| Research & Writing Jaargang 15 - Nummer 3 - 2014

Li Wei

- 2014
Tijdschrift
ummer 3
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Research & Writing

 Lifes like a play: its not the length, but the excellence
of the acting that matters.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD)

Colophon
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Lay-out
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Editorial
Laura Blagoev
Phoebe Ellis-Rees
Floor van der Geest
Florian Lorisch
Bibian Ogier
Jakob Zeijl

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Special thanks to
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Koen Beumer
Iris Fraikin
Riki Janssen
Nicolle Lamerichs
Jim Pedd

s
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7

essay

Where did the time go?

17

essay

Ayn Rand

25

essay

The emergence of Neuroethics

35

essay

Happiness

43

essay

Homophobia within the male world of sports

53

essay

The Educative Violence of Demented Laboratory Rats

A society in constant state of busyness

Floor van der Geest EN

Author of American Right
Phoebe Ellis-Rees EN

Examining the effects of neuroscience on society and morality

Laura Blagoev EN

The new big thing in policy making?

Florian Lorisch EN

Bibian Ogier EN

Jakob Zeijl EN

editorial

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Excellence
The drive and pressure to achieve
academic excellence, is something of
great importance to many students and
Universities. Often, however, this great
pressure for the publication of articles and
therefore higher university rankings can
come at the expense of quality and creativity.
Universities expect greatness, but what
is it when one talks about excellence? This
issue reflects the exceptional complexity
that is academic excellence, as it mirrors
the versatility and creativity which is
necessary to achieve it. The system of
problem-based-learning teaches students
to be independent, yet guided in their
acquisition of knowledge. This edition
bears the fruits of this process of learning.
There is a broad spectrum of topics
represented in this issue, ranging from
cloning of humans, to queer theory. The
interdisciplinary approach to these topics

shows the multitude and richness of the

mindsets of the students, which took
part in this Research and Writing course.
The publication of the students articles
rewards those who have transcended their
academic input beyond what is taught
in the general courses, to express their
thoughts and opinions in an eloquent
and independent manner. Talking about
excellence is more than just the will to
learn. It is not the mere achievement of
outstanding grades implying academic
excellence. It is the hunger for knowledge
acquisition through a critical reflection
upon knowledge which shows a
students true capacity for excellence.
Those students published in this issue
exemplify the will to think outside of
the box, working outside of their normal
academic frameworks to explore the
world of knowledge and understanding.

Retrieved from http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FtvwKBuuIHo/T95oG1b2ycI/AAAAAAAAAbE/rzZCw-M8PME/s1600/time+management.jpg

essay

Where did the

time go?
A society in constant state of busyness
Floor van der Geest
This essay is about one of the most availability of immediate solutions to
powerful inventions of rational logic: problems, are rewarded with the ongoing
time. Although our big clock never lack of time, economic recession and
missed or added a second, these seconds immense rise of burn-outs and stresshave become fuller and seem to feel related complaints? And why are these
shorter. Despite some very clear signs cultural, economical, psychological and
of reaching our limits on an economic physical signs often ignored in favour
and personal level, the accelerating pace of the almost divine statuses of growing
of life, efficiency, immediacy and being economy and very busy person?
increasingly busy still are the main
My aim is to show how the increased
characteristics of our current society and pace of life has hit some important
lifestyle. The widespread The increased pace of life has natural and ethical
acceptation and extensive
boundaries, and by that
hit some important natural
usage of the sentences
how glorifying busyness
I dont have time! and and ethical boundaries.
will only enhance the
Im so busy! tell us something very problems. First, I will elaborate on the
important about our culture. It implies ethical implications of our culture of
that time is something we are or should be immediacy, in which everything is possible
in control of, but instead is controlling us. right now. To make the theories of various
Time pressure as a major social problem authors tangible, I will apply them to two
contains an interesting paradox within the realms of society: education and economy.
context of our history. Because why is it The third and final part will be about the
that ages of hard work in order to make glorification of busyness, which is related
life easier and more efficient through to our changed perception of identity in
technology, economic growth and the a prosperous society of endless choice.

A CULTURE OF IMMEDIACY
The Zeitgeist of modernity was
still characterized by a strong belief in a
utopian future, where rational economic
growth and (technological devices of )
speed and efficiency were means to reach
a leisure-society full of prosperity and
abundance. (Cross, 2005, p. 267) The shift
from this focus on the future to a strong
focus on the now considerably contributes
to the increasing pace of life and the
feeling of busyness, a phenomenon that is
beautifully described by Douglas Rushkoff
in his book Present Shock. This living in
the now is unfortunately not a balanced
state of mindful consciousness, but rather
a distracted present, where we often forget
to live in the world around us because of
all the virtual forces calling for attention.
Instead of finding a stable foothold in
the here and now, we end up reacting to
the ever- present assault of simultaneous
impulses and commands. (Rushkoff,
2013, p.4) Although this presentism
might have saved us from dangerous
ideological fascinations, nevertheless, the
before-mentioned means to reach the
non-existent utopian future have, without
further ethical questioning, become a
hedonistic goal in itself where the final
yield can often be expressed in terms of
money, social status or the immediate
gratification of individual needs.
It is important to realize that our
culture of immediacy is not intrinsically
bad; it opens up a whole range of
possibilities, excitement and immediate
solutions for urgent problems of which
ethical considerations are depending on

the context (Bertman, 1998, pp.191193). In various everyday life-situations

such as medical emergencies, it can be a
life-saving necessity to assign the highest
priority to speed. However, when the need
for immediacy or speed also becomes the
unquestioned norm in contexts where time,
patience and commitment are essential,
it hollows out the value of our ability of
building meaningful relationships, doing
work in such a mindful way that it is
enjoyable, the creation and appreciation
of artistic or intellectual work or just
simply cooking a meal. The German
documentary Speed: Auf der Suche nach
der verlorenen Zeit, showed how a former
business man who started to live in the
Swiss Alps after a burn out, had to learn
how to read again. Due to his hectic job
in which he should only quickly read or
scan a text, he lost the ability of taking the
time to completely read and enjoy a book.
THE EDUCATION-HIGHWAY
Naturally, opinions differ when it
comes to deciding which areas of life
benefit from acceleration and which
do not. For example the current trend
of acceleration, faster throughput
and shortening of study-years within
education does not come out of nowhere,
but is instead based on certain arguments.
Economist Frank Kalshoven, an important
voice within this debate, stated in the
Dutch news magazine Vrij Nederland that
students should study faster and shorter
to outbalance the collective retirement of
the baby-boom generation. This gain in
time would yield hundreds of thousands

