E-19

Aging Effects: A cell can age, degrade, and ultimately fail in different ways. For example, a
cell in a benign environment might survive its entire rated life with its end-of-life occurring
in the classical manner - corrosion of the positive plates. Another cell might experience
overcharging throughout its life, accelerating the aging process of its plates and prematurely
damaging the plate grid structure. A VRLA cell might experience dryout or localized loss of
compression between the plates and the absorbed glass mat. In each case above, the amount
of change in internal resistance can differ in response to the particular aging mechanism.
E.4.2 Test Equipment Variables That Contribute to Measurement Uncertainty

No measurement is free of error. Even if we disregard for the moment that we might not fully
understand the inherent factors affecting an internal ohmic measurement, the measurement
process itself adds to our uncertainty. The following summarizes test equipment measurement
uncertainty.
Test Equipment Accuracy: Given a perfect connection, the test equipment has a rated
measurement error. Depending on the test equipment, this rating typically varies from 1.5%
to 5%. The elements of uncertainty contained within this accuracy rating are generally not
discussed in manufacturers literature.
Test Equipment Calibration: The user expects that the test equipment is in calibration. The
test equipment operating manuals usually provide little information regarding calibration
requirements.
Test Probes: Some test equipment is provided with more than one type of test leads.
Differences in the resistance of the test leads can affect the measurement repeatability. In
general, the same test leads should be used on all measurements to avoid these potential
differences.
Quality of Test Connection: With some battery designs, access to the terminal post can be
difficult, causing the internal ohmic measurement to include the effect of terminal connection
hardware. Furthermore, the method of test probe connection varies among test equipment
types. In some cases, a poor reading can be obtained without the user recognizing any
deficiency in the test connection. Each measurement should be taken by the same test probe
in the same location. A measurement can easily vary by changing the probe location around
the terminal post.
Analog Reading Accuracy: Some test equipment is configured with an analog display scale.
In this case, the minimum uncertainty in the reading is 2 of the minimum graduation.
Depending on the battery under test, this can contribute up to 2% to the measurement
uncertainty.
Reading Stability: Depending on the battery, a measurement reading might take some period
of time to stabilize. The user should wait until the reading fully stabilizes before recording
the measurement.
Float Versus Open Circuit Measurement: Different readings can be obtained between a float
charge mode of operation versus open circuit.
E-20

Training: The information provided by this test equipment is not intuitive; additional
background knowledge is needed to obtain a clear understanding of the measurements.
Training on the use of this test equipment is a critical element to successful implementation
of internal ohmic measurements.
E.5
The following provides a typical procedure for the recording and evaluation of internal ohmic
measurements. The previous sections in this appendix provide background information. Other
measurements that should be performed as part of an internal ohmic measurement check have
been included here for completeness.
CAUTION: Observe safety precautions for working with energized dc
equipment and batteries.
1. Use a temperature measurement device such as an electronic meter with attached temperature
probe to measure the temperature of a representative number of cells. Verify that the
calibration has not expired and that the calibrated measurement accuracy meets or exceeds
1F (0.6C). Measure and record the cell temperature to the nearest whole degree by
placing the temperature probe against the negative terminal of each cell.
CAUTION: Be sure the uninsulated portion of the temperature probe is not
long enough to simultaneously touch the positive and negative
posts.
2. Investigate any higher than expected temperatures. If any cell temperature is more than 5F
(3C) above the ambient temperature, investigate further.
NOTE:
High cell temperatures can contribute to thermal runaway in a VRLA

battery. Every effort should be made to keep the cell temperatures
within the design limits.
3. Measure and record each cell float voltage. Compare the cell voltages to the range
recommended by the manufacturer. Ensure that the voltage readings are within the tolerance
specified by the manufacturer for the particular battery. If any individual cell measurements
exceed the manufacturers recommended tolerance, investigate for abnormal conditions.
4. In accordance with the test equipment manufacturers instructions, measure each cells
internal resistance, impedance, or conductance, as applicable. Take the internal ohmic
measurement with the battery in a fully charged, steady state condition while on float charge.
Readings taken on a discharged battery or a battery undergoing recharge are not indicative of
the actual condition of the battery.
E-21

