CHAPTER 1

1.0.

INTRODUCTION
A moving train contains energy, known as kinetic energy, which needs to be removed from the train in

order to cause it to stop. The simplest way of doing this is to convert the energy into heat. The conversion is
usually done by applying a contact material to the rotating wheels or to discs attached to the axles. The material
creates friction and converts the kinetic energy into heat. The wheels slow down and eventually the train stops.
The material used for braking is normally in the form of a block or pad.
Imagine a vehicle that is a mile in length. It is so long that the front of the vehicle might be climbing a
grade while the back is descending, or perhaps the front and back are turning left while the middle is turning
right. This same vehicle is more than 300 times as long as it is wide. Next, imagine that it weighs more than 8
million pounds (3,700,000kg) or 4000 tons. Onboard the vehicle are televisions, foodstuffs and hazardous
material. Now visualize the vehicle is traveling at 70 MPH and the operator wants to stop.
This is a complex and challenging problem, but a situation that occurs thousands of times every day. The
vehicle of course is a typical freight train. This short paper will introduce the reader to the principles of how
train brakes accomplish this remarkable task.
Each power unit (locomotive) has an air compressor that supplies air for the entire trains braking system.
The brake pipe carries the compressed air from the control unit to the rest of the train. Unlike truck brakes (and
passenger train brakes for that matter ) this single source of air carries both the air that powers the brakes as
well as the signal control them.

CHAPTER 2
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES
A brake is a device that decelerates a moving object such as a machine or vehicle by converting its
kinetic energy into another form of energy, or a device which prevents an object from accelerating.
Most commonly brakes use friction convert kinetic energy into heat, but in regenerative braking much
of the energy is converted instead into useful electrical energy or potential energy in a form such as pressurized
air, oil, or a rotation flywheel.

2.1

Air Brake System

The vast majority of the world's trains are equipped with braking systems which use compressed air as

the force to push blocks onto wheels or pads on to discs. These systems are known as "air brakes" or
"pneumatic brakes". The compressed air is transmitted along the train through a "brake pipe". Changing the
level of air pressure in the pipe causes a change in the state of the brake on each vehicle. It can apply the brake,
release it or hold it "on" after a partial application. The system is in widespread use throughout the world.
In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air pushes on a piston in a
cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels,
using the resulting friction to slow the train. The mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly
distributes force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels.
The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent from car to car by a train
line made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses between cars. The principal problem with the straight air
braking system is that any separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss of
the force applying the brakes. This deficiency could easily cause a runaway train. Straight air brakes are still
used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit system, usually with each bogie (truck) having its own circuit.

Comparison of air brakes and vacuum brakes

Parameter Air Brakes

Vacuum Brakes

Principle

The compressed air is used for obtaining The vacuum brake system derives its

of working

brake application. The brake pipe and brake force from the atmospheric
feed pipe run throughout the length of pressure acting on the lower side of
the coach. Brake pipe and feed pipe on the piston in the vacuum brake
consecutive coaches in the train are cylinder while a vacuum is maintained
coupled to one another by means of above the piston. The train pipe runs
respective hose couplings to form a throughout the length of the coach and
continuous

air

passage

from

the connected with consecutive coaches

locomotive to the rear end of the train. by hose coupling. The vacuum is
The compressed air is supplied to the created in the train pipe and the
brake pipe and feed pipe from the vacuum cylinder by the ejector or
locomotive. The magnitude of braking exhauster mounted on the locomotive.
force increases in steps with the
corresponding reduction in brake pipe
pressure and vice-versa.

In order to design a system without the shortcomings of the straight air system, Westinghouse invented a
system wherein each piece of railroad rolling stock was equipped with an air reservoir and a triple valve, also
known as a control valve.

The triple valve is often described as being so named because it performs three functions, but this is a
widespread myth, as the triple valve simply performs two functions: it applies the brakes and releases them. In
so doing, it supports certain other actions (i.e. it 'holds' or maintains the application and it permits the exhaust of
brake cylinder pressure and the recharging of the reservoir during the release). In his patent application,
Westinghouse refers to his 'triple-valve device' because of the three component valvular parts comprising it: the
diaphragm-operated poppet valve feeding reservoir air to the brake cylinder, the reservoir charging valve, and
the brake cylinder release valve. When he soon improved the device by removing the poppet valve action, these
three components became the piston valve, the slide valve, and the graduating valve.

If the pressure in the train line is lower than that of the reservoir, the brake cylinder exhaust portal is
closed and air from the car's reservoir is fed into the brake cylinder to apply the brakes. This action
continues until equilibrium between the brake pipe pressure and reservoir pressure is achieved. At that
point, the airflow from the reservoir to the brake cylinder is lapped off and the cylinder is maintained at
a constant pressure.
If the pressure in the train line is higher than that of the reservoir, the triple valve connects the train line

to the reservoir feed, causing the air pressure in the reservoir to increase. The triple valve also causes the brake
cylinder to be exhausted to atmosphere, releasing the brakes.

As the pressure in the train line and that of the reservoir equalize, the triple valve closes, causing the air
pressure in the reservoir and brake cylinder to be maintained at the current level.