Where did the time go?

extra members of the working population. and reproductive students (Nussbaum,

The big problem with Kalshovens 2011, p.34). Giving the diversity of
and other arguments proclaiming faster interests, talents and creativity a chance
education, is the misconception that to develop takes more time than putting
education is only a means to reach students into a monoculture of education
economic growth. This does not only in which only rational capacities are
cause an inflation of diplomas (Robinson, valued. The only purpose of this system
2006), but also turns people of all ages is to lower the costs of education and
into economic goods. The American increase economic growth by taking
philosopher Martha Nussbaum explains students out as quick as possible to put
in her sharp discourse Not For Profit. them into the job market where they are
Why Democracy Needs the Humanities an economically valuable contribution to
how this pressure for economic growth society. This ultimately will turn life into a
has changed the offered curriculum and highway where schools and universities are
pedagogy at schools, and not for the best only fast-food places to quickly fill a hole
(Nussbaum, 2011, p.24). Humanities and which is necessary to get back on the road,
the arts are more and more excised from the which will only increase the appetite for
curriculum in favour of the exact sciences, a truly fulfilling meal. The metaphorical
(computer) technology
traffic jam that this
and business because The misconception that
creates can only be solved
these specializations are education is only a means
if curriculums offer more
stronger generators of to economic growth turns
than exact sciences and if
money in our society, people into economic goods. more alternative routes
but also as a result of
will be taken. This way
saving time and becoming more efficient of educating people might be slower but
with the aim of economic growth also more diverse and personal. Moreover,
(Nussbaum, 2011, p.42). Nussbaum since education should prepare us for a
emphasizes that the latter topics are of future we cannot even grasp or predict, the
course very important within our current destination is not always most important.
information society, but that it are the arts Therefore it is increasingly crucial not to
and humanities teaching us critical (self- rush immediately to the question how we
) reflection, the power of imagination, can reach success as quick as possible,
creativity and empathy. These skills are but focus on the question why we want
essential to become a fully developed to do something in the first place. This
democratic citizen. An educational system should happen without having the
aimed at economic growth is based on a picture of success society has created in
pedagogy and learning model of passive mind as the only true goal to strive for.

THE HAMSTER WHEEL OF

WORKING LIFE
In order to show how the increased
pace of life hits certain natural boundaries,
I will go deeper into something I already
touched upon before: the treatment
of human beings according to their
economic value and contribution under
the unreliable patron of economic growth.
The way in which philosopher Umberto
Galimberti describes the myth of limitless
economic growth shows some striking
similarities with the myth of limitless
acceleration and busyness. We are the
third or fourth generation that is growing
in a pace that has never occurred in history
before, by means that are too complex,
virtual and transcendental to understand
(Galimberti, 2011, p.312). Computers
and logarithms trading in a speed that
goes way beyond the scope of human
imagination run the entire stock market.
Growth has become the norm and a goal
in itself. The why, until when and at
whose expense is not questioned, because
within the boundaries of economy this is
not very relevant, creating a reckless belief
in the infinity of growth. This belief works
as a strong drug not to feel fear but rather
a guarantee for the future, of which the
economic crisis is the cold turkey-effect.
If endless growth becomes a reality out
of which society is organized, based on
spending virtual money in the Now,
ignoring what is happening in the real
world and the consequences for the future,
we are standing on a non-existing floor.
The freefall that we call recession is this
realization that the floor is non-existing.

10

This is important for understanding how

we find false security in ever-rising profits
and are unable to deal with zero growth.
Furthermore it serves as the warning
equivalent of finding personal security
in increasingly busy schedules and the
inability to deal with ourselves when
being alone without obligations or sensory
entertainment, of which the significant rise
of burn-outs and stress-related complaints
is
the
unavoidable
consequence.
Especially in American working life,
people identify with their jobs, successes,
failures and the extent to which they are
important so strong that being busy
and rushed becomes a glorified norm.
The economic crisis and the rise of burnouts are similar natural boundaries to the
process of speeding up. Despite all the
unpleasant consequences, these crises can
also be called a blessing because it enforces
deceleration, rethinking values and what
is really important if our existence is
no longer driven by the foolish idea of
infinite growth and busyness (Galimberti,
2011, p. 313). The rise of zero-growth
theories and the increasingly heard call
for living in a state of mindfulness, are
the embodiment of our attempt to answer
the question what our society is without
an exponentially growing economy
and what we are as individuals without
(economic) functionality and busy
schedules. Just as Nussbaum, Galimberti
pleas for a refusal to sacrifice ones own
existence to the myth of limitless growth
and success, a myth that treats people
only as producers and consumers of
commodities (Galimberti, 2011, p.314).

Where did the time go?