5. Evaluate the internal ohmic measurement taken on each cell and investigate any reading that
varies from the cells reference value by more than 25%. A conductance decrease
> 30% from the reference value possibly indicates a low capacity cell. A conductance
decrease > 50% from the reference value possibly indicates a failed cell. An impedance or
resistance increase > 50% from the reference value possibly indicates a low capacity cell. An
impedance or resistance increase > 100% from the reference value possibly indicates a failed
cell.
6. If the cell internal ohmic measurements indicate possible low capacity cells, perform one of
the following:
Replace the cells.
Perform a capacity discharge test to confirm the low capacity cell(s); proceed further
based on the capacity test results.
Contact the battery manufacturer for guidance.
E-22
F
OPERABILITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR REMOVING A
CELL FROM SERVICE
At some point during a battery's life, it may become necessary to jumper out a cell, or cells,
because of poor cell performance. For certain applications, it will be necessary to determine
whether the battery still meets the electrical system duty cycle and voltage requirements. A spare
cell may not be available within the time frame necessary to support plant operation. This
appendix provides a detailed assessment of the options to consider when determining whether
the battery still meets the system requirements after cell removal.
F.1
Evaluation Options
If a cell must be removed from service (jumpered out), engineers can consider several options
when evaluating the effects of a cell removal. The first step is to perform a calculation to
determine whether the battery continues to meet its duty cycle and system voltage limits after the
cell removal. On the first pass, the calculation should include all of the margins and correction
factors used in the original battery sizing calculation. If the calculation shows that cell removal
limits battery performance so that it cannot meet its duty cycle, then the following options should
be considered:
Battery trending data might allow the reduction or elimination of correction factors used in
the battery sizing calculation. For example, the remaining battery cells might still exhibit
100% capacity. The battery sizing calculation probably includes the assumption of an end-oflife capacity of 80% with a correction factor of 1.25. On the basis of the available trending
data, a reduction of a portion of this correction factor may be justifiable until a replacement
cell is obtained or other permanent corrective action implemented.
The battery sizing calculation typically includes the assumption of a low temperature limit
for the battery and applies the appropriate correction factor to determine the required battery
size. This correction factor can be reduced if the available information shows that the battery
area temperature does not reach this design limit.
The battery is often sized with a design margin for load growth or other system load
uncertainties. This design margin can be reduced if necessary to demonstrate battery
operability.
The battery duty cycle may include margins for load beyond the design margins described
above.
If the existing battery sizing calculation is based on end-of-discharge voltages of 1.75 V per
cell and a dc bus voltage of 105 V, then the removal of a single cell effectively reduces the
minimum bus voltage by 1.75 V to 103.25 V. Some installations may have a dc system
analysis that demonstrates acceptable equipment performance at this lower voltage.
F-1

Operability Considerations for Removing a Cell from Service
F.2
Battery Voltage Requirements
Removal of a battery cell (or cells) from service limits the overall battery capacity by raising the
end-of-discharge limit on the remaining cells so that the minimum battery voltage is still
maintained. The relationship between the number of battery cells, the minimum allowable
battery voltage and the defined end-of-discharge cell voltage is given by:
Number of Cells =
Minimum Allowable Battery Voltage

End of Discharge Cell Voltage
For example, if the minimum battery voltage is 105 V, then the required number of battery cells
for a 1.75 V per cell (VPC) end-of-discharge voltage is:
60 Cells =
105V
1.75VPC
In order to meet the required minimum battery voltage, the removal of a single cell effectively
raises the required end-of-discharge cell voltage for the remaining cells. For example, if one cell
is jumpered, the necessary end-of-discharge cell voltage is:
59 Cells =
105 V
End of Discharge Cell Voltage
or,
End of Discharge Cell Voltage = 1.78 V per cell
Obviously, for an end-of-discharge cell voltage of > 1.75 V per cell, each battery cell is still
capable of further discharge. However, equipment may not be rated for adequate performance
below the defined minimum battery voltage. For a minimum battery voltage of 105 V, Table F-1
shows the required end-of-discharge cell voltage.
F-2

Table F-1
Required End of Discharge Cell Voltage
(105 V Minimum System Voltage)
Number of Cells
Required End of Discharge