Unlike the straight air system, the Westinghouse system uses a reduction in air pressure in the train line to
apply the brakes. When the engineer (driver) applies the brake by operating the locomotive brake valve, the
train line vents to atmosphere at a controlled rate, reducing the train line pressure and in turn triggering the
triple valve on each car to feed air into its brake cylinder. When the engineer releases the brake, the locomotive
brake valve portal to atmosphere is closed, allowing the train line to be recharged by the compressor of the
locomotive. The subsequent increase of train line pressure causes the triple valves on each car to discharge the
contents of the brake cylinder to atmosphere, releasing the brakes and recharging the reservoirs.
Under the Westinghouse system, therefore, brakes are applied by reducing train line pressure and released
by increasing train line pressure. The Westinghouse system is thus fail safeany failure in the train line,
including a separation ("break-in-two") of the train, will cause a loss of train line pressure, causing the brakes to
be applied and bringing the train to a stop.
Modern air brake systems are in effect two braking systems combined:

The Service Brake system, which applies and releases the brakes during normal operations, and

The Emergency Brake system, which applies the brakes rapidly in the event of a brake pipe failure or
an emergency application by the engineer.

When the train brakes are applied during normal operations, the engineer makes a "service application" or a
"service rate reduction, which means that the train line pressure reduces at a controlled rate. It takes several
seconds for the train line pressure to reduce and consequently takes several seconds for the brakes to apply
throughout the train. In the event the train needs to make an emergency stop, the engineer can make an
"emergency application," which immediately and rapidly vents all of the train line pressure to atmosphere,
resulting in a rapid application of the train's brakes. An emergency application also results when the train line
comes apart or otherwise fails, as all air will also be immediately vented to atmosphere.
In addition, an emergency application brings in an additional component of each car's air brake system: the
emergency portion. The triple valve is divided into two portions: the service portion, which contains the
mechanism used during brake applications made during service reductions, and the emergency portion, which
senses the immediate, rapid release of train line pressure. In addition, each car's air brake reservoir is divided
into two portionsthe service portion and the emergency portionand is known as the "dual-compartment

reservoir. Normal service applications transfer air pressure from the service portion to the brake cylinder,
while emergency applications cause the triple valve to direct all air in both the service portion and the
emergency portion of the dual-compartment reservoir to the brake cylinder, resulting in a 2030% stronger
application.
The emergency portion of each triple valve is activated by the extremely rapid rate of reduction of train line
pressure. Due to the length of trains and the small diameter of the train line, the rate of reduction is high near the
front of the train (in the case of an engineer-initiated emergency application) or near the break in the train line
(in the case of the train line coming apart). Farther away from the source of the emergency application, the rate
of reduction can be reduced to the point where triple valves will not detect the application as an emergency
reduction. To prevent this, each triple valve's emergency portion contains an auxiliary vent port, which, when
activated by an emergency application, also locally vents the train line's pressure directly to atmosphere. This
serves to propagate the emergency application rapidly along the entire length of the train.
The diagram below shows the principal parts of the air brake system and these are described below

2.2.1 Compressor
It is the pump which draws air from atmosphere and compresses it for use on the train. Its principal use
is for the air brake system, although compressed air has a number of other uses on trains. See Auxiliary
Equipment.
2.2.2 Main Reservoir
It is a storage tank for compressed air for braking and other pneumatic systems.
2.2.3 Driver's Brake Valve
It is the means by which the driver controls the brake. The brake valve will have (at least) the following
positions: "Release", "Running", "Lap" and "Application" and "Emergency". There may also be a "Shut
Down" position, which locks the valve out of use.
The "Release" position connects the main reservoir to the brake pipe. This raises the air pressure in the
brake pipe as quickly as possible to get a rapid release after the driver gets the signal to start the train.
In the "Running" position, the feed valve is selected. This allows a slow feed to be maintained into the
brake pipe to counteract any small leaks or losses in the brake pipe, connections and hoses.
"Lap" is used to shut off the connection between the main reservoir and the brake pipe and to close off
the connection to atmosphere after a brake application has been made. It can only be used to provide a partial
application. A partial release is not possible with the common forms of air brake, particularly those used on US
freight trains.
"Application" closes off the connection from the main reservoir and opens the brake pipe to
atmosphere. The brake pipe pressure is reduced as air escapes. The driver (and any observer in the know) can
often hear the air escaping.
Most driver's brake valves are fitted with an "Emergency" position. Its operation is the same as the
"Application" position, except that the opening to atmosphere is larger to give a quicker application.
2.2.4 Feed Valve
To ensure that brake pipe pressure remains at the required level, a feed valve is connected between the
main reservoir and the brake pipe when the "Running" position is selected. This valve is set to a specific

operating pressure. Different railways use different pressures but they generally range between 65 and 90 psi
(4.5 to 6.2 bar).
2.2.5 Equalizing Reservoir
This is a small pilot reservoir used to help the driver select the right pressure in the brake pipe when
making an application. When an application is made, moving the brake valve handle to the application position
does not discharge the brake pipe directly, it lets air out of the equalizing reservoir. The equalizing reservoir is
connected to a relay valve (called the "equalizing discharge valve" and not shown in my diagram) which detects
the drop in pressure and automatically lets air escape from the brake pipe until the pressure in the pipe is the
same as that in the equalizing reservoir.
The equalizing reservoir overcomes the difficulties which can result from a long brake pipe. A long
pipe will mean that small changes in pressure selected by the driver to get a low rate of braking will not be seen
on his gauge until the change in pressure has stabilized along the whole train. The equalizing reservoir and
associated relay valve allows the driver to select a brake pipe pressure without having to wait for the actual
pressure to settle down along a long brake pipe before he gets an accurate reading.
2.2.6 Brake Pipe
The pipe running the length of the train, which transmits the variations in pressure required to control the
brake on each vehicle. It is connected between vehicles by flexible hoses, which can be uncoupled to allow
vehicles to be separated. The use of the air system makes the brake "fail safe", i.e. loss of air in the brake pipe
will cause the brake to apply. Brake pipe pressure loss can be through a number of causes as follows:

A controlled reduction of pressure by the driver

A rapid reduction by the driver using the emergency position on his brake valve

A rapid reduction by the conductor (guard) who has an emergency valve at his position

A rapid reduction by passengers (on some railways) using an emergency system to open a valve

A rapid reduction through a burst pipe or hose

A rapid reduction when the hoses part as a result of the train becoming parted or derailed.