THE GLORIFICATION OF
of what is scarce, which goes hand in
BUSYNESS
hand with a culture of pride and shame
Busyness and stress are more and more characterizing the highly competitive
often seen as something admirable. But collective quest for a successful career.
why exactly are we glorifying something The busier a person is, the more valuable
that is causing us so much negativity is his or her time, which makes being (or
and mental as well as physical health appearing) busy a way of creating a higher
problems? The explanation of this highly status by exhibiting ones importance
curious
phenomenon
and justifying ones place
is very complex and The most intriguing factor in society as a fully
includes
psychological, in the glorification of
contributing
citizen.
economical and societal busyness starts with the
Free time on the other
factors. The fact that the fact that we do not do or hand should be avoided
Russian word for busyness, accomplish so much more because it implies laziness
suyeta, also means vanity than we did before.
and the unwillingness to
(Hadden, 2009, p.9),
(economically) contribute
demonstrates the psychological aspect of and to reach ones full potential (Hadden,
what it means for us to be a busy person. 2009, p.3). These unspoken dogmas often
The American novelist Florence King have the opposite effect of the desired
beautifully summarizes this aspect in productivity because the relaxation,
her column The Misanthropes Corner. spiritual restoration and development that
are necessary for personal motivation and
The American way of stress is comparable joy of life also fall under the forbidden free
to Freuds beloved symptom, his name time, which can turn a career into a hamster
for the cherished neurosis that a patient wheel instead of a fulfilling part of living.
cultivates like the rarest of orchids and
The most intriguing factor in the
does not want to be cured of. Stress makes glorification of busyness starts with the
Americans feel busy, important, and in fact that we do not do or accomplish so
demand, and simultaneously deprived, much more than we did before. Instead,
ignored, and victimized. Stress makes busyness tends to grow together with
them feel interesting and complex instead the growth of affluence within a society
of boring and simple, and carries an (Greenfield, 2005, p.5). Because our
assumption of sensitivity not unlike the daily conditions are characterized by a
Old World assumption that aristocrats continuous state of luxury, there is no
were high-strung. In short, stress has pressing priority of collecting food in
become a status symbol. (King, 2001) order to survive, meaning that there
also is no separation between doing
The economic part of the explanation what needs to be done and a moment of
lies within the principle of appreciation accomplishment and rest afterwards. This

11

causes the experience of every activity as an

external or internal duty that needs to serve
a certain goal. The pressure of working
out to be in shape, reading books and
newspapers to join coffee-conversations,
travelling to be adventurous, having
certain passions and hobbies to tell
about and identify with, following a
course or training to get a raise, giving a
dinner party to impress your friends and
numerous other examples are often heard
stress generators within leisure activities.
Those are activities that should not have a
purpose or external motivation but need
to be enjoyed for the sake of doing them.
LIMITLESS CHOICE
A very large, societal part of the cause
lies in our inability to prioritize, which
makes every single occupation equally
important and all the options of how to
live your life endless (Greenfield, 2005,
p.12). An accomplishment no longer gives
the feeling of closing a door after which
one can finally rest, but rather the feeling
of opening one that leads to an infinite
number of new doors, leaving a very strong
yet unrealistic sense of constant busyness.
This realization of endless choice coincides
with the changes in our perception of
identity. This perception of identity
changed from a social status in which
automatically a certain role was implied,
to a blank page we can fill in ourselves
with a whole range of self-chosen roles.
The extension of the unlimited choice
in obligatory leisure activities is the
unlimited choice in different roles to fill
in ones identity. The nasty troublemaker

12

is our societys expectation to fulfil them

all successfully; after all everything we do
or are is our own choice and therefore
responsibility. This causes the iterative
pressure to be a good parent, colleague,
friend, spouse and sex partner at the
same time. Combining all these roles and
activities in one life while having to appear
cheerful, charming and good-looking,
becomes increasingly problematic to
especially married couples with children
and careers (Greenfield, 2005, pp.11-12).
In theory the ultimate freedom of
simply choosing a purpose in life that
fits ones potential best and achieve it, is
an ideal situation. However, in a society
where identity no longer reflects a fixed
social position with implied roles and
occupations, the questions Who am
I?, Who do I want to be? and What
is my potential? become increasingly
important (Baumeister, 1986, p.171) but
are often ignored in favour of economic
growth and success, whatever that
might be. Identity, because individually
constructed, coincides with status,
which enhances the fear of missing any
opportunity that might fully reflect
ones potential: The real me. This
identity shopping is another exhausting
occupation for our multitasking minds.
The famous sociologist Emile
Durkheim predicted already a long
time ago how the cause of what we call
stress today, lies in unlimited desire.
He even stated that this can make life
unliveable (Greenfield, 2005, p.16).
Or how Liah Greenfield states it:

Where did the time go?

Lifting limits from our desires,

paradoxically, places very heavy burdens
on our shoulders. It is up to us to
decide, which of them, our desires or our
shoulders, we care for more. Most of us,
however, wish to make no decisions: we
want to keep our desires unlimited and
our shoulders unburdened. Therefore,
we complain (Greenfield, 2005, p.23).

good remedy against the fear for standstill

(to stand still is to regress), and can serve
as a highly appreciated aspect of identitybuilding, but treating acceleration and
economic growth as norms leaves us
behind with empty holes that can only be
filled by slowing down and by immersion.
The idea that we should always look
for the fastest way to do something is a
misconception, taking away meaningful,
CONCLUSION
time-consuming parts of life. The fact
What started as discovering the that freedom from busyness threatens the
effects of time pressure and busyness as capitalist system (Cross, 2005, p.275) has
increasingly
problematic
infiltrated our lives and
patterns within myself and The idea that we should
minds in a smaller form.
the people around me, now always look for the fastest This
internalization
has turned into a more way to do something is
of external pressure is
complete scope around it as a misconception, taking
further enhanced by
a multidimensional societal away meaningful, timesocial norms implying
problem. By connecting consuming parts of life.
that busyness means
the dots I have discovered
being
important,
how historical changes and especially special and leading a life that is superior
our economic system has contributed to people who waste their time. Media
to the restless feeling of the individual and technology play a large role in this
that everything we do needs to have a haunting promise of more life per life.
measurable value, and that other activities This promise places a hectic life on top
need to be justified towards the outside of a fulfilled life, an ethical classification
world and oneself. Busyness surely is a that is worth to consider revising.