Voltage
60
1.75
59
1.78
58
1.81
57
1.84
F.3
Data Needed to Perform a Battery Cell Removal Evaluation
Before a calculation to determine the effect of battery cell removal can start, certain information
must first be obtained. The following information is needed:
Battery low-voltage limit (assumed to be 105 V in this appendix)
Battery temperature correction factor
Battery aging correction factor
Design margin correction factor
Battery duty cycle
Battery manufacturer battery-specific discharge data
F.4
Evaluation Methodology
Section 6 provides the methodology for sizing stationary batteries. In the case of an existing
battery that must be reevaluated because of a cell removal, the Section 6 methodology can still
be applied. Generally, a battery sizing calculation determines the required number of plates by
use of vendor-specific battery data.
As discussed in the previous section, the removal of a cell (or cells) results in a higher end-ofdischarge cell voltage to meet the battery minimum voltage requirements. Given that a battery
has already been sized and is installed, the removal of a cell (or cells) requires an evaluation to
determine whether the existing number of plates can still meet the specified duty cycle.
The cell sizing worksheet provides a convenient method of determining the required battery size
for a given case. This worksheet can be used to determine either the required number of plates in
each cell or the total rated ampere-hours. The next section provides an example to demonstrate
how to evaluate the removal of a battery cell.
F-3

F.5
Example Calculation
Consider a battery with the simple duty cycle shown in Figure F-1. As shown, the battery must
be capable of supplying 500 amperes for the first minute of discharge, followed by 315 amperes
until the end of 2 hours, at which time the load is reduced to 250 amperes for another 2 hours.
For this example, it is assumed that the total discharge time must be at least 4 hours.
500
Load
(amperes)
400
300
200
100
120
240
Figure F-1
Example Duty Cycle
After a battery performance test, the maintenance department requests an evaluation for the
removal of one or more battery cells from service by jumpering. The minimum battery voltage is
assumed to be 105 V. As shown previously, the end-of-discharge cell voltage must increase as
each cell is removed to meet the minimum battery voltage requirements as shown below:
60 cells: 1.75 V
59 cells: 1.78 V
58 cells: 1.81 V
This example will assume that the manufacturer's battery data are as shown below in Table F-2.
This information is normally obtained from the battery manufacturer's technical manual.
F-4

Table F-2
Example Battery Capacity Per Positive Plate
Discharge
Time
Capacity Per Positive Plate for Specified Time and Minimum Cell Voltage
1.75 V
1.78 V
1.81 V
1 min
140
115
102
2 hr
50
47
44
4 hr
31
30
29
When the battery was originally sized, the calculation included the following correction factors:
Temperature correction based on a 60F (15.6C) minimum temperature: 1.11
Design margin of 10% to account for future growth: 1.10
Aging margin to account for battery capacity at 80% end-of-life point: 1.25
Given this design information, duty cycle and battery-specific data, the battery was sized with 14
positive plates as shown in Table F-3.
The removal of one cell from the battery requires the use of the 1.78 V capacity from Table F-2.
All other information remains the same. As shown in Table F-4, the battery can still meet its
design requirements with the removal of a single cell. The cell sizing worksheet still indicates
that 14 positive plates are adequate.
However, the removal of two cells results in the cell sizing worksheet in Table F-5; 15 positive
plates, more than are in the existing battery, are required. For this case, the battery cannot have
two cells removed without further analysis. The evaluation options described in Section F.1
should be considered to determine whether the battery is still acceptable.
In this example, removal of two cells might still be feasible, but additional evaluation of the
available margins must be completed before this is approved.
In this example, the duty cycle was not modified because of a reduced voltage arising from cell
removal. If the duty cycle includes constant power loads such as inverters that experience a
current increase as the voltage drops, the duty cycle could require adjustment to compensate for
the lower voltage after cell removal. As a practical consideration, this effect with constant power
loads is minor but should be considered when extreme accuracy is required.
F-5

Table F-3
Cell Sizing Worksheet - Original Calculation for 60 Cells
Period
Load
(amperes)
Load
Duration
Change of Period
(amperes) (minutes)
Time to
Capacity
Required Section
End of
plates)
(minutes)
plate)
+ Values
- Values

1
A1 = 500
500
140
3.57
Section 1 Total:
3.57
***

1
A1 = 500
500
120
50
A2 = 315
-185
119
119
50
10.00
-3.70
Section 2 Total:
6.30
***

1
A1 = 500
500
240
31
A2 = 315
-185
119
239
31
-5.97
A3 = 250
-65
120
120
55
-1.30
Section 3 Total:
16.13
8.86
***
Maximum Section Size 8.86 + Random Section Size 0 = Uncorrected Size (US) 8.86.
US 8.86 x Temperature Correction 1.11 x Design Margin 1.10 x Aging Factor 1.25 =
13.52.
Cell Size = 14 positive plates.
F-6