2.2.7 Angle Cocks

At the ends of each vehicle, "angle cocks" are provided to allow the ends of the brake pipe hoses to be
sealed when the vehicle is uncoupled. The cocks prevent the air being lost from the brake pipe.
2.2.8 Coupled Hoses
The brake pipe is carried between adjacent vehicles through flexible hoses. The hoses can be sealed at
the outer ends of the train by closing the angle cocks.
2.2.9 Brake Cylinder
Each vehicle has at least one brake cylinder. Sometimes two or more are provided. The movement of
the piston contained inside the cylinder operates the brakes through links called "rigging". The rigging applies
the blocks to the wheels. Some modern systems use disc brakes. The piston inside the brake cylinder moves in
accordance with the change in air pressure in the cylinder.
2.2.10 Auxiliary reservoir
The operation of the air brake on each vehicle relies on the difference in pressure between one side of
the triple valve piston and the other. In order to ensure there is always a source of air available to operate the
brake, an "auxiliary reservoir" is connected to one side of the piston by way of the triple valve. The flow of air
into and out of the auxiliary reservoir is controlled by the triple valve.
2.2.11 Brake Block
This is the friction material which is pressed against the surface of the wheel tread by the upward
movement of the brake cylinder piston. Often made of cast iron or some composition material, brake blocks are
the main source of wear in the brake system and require regular inspection to see that they are changed when
required.
2.2.12 Brake Rigging
This is the system by which the movement of the brake cylinder piston transmits pressure to the brake
blocks on each wheel. Rigging can often be complex, especially under a passenger car with two blocks to each
wheel, making a total of sixteen. Rigging requires careful adjustment to ensure all the blocks operated from one

cylinder provide an even rate of application to each wheel. If you change one block, you have to check and
adjust at axle.
2.2.13 Triple Valve
The operation of the brake on each vehicle is controlled by the "triple valve", so called because it originally
comprised three valves - a "slide valve", incorporating a "graduating valve" and a "regulating valve". It also has
functions - to release the brake, to apply it and to hold it at the current level of application. The triple valve
contains a slide valve which detects changes in the brake pipe pressure and rearranges the connections inside
the valve accordingly. It either:

recharges the auxiliary reservoir and opens the brake cylinder exhaust,

closes the brake cylinder exhaust and allows the auxiliary reservoir air to feed into the brake cylinder or

holds the air pressures in the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder at the current level

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:

,

In Air brake system compressed air is used for operating the brake system, the locomotive

compressor charges continuously the feed pipe and brake pipe throughout the length of the train. The feed pipe
is connected to the auxiliary reservoir and the brake pipe is connected to the brake cylinder through the
distributor valve. Brake application takes place by dropping the air pressure in the brake pipe. Brake releasing
by recharging brake pipe pressure to the required valve (5kg/cm2) through the driver valve.

2.4 Principles of operation of air brake system:

2.4.1 Charging Brake System:
Brake pipe throughout the length of train is charged with compressed air at 5 kg/cm2.
Feed pipe throughout the length of the train is charged with compressed air at 6kg/cm2.
Control reservoir is charged to 5 kg/cm2.
Auxiliary reservoir is charged to 6kg/cm2.

2.4.2 Brake Application Stage:

For brake application the brake pipe pressure is dropped by venting air from the drivers brake valve.
Subsequently the following actions take place.
The control reservoir is disconnected from brake pipe due to pressure difference in brake pipe and
control reservoir.
The distributor valve connects the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder and the brake piston is
pushed outwards for application of brakes.
The auxiliary reservoir is however continuously charged from feed pipe at 6kg/cm2.

2.4.3 Brake release Stage:

Brakes are released by recharging brake pipe to 5 kg/cm2 pressure through the drivers brake valve.
The distributor valve isolates the brake cylinder from the auxiliary reservoir.
The brake cylinder pressure is vented to atmosphere through distributor valve and brake cylinder
piston moves inwards.
There are five positions in brake application. The reduction in brake pipe for each stage as follows:

Position
1. Release Position

Reduction in brake pipe pressure

Full brake pipe pressure is maintained, no
Reduction in brake pipe pressure.

2. Minimum reduction brake

0.5 to 0.8 kg/cm2

Application position
3. Over reduction brake

0.8 to 1.0 kg/cm2

application position.
4. Full service brake

1.0 to 1.5 kg/cm2

application position.
5. Emergency brake
application position.

Brake pipe is fully exhausted and its

pressure reduces to almost zero.

2.5 Operation on Each Vehicle

2.5.1. Brake Release
The driver has placed the brake valve in the "Release" position. Pressure in the brake pipe is rising and
enters the triple valve on each car, pushing the slide valve provided inside the triple valve to the left. The
movement of the slide valve allows a "feed groove" above it to open between the brake pipe and the auxiliary
reservoir, and another connection below it to open between the brake cylinder and an exhaust port. The feed
groove allows brake pipe air pressure to enter the auxiliary reservoir and it will recharge it until its pressure is
the same as that in the brake pipe. At the same time, the connection at the bottom of the slide valve will allow
any air pressure in the brake cylinder to escape through the exhaust port to atmosphere. As the air escapes, the
spring in the cylinder will push the piston back and cause the brake blocks to be removed from contact with the
wheels. The train brakes are now released and the auxiliary reservoirs are being replenished ready for another
brake application.