13

Reference List:
Baumeister, R.F. (1986). Identity: Cultural change and the struggle for self. New York: Oxford
University Press. | Bertman, S. (1998). Hyperculture: The human cost of speed. Westport, CT:
Praeger. | Cross, G. (2005). A Right to Be Lazy? Busyness in Retrospective (Electronic version). Social
Research Vol. 72, No. 2, on Busyness, Summer 2005, 263-286. | Galimberti, U. (2011). Mythen
van onze tijd. De mens in het tijdperk van vooruitgang en techniek. Amsterdam: Ambo. |
Greenfield, L. (2005). When the Sky Is the Limit: Busyness in Contemporary American Society (Electronic
version). Social Research Vol. 72, 2, 1-24. | Hadden, K. (2009). The Root of Busyness and Its CounterCultural Cure (Electronic version). Journal for Pentecostal Ministry, 6, 1-9. | Kalshoven, F. (2011).
Vergroenende beroepsbevolking. Vn.nl, Retrieved January 30, 2014, from: http://www.vn.nl/Opiniemakers/Artikel-Frank-Kalshoven/Vergroenende-beroepsbevolking.htm | King, F. (2001). The Misanthropes
Corner [Column]. National Review, May 2001. Retrieved January 30, 2014, from: https://findings.
com/source/zJZN09/florence-king/ | Nussbaum, M.C. (2011). Niet voor de winst. Waarom de
democratie de geesteswetenschappen nodig heeft. Amsterdam: Ambo. | Rideout, V. J., Foehr,
U.G. & Roberts, D.F. (2010). Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds. Menlo
Park, California: Kaiser Family Foundation. | Rushkoff, D. (2013). Present Shock: When Everything
Happens Now. New York: Penguin Group.
Visual Sources:
Opitz, F. (Writer) & Stoltz, O. (Producer). (2012). Speed: Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit
[DVD]. Berlin: Dreamer Joint Venture. | Robinson, K. (Speaker). (2006). How Schools Kill Creativity
[TED-Talk]. Retrieved on January 19, 2014, from http://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_
kill_creativity.html

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15

Ayn Rand

essay

Author of American Right

Retrieved from http://frontierruminations.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/atlas-pic.jpg

Phoebe Ellis-Rees
Ayn Rand wrote two seminal science
fiction novels, The Fountainhead (1943)
and Atlas Shrugged (1957). In these, she
outlined a philosophy that stated that the
highest goal of man is the pursuit of his
own happiness, that altruism is evil, and
that no man has a right to exert power
over another. This philosophy, called
Objectivism, is perhaps best demonstrated
in Atlas Shrugged, which during the 1990s
came to be the second most influential
book in the United States after the
Bible. Why? because it outlined a world
in which the pursuit of the American
dream is possible, admirable, noble and
moral. Because of this, Atlas Shrugged
made Ayn Rand a cult hero in American
conservatism; she held influence over
politicians and economists and inspired a
generation of Silicon Valley entrepreneurs
In a televised interview in 1959 with
Mark Wallace, Rand agrees that her
work sets out to destroy almost every
edifice in the contemporary American
way of life; our Judeo-Christian religion,
our modified government regulated
capitalism, our rule by the majority
will (Curtis, 2011). Rand saw post-war
America as a shadow of what it could and
should be, and her re-visioning directed

by the use of reason and rationality was

appealing to many young conservatives.
Each person can strive for their own
individual desires and aspirations, they can
be successful in these without interference
from government, and yet society will
be functional and strong; united by
each individuals pursuit of happiness.
It is intriguing how an author of a
science fiction novel came to have such
influence over actual political events in
America. But, to what extent can this be
true? Can Ayn Rand really be characterised
as an author of the American Right, or are
there some differences between the two
that simply cannot be reconciled? I will
examine Rands ideas, seen through John
Galts speech in her novel Atlas Shrugged,
and how they relate to the ideas and
actions of American Right in the latter half
of the twentieth century. Particularly, I
shall focus on the concepts of freedom and
individual rights, entrepreneurship and the
economy, and lastly, altruism and religion.
With the mystery of Who is John
Galt? hanging over the entirety of the
novel, Galt finally reveals himself to the
public in a speech on the radio and outlines
his justification for the destruction of
society; Rands Objectivist philosophy.

17

Through Galt, Rand outlines her vision of

the world, a place in which those she refers
to as the looters and moochers (Rand,
1957) (anyone who is not an intelligent
creator) are powerless in the face of an
impeccably rational man who does not
allow them to subsist off the fruits of
his productive work (Stolyarov, 2012,
p.100). Even the tiniest iota of irrationality
in ones life subverts all rationality and
logic. Therefore, the men of thought
and the mystics cannot meet halfway,
one must go. She recognises the ultimate
goal of man to be the pursuit of his own
happiness and highlights three primary
values: Reason, Purpose, and Self-Esteem.
She damns all forms of government and
power structures, by claiming that the
greatest evil is the initiation of force by
one party against another. Instead, man
ought to treat one another not as masters,
slaves, rulers, dependents, or pack
animals, but rather as traders who are free
to exchange value for value on mutually
agreeable terms (Stolyarov, 2012, p.104).
Having grown up in Soviet Russia,
and having witnessed a state-regulated
economic system crush her fathers
business, this was an idea that seemed
totally destructive to Ayn Rand. Her ideas
were against the grain. During times of
hardship, or increased government control,
Rands ideas once again come to the fore,
igniting debate and inspiring conservative
economic ideas. She represents a perfect
alternative to a controlled economic
system, brought out to be used as a trump
card by the American Right in order to
demonstrate how the American dream
can be achieved without the involvement
18