Table F-4
Cell Sizing Worksheet - Evaluation for Removing One Cell From Service
Period
Load
(amperes)
Load
Duration
Change of Period
(amperes) (minutes)
Time to
Capacity
Required Section
End of
plates)
(minutes)
plate)
+ Values
- Values

1
A1 = 500
500
115
4.35
Section 1 Total:
4.35
***

1
A1 = 500
500
120
47
A2 = 315
-185
119
119
47
10.64
-3.94
Section 2 Total:
6.70
***

1
A1 = 500
500
240
30
A2 = 315
-185
119
239
30
-6.17
A3 = 250
-65
120
120
47
-1.38
Section 3 Total:
16.67
9.12
***
Maximum Section Size 9.12 + Random Section Size 0 = Uncorrected Size (US) 9.12.
US 9.12 x Temperature Correction 1.11 x Design Margin 1.10 x Aging Factor 1.25 = 13.91.
F-7

Table F-5
Cell Sizing Worksheet - Evaluation for Removing a Second Cell From Service
Period
Load
(amperes)
Load
Duration
Change of Period
(amperes) (minutes)
Time to
Capacity
Required Section
End of
plates)
(minutes)
plate)
+ Values
- Values

1
A1 = 500
500
102
4.90
Section 1 Total:
4.90
***

1
A1 = 500
500
120
44
A2 = 315
-185
119
119
44
11.36
-4.20
Section 2 Total:
7.16
***

1
A1 = 500
500
240
29
A2 = 315
-185
119
239
29
-6.38
A3 = 250
-65
120
120
44
-1.48
Section 3 Total:
17.24
9.38
***
Maximum Section Size 9.38 + Random Section Size 0 = Uncorrected Size (US) 9.38 .
US 9.38 x Temperature Correction 1.11 x Design Margin 1.10 x Aging Factor 1.25 = 14.32 .
F-8
G
INDEX
Battery problems 16-1
Acceptance test 14-19, 14-20
Battery rack integrity inspection 11-31
AGM 2-34
Battery replacement (see Replacement)
Annual inspections
Battery sizing (see Sizing)
nickel cadmium battery 13-6
Battery taps 8-13
valve-regulated lead acid battery 12-9
Battery types (Stationary) 2-1
vented lead acid battery 11-20
Antimony poisoning 2-11, 2-13, 2-30
Capacity tests
Applications
acceptance test 14-20
engine starting 5-9, 6-37
performance test 14-2
extreme temperatures 5-6, 5-7, 5-8
Carbonation 4-5, 16-8
high rate discharge 5-5
Cell removal evaluation F-1
long duration discharge 5-6
Charger 8-6
long life 5-7
Charger sizing 8-8
motive power 5-6
Charging 8-1
nickel-cadmium battery 5-7
Charging problems 8-9
VRLA 5-10
Conductance testing E-3
UPS 5-5
Connection resistance measurements 11-24
Continuity test 14-26
Battery (see Lead-acid battery, Nickelcadmium battery, or Valve-regulated leadacid battery)
Copper contamination 11-22, 16-3
Battery applications (see Applications)

Battery charger (see Charger)
Battery cost 5-12
Coup-de-fouet 2-23
D
DC distribution system 7-9, 7-10, 15-10

Design basis 9-4
Battery installation considerations 15-3

G-1

Index
Discharge tests
acceptance test 14-20
Flooded battery (see Lead-acid battery)
continuity test 14-26

modified performance test 14-20
Float voltage (see Lead-acid battery or

Nickel-cadmium battery)
performance test 14-2
Float charge 8-1
service test 14-15
Fuse 7-14
Double-sulfate theory 2-3
Dryout 2-35, 3-15
General inspections
Nickel-cadmium battery 13-1
Duty cycle 6-12, 6-15, 14-15
valve-regulated lead-acid battery 12-1
vented lead-acid battery 11-1
Electrical Generating Systems Assoc. 6-38

Electrochemical process
Grid 2-9, 2-16
lead acid battery 2-3
nickel cadmium battery 2-7
Hoxie method 6-12, 6-22
Electrolysis 2-29
Hydration 3-10, 11-22, 16-4
Electrolyte
Hydrometer 11-13, 11-14, 11-19
addition 15-9
checks 11-11
IEEE standards C-1
impurities 3-10
Impedance testing E-5
level operability 11-12, 16-7
Internal ohmic measurements 12-6, E-1
neutralizing agent(s) 10-1, 10-6
potassium hydroxide 2-7, 2-41
Jumpering analysis F-1
specific gravity 2-22, 11-7, 11-11
specific gravity level correction 11-15
Lead-acid battery
specific gravity measurement 11-13
aging and degradation mechanisms 3-3
specific gravity temp. correction 11-14
aging characteristics 3-2
stratification 11-17, 16-2
annual inspections 11-20
sulfuric acid 2-19
capacity 2-25
Equalizing charge 8-4
cell construction 2-9
Equipment safety precautions 10-2
container design 2-20
Expanders 2-18
copper contamination 11-22, 16-3