2.5.2 Brake Application

The driver has placed the brake valve in the "Application" position. This causes air pressure in the brake
pipe to escape. The loss of pressure is detected by the slide valve in the triple valve. Because the pressure on
one side (the brake pipe side) of the valve has fallen, the auxiliary reservoir pressure on the other side has
pushed the valve (towards the right) so that the feed groove over the valve is closed. The connection between
the brake cylinder and the exhaust underneath the slide valve has also been closed. At the same time a
connection between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake cylinder has been opened. Auxiliary reservoir air now
feeds through into the brake cylinder. The air pressure forces the piston to move against the spring pressure and
causes the brake blocks to be applied to the wheels. Air will continue to pass from the auxiliary reservoir to the
brake cylinder until the pressure in both is equal. This is the maximum pressure the brake cylinder will obtain
and is equivalent to a full application. To get a full application with a reasonable volume of air, the volume of
the brake cylinder is usually about 40% of that of the auxiliary reservoir.
2.5.3 Lap
The purpose of the "Lap" position is to allow the brake rate to be held constant after a partial application has
been made.

When the driver places the brake valve in the "Lap" position while air is escaping from the brake pipe,
the escape is suspended. The brake pipe pressure stops falling. In each triple valve, the suspension of this loss
of brake pipe pressure is detected by the slide valve because the auxiliary pressure on the opposite side
continues to fall while the brake pipe pressure stops falling. The slide valve therefore moves towards the
auxiliary reservoir until the connection to the brake cylinder is closed off. The slide valve is now half-way
between its application and release positions and the air pressures are now is a state of balance between the
auxiliary reservoir and the brake pipe. The brake cylinder is held constant while the port connection in the
triple valve remains closed. The brake is "lapped".
Lap does not work after a release has been initiated. Once the brake valve has been placed in the
"Release" position, the slide valves will all be moved to enable the recharge of the auxiliary reservoirs. Another
application should not be made until sufficient time has been allowed for this recharge. The length of time will
depend on the amount of air used for the previous application and the length of the train.

2.6 Advantages of air brake system:

Air brake system has the following major advantages over vacuum brake system.
Speed of the train increased.
Load of wagon/coach increased.
Shorter braking distance.
Better reliability and safety.
Availability of optimum and uniform brake power.
Compact and easy maintenance.

CHAPTER 3
3.0 DESIGN OF TRAIN BRAKE
Fast expanding industrialization of country needs fast movement of higher freight and passenger.
Railway traffic coupled with safety of men and material. Air brake system plays an important role in running of
trains.
The existing air brake system of Railway coach has the following draw backs due to excessive brake
force on the brake blocks.
Thermal Cracks on wheel tread.
Brake binding.
Reduce life of brake blocks.
AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
The Railway administration introduced highly efficient and reliable air brake system over heavy freight
wagons and coaches. Thus conventional vacuum brake on the rolling stock has been replaced which has several
limitations.

Limitations of vacuum Brake system:

Speed limitations due to longer braking distance.
Brakes releasing time is more.
Limitations on train loads and lengths.
Vacuum in the last vehicle is not maintained as desired.
Lesser braking force generation by brake cylinder.
Higher maintenance cost.

3.2 Standard Designed values:

According to RDSO (Research and Development Standards Organization), Lucknow, the following are
standard designed values for Railway air brake system.
Brake cylinder diameter

: 355.6 mm (14 inches)

Effective piston force of brake cylinder : 3.6 tons.

Number of brake cylinders per coach

:2

Number of brake bogie levers per coach

: 4.

Mechanical efficiency of brake rigging : 0.9.

Brake rigging ratio

: 0.9.

Number of brake blocks per one coach : 16

3.3 Air brake Details:

Mechanical advantage of bogie
Bogie leverage ratio X no. of bogie levers
Mechanical advantage of complete brake system
Mechanical advantage of bogie X Horizontal leverage ratio

 Theoretical brake force.

Mechanical advantage of complete brake system X Effective piston force
X No. of Brake cylinders per coach
Minimum effective brake force
Theoretical brake force X Brake rigging ratio X Mechanical efficiency of brake rigging

CHAPTER 4
4.1 CATIA
There are different modules in CATIA using which different tasks can be performed. The main window
and modules of CATIA shown in figure:

Sketch of the Model:

4.2 OPTIONS USED TO CREATE SOLIDS

Pad - Pad is a method of defining three-dimensional geometry by projecting a two-dimensional section at a
specified distance normal to the sketching plane.
Pocket - Pocket is a method of extruding a profile or a surface and removing the material resulting from the
extrusion
Shaft - The Shaft tool creates a feature by revolving a sketched section around a centerline.
Fillet - A fillet is a curved face of a constant or variable radius that is tangent to, and that joins, two surfaces.
Together, these three surfaces form either an inside corner or an outside corner.