of the government. In her 1957 novel,

Atlas Shrugged, the entrepreneurs create
a stable and prosperous economic system
in Galts Gulch. For many, this fictional
utopia is a model for what America could
be were Rands economic ideas to be put
into action. As Jennifer Burns remarked,
For over half a century Rand has been the
ultimate gateway drug to life on the right
(Burns, 2006, p.4). Although she may not
fit perfectly within the economic context
of her own time, she resurfaces through
each economic cycle as a potential
alternative to the existent system.
FREEDOM AND INDIVIDUAL
RIGHTS
Galts speech was written with the
purpose of outlining Rands Objectivist
philosophy. Unfortunately for Rand,
Objectivism did not penetrate the canon
of philosophy as was hoped, but elements
of it did manage to seize the imagination
of the American Right. One such idea,
which has had greater longevity, is the
idea that it is the duty of the good to
combat evil. In his speech, Galt explains a
realisation which came to him and lead to
his decision to go on strike: I saw that evil
was impotent - that evil was the irrational,
the blind, the anti-real - and that the only
weapon of its triumph was the willingness
of the good to serve it (Rand, 1957,
p.943). This idea has been implemented
many times in Americas post-1945 foreign
policy; an example of how Randian
thought has influenced American politics.
It is the neo-conservative idea that it is the
duty of America to defend itself and the
rest of the free world against various evils:

Ayn Rand: Author of American Right

Russian communism, Islamic terrorism, his direction is right (Burns, 2006

and Iranian nuclear development. p.204). The ties and conflicts between
However, for America and Rand, Rand and the Right can already be seen.
freedom really concerns freedom of the The goal is the same, the means are
nation from the state. Both parties, are different, but the root lies in the emphasis
skeptical of large government, as can be on freedom. Jerome Tuccille wrote that
seen in John Galts speech; Rand believes More important than his message was
the use of force to be the greatest possible the fact that Goldwater managed to look
evil. Not only does this refer to coercive the part as though he had been made for
force, but also political force and any it One look at him and you knew he
position where one irrational person has belonged in Galts Gulch, surrounded
power over another. She writes, every by striking heroes with blazing eyes and
dictator is a mystic, and every mystic is a lean, dynamic heroines in swirling capes
potential dictator (Rand, 1957, p.940). (Burns, 2006, p.205). Rands fictional
Force and power, combined to create ideas were being turned into a reality
government, inhibit the freedoms of the as they inspired conservative thought.
individual and their freedom to pursue
During the time Rand was supporting
their own happiness. In
Barry
Goldwaters
Atlas Shrugged, it is this that The duty of America is
nomination, the democrats
the creators seek to defend. to defend itself and the were moving to define
Galt says, We are on strike rest of the free world
rights in economic terms;
against
self-immolation. against various evils.
the right to housing, to
We are on strike against the
economic protection and
creed of unearned rewards and unrewarded stability. They wanted to provide a stateduties. We are on strike against the dogma sponsored safety net for people, and it
that the pursuit of ones happiness is evil was a move that Rand strongly rejected.
(Rand, 1957, p. 937). Without freedom, According to Rand, the only proper
fulfillment of the American Dream purpose of a government is to protect mans
would be impossible and therefore it is rights, which means: to protect him from
intrinsic to Rand and the American Right. physical violence (Rand, 1957, p.953)
In 1964, Rand became actively and shifting to economic rights would
involved in politics, showing her empower the state to seize the private
favour of the American Right, strongly property of some for the distribution of
endorsed Barry Goldwaters battle for the others (Burns, 2006, p.212). A gross
Republican nomination. Through their miscarriage of justice, theft of production
shared contacts, Rand sought an active is the exact thing that causes the creators
role in his campaign and supported him to strike in Atlas Shrugged. Seizure of
because freedom is his major premise... property goes against mans fundamental
Some of his specific steps may be wrong; rights. Its an idea which has had sticking

19

power in the American Right, preferring

small governance and low taxation.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND THE
ECONOMY
Whilst freedom and individual
rights must work together in order to
provide the ideal circumstances for the
pursuit of the American dream, it is the
entrepreneur who is the perfect person
to achieve it. As Younkins writes, Atlas
Shrugged makes a great case that the
businessman is the appropriate and best
symbol of a free society (Younkins, 2012,
p.14). Rands men, the heroes of business,
are rational thinkers, committed to
achieving their goals (which they believe
will guarantee their own happiness) and
dedicate themselves to the facts of reality.
A true entrepreneur, Galt has climbed
up the chain and learned about his
field on the way, unlike the politicians
(whose broadcast he is interrupting). As
Stolyarov writes, John Galt, inventor
extraordinaire, possesses the skills needed
to gain control over an airwave, while Mr.
Thompson, the archetypical parasite, does
not (Stolyarov, 2012, p.100). Indeed,
it is only because of the tacit compliance
of creators, such as Galt, that Thompson
has access to the radio at all. Rands
point is clear: the world would fall apart
without the entrepreneur. Rand sees
this entrepreneurial spirit as innately
American: Initiative is an instinctive
(i.e., automatised) American characteristic;
in an American consciousness, it occupies
the place which, in a European one, is
occupied by obedience (Den Uyl, 2012,
p.349). This initiative is what inspires
20

people to chase the American Dream,

and the system of rights, a history of
entrepreneurship and a free economy create
the conditions that allow them to do so.
Galt
himself
emphasises
the
importance
of
the
businessman:
The symbol of all relationships among
such men, the moral symbol of respect
for human beings, is the trader. The
mystic parasites who have, throughout
the ages, reviled the traders and held
them in contempt, while honouring
the beggars and the looters, have
known the secret motive of their sneers:
a trader is the entity they dreada
man of justice (Rand, 1957, p.924).
Here, Rand draws upon the moral
nature of trade and business, it is the
businessman who is a man of justice;
he gives what is deserved and takes
what he has earned, in a system that is
totally fair. This, in turn feeds into the
American dream, in the shape of the idea
that hard work will always be rewarded.
In his documentary, All Watched
Over by Machines of Loving Grace, Adam
Curtis draws a parallel between these
Randian heroes and the entrepreneurs of
Silicon Valley in the early 1990s. Greatly
in vogue, Rands books were inspiring a
generation of entrepreneurs who named
their companies, and occasionally
their children, after elements of Rands
literature. For John McCaskey, one of
the business people in Silicon Valley at
the time, Rands work presented a vision
of a morally exciting enterprise, a morally
glorious project (Curtis, 2011). It is this

Ayn Rand: Author of American Right

essentially Randian belief that money is

moral which inspired people to go after it
so fearlessly. Answering the question posed
throughout the novel, Galt says, Did you
want to know who is John Galt? I am the
first man of ability who refused to regard
it as guilt (Rand, 1957, p.944). Being
unapologetic for your success is something
that many may characterise as a uniquely
American trait and the entrepreneurs of
Silicon Valley are no exception. As Curtis
examines, some in Silicon Valley at the
time saw themselves as living in a reallife version of Galts Gulch, the United
States of America in its purest form:
innovating and building. They believed
that a world created in Rands vision
would be stable, yet everyone would be
heroic Randian beings, completely free to
follow their own desires (Curtis, 2011).
Rand reiterates what may be an
uncomfortable fact for many: That if the
entrepreneurs go on strike, disallowing
themselves to be exploited by those that do
not contribute to the economy, the entire
social system of exchange and production
would crumble. For Boettke, one would
be hard pressed to find a more economically
literate novel written by a non-economist
(2012, p.180). He believes that the
scenario played out in Atlas Shrugged is an
accurate prediction of what could happen
if entrepreneurs withdrew from society.
Rands relationship with Alan
Greenspan is a prime example of how her
novel came to influence actual political
and economic events. An early member
of Rands close circle (the self-titled
Collective), Greenspan has said, When
I met Ayn Rand, I was a free enterpriser

in the Adam Smith sense, impressed with

the theoretical structure and efficiency of
markets. What she did was to make me
see that capitalism is not only efficient and
practical, but also moral (Canterbery,
2006, p.7). This idea that money is
moral, which can be attributed directly
to Rand, was what drove Greenspans
economic reforms during the Clinton
administration. Greenspan told Clinton
that the government deficit was too large
to spend more on welfare, borrowing
more money would increase the interest
rates and thus damage the economy.
Instead, Clinton should let the markets
transform America, not politics (Curtis,
2011). Rands economic concepts, as
outlined in her novel, were influencing
key people on the American Right and her
ideas were translating to political action.
ALTRUISM AND RELIGION
However, whilst Rand may have
historically held a powerful influence
over key figures within the American
Right, there are some divisive elements
to her Objectivist outlook that are
simply incompatible with American
conservatism, as we know it today. Rands
philosophy is a fundamentally atheist
one. In Galts speech she explains the
absurdity of the doctrine of Original Sin,
and describes how a moral code founded
on mysticism (meant as religion)
cannot be practiced with consistency,
and is therefore not a valid system:
To hold, as mans sin, a fact not open to
his choice is a mockery of morality. To
hold mans nature as his sin is a mockery
21

of nature. To punish him for a crime

he committed before he was born is a
mockery of justice. To hold him guilty
in a matter where no innocence exists
is a mockery of reason. To destroy
morality, nature, justice and reason by
means of a single concept is a feat of evil
hardly to be matched. Yet that is the
root of your code (Rand, 1957, p.926).

leading conservative thinkers of the time.

Whittaker Chambers, who reviewed Atlas
Shrugged for the National Review (the
most influential conservative magazine
of the time), argued that because she
was an atheist, her intrinsically patriotic
and capitalist message was actually
dangerous. His concern was that there
was nothing to soften the edges of Rands
brutal laissez-faire world. Chambers
Despite her position as an atheist, until brand of Conservatism, the brand that
the 1940s, Rand did not take the issue was becoming popularised, has a strong
of religion in politics very seriously, Christian element: a focus on charity,
because there was no such threat. The humility, and thankfulness; elements
conservatives did not tie
which are rejected by
their side to God There As Rands philosophy is John Galts new world.
was no serious attempt fundamentally atheist,
Ultimately, this is a
to proclaim that if you it is incompatible with powerful division between
wanted to be conservative contemporary American Rand and the American
or to support capitalism, conservatism.
Right, and one that cannot
you have to base your case
easily
be
reconciled.
on faith (Burns, 2006, p.139). Although
Rands popularity and fame does not
this may have been true in the 1940s, in lie in her stance on religion. The elements
the years surrounding the publication of her ideas which are popular with
of Atlas Shrugged, the Cold War began the American Right, even the religious
to develop. In these circumstances, American Right we know today, are the
Communism was increasingly cast as values she places on freedom, individual
Godless and Capitalism became the rights, economics and the entrepreneur.
saviour, with strong links to Christianity. The unity between the two groups on some
Rand, having described religious leaders elements of Rands philosophy, but not all,
as germs that attack you through a single goes some way to explaining why it is not
sore: your fear of relying on your mind the Objectivist philosophy, specifically,
(Rand, 1957, p.933), was clearly not that she is famous for. For while Rand
going to be popular with this new kind may be a philosopher, her greatest
of Christian Conservative. A line was influence was not because of Objectivism
drawn between Libertarians such as Rand as such, but because of her ideas about
and the new American Conservative. economics and politics. Ultimately,
Rands godless capitalism (Burns, her legacy is one of a political thinker.
2006, p.175) was unsettling to many She has directly influenced American

22

Ayn Rand: Author of American Right

economic policy through her assertion

that money is moral, which inspired the
politician Barry Goldwater in the 1960s,
and the economist Alan Greenspan in the
1990s. Beyond these two individuals,
she became an idol of the Silicon Valley
entrepreneurs of the technological
revolution, and managed to mobilise and
generation of young conservatives with
her science fiction novels. What really
caught the imagination of the American

Right is Rands faith in the free market,

individualism, entrepreneurship and the
sanctity of freedom. Combined, these
ideas help to facilitate the achievement
of the American dream. One may not
qualify Rand as having been a significant
philosopher of the American Right, but
her political and economic ideas, explored
in her works of fiction, decidedly qualify
her as the author of the American Right.

Reference List:
Allit, P. (2011). Ayn Rand and American Conservatism in the Cold War Era. Modern Intellectual
History, 8:1, pp.253-263 | Boettke, P.J. (2012). The economics of Atlas Shrugged. Younkins, E.W.,
(Ed.), Ayn Rands Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion. Burlington:
Ashgate. | Burns, J. (2006). Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. | Canterbery, R.E. (2006). Alan Greenspan, The Oracle Behind
the Curtain, Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. | Curtis, A. (Director), Kelsall, L. (Producer).
(2011). All Watched Over By Machines of Loving Grace [TV Series]. London: BBC Worldwide.
| Den Uyl, D.J. (2012). A Note on Ayn Rands Americanism. In Younkins, E. W. (Ed.), Ayn Rands
Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion. Burlington: Ashgate. | Heyl, J.
A. (1995) Ayn Rand (1905-1982), In Waithe, M. E., (Ed.), A History of Women Philosophers/
Volume 4. Kluwer Academic Publishers. | Rand, A. (1957). Atlas Shrugged. New York: Random
House. | Stolyarov II, G. (2012). The Role and Essence of John Galts Speech in Ayn Rands Atlas
Shrugged, In Younkins, E. W. (Ed.), Ayn Rands Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary
Companion. Burlington: Ashgate. | Younkins, E. W., Ed. (2012). Ayn Rands Atlas Shrugged: A
Philosophical and Literary Companion. Burlington: Ashgate

23

24

Bicentennial Man Film Poster. Retrieved from http://fanart.tv/fanart/movies/2277/moviebackground/bicentennial-man-4fec2db0855bc.jpg

The emergence
of Neuroethics

essay

Examining the effects of neuroscience

on society and morality
Laura Blagoev
Most people have an idea of what
constitutes morality, even though
opinions range from it being an intrinsic
gut feeling to a calculated, rational
opinion. Even moral relativists, who deny
the existence of universally applicable
moral codes, are capable of judging
actions as superior or inferior when
presented with ethical conundrums.
Claiming moral autonomy has been one
of the driving forces of human history; the
one who can tell others what comprises
right and wrong has held the power to
subjugate them. From authoritarian
regimes to liberal democracies, moral
customs have varied from tolerant to
oppressive, yet, no worldwide consensus
of morality has ever been reached.
The 19th century philosopher and
sociologist Auguste Comtes pursuit
of a society based on objective truth
reflects todays attempts at understanding
humanity from a scientific point of view.
Ever since Comtes time, cognitive sciences
had made morality one of their main
objectives (Giordano & Gordijn, 2010,
p.37). However, it was not until progress
was made in the field of neuroscience that

scientists gained deeper insight to human

nature and took a step closer to Comtes
ideal world;
as such, neuroscience
deals with elucidating a broad sphere of
cognitive processes, and has thus been
divided into several sub-disciplines.
The inquiries to the human mind
should by no means be attributed to
the 21st century alone. Experimental
psychology, for example, has had the
objective of mapping out individual and
societal behaviour since the late 19th
century (Giordano & Gordijn, 2010).
However, advances in technology have
enabled us to understand how the brain
works on a much more detailed level,
which is why the field of neuroethics
has emerged and has slowly gained more
importance since the name neuroethics was
first coined in 2002 (Farah, 2002, p.1123).
Generally, the term can mean
either both or one of two things. First,
neuroethics can be an ethical reflection
on the products of technological progress
(Levy, 2008). This means that there
needs to be discussion about emerging
developments, e.g. cloning, in terms of
what they could provide for the well25

being of society, or whether they could be ethics. If science relies on the Humean
somehow misused. Second, neuroethics notion of no ought from is, the only
aims to answer questions such as What way neuroscience could contribute
is morality? as well as reveal more about to society is by plain description of
controversial topics such as brain death or cultural practices (Greene, 2003, p.847).
addiction (Pickersgill, 2013). The latter
The fundamental flaw of this
approach is what distinguishes neuroethics naturalistic fallacy, however, is often
as an innovative discipline. Instead of pointed out by neuroscientists and
insisting that science needs to be objective philosophers: [i]f ought cannot be
and take into account the various cultural derived from is, just what can ought
accounts of morality, neuroethics actually be derived from? Is ethics an entirely
aims at finding the intrinsic source of autonomous field of inquiry? Does it
morality. It can . . . help us understand float, untethered to facts from any other
what we should do and should want discipline or tradition? (Dennett, 1995,
and, therefore, what other people should p.467). The problem lies in the moral
do and should want in order to live relativism of the scientific community
the best lives possible
which disapproves of value
(Harris,
2010,
p.32). Just as there is no such judgments, although: [j]
This paper introduces thing as Christian
ust as there is no such
and discusses neuroethics physics or Muslim
thing as Christian physics
and some of its main algebra, we will see that or Muslim algebra, we
concepts in order to show there is no such thing
will see that there is no
that although contested, as Christian or Muslim such thing as Christian or
the ideas it promotes are morality.
Muslim morality. (Harris,
of crucial importance for
2010, p.18). This pursuit
the future of moral thought. Its findings of objectivity clarifies why many religious
could make educational systems more or ideological institutions still consider
efficient and free of ideological biases. their own principles as the universal truth,
As the discipline is relatively new, this enforcing them on people with the help of
paper also introduces criticism to better laws and social norms (Harris, 2010, p.43).
envision the future of neuroethics. With the help of neuroethics, however,
some of these norms, such as denying
IMPORTANCE OF NEUROETHICS
the rights of the LGBT- movement,
The way neuroscience is viewed in could be refuted if the core of various
society has changed over the past decade. beliefs is understood, and oppressive
Although the aim of science has always institutions are stripped from the power
been to uncover systems and explain they hold in the name of morality.
worldly phenomena, scientists have not
extensively contributed to the field of

26

The Emergence of Neuroethics

NEUROETHICAL OBJECTIVES.
The practice of neuroethics can best
be understood by concrete examples
through some of the concepts it
addresses. The following sections discuss
how intuition and rationality can be
understood and measured with the help
of neuroimaging and psychological
tests, and what the implications of the
results could be for societal development.
First, the concept of intuition
is often understood as unconscious
decision-making, or knowledge which is
acquired on the spot. Yet, the biology
of intuitive knowledge can contribute to
understanding how moral judgments are
formed, since morality would appear to
be more of an emotional response than
a rational justification (Greene, 2003,
p.847). When test subjects were asked
to respond to Peter Singers utilitarian
dilemma whilst their brains were being
scanned, the outcomes stated that . .
judgements [sic] in response to personal
moral dilemmas, compared with
impersonal ones, involved greater activity
in brain areas that are associated with
emotion and social cognition.(Greene,
2003, p.848). Drawing conclusions
from such experiments can prove
complex, but the data points to the
direction that our gut feelings might
not be as reliable as previously thought.
Intuitions can also be based on
cultural norms. The widely held opinion
(57%) in the United States that objecting
to same sex marriage is a moral duty
might be generated by a cultural belief
although someone might claim it to be

an intuitive stance: . . . peoples moral

judgments are driven by their emotional
responses. . . the theories they offer to
justify their judgments are post hoc
confabulations, designed to protect
their judgments. (Levy, 2011, p.7).
Acknowledging, however, how intuitions
can be manipulated provides an insight
to how a sense of morality is formed:
If we can generate feelings of unease or
disgust. . . in subjects, we can bring them
to make correlative moral judgments,
even when the feeling has been generated
by a morally irrelevant stimulus.
(ibid.) So, if it is possible to thoroughly
illustrate how intuitive moral judgments
are constituted in the brain, and how
they can be affected, it will be easier to
dissolve prejudices and misconceptions
about certain social or ethnic groups,
for example (Levy, 2011, p.8).
The second concept is rationality.
In relation to morality, studying its
limitations of is of key importance. Simply
put, rationality can be understood as the
conscious deliberation of actions and
understanding what is and what merely
seems to be (Levy, 2008, p.2). Reason,
then, is a uniquely human attribute,
and its meaning has been emphasized in
various social and economic theories. In
the words of Immanuel Kant: . . . reason
is the arbiter of truth in all judgments.
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
2013) On the surface, it seems possible
to distinguish between emotional
responses and rational contemplation.
However, neuroethics together with
cognitive psychology has been able to list

27

many limitations to rationality, the most

significant of which are the confirmation
bias and the creation of false memories.
First, a confirmation bias is a .
. . systematic tendency to search for
evidence that supports a hypothesis we
are entertaining, rather than evidence
that refutes it, and to interpret ambiguous
evidence so that it supports our
hypothesis. (Levy, 2008, p.3). Hence, if a
person holds a certain mindset, no matter
how absurd, he or she is more likely to
see signs that support the idea, and reject
ones that refute it. Understanding how
strong confirmation biases are can also
aid in recognising the core of religious
belief, since no matter what evidence
is brought to light, there is a way to
interpret it in a reinforcing way; our
ideological biases hinder us from seeing
all perspectives to things. This proves that
although there are differences in moral
perceptions and systems, it does not mean
all of them are as justified (Harris, 2010,
p.56). Nonetheless, individual biases in
rationality are not something that cannot
be overcome; it just means that in order to
hold a certain moral standing, one must be
able to give an evidence-based justification
for ones beliefs. For example, people who
claim that female genital mutilation is
morally correct ought to be able to justify
how it leads to greater happiness and a
better life and not only by referring to
a religious tradition of such a practice.
Second, the creation of false memories
is linked to having a confirmation
bias; people can be manipulated into
remembering events which have not

28

taken place by asking them to visualise

them or with the help of hypnotism: .
. . . therapists who are unaware of the
need to test hypotheses systematically,
and courts who take sincere memory
and eyewitness testimony as irrefutable
evidencecan causes [sic] great harm.
(Levy, 2008, p.3). Awareness of such
a phenomenon might actually benefit
some societal aspects: A new discipline
of neurolaw is today being forged, which
both reflects and furthers expectations
about the (increasing) relevance of
neuroscience to law (Pickersgill, 2013,
p.327). Consensus, however, has not
been reached about how neurolaw should
be implemented, opinions ranging from
. . . active(ly) campaigning for the
reshaping of legal systems and processes
in light of neuroscientific insights
(Pickersgill, 2013, p.328) to . . .
fueling misconceptions about the power
and promise of neuroimaging (ibid.).
PUTTING NEUROETHICS INTO
PRACTICE
Despite the theoretical nature of
neuroethics, there is no denying that using
neuroscientific data can have a multiplicity
of practical uses. As discussed above,
incorporating neuroethical findings to
society is not as simple as just establishing
new laws. Hence, the discipline of
neuroeducation may offer a solution of how
to put theory to practice: . . . in 1999 the
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) launched the
so-called Brain and Learning initiative to
bring together international researchers to

The Emergence of Neuroethics

discuss the potential of neuroscience for

educational policy and practice. (Ansari
et al., 2011, p.106). Since brain imaging
has become widely available, measuring
the brain regions which are involved in
school-taught skills, such as reading or
arithmetic (ibid) and their development
over time has become possible. One of the
main motivators of neuroeducation is the
aim to make education as ideologically
unbiased