discharge characteristics 2-22
discharge cycle service 3-6
G-2

Index
electrical characteristics 2-21
retainers 2-18
electrochemical process 2-2
ripple currents 3-9
electrolyte addition 15-9
sediment buildup 16-5
electrolyte checks 11-11
separators 2-18
electrolyte impurities 3-10
special inspections 11-32
electrolyte level operability 11-12, 16-1
specific gravity level correction 11-14
electrolyte neutralizing agent 10-1, 10-6
specific gravity measurement 11-13
electrolyte stratification 11-17, 16-2
specific gravity temperature correction 11-14
equalizing charge 8-3
sulfation 3-8, 11-22, 16-4
expanders 2-18
temperature effects 2-27, 11-8
failure modes 3-10
terminal post design 2-9, 2-20
flame arrestor 2-7, 2-20, 2-29, 2-41
tubular plate 2-16
float voltage 2-21
undercharging 3-8, 11-6
float voltage checks 11-5

float voltage variations 11-9
valve-regulated battery (see Valveregulated lead-acid battery)
gas evolution 2-29, 2-39
vented battery 2-7
general inspections 11-1
visual inspection 11-3, 11-21
grid 2-9, 2-16
voltage 2-21
hydration 3-10, 11-22, 16-4
water addition 11-16
hydrometer 11-3, 11-14, 11-19
Lead-antimony grid 2-11
Manchex 2-16
Lead-calcium grid 2-13
mossing 3-7
Lead-selenium grid 2-14
pilot cells 11-2
Low voltage power circuit breaker 7-12
open circuit voltage 2-21, 11-7
overcharging 3-1, 3-6, 11-6
Maintenance philosophy 9-3
overdischarge 3-10
Maintenance program
pasted flat plate 2-9
recommended practices 9-7
Plant 2-16
Maintenance-free batteries 2-30, 5-4
plate construction 2-9
Manchex 2-16
polarization 2-24
Micro-ohmmeter measurements 11-24
post seal failures 3-12
Modified performance test 14-20
prolonged open circuit storage 16-6
Molded case circuit breakers 7-12
quarterly inspections 11-17, 11-19
Mossing 3-7
G-3

Index
special inspections 13-8
Negative strap corrosion 3-23
specific gravity measurements 13-6
NFPA standards C-4
temperature check 13-5
Nickel-cadmium battery
G-4
aging characteristics 4-1
visual inspection 13-2
aging and degradation mechanisms 4-1
voltage depression 2-44, 4-3
annual inspection 13-6
NRC battery aging research D-1
applications 5-7
NRC NUREG reports
capacity 2-44
NUREG-1431 16-1
carbonation 4-5, 16-8
NUREG/CR-4099 D-2
cell construction 2-41
NUREG/CR-4457 D-2
connection resistance measurements 13-7
NUREG/CR-5181 D-3
container design 2-43
NUREG/CR-5448 D-3
discharge cycle service 4-2
NUREG/CR-5643 D-3
NRC Information Notices D-5
electrochemical process 2-2
electrolyte 2-45, 4-5, 16-7
Open circuit voltage
failure modes 4-3
lead-acid battery 2-24, 11-7
fiber plate 2-42
flame arrestor 2-43
Operator's role in maintenance 9-6
long-term float operation 4-3
Pasted flat plate 2-9
memory effect 4-3
Performance test
neutralizing agent 10-1, 10-6
initial conditions 14-8
pilot cell 13-5
plate constructions 2-41, 2-42
periodicity 14-5, 14-6
pocket plate 2-42
pretest requirements 14-8
potassium carbonate 4-5, 13-3, 16-8
temperature correction factors 14-11
quarterly inspections 13-1
ripple currents 4-3
Performance trending 9-6
semi-annual inspection 13-6
Personnel safety precautions 10-1
separators 2-43
Personnel training 9-5
sintered plate 2-42
Pilot cell 11-2