Chamfer - Chamfering consists in removing or adding a flat section from a selected edge to create a beveled
surface between the two original faces common to that edge.
Draft - Drafts are defined on molded parts to make them easier to remove from molds.
Thickness Adds or removes to the faces.
Translation Moving a body.
Mirror - Mirroring a body or a list of features consists in duplicating these elements using symmetry by
selecting a face or plane as reference.
Pattern - To duplicate the whole geometry of one or more features and to position this geometry on a part.
4.3 REFERENCE ELEMENTS:
Reference elements are used as references for constructing the model. They are not geometry features, but they
aid in geometry construction by acting as references for sketching a feature, orienting the model, assembles,
components, and so on. Because of their versatility references are frequently used.
1. Reference plane
2. Reference line
3. Reference points

4.3.1 REFERENCE PLANES:

Datum planes are used as reference to construct feature. Datum planes are considered feature, but they are not
considered model geometry. Datum planes can be created and used as a sketch plane where no suitable exists.
Reference plane options used are: Thru plane, Offset plane, 9ffset coordinate system, Blend section, thru axis,
Thru Point/Vertex, Normal to axis, Tangent to cylinder, Angle to the plane etc.
4.3.2 REFERENCE LINES:
Reference lines are used to create surfaces and other features, or as a sweep trajectories. User sketch reference

line in the same manner as any other features. Sketched curves can consist of one or more sketched segment and
of one or more open or closed loop.
Reference lines option used are: Sketch, Intersection surface, thru point, Form files, Composite, Projected,
Formed, Split, Offset from surface, from curve, from curve, from boundary, Offset curve, Form equation etc.
4.3.3 REFERENCE POINTS: points are used to specify point loads for mesh generation, attach datum targets
and notes in drawings, and create coordinate systems and pipe feature trajectories. User can also place axis,
planes, holes and shafts at a point.
Point options used are: On surface, Offset surface, Curve coordinate surface, on vertex, Offset coordinate
system, three surfaces, at center, on curve, on surface, Offset point etc.

4.4 Model of the Train Brake

4.5 GENERATIVE DRAFTING

Generative Drafting is a new generation product that provides users with powerful functionalities to generate
drawings from 3D parts and assembly definitions.
The Generative Drafting has been designed to show you how to generate drawings of varying levels of
complexity, as well as apply dimensions, annotations and dress-up elements to these drawing.
Start Mechanical Design Drafting
4.5.1 Views
Front View - A front view is a projection view obtained by drawing perpendiculars from all points on the edges
of the part to the plane of projection. The plane of projection upon which the front view is projected is called the
frontal plane.
Projection View Projection views are views conceived to be drawn or projected onto planes known as
projection planes. A transparent plane or pane of glass representing a projection plane is located parallel to the
front surfaces of the part.

Isometric View The Isometric View command enables to create a 2D view with any orientation, this
orientation being the same as the one in the 3D viewer. Among other results, and depending on how the 3D
viewer is oriented when created the view, can obtain a regular X-Y-Z isometric view.
4.5.2 Dimensioning
Generate Dimensions - To generate dimensions in one shot from the constraints of a 3D part. Only the
following constraints can be generated: distance, length, angle, radius and diameter.
Dimensions - To create and modify dimensions. These dimensions will be associative to the elements created
from a part or an assembly. When created, these elements are associated with a view.
Generate Balloons To generate balloons automatically to the components of an assembly which are
previously generated in assembly.
Text - To create a text, with possible line wrapping.
4.5.3 Bill of Material [BOM]
The Bill of Material, or parts list, corresponds to information on the product from which the views were
generated. It consists of an itemized list of the parts of a structure shown on a drawing or on an assembly.

VIEWS OF THE Train Brake

SURFACE OPERATIONS:
The surface operations are: Join Healing, Disassemble, Split, Trim, Boundary, Extract, and Extrapolate.
Join To join surfaces or curves
Healing To join surfaces that have some gap.
Disassemble - To unjoin single surfaces.
Split To cut a curve by using a point, curve, surface and plane. To cut a surface by using a curve or a surface
or a plane.
Trim To cut two surfaces.

CHAPTER 5
5.0 INTRODUCTION TO FEA

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz method
of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration
systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J.
Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection
of complex structures".
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the
aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of computers and
the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an incredible precision. Present day
supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all kinds of parameters.
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific
results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a
proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction.
Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service
condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the
new condition.
There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D modeling.
While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively normal computer, it
tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the
ability to run on all but the fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the
programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or nonlinearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Nonlinear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material all the way to
fracture.
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh is
programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure will react to certain
loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated
stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node
density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of
previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web
in that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what
carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization or
maximization:

Mass, volume, temperature

Strain energy, stress strain

Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration

Synthetic (User defined)

There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some examples are shown:

Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads

Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis

Enforced displacements

Heat flux and convection

Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some sample elements
are:

Rod elements

Beam elements

Plate/Shell/Composite elements

Shear panel

Solid elements

Spring elements

Mass elements

Rigid elements

Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the structure such
as:

Isotropic, identical throughout

Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees

General anisotropic, different throughout

5.1 Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple parameters and
assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of stressing the material past its
elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the amount of deformation as in.
Vibration analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact. Each of these
incidences may act on the natural vibration frequency of the material which, in turn, may cause resonance and
subsequent failure.
Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the effects of
cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack propagation is most likely to
occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance of the material.
Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or structure.
This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermo properties
in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

5.2 Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing problem
areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within. This method of product
design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would accrue if each sample was actually
built

and

tested.

Chapter 6
ANSYS
6.0 INTRODUCTION
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element Analysis is
a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called

elements. The software implements equations that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all;
creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in
tabulated or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system
far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their
geometry, scale, or governing equations.

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department at many
colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics and Chemistry
departments.
ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or processes in a virtual
environment. This type of product development is termed virtual prototyping.

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the product long
before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective
designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users are able to see the effect
of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

6.1 Generic Steps to solving any Problem in ANSYS:

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain, (2) the physical model, (3)
boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then solve the problem and present the results. In
numerical methods, the main difference is an extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the
complex model into small elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below
describes the processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.
6.1.1 Build Geometry
Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be modeled and tested using
the work plane coordinates system within ANSYS.

6.1.2 Define Material Properties

Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that compose the object (or
project) being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.
6.1.3 Generate Mesh
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the modeled system
should be broken down into finite pieces.
6.1.4 Apply Loads
Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with constraints, such as
physical loadings or boundary conditions.
6.1.5 Obtain Solution
This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state (steady state,
transient etc.) the problem must be solved.

6.1.6 Present the Results

After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS results, choose from many
options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots.

6.2 SPECIFIC CAPABALITIES OF ANSYS

6.2.1 Structural

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method as it implies bridges
and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine
housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.

Static Analysis - Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions.
ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity,
stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces, and creep.

Transient Dynamic Analysis - Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying
loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed

Buckling Analysis - Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape. Both
linear (Eigen value) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.

In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available such as Fracture
mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue, and both p-Method and Beam analyses.

6.2.2 Thermal Analysis:

ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with thermal boundary
conditions.
Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads on a system or component. Users
often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a transient thermal analysis, to help establish initial
conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be the last step of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all
transient effects have diminished. ANSYS can be used to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow
rates, and heat fluxes in an object that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads
include the following:

Convection

Radiation

Heat flow rates

Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)

Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)

Constant temperature boundaries

A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties; or nonlinear, with
material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of most material vary with temperature.
This temperature dependency being appreciable, the analysis becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions
also make the analysis nonlinear. Transient calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve
distributions as well as create video for time incremental displays of models.

6.2.3 Modal Analysis

A modal analysis is typically used to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and
mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It can also serve as a starting
point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a harmonic response or full transient dynamic
analysis.
Modal analyses, while being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available in ANSYS, can also
be more computationally time consuming than a typical static analysis. A reduced solver, utilizing
automatically or manually selected master degrees of freedom is used to drastically reduce the problem size and
solution time.

6.2.4 Harmonic Analysis

Used extensively by companies who produce rotating machinery, ANSYS Harmonic analysis is used to
predict the sustained dynamic behavior of structures to consistent cyclic loading. Examples of rotating
machines which produced or are subjected to harmonic loading are:

Turbines
o Gas Turbines for Aircraft and Power Generation
o Steam Turbines
o Wind Turbine
o Water Turbines

Turbo pumps

Internal Combustion engines

Electric motors and generators

Gas and fluid pumps

Disc drives
A harmonic analysis can be used to verify whether or not a machine design will successfully overcome

resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.

CHAPTER 7
THERMAL ANALYSIS OF TRAIN BRAKE

Project
First Saved Wednesday, December 03, 2014

Last Saved Wednesday, December 03, 2014

Product Version
14.0 Release
Save Project Before Solution
No
Save Project After Solution
No

Units
TABLE 1
Unit System Metric (mm, kg, N, s, mV, mA) Degrees rad/s Celsius
Angle
Degrees
Rotational Velocity
rad/s
Temperature
Celsius

Model (B4)
Geometry
TABLE 2
Model (B4) > Geometry
Geometry
Object Name
State
Fully Defined

Definition
Source C:\Users\sanju\Desktop\trainbrake.igs
Type
Iges
Length Unit
Meters
Element Control
Program Controlled
Display Style
Body Color
Bounding Box
Length X
107.01 mm
Length Y
380.08 mm
Length Z
75. mm
Properties
Volume
8.4667e+005 mm
Mass
1.3547 kg
Scale Factor Value
1.
Statistics
Bodies
1
Active Bodies
1
Nodes
80512
Elements
51637
Mesh Metric
None
Basic Geometry Options
Solid Bodies
Yes
Surface Bodies
Yes
Line Bodies
No
Parameters
Yes
Parameter Key
DS
Attributes
No
Named Selections
No
Material Properties
Yes
Advanced Geometry Options
Use Associativity
Yes
Coordinate Systems
No
Reader Mode Saves Updated File
No
Use Instances
Yes
Smart CAD Update
No
Attach File Via Temp File
Yes
Temporary Directory C:\Users\sanju\AppData\Local\Temp
Analysis Type
3-D
Mixed Import Resolution
None
Decompose Disjoint Faces
Yes
Enclosure and Symmetry Processing
Yes
TABLE 3
Model (B4) > Geometry > Parts
Part 1
Object Name
State
Meshed
Graphics Properties
Visible
Yes
Transparency
1
Definition
Suppressed
No
Stiffness Behavior
Flexible

Coordinate System
Reference Temperature

Default Coordinate System

By Environment
Material
Assignment Carbon fibre composite(CF Fabric)
Nonlinear Effects
Yes
Thermal Strain Effects
Yes
Bounding Box
Length X
107.01 mm
Length Y
380.08 mm
Length Z
75. mm
Properties
Volume
8.4667e+005 mm
Mass
1.3547 kg
Centroid X
-262.3 mm
Centroid Y
-1.5701e-014 mm
Centroid Z
-1.7134e-015 mm
Moment of Inertia Ip1
17907 kgmm
Moment of Inertia Ip2
1403.6 kgmm
Moment of Inertia Ip3
18037 kgmm
Statistics
Nodes
80512
Elements
51637
Mesh Metric
None

Coordinate Systems
TABLE 4
Model (B4) > Coordinate Systems > Coordinate System
Object Name Global Coordinate System
State
Fully Defined
Definition
Type
Cartesian
Coordinate System ID
0.
Origin
Origin X
0. mm
Origin Y
0. mm
Origin Z
0. mm
Directional Vectors
X Axis Data
[ 1. 0. 0. ]
Y Axis Data
[ 0. 1. 0. ]
Z Axis Data
[ 0. 0. 1. ]

Mesh
TABLE 5
Model (B4) > Mesh
Object Name
State
Defaults
Physics Preference
Relevance
Sizing

Mesh
Solved
Mechanical
0

Use Advanced Size Function On: Proximity and Curvature

Relevance Center
Fine
Initial Size Seed
Active Assembly
Smoothing
Medium
Transition
Fast
Span Angle Center
Coarse
Curvature Normal Angle
Default (70.3950 )
Proximity Accuracy
0.5
Num Cells Across Gap
Default (3)
Min Size Default (5.8674e-002 mm)
Proximity Min Size Default (5.8674e-002 mm)
Max Face Size
Default (5.86740 mm)
Max Size
Default (11.7350 mm)
Growth Rate
Default (1.850 )
Minimum Edge Length
3.50220 mm
Inflation
Use Automatic Inflation
None
Inflation Option
Smooth Transition
Transition Ratio
0.272
Maximum Layers
5
Growth Rate
1.2
Inflation Algorithm
Pre
View Advanced Options
No
Patch Conforming Options
Triangle Surface Mesher
Program Controlled
Advanced
Shape Checking
Standard Mechanical
Element Midside Nodes
Program Controlled
Straight Sided Elements
No
Number of Retries
0
Extra Retries For Assembly
Yes
Rigid Body Behavior
Dimensionally Reduced
Mesh Morphing
Disabled
Defeaturing
Pinch Tolerance Default (5.2806e-002 mm)
Generate Pinch on Refresh
No
Automatic Mesh Based Defeaturing
On
Defeaturing Tolerance Default (2.9337e-002 mm)
Statistics
Nodes
80512
Elements
51637
Mesh Metric
None
TABLE 6
Model (B4) > Mesh > Mesh Controls
Object Name Patch Conforming Method
State
Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method
Geometry Selection
Geometry
1 Body
Definition
Suppressed
No

Method
Algorithm
Element Midside Nodes

Tetrahedrons
Patch Conforming
Use Global Setting

Steady-State Thermal (B5)

TABLE 7
Model (B4) > Analysis
Object Name Steady-State Thermal (B5)
State
Solved
Definition
Physics Type
Thermal
Analysis Type
Steady-State
Solver Target
Mechanical APDL
Options
Generate Input Only
No
TABLE 8
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Initial Condition
Object Name Initial Temperature
State
Fully Defined
Definition
Initial Temperature Uniform Temperature
Initial Temperature Value
22. C
TABLE 9
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Analysis Settings
Analysis Settings
Object Name
State
Fully Defined
Step Controls
Number Of Steps
1.
Current Step Number
1.
Step End Time
1. s
Auto Time Stepping
Program Controlled
Solver Controls
Solver Type
Program Controlled
Radiosity Controls
Flux Convergence
1.e-004
Maximum Iteration
1000.
Solver Tolerance
0.1
Over Relaxation
0.1
Hemicube Resolution
10.
Nonlinear Controls
Heat Convergence
Program Controlled
Temperature Convergence
Program Controlled
Line Search
Program Controlled
Output Controls
Calculate Thermal Flux
Yes
General Miscellaneous
No
Calculate Results At
All Time Points
Max Number of Result Sets
Program Controlled
Analysis Data Management

Solver Files Directory H:\Sanjeev\PROJECTS\Ansys\Train Brake System_files\dp0\SYS-1\MECH\

Future Analysis
None
Scratch Solver Files Directory
Save MAPDL db
No
Delete Unneeded Files
Yes
Nonlinear Solution
No
Solver Units
Active System
Solver Unit System
nmm
TABLE 10
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Loads
Convection
Object Name Temperature
State
Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method
Geometry Selection
Geometry
1 Face
5 Faces
Definition
Type Temperature
Convection
Magnitude 160. C (ramped)
Suppressed
No
Film Coefficient
2. W/mmC (ramped)
Ambient Temperature
22. C (ramped)
FIGURE 1
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Temperature

FIGURE 2
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Convection

TABLE 11
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Convection
Steps Time [s] Convection Coefficient [W/mmC] Temperature [C]
0.
0.
1
22.
1.
2.

Solution (B6)
TABLE 12
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution
Object Name Solution (B6)
State
Solved
Adaptive Mesh Refinement
Max Refinement Loops
1.
Refinement Depth
2.
Information
Status
Done
TABLE 13
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Solution Information
Object Name Solution Information
State
Solved
Solution Information
Solution Output
Solver Output
Update Interval
2.5 s
Display Points
All
FE Connection Visibility
Activate Visibility
Yes
Display All FE Connectors

Draw Connections Attached To

Line Color
Visible on Results
Line Thickness
Display Type

All Nodes
Connection Type
No
Single
Lines

TABLE 14
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Results
Total Heat Flux
Directional Heat Flux
Object Name Temperature
State
Solved
Scope
Scoping Method
Geometry Selection
Geometry
All Bodies
Definition
Type Temperature
Total Heat Flux
Directional Heat Flux
By
Time
Display Time
Last
Calculate Time History
Yes
Identifier
Suppressed
No
Orientation
X Axis
Coordinate System
Global Coordinate System
Results
Minimum 21.435 C 2.5883e-004 W/mm
-0.61342 W/mm
Maximum
160. C
0.71146 W/mm
0.2897 W/mm
Information
Time
1. s
Load Step
1
Substep
1
Iteration Number
1
Integration Point Results
Display Option
Averaged
FIGURE 3
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Temperature > Figure

FIGURE 4
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Total Heat Flux > Figure

FIGURE 5
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Directional Heat Flux > Figure

Material Data
Carbon fibre composite(CF Fabric)
TABLE 15
Carbon fibre composite(CF Fabric) > Constants
Density
1.6e-006 kg mm^-3
Thermal Conductivity 5.2e-002 W mm^-1 C^-1

Young's
Temperature Modulus X
C
direction
MPa
70000

TABLE 16
Carbon fibre composite(CF Fabric) > Orthotropic Elasticity
Young's
Young's
Shear
Modulus Y Modulus Z Poisson's Poisson's Poisson's
Modulus
direction
direction Ratio XY Ratio YZ Ratio XZ
XY MPa
MPa
MPa
70000
70000
0.1
0.1
0.1
5000

Shear
Modulus
YZ MPa
5000

Shear
Modulus
XZ MPa
5000

TABLE 8
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Initial Condition
Object Name Initial Temperature
State
Fully Defined
Definition
Initial Temperature Uniform Temperature
Initial Temperature Value
22. C
TABLE 9
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Analysis Settings
Analysis Settings
Object Name
State
Fully Defined
Step Controls
Number Of Steps
1.
Current Step Number
1.
Step End Time
1. s
Auto Time Stepping
Program Controlled
Solver Controls
Solver Type
Program Controlled
Radiosity Controls
Flux Convergence
1.e-004
Maximum Iteration
1000.
Solver Tolerance
0.1
Over Relaxation
0.1
Hemicube Resolution
10.
Nonlinear Controls
Heat Convergence
Program Controlled
Temperature Convergence
Program Controlled
Line Search
Program Controlled
Output Controls
Calculate Thermal Flux
Yes
General Miscellaneous
No
Calculate Results At
All Time Points
Max Number of Result Sets
Program Controlled
Analysis Data Management
Solver Files Directory H:\Sanjeev\PROJECTS\Ansys\Train Brake System_files\dp0\SYS-1\MECH\
Future Analysis
None
Scratch Solver Files Directory
Save MAPDL db
No
Delete Unneeded Files
Yes
Nonlinear Solution
No
Solver Units
Active System
Solver Unit System
nmm
TABLE 10
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Loads
Convection
Object Name Temperature
State
Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method
Geometry Selection
Geometry
1 Face
5 Faces
Definition

Type Temperature
Convection
Magnitude 160. C (ramped)
Suppressed
No
Film Coefficient
2. W/mmC (ramped)
Ambient Temperature
22. C (ramped)
FIGURE 1
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Temperature

FIGURE 2
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Convection

TABLE 11
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Convection
Steps Time [s] Convection Coefficient [W/mmC] Temperature [C]
0.
0.
1
22.
1.
2.

Solution (B6)
TABLE 12
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution
Object Name Solution (B6)
State
Solved
Adaptive Mesh Refinement
Max Refinement Loops
1.
Refinement Depth
2.
Information
Status
Done
TABLE 13
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Solution Information
Object Name Solution Information
State
Solved
Solution Information
Solution Output
Solver Output
Update Interval
2.5 s
Display Points
All
FE Connection Visibility
Activate Visibility
Yes
Display All FE Connectors

Draw Connections Attached To

Line Color
Visible on Results
Line Thickness
Display Type

All Nodes
Connection Type
No
Single
Lines

TABLE 14
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Results
Total Heat Flux
Directional Heat Flux
Object Name Temperature
State
Solved
Scope
Scoping Method
Geometry Selection
Geometry
All Bodies
Definition
Type Temperature
Total Heat Flux
Directional Heat Flux
By
Time
Display Time
Last
Calculate Time History
Yes
Identifier
Suppressed
No
Orientation
X Axis
Coordinate System
Global Coordinate System
Results
Minimum 21.41 C 2.5872e-004 W/mm
-0.52571 W/mm
Maximum
160. C
0.61786 W/mm
0.24903 W/mm
Information
Time
1. s
Load Step
1
Substep
1
Iteration Number
1
Integration Point Results
Display Option
Averaged
FIGURE 3
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Temperature > Figure

FIGURE 4
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Total Heat Flux > Figure

FIGURE 5
Model (B4) > Steady-State Thermal (B5) > Solution (B6) > Directional Heat Flux > Figure

Material Data
AISI 1018 mild(Low carbon steel)
TABLE 15
AISI 1018 mild(Low carbon steel) > Constants
Density 7.87e-006 kg mm^-3
Thermal Conductivity 4.5e-002 W mm^-1 C^-1
TABLE 16
AISI 1018 mild(Low carbon steel) > Isotropic Elasticity
Temperature C Young's Modulus MPa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa
2.05e+005
0.29
1.627e+005
79457
TABLE 17
AISI 1018 mild(Low carbon steel) > Tensile Yield Strength
Tensile Yield Strength MPa
370
TABLE 18
AISI 1018 mild(Low carbon steel) > Tensile Ultimate Strength
Tensile Ultimate Strength MPa

440

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
The low carbon steel(1018 mild) produces less temperature difference and heat flux than the CF Fabric(
carbon fibre composite ) material, Hence 1018 mild( Low carbon steel is better than the cast iron and
carbon fibre composites.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Machine Design an integrated approach by Robert L Norton

Machine Design by Shigley

Machine Design by R.S.Khurmi

Page no: 830

Automobile Engineering by Kirpal Singh

Design Data Book

www.machinedesign.com

www.wikipedia.com