Exhibit team

The Higgs boson and beyond was organised, with help from a few friends, by researchers from the UK Particle-Physics
groups that collaborate on the ATLAS and CMS experiments, at the Large Hadron Collider, near Geneva.
The institutes and people involved with the exhibit were as follows:

Brunel University
Jo Cole
Peter Hobson
Akram Khan
Paul Kyberd
Dawn Leslie
CERN
Quentin King
Imperial College London
Louie Corpe
Paul Dauncey
Adinda de Wit
Patrick Dunne
Rebecca Lane
Robyn Lucas
Sasha Nikitenko
Monica Vazquez Acosta
Lancaster University
Harald Fox
Kathryn Grimm
Roger Jones
Queen Mary, University of
London
Cristiano Alpigiani
Lucio Cerrito
Teppei Katori
Ruth Sandbach
Giacomo Snidero
Tom Whyntie
Royal Holloway, University
of London
Tracey Berry
Veronique Boisvert
Ian Connelly
Michele Faucci-Giannelli
Russell Kirk
Pedro Teixeira-Dias
Joshuha Thomas-Wilsker

Rutherford Appleton
Laboratory
John Baines
Alastair Dewhurst
Jens Dopke
Stephen Haywood
Jelena Ilic
Julie Kirk
Stephen McMahon
David Sankey
Monika Wielers
University College London
Jonathan Butterworth
Rebecca Chislett
Ben Cooper
Gavin Hesketh
Andreas Korn
Josh McFayden
Ines Ochoa
Tim Scanlon
David Wardrope

University of Cambridge
Miguel Arratia-Munoz
Giovanna Cottin-Buracchio
Steve Green
Karl Harrison
Steven Kaneti
Thibaut Mueller
Rebecca Pitt
Stephen Wotton
Boruo Xu
University of Edinburgh
Sahra Bhimji
Wahid Bhimji
Flavia Dias
Victoria Martin
Benjamin Wynne
University of Glasgow
David Britton
Thomas Doherty
Tony Doyle

University of Birmingham
Ludovica Aperio Bella
Matthew Baca
Andrew Chisholm
Simon Head
Cristina Lazzeroni
Tom McLaughlan
Richard Mudd
Javier Murillo
Konstantinos Nikolopoulos

University of Liverpool
John Anders
Carl Gwilliam
Matthew Jackson
Max Klein
Paul Laycock
Allan Lehan
Monica dOnofrio
Joe Price
Joost Voosebeld

University of Bristol
Robin Aggleton
Paolo Baesso
Euan Cowie
Maarten van Dijk
Sudarshan Paramesvaran
Daniel Saunders

University of Manchester
Iain Haugthon
Steve Marsden
Clara Nellist
James Robinson
Michaela Queitsch-Maitland
Sabah Salih
Stefan Sldner-Rembold
Terry Wyatt

University of Oxford
Alan Barr
Kathryn Boast
Daniela Bortoletto
Philip Burrows
Alexandru Dafinca
Claire Gwenlan
Chris Hays
David Hall
James Henderson
Malcolm John
Craig Sawyer
University of Sheffield
Christos Anastopoulos
Ian Dawson
Gary Fletcher
Dan Tovey
University of Sussex
Carlos Chavez Barajas
Antonella DeSanto
Daniel Gibbon
Dorothy Lamb
Fabrizio Salvatore
Nicky Santoyo-Castillo
Yusufu Shehu
Kerim Suruliz
Iacopo Vivarelli
University of Warwick
Steve Boyd
Sinead Farrington
Michal Kreps
Tim Martin
Bill Murray
Elisabetta Pianori

Summer Science Exhibition

30th June 2014 to 6th July 2014
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
6 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AG

Exhibit coordinators: Wahid Bhimji, Cristina Lazzeroni, Konstantinos Nikolopoulos

Booklet editor: Karl Harrison
Artwork and design: Rebecca Pitt

The Higgs boson and beyond was made possible through help and support
from the participating institutes (left), and from:
CERN: European Laboratory for Particle Physics
GridPP: UK Computing for Particle Physics
Higgs Centre for Theoretical Physics
STFC: Science and Technology Facilities Council
SEPnet: South East Physics Network
1st edition - June 2014

the-higgs-boson-and-beyond.org

Suggested variants on the final Higgs Centre logo

PR 17 Apr 2013

Highlighting the signature in white,

with blue text -- for a darker background. Ive boosted the cyan
component here, to reduce the
muddy effect.

An alternative: reversing the colours.

What we know
Konstantinos Nikolopoulos

The Higgs boson

and beyond
The discovery of the Higgs boson was a
momentous occasion, but what lies beyond
could be even more exciting.

The observation of a new particle is always a

major event, but what do we really know about
the particle announced in July 2012? The detailed
work to map out this particle's basic properties
began immediately after the discovery.
Thanks to the excellent performance of the
Large Hadron Collider, and of the ATLAS and
CMS experiments, we have been able to establish
that the new particle closely resembles the Higgs
boson predicted by the Standard Model, the set of
theories that describes the physics of elementary
particles.
Previously detected elementary particles behave
as if they're spinning. Measurements indicate
that the new particle has no spin, matching the
theoretical expectations for the Higgs boson.

Why it matters
Cristina Lazzeroni

Putting together a science exhibit is hard work,

but one thing I really like is that it makes me think
about what I do, and why it's relevant. So when
a new particle, the Higgs boson, was discovered,
in 2012, I jumped at the opportunity of telling
everybody all about it. This led to the staging of
Understanding the Higgs boson at the 2013 Royal
Society Summer Science Exhibition.

The existence of the Higgs boson was first

suggested in 1964, as part of a theory that
explains how elementary particles, the pointlike building blocks of nature, can have non-zero
mass. Its observation by the ATLAS and CMS
experiments, at the Large Hadron Collider, in
Geneva, was a scientific milestone. Subsequent
studies, with more data, have consolidated
the discovery, and prompted the award of
the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics to two of the
key contributors to the original theoretical
developments: Franois Englert and Peter Higgs.
In August 2013, when it was looking likely
that the year's Nobel Prize in Physics would be
awarded for work relating to the Higgs boson,
Kostas, Wahid and I had discussions with other
particle physicists about how we could highlight
the science behind the prize. It quickly became
clear that what we wanted to show was how
the discovery of the Higgs marks the end of one
journey, but the start of an exciting new journey,
to unknown lands. The result is The Higgs boson
and beyond. Like its predecessor, this has involved
researchers from all of the eighteen UK institutes
participating in the ATLAS and CMS experiments.
Why, then, is the Higgs boson so relevant? Well,
without it our world would be very different.
Elementary particles would all have zero mass,
with dramatic consequences. For example,
electrons would be unable to enter into orbits
around protons and neutrons, and so atoms
couldn't form. The physics of elementary particles
ultimately underlies everything we know and
experience, and this is why I find it so fascinating.
I hope that you too will find fascinating The Higgs
boson and beyond.

The new particle decays rapidly, to pairs of

force carriers (W bosons, Z bosons or photons),
or to a matter particle and corresponding
anti-matter particle. Within the current
experimental precision, of about twenty to
thirty per cent, the measured decay rates are
in agreement with calculations in the
framework of the Standard Model.
Studies to date set the stage for even more
detailed investigations in the future, with
upgraded accelerator and detectors. We will
be looking for deviations from the theoretical
predictions, which would signal physics beyond
the Standard Model, a really exciting possibility!

What comes next

Wahid Bhimji

People often ask me if the discovery of the Higgs

Boson means that our work is done. Actually, this
discovery doesn't come close to answering all of
our questions about the Universe. For one thing,
the fact that the Higgs particle isn't as heavy as
theory suggests, is a strong hint there's something
still to be discovered, for example the new particles
introduced by the theory of supersymmetry. Also,
astronomical measurements indicate that most
of the mass of the Universe is in the form of dark
matter, and we don't know what this is. Ultimately,
we want to create a Theory of Everything, which
brings together our understanding of elementary
particles, and our understanding of gravity, which
is key for describing the motion of galaxies and
planets. So there's still a lot to do, and we'll need
to create even higher energies, and even bigger
machines, to do it!

How the
world is
built

All everyday objects seem to be

made from just three types of basic
building block the up quark, the
down quark, and the electron.

Powers Of Ten
Physics deals both with very big numbers and with very
small numbers. These numbers are often shown as multiples
of 10 to some power, written as a superscript.

DNA
Pairs of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules
form a double-helix structure that encodes
genetic information in living organisms. Each
structure contains around

106

0.000001

104

100

10

0.0001

0.01

10

100

104

10000

106

1000000

2 x 109 atoms
of just 5 different types: hydrogen, oxygen,
carbon and phosphorus.
106 m to 108 m

10-10 m
10-15 m

Quarks combine
as protons and
neutrons

<10-18 m

10-15 m to 10-14 m

Protons and neutrons

combine in atomic nuclei

Protons and neutrons, in

atomic nuclei, combine
with electrons to form
atoms (electric charge: 0)

Macroscopic
structures

10-10 m to 10-8 m

10-3 m
10 m to 10 m
-7

+
+

+
+2/3

10-2 m to 103 m

Atoms combine to
form molecules

Elementary
particles no
detected structure

relative
electric
charge

Planets

proton

up quark

Small-scale structures,
visible to the eye

+
oxygen atom

oxygen nucleus

Atoms and
molecules combine
to form microscopic
structures

+ +
+ ++ +
+ +

-4

The diameter of
an atom is more than

electron neutrino

hydrogen
atoms

10,000 times

neutron
-1/3

the diameter of its nucleus.

down quark

Ions

-1

An atom that loses or gains

electrons, and so becomes
electrically charged, is an ion.

oxygen
atom

A human cell contains

electron

22.1%
125 neutrons

The up quark, down quark

and electron are the basic
building blocks of everyday
objects.
The electron neutrino is
involved in radioactive
decays, and in processes
that power the stars.

water molecule

46 DNA double helixes

and around

1 x 1012 atoms.

24.1%
124 neutrons

Naturally
occurring
isotopes of lead
Lead atom
82 protons

1.4%
122 neutrons

52.4%
126 neutrons

Elements and isotopes (collections of atoms)

Atoms grouped together form an element if they all have the same number of protons.
If they also all have the same number of neutrons, they form a particular isotope of the
element. A single element can have several naturally occurring isotopes.

24%
oxygen

50%
sodium

Grain
of Salt

62%
hydrogen

Human
12%
carbon

1018 atoms

50%
chlorine

2%
other

7 x 1027
atoms

51%
oxygen

3%
other

14%
silicon

15%
magnesium

Planet
Earth
1050 atoms

17%
iron

FERMIONS

Particles outside of the

Standard Model

MATTER PARTICLES

None of these particles have been detected

experimentally. The graviton is introduced by
theories of gravity. Other particles are added
by supersymmetry.

Building blocks of everyday objects.

1st
generation

2nd
generation

3rd
generation

Particles produced at accelerators.

LEPTONS

tau
neutrino

muon

tau

~
g

up

charm

top

~
g

~
g

down

strange

bottom

anti-down

anti-strange

anti-bottom

anti-up

anti-charm

anti-top

e+

positron

anti-muon

anti-tau

anti-electron
neutrino

anti-muon
neutrino

anti-tau
neutrino

Anything made of
quarks and leptons
is matter
Anything made of
anti-quarks and
anti-leptons is antimatter

~
g

g
Higgs boson
of the
Standard
Model

~
H+

~
W+

~
g

~0

~
Z0

photino

~
g

~
h0

~
A0

~
WWinos and
Zino

~
g

~
H0

~H

Force carriers
for gravity

gravitino

graviton

HIGGSINOS

W+

H+

~
G

Carrier of
electromagnetic
force

A0

h0

H0

Z0

W
HIGGS
PARTICLES

W and Z
bosons

~
e-

stau

smuon

selectron

~
t

~
c

~
u

~
b

~
s

~
d

sbottom

sstrange

sdown

g
g

anti-sbottom anti-sstrange

Carriers of weak force

gluons
Carriers of
strong force

t
anti-stop

Particles and Anti-Particles

Fermions and Bosons

Particles behave as if they're spinning and are identified as
fermions or bosons depending on the amount of spin. Spin
values are integer or half-integer multiples of a quantity
known as the Dirac constant. Fermions can always be
told apart, for example in terms of energy or direction of
spin, but bosons may be identical. The whole of chemistry
depends on the fact that electrons are fermions.
FERMIONS

5
_
spin = 1_, 3_, ...
2 2 2

BOSONS

spin = 0 spin = 1, 2, 3,...

anti-scharm

anti-sup

~
e+

anti-smuon anti-spositron

anti-stau
neutrino

anti-sdown

~
+

~+
anti-stau

Each particle has an anti-particle, with identical mass but

oppositely signed charge values.

The Standard Model describes how particles behave under three

types of force: strong force, weak force, and electromagnetic
force. Each force has an associated charge, and only particles
that carry this charge feel the effect of the force.

~
-

sup

gluinos

Standard Model
of Particle Physics

~-

scharm

Elementary particles, objects with

no detected structure, include
quarks, leptons, force carriers, and
the Higgs boson.

selectron
neutrino

stop

~
g

Particle
Universe

smuon
neutrino

photon

stau
neutrino

Ve

anti-smuon anti-spositron
neutrino
neutrino

Hadrons
Quarks and anti-quarks aren't detected as free particles, but
are bound together in composite objects, as one of three types
of hadron. These are baryons (three quarks), anti-baryons
(three anti-quarks) and mesons (quark and anti-quark).

Supersymmetry
Theories for improving on the Standard Model have been
developed around a concept called supersymmetry. This adds
additional Higgs bosons, and makes the boson world a mirror
image of the fermion world. The simplest formulation is the
Minimal Supersymmetric Model. As they haven't so far been
detected, supersymmetry particles, if they exist, must be
heavier than their partners in the Standard Model.

ANTI-PARTICLES

Only these particles have been

detected experimentally.

GAUGINOS

FORCE CARRIERS
(GAUGE BOSONS)

~
Ve

ANTI-SLEPTONS

ANTI-LEPTONS

Particles of the
Standard Model

~
V

ANTI-SQUARKS

ANTI-QUARKS

QUARKS

electron

~
V

PARTICLES

muon
neutrino

subject to
strong force

BOSONS

electron
neutrino

subject to
weak force

SQUARKS

ANTI-PARTICLES

subject to
electromagnetic force

SLEPTONS

PARTICLES

Forces that affect particles

Interactions and decays

Particle
dynamics

Particles announce their presence in two types of processes:

interactions and decays.

A field is a region in time

and space, where the value
of a quantity is defined at
every point. Relativistic
quantum field theory
describes the fields of force
and energy

Relativistic quantum
field theory
Application:
Physics of the very small and very fast

Big ideas:

The theories of particle

intreactions and decays
bring together many
of the big ideas of
twentieth-century physics.

Particle interactions and decays involve emission and

absorption of force carriers (gauge bosons).

Z0

Descriptions of interactions and decays are unchanged by certain

mathematical operations (gauge symmetry).

Quantum mechanics
Deals with:

Special relativity
Deals with:

Big ideas:

The very fast

Interaction

Decay

The very small

In an interaction, two
particles may scatter off
one another, or may give
up their energies for the
creation of new particles.

In a decay, a particle of
higher mass disintegrates,
leaving behind two, or
more, new particles, of
lower mass.

Energy comes in packages (quanta).

Big ideas:

Particles behave sometimes like point objects

and sometimes like waves (complementarity).

At high speeds, lengths shorten,

and time advances more slowly.

All properties of a particle can't be exactly

measured at the same time
(uncertainty principle).

The speed of light, c,

is a universal constant.
Energy, E, and mass, m,
are equivalent: E = mc2.

Feynman diagrams
Particle interactions and decays are represented pictorially in Feynman diagrams.
Different types of line identify different types of particle:

Electroweak theory
matter particle

Higgs boson

carrier of electroweak force

carrier of strong force

Deals with:
Electromagnetic and weak forces, combined as electroweak forces

Big ideas:
A point where lines meet is called a vertex, and represents an interaction.
The Standard Model allows only a few types of vertex.

The weak force is carried by W and Z0 bosons.

Different forces can be described in a single mathematical framework
(unification).

These are specific types of

Relativistic quantum field theory.
They're the basis of the
Standard Model.

Particles and anti-particles gain mass by interacting with an energy

field, present everywhere in the Universe.
Particles and antiparticles can behave differently.

For an interaction or decay to be fully described by a diagram, the particles involved need to be indicated.
photon

gluon

Production of Higgs
boson, followed by
decay to two photons

Deals with:

Electromagnetic force interaction of light and matter

H0
gluon

Quantum
electrodynamics
Big ideas:
The electromagnetic force is carried by photons.

photon

Each line and vertex is shorthand for a lengthy mathematical expression. Multiplying together the expressions
for all parts of the diagram gives a measure of how often the process represented occurs.

Each particle has an anti-particle,

with identical mass, but
opposite charge.