Index
Plant 2-16
UPS applications 6-33
Plate constructions 2-9, 2-42
valve-regulated lead-acid batteries 6-39
Polarization 2-24
Spare cells 16-6
Post seal failures 3-12, 3-22
Specific gravity 2-19, 11-7, 11-8, 11-11
Potassium carbonate 13-2, 3-22
Storage, prolonged open circuit 16-6
Protection 7-1
Sulfation 3-8, 11-22, 16-4
Sulfuric acid 2-5, 2-6, 2-19, 2-23
Quarterly inspections
Thermal runaway 3-16
vented lead-acid battery 11-19
Uninterruptible power supply 2-23, 5-2, 6-33
Recharge 8-4
Valve-regulated lead-acid battery
Replacement considerations 14-28, 15-1, 15-2
absorbed electrolyte system 2-34, 3-20
Round cell 2-16
AGM 2-34, 2-36
annual inspection 12-9
Safety precautions 10-1
applications 5-8, 5-10
Sealed batteries 2-30
characteristics 2-27, 2-28
Service test
conductance testing E-3
duty cycle 14-15
construction 2-34
initial conditions 14-17
dryout 2-35, 3-15
periodicity 14-17
pretest requirements 14-17
electrolyte concentration 2-37, 3-19
Short circuit current 7-1, 10-5
failure mechanisms 3-15, 3-24
Single cell charging 8-5
failure rates 3-27
Sizing
chargers 8-8
gas evolution 2-29
correction factors 6-24
gelled electrolyte system 2-41
diesel engine starting 6-37
gravity effect 3-21
Hoxie method 6-12
impedance testing E-5
lead-acid batteries 6-12
internal ohmic measurements 12-6, E-1
manufacturers curves 6-1
loss of compression 3-20, 3-23
nickel-cadmium batteries 6-38, 6-39
monthly inspection 12-1

G-5

Index
modules 2-31
negative strap corrosion 3-23
pressure relief valve 2-37
quarterly inspections 12-6
recombination cycle 2-33, 3-18
starved electrolyte 2-31
temperature inspection 12-8
thermal runaway 3-7, 3-16
visual inspection 12-2
W
Warranty 5-13
G-6
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Stationary Battery Guide: Design,

Application, and Maintenance

Stationary Battery Guide: Design,

EPRI Project Manager

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

To emphasize cost-effective maintenance practices

To focus on methods that improve equipment reliability

EPRI Licensed Material

Entergy Operations, Inc.

Battery Research and Testing

Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency

Alcad Standby Batteries

Southern California Edison

Southern Nuclear Operating Company

NMAC was supported in this effort by:

EPRI Licensed Material

Nebraska Public Power

Tennessee Valley Authority

Yankee Atomic Electric Company

Washington Public Power Supply System

Public Service Electric & Gas Company

Union Electric Company

Philadelphia Electric Company

Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems, Inc.

AVO Biddle Instruments

G&W Electric Company

Reserve Energy Systems

C&D Charter Power Systems, Inc.

EPRI Licensed Material

Fundamentalshow batteries are designed and how they work

Sizing for different applications

Protection and charging

Periodic inspections and checks

Capacity discharge testing

Installation and replacement considerations

Problems that can occur with battery systems

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

Types of Stationary Batteries.......................................................................................2-1

How a Battery Works ...................................................................................................2-2

Negative Plate Reaction ...............................................................................2-3

Positive Plate Reaction .................................................................................2-5

Vented Lead-Acid Stationary Batteries ........................................................................2-7

Plate Constructions .............................................................................................2-9

Plate Physical Configurations .....................................................................2-14

Variations in Plate Design...........................................................................2-15

Separators and Retainers .................................................................................2-18

Container Design and Construction ..................................................................2-20

Discharge Characteristics ...........................................................................2-22

Plate Polarization ........................................................................................2-24

EPRI Licensed Material

Gas Evolution During Operation .......................................................................2-29

Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries ...........................................................2-30

Recombination Cycle ........................................................................................2-33

Absorbed Electrolyte Construction..............................................................2-34

Gelled Electrolyte Construction...................................................................2-36

Pressure Relief Valve .................................................................................2-37

Electrolyte Concentration ..................................................................................2-37

VRLA Cell Electrical Characteristics .................................................................2-38

Gas Generation During Operation ....................................................................2-39

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries .........................................................................................2-40

Container Design and Construction ............................................................2-43

3 LEAD-ACID BATTERY AGING, DEGRADATION, AND FAILURE ......................................3-1

The Ideal Life Curve of a Lead-Acid Battery ................................................................3-2