Quantum
chromodynamics
Deals with:
Strong force

Big ideas:
The strong force is carried by gluons.
Particles that feel the strong force possess a
type of charge called colour charge.

acceleration

distance

force

mass

mass

mass

om

at
m

or
of

et
bin

co m

E
E

THIRD
GENERATION

E
E

SECOND
GENERATION

FIRST
GENERATION

E
E

atoms

E
E

gauge
bosons

E
E

quarks & charged leptons

E
E

Particle masses are expressed as their energy equivalent.

An electronvolt is the energy gained by an electron in
pasing through 1 volt, and corresponds to a mass of
1.78 x 10-36 kg .

E
E

1012

E
E

E
E

1011

E
E

E
E

E
E

1010

E
E

E
E

E
E

Each generation seems to be a replica of the first, but

at higher mass. Only the fist generation is needed to
explain everyday matter (atoms). The reason for there
being three generations is unknown.

109

E
E

E
E

E
E

MASS (electronvolts)
108

E
E

E
E

The theory of the Higgs field is able

to explain how elementary particles
can have non-zero mas. Why
different particles have different
masses remains a mystery.

1964 1967

2012

1972

2
107

E
E

The energy that a particle gains from the Higgs

field is detected as the particle's mass.

u
d

Mass machanism shown

by Abdus Salam and
Steven Weinberg to
be able to account also
for the masses of quarks
and leptons.

c
1961

The Higgs boson and

the origin of mass

up-type quarks

106

1983

e-

E
E

E
E

This theory introduced

the W and Z0 as carriers
of the weak force. The
formulation required that
these have zero mass,
inconsistent with the
force's short range.

H0

down-type quarks

charged leptons

Au

(Gold)

Higgs field

Z0

Cu

(Copper)

(Oxygen)

(Hydrogen)

particle with
no mass

Theory of electroweak
force, unifying
electromagnetic and
weak forces, developed by
Sheldon Glashow.

protons

79 118

29 34

8 8

neutrons

79

29

E
E

electrons

Particle Masses

E = mc2

The mass of a hydrogen atom is much higher

than the combined masses of the electron and
quarks from which it is built. Most of the mass
of an atom comes from the energy of holding
quarks together inside protons and neutrons

Elementary particles acquire

mass through interactions
with an energy field, where
the Higgs boson acts as
energy carrier.

Mass-energy equivalence
An object's energy content, E, and mass, m, are related by
the speed of light, c:

105

E
E

E
E

Mass

In everyday language, mass and weight are often used

interchangeably. Technically, the weight of an object is the
force on the object due to gravity. Weighing scales measure
this force, and convert to a mass value.

E
E

F = G Mm
r2

universal
gravitational
constant

F = ma

Gravitational mass
measures ability to create,
and be influenced by,
gravitational forces:

in the Universe

Inertial mass
measures resistance
to change in speed or
direction:

The Higgs boson is a short-lived particle

that transfers energy between the Higgs field
and other particles: it is an energy carrier

An energy field, known as the

Higgs field, is present everywhere

Mass and
the Higgs
boson

Mass mechanism, explaining how the carriers of the weak

force can have non-zero mass, proposed by six physicists,
in three groups.
The physicists involved were: Robert Brout and Franois
Englert; Peter Higgs; Gerald Guralnik, Carl Hagen and Tom
Kibble. The proposed explanation required a new type of
particle: the Higgs boson.

Mathematical consistency
of electroweak theory,
including the mass
mechanism, formally
proven by Gerard 't Hooft
and Martinus Veltman

W and Z0 first detected,

by UA1 and UA2
experiments.

Higgs boson first detected,

by ATLAS and CMS
experiments.

Particle accelerators

Electrons can be obtained by heating a metal wire

(thermionic emission), for example by passing an electric
current through it.

40%
Ion
implantation

Protons can be obtained from hydrogen gas, using a device

called a duoplasmatron. This generates electric fields that
break down the hydrogen molecules, separating them into
protons and electrons.

44%
Radiotherapy

LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

(2008)

More
than 30,000
particle
accelerators
worldwide

6.911 km

6%
Biomedical
research

0.5%
X-ray
synchrotrons

ALICE

Highest energies are achieved using radiofrequency

cavities. These are metal chambers, containing an electric
field with peaks and troughs that switch many times a
second. As a particle moves through a chamber, it's pushed
along in much the way that a surfer is pushed by waves on
the sea. The peaks and troughs cause particles in a beam
to group together in bunches.

Collider parameters
When two particles collide, their energies can be used in
the creation of new particles. At a collision energy, E, the
probability of creating a particle of type X, is represented
by a quantity known as the cross section, (X,E). This is
conventionally measured in multiples of a unit called the
barn (b), where 1 b = 10-28 m2. The collision rate is expressed
in terms of a luminosity, L, measured in units of inverse
barn per second (b-1 s-1).

PROTON
SYNCHROTRON
BOOSTER
(1972)

Beam
area, A

1
1

Time
separation, t

1.4
GeV

LINEAR ACCELERATOR
(First beams: 1978)

50
MeV

rence:
mfe
62
cu

megaelectronvolt (MeV) = 1,000,000 eV

m
57

Bunch of n
particles

kiloelectronvolt (keV) = 1,000 eV

450
GeV

ATLAS

electric field

Particle energies are measured in multiples of the

electronvolt (eV), the energy gained by an electron
accelerated through 1 volt.

LHCb

SUPER PROTON
SYNCHROTRON
(1976)

Creating particle beams

Charged particles can be accelerated to higher energies
using electric fields, and can be steered using electric
and magnetic fields. The particles can then be focused
into beams.

km

Particle sources

0.5%
Physics
research

26

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the highest-energy machine

in an arrangement of interlinked particle accelerators. Four main
experiments are positioned around the collider ring: ATLAS, ALICE,
CMS, and LHCb. During its first period of operation (November
2009 to February 2013), the LHC collided protons at energies of
up to 8 TeV (4 TeV per beam). Following an upgrade, the collision
energy will be increased to the design value of 14 TeV.

9%
Industrial
processing

The Large Hadron Collider

Up to
7 TeV

5
.6

The European Laboratory for

Particle Physics (CERN) hosts
the world's highest-energy
particle accelerator: the Large
Hadron Collider.

CMS

Ci
r

Colliding
particles

Two designs of particle accelerator

commonly used are the linear accelerator
and the synchrotron. Particles are sent
once along a straight-line path in a linear
accelerator, and move many times around
a circular path in a synchrotron. Both
types of accelerator may be operated
as colliders, where beams of particles,
travelling in opposite directions are made
to cross. At each crossing, some fraction of
the particles may interact.

Crossing point

n
At

90
keV

Luminosity ~

gigaelectronvolt (GeV) = 1,000,000,000 eV

The rate, N(X), of collisions where a particle of type X is

created is the product of cross section and luminosity:

teraelectronvolt (TeV) = 1,000,000,000,000 eV

N(X) = (X,E) L.

33m

25
GeV

PROTON
SYNCHROTRON
(1959)

Proton 1
Proton 2

CERN's current linear accelerator replaced an earlier machine,

operated 1959 to 1992

Proton beam 1
travels in here

Muon detectors

Collisions

Proton beams cross in the middle of the

detector. Particles produced in resulting
collisions travel through the different
detector layers

A muon detector is a large-volume tracking detector that's

shielded by material, often in the form of calorimeters. It allows
identification of muons, as the only charged particles able to
pass through the material.

muon

neutrino

Proton beam 2
travels in here

Detecting
particles

proton

neutron

25

46

The retina of the eye and the sensor of a digital camera are
both examples of particle detectors. They measure energy
deposited by photons, at different points, over a short time
interval. They then generate electrical signals to identify
points where this energy is above a threshold.
Bunches of protons cross up to 40,000,000 times a
second in experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. The
experiment detectors must be reset after each crossing.

electron

ag
n

et

21

15

m
When a particle passes through a piece of material, it
may interact with the electrons and quarks from which
the material is built. The particle then transfers energy to
the material at points along its path. A particle detector
is designed to measure how much energy is deposited by
particles that cross it, where, and when. A detector can be
characterised by how well it measures energy and position,
by time response, and by the types of particle it detects.

photon

mass:
7,000,000 kg

The ATLAS and CMS

experiments use giant detectors
for precise measurements of
particle collisions.
Basics of particle detection

ic

fie

ld

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te

sla

mass:
12,500,000
kg

ag
n

et

ic

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ld

:4

te

sla

ATLAS and CMS

The detectors of ATLAS and CMS, the two general-purpose
experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, have a similar
basic design. Each is roughly cylindrical in shape, and built
up in layers. The two detectors differ in the technology
used. Detector sizes reflect the distances over which
particles must be measured for accurate determination of
paths, momentum and energy.

Tracking detectors

Calorimeters

Tracking detectors are optimised for measurement of position, and allow

reconstruction of the flight paths of charged particles. These detectors are
intended to have little effect on a particle's speed and direction, and so
must contain minimal material.

Calorimeters are detectors

optimised for measuring particle energies,
and include large blocks of dense material.
After a particle enters a calorimeter, its
interactions can produce new particles,
which can themselves interact. This
results in a shower of particles, which
extinguishes as all of the original particle's
energy is lost to the calorimeter material.
The detector records a signal for each
block, dependent on the amount of energy
absorbed.

High-precision tracking detectors are often built from thin layers of silicon,
each divided into pixels or strips. The technology is like that used in
camera sensors, but satisfying requirements for large area, fast response,
and radiation resistance. A detector layer records a hit in each pixel or strip
that is crossed by a charged particle, and where the particle interacts.
Larger tracking detectors are typically built from chambers, or other
containers, filled with gas. A charged particle crossing the gas results in a
hit being recorded in a nearby sensor wire.
Particle paths are reconstructed by fitting curves to hits in different
detector layers. Paths can then be combined to identify particles that have
a common origin, for example coming from a decay.
Tracking detectors are usually placed in a magnetic field. A charged particle
follows a curved path in the field, and the curvature gives the particle's
momentum (product of mass and velocity).

Thinner devices, called

electromagnetic calorimeters, are used to
measure the energies of photons, electrons
and positrons. Thicker devices, called
hadronic calorimeters, are used to measure
the energies of charged and neutral
hadrons.

On 4th July 2012,

a discovery was
cautiously announced:
"CERN experiments
observe particle consistent
with long-sought
Higgs boson".

Observation of a new particle

Discovery
of the Higgs
boson

Protons were first circulated in the Large Hadron

Collider on 10th September 2008. Nine days later, an
electrical connector between two of the accelerator's
helium-cooled superconducting magnets failed under
test. This resulted in a rapid release of helium gas,
which caused extensive damage. The accelerator was
shut down for remedial work, and not restarted until
20th November 2009. The first period of operation
for physics studies was March 2010 to February 2013,
with proton collisions at energies of 7 TeV and 8 TeV.

measurements
and their uncertainty

Mass of W boson (GeV)

80.45
ranges of values
for the mass, mH, of the
Higgs boson

80.4

10
9
160

165

170

175

180

185

190

One strategy is to consider decays of the Higgs

boson where all of the particles from the decay
can be measured. This is the case for decays to two
photons and to two Z bosons. In the latter case, the
Z bosons can each decay to a charged lepton and
its anti-particle, and it is these that are detected.
Measurements of the energy and direction of the
particles from the decay allow reconstruction of the
mass of the original particle. In a search, particles
consistent with the signal decay are selected, but
may actually come from a background process.
The plot of reconstructed masses typically has a
smooth shape for the background, with a bump
corresponding to the signal, if present.

195

The Standard Model also allowed

calculations of how a Higgs boson would
decay, depending on its mass. As a result
of quantum effects, a decay is possible
into short-lived particles that nominally
have a greater mass than their parent.
For example, a Higgs boson of 125 GeV
can decay to two Z bosons, each of
which has a nominal mass of 91.2 GeV.
To balance energy in these cases, one of
the particles from the decay must have
a mass lower than its nominal mass.
Such a particle is said to be virtual, and
its symbol is sometimes written with
a star superscript. The example decay
mentioned might then be written as:

10-2

-3

140

160

180

200

H0 Z0 Z0*

Signal from
Higgs boson decay
to two Z bosons

8
7
6
5
4
3
2

Estimated
background

1
0
100

110

120

130

140

150

Reconstructed mass (GeV)

1500

Result from ATLAS collaboration, July 2012

Experimental
data

Weighted events

Fraction of decays

WW

ZZ

120

Z0*

80.3

gg

100

lepton

11

_
cc

10

anti-lepton

Higgs boson

600 GeV < mH < 1000 GeV

_
bb

Z0

anti-lepton

Results from CDF collaboration

lepton

115 GeV < mH < 127 GeV

Mass of top quark (GeV)

10-1

80.35

155

Events

The mass of the Higgs boson

can't be directly calculated in the
Standard Model, but can be linked to
other quantities. By early 2012,
it had been significantly constrained
by measurements of the masses
of the top quark and W boson.
These were consistent with the
Higgs boson having a mass in the
range 115 GeV to 127 GeV, and were
incompatible with higher values.

Higgs boson

Particle collisions are often referred to as events.

A direct search for a Higgs boson aims to select
events with a Higgs boson (signal) and to reject those
without (background). This is a significant challenge.
Fewer than 1 event in every 1,000,000,000 is a signal
event, and signal and background can have similar
characteristics.

80.5

Before the discovery

_
t

Signal from
Higgs boson decay
to two photons

1000

500
Estimated
background

110

120

130

140

Mass of Higgs boson (GeV)

Reconstructed mass (GeV)

Results from LHC Higgs Cross Section Working Group

Result from CMS collaboration, July 2012

150

Results from ATLAS and CMS, on 4th July 2012, showed

bumps in the distributions of masses reconstructed
from two photons and two Z bosons. These indicated
the existence of a previously undetected particle,
with a mass of about 125 GeV. The fact that the new
particle decayed into bosons meant that it must itself
be a boson. The measured mass was in the allowed
range for the Higgs boson, from the constraints of the
Standard Model.

Decays

Measured properties of
the Higgs boson have
been found to agree
with expectations from
the Standard Model.

Since the discovery of the Higgs boson, many more events have been
collected and analysed in the ATLAS and CMS experiments. This has
increased the signals for decays to two photons and to two Z bosons. It
has also allowed observation of other decays: to two W bosons, to two
bottom quarks, and to two tau leptons. The rates at which the different
decays occur have been measured. Within large uncertainties, they agree
with the rates predicted by the Standard Model.

CMS

_
b

ATLAS

H0

H0

Expected from
Standard Model

100

50
Uncertainty in
background subtraction

0.1

0.2

Higgs decay to two W bosons

H0

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

International Linear Collider

The International Linear Collider has been proposed for
colliding electrons and positrons at energies from
0.25 TeV to 1 TeV. Collisions of this type, between
elementary particles, are simpler to analyse than collisions
between composite particles, such as protons. In this sense,
they produce better data for precision measurements.
Decay rates of the Higgs boson could potentially be
measured with an accuracy at the per-cent level.
If approved, construction of the International Linear
Collider could be completed for the late 2020s. The
machine would then have an operational life of twenty to
thirty years.

Main linear accelerator

for positrons

Damping Rings

W*

Main linear accelerator

for electrons
Higgs decay to two Z bosons

Z0

H0

Z*0
lds

0 fie

31 k

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

31
th =

leng

2.0

measured rate / rate expected from Standard Model

Preliminary results from the ATLAS and CMS experiments, 2014

Improving measurements

The upgraded Large Hadron Collider should allow rates

for different decays of the Higgs boson to be measured to
better than 10%.

0.3

Modulus of cosine of photon emission angle

A drawback of higher luminosity is that it means more

collisions for every beam crossing. Work is in progress on
detector improvements to cope with the more challenging
environment, and ensure high-quality data.

Measurement

150

A series of upgrades is planned for the Large Hadron

Collider, defining a rich physics programme up to the
early 2030s. The upgrades will raise the energy of proton
collisions to 14 TeV, and will allow higher luminosity. The
result will be to increase the rate at which Higgs bosons
are produced, giving more data.

Higgs decay to two photons

200

Upgrades to
the Large Hadron Collider

Higgs decay to two tau leptons

If a particle decays, the way in

which it spins affects the angular
distribution of the emitted
particles. Measurements have
been made of emission angles
for photons from decays of Higgs
bosons. The resulting distribution
has large uncertainties, but
is consistent with a decaying
particle that has zero spin. This is
as expected for the Higgs boson in
the Standard Model.

Measurements of the Higgs boson are consistent with

the Standard Model, but suffer from large uncertainties.
Fuller understanding of the observed Higgs boson
requires measurements of higher precision. These require
collection of more, and better, data.

Higgs decay to two bottom quarks

0

250

Events

Measuring the
Higgs boson

Spin

not

cale

to s

ILC / form one

Beyond the
Standard
Model

Dark matter
and dark energy

rotational velocity

The Standard Model

successfully describes a
wealth of experimental data,
but seems to explain only
5% of the Universe.

Stars in a galaxy move in orbits about the galactic centre. Orbital

speeds measured for stars further from a galaxy's centre tend to
be higher than calculated from the distribution of visible matter.
The most widely accepted explanation is that the galaxy contains
unseen matter, which contributes to the gravitational pull. This
additional matter is called dark matter unlike matter made of
atoms, it doesn't absorb or emit light.

The mass of the Higgs boson

measured

On short timescales, an elementary particle can emit and

reabsorb other particles. A neutral elementary particle
can also convert temporarily to a charged particle and its
anti-particle. The energy associated with such processes
contributes to a particle's total energy, and is known as
self-energy. This may be negative (energy lost) or positive
(energy gained). A particle's measured mass can then be
regarded as the sum of a bare mass and a self-energy.

calcul
ated

distance from centre

125 GeV
me

asu
ma red
ss

Contributions to the self-energy from conversion and

emission processes down to a chosen distance can be
calculated in the Standard Model. The bare mass can be
deduced as the difference between the measured mass
and the self-energy.

0.511 MeV

0.469 MeV

measured
mass

bare
mass

The Standard Model fails below about 10-33 m, where

gravity needs to be taken into account. Down to this
distance, most particles have self-energies that are small.
The exception is the Higgs boson, where the calculated
self-energy is large and negative. The implied bare mass
is around 1019 GeV, compared with the measured mass
of about 125 GeV. Although technically possible, the
enormous difference between bare mass and measured
mass for the Higgs boson is considered suspect.

1019 GeV
bar
e
ma
ss

HIGGS BOSON

Astronomical observations indicate that the Universe

is expanding, at a rate that's increasing with time. The
undetected energy that drives this accelerating expansion
is given the name of dark energy. It's thought to be thinly
spread throughout the Universe.

ELECTRON

4.9%
Matter
made of
atoms

This difference is referred to as the hierarchy problem

or fine-tuning problem.

Several possibilities for eliminating the fine-tuning problem are being

investigated by the ATLAS and CMS experiments.

SUPERSYMMETRY
Supersymmetry introduces a fermion partner for each boson of the
Standard Model, and a boson partner for each fermion. The Higgs self-energy
contributions from a Standard Model particle and its supersymmetry partner
would tend to cancel out. The bare mass would then become similar to the
measured mass.
_
_
~
t
t
H0

H0

H0

~
t

~0

A Higgs boson that is a bound state

of two fermions would have a certain
size. This would define a lower limit for
evaluating self-energy contributions,
potentially reducing the bare mass.

the future

The different possibilities aren't

mutually exclusive, and each can lead
to a variety of different models.

ue

s fr
om

is
P la n ck m

sio

The Standard Model provides no explanation of either dark

matter or dark energy.
the present

Dark matter could be accounted for by new types of particle.

These would need to have non-zero mass, to be stable,
and to interact only weakly with the particles of the
Standard Model.

EXTRA DIMENSIONS
The mass of the Higgs boson could
be distributed over more spatial
dimensions than the three experienced
in everyday life. The measured mass
would then be only a fraction of the
true mass, which could be close to the
bare mass.

68.3%
Dark
energy

Space-based
surveys are able
to measure the
energy and matter
content of the
Universe.
Va
l

COMPOSITE HIGGS

H0

26.8%
Dark matter

the past

One suggestion is that dark matter interacts with the Higgs

boson to gain mass, but otherwise has no Standard-Model
interactions. Dark-matter particles would then exist in
relative isolation from the particles of the Standard Model.
Models based on this idea are known as hidden-valley
models or as Higgs-portal models.
Another suggestion is that dark matter is made from the
lowest-mass supersymmetry particles.

Lifelong
particle-physics
devotee

Being a
particle physicist

Groups from eighteen UK institutes are involved

in experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
Their work is mostly funded by the Science and
Technology Facilities Council. Additional support
comes from organisations such as the Royal
Society and the European Research Council, and
from industrial partnerships.

A standard route to
working in experimental
particle physics is
undergraduate study
in physics, followed by
a doctorate in particle
physics. At undergraduate
level, students take lecture
courses in particle physics,
and may carry out related
literature reviews and
projects.

My research involves analysing the many protonproton collisions recorded by the ATLAS experiment,
to understand the properties of the Higgs boson.

The best bit

Every day is different, and the variety of the work is

one of the aspects that I enjoy most.

How I became interested in particle physics

People who train as particle

physicists develop specialist and
general skills that make them
highly sought after. Some spend
their working lives in particlephysics research, some combine
research with consultancy work,
some decide to change career.
Particle physicists have gone on to
work in areas as varied as fashion,
big-data analytics, asset finance,
publishing, and Formula-1 racing.

First employment in particle physics,

in the UK or another country, is usually on a
fixed-term contract, of one to three years.
This will be either at a University, or
at a national or international research
laboratory. Some contracts are linked to
research fellowships, which can include
funding for equipment and travel.

My interest in particle physics began when I heard a

talk by Frank Close at the Hay Festival, many years ago.
I found it amazing how much it was possible to learn
about physics on such an unimaginably small scale.

Alternative career

If I weren't able to be a physicist, I'd like a job

that involved football although I was never good
enough to actually be a footballer!

Julie Kirk
Research Physicist,
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
What I do

Fixed-term contracts
or permanent position

First job
University or
research laboratory

Undergratuate
dregree

Subsequent employment may be

through further fixed-term contracts,
or through a permanent position.
Permanent University positions usually
combine teaching and research, with
possible progression from Lecturer to
Reader to Professor.

Non-physics
background
At doctoral level, students
receive a through
grounding in all aspects of
particle physics. They then
specialise in one technical
area for example
detectors, electronics,
or computing and also
undertake a physics study.

As well as the standard route, people also

come to work in particle physics after
University study in a variety of other
subjects. These include engineering,
computer science, and mathematics.

Michaela
Queitsch-Maitland
PhD Student, Particle Physics Group,
University of Manchester
What I do

I work on the ATLAS experiment, studying

Higgs decays to two photons. In a typical day,
I write computer code, chat with colleagues,
drink coffee, attend meetings, write more
code, stare at numbers that don't make sense,
drink more coffee, make colourful plots, and
generally try to understand physics.

Fitting in a social life

In the ATLAS experiment, we only have resources

to record and analyse a few hundred of the tens
of millions of particle collisions that occur each
second. I work on the electronics that decides which
collisions to keep. Once a collision is discarded it's
lost forever, so we need to be very sure that we're
keeping the right ones!

Fitting in a social life

DPhil or PhD

CAREER PATH

PhD Student, Particle Physics Group,

University of Birmingham
What I do

Other
careers

UK researchers on the ATLAS

and CMS experiments make key
contributons to studies of the
Higgs boson and beyond.

Richard Mudd

Working at CERN had a big effect on my family life, as

I met my husband there. I'm now based in the United
Kingdom, and work part-time, so that I can devote
time to both work and family.

Useful skill from particle physics

Perseverance particle physicists will always keep

going until they solve a problem.

Alternative career

As a child, I always wanted to be an astronaut.

When you work on an experiment at CERN,

most of your friends tend to be physicists.
This is far from a bad thing but it can lead
to some very geeky conversations in the pub!

How I became interested in

particle physics

As an undergraduate, I took part in the CERN

Summer Student Programme. This was the
start of a serious interest in particle physics,
and convinced me to do a PhD in the subject.

Advice to younger self

Stop procrastinating, and leaving everything

to the last minute!

Curious fact

I have a black belt in karate.

Rebecca Lane

Monica Vazquez Acosta

Carl Gwilliam

PhD Student, High Energy Physics Group,

Imperial College London

Research Associate, High Energy

Physics Group, Imperial College London

Research Associate, Particle Physics Group,

University of Liverpool

What I do

What I do

I work on the CMS experiment, searching for Higgs

decays to two tau leptons. My work is entirely
computer based, and relies heavily on efficient
programming.

The best bit

Seeing results that I've produced pop up in journal

articles, talks, and posters is very nice!

What friends and family think about my work

Awe at the fact that I work at CERN, complete
incomprehension about what I actually do.

Making school physics more appealing to girls

There is a clear stereotype that needs to be broken.

I think that it can help if female scientists make
themselves accessible to school students, by visiting
schools and helping with outreach activities.

Where I started

I studied for my undergraduate degree at the

University of Oxford. I was drawn to the place itself
more than anything, with its interesting traditions
and history.

I work on the CMS experiment, searching for

Higgs decays to tau leptons.

Memorable experience

One of the most exciting moments in my

career was when the first proton beams were
injected into the Large Hadron Collider. After
years of preparation, this was the start of a
new era in particle physics.

Where I started

I studied theoretical physics at the

Universidad Autnoma de Madrid. After
graduating, I pursued a career in experimental
high-energy physics, as I was interested in
testing theories that I'd learned as a student.

What I do

Christos Anastopoulos

What family and friends think about my work

Research Fellow, Particle Physics

and Particle Astrophysics Group,
University of Sheffield

I work on the ATLAS experiment, searching for a Higgs

decay that, so far, hasn't been seen.
The strangest reaction that I've ever had is: "Physicist
do you put the bubbles in Fizzy drinks?"

How I became interested in particle physics

My interest in physics was driven by a great teacher. I

remember him explaining radioactive decay with M&M
sweets. We did an A-level module on particle physics, and
I was captivated by the thought of looking into the very
building blocks of nature.

Curious fact

I come from the Canary Islands, where we

have two world-leading observatories.

Long meetings.

Elisabetta Pianori
Research Fellow, Elementary Particle
Physics Group, University of Warwick
What I do

Alan Barr

I work on the real-time selection of interesting

collisions in the ATLAS experiment, and on studies
of the Higgs boson. Every day is different. Some days
I'm needed at the experiment control room; some
days are filled with meetings; some days I work by
myself in my office, trying to solve problems!

Associate Professor of Experimental Particle Physics, University of Oxford

The best bit

What I do

What I love most is the people. Knowing and

learning is great, but it's even better when done
together.

My group and I are hunting for tell-tale signs that particles of dark matter are being
produced in the ATLAS experiment. We haven't found them yet, but theres still a lot
more work to do.

The best bit

I love that so many people find our research to be such an inspiration.

Funny experience

When the Large Hadron Collider was about to be turned on, some members of the
public were worried that it was going to create black holes, with catastrophic results.
Reassurances that I gave in an interview to the Oxford Times resulted in the
front-page headline: "Dr Doomsday promises not to destroy the Earth!"

The best bit

Interacting with interesting, clever people.

The worst bit

Alternative career

I'm interested in advanced radiotherapy

techniques for cancer treatment.

What I do

I work on the ATLAS experiment, where

I'm searching for Higgs decays to two Z0
bosons. I spend a lot of time with research
students, discussing their results, and
planning analysis strategies.

The worst bit

Also the people! Trying to get hundreds of physicists

to work together is very hard. We each tend to have
strong opinions.

Useful skills from particle physics

I've developed strong analytical skills, and a creative

approach to problem solving.

What family and friends think about

my work
They're very interested in knowing more
about both the human and scientific
aspects.

Fitting in a social life

Sometimes it's hard to balance my social

life against the excitement of searching
for new physics. This gets easier with
experience.

Making school physics more

appealing

For both boys and girls, we need to make

the subject exciting. Outreach activities are
very important in this respect.

Advice to younger self

Relax, work and things will be fine.

Curious fact

I drink a lot of coffee, at every possible time

of the day.

the-higgs-boson-and-beyond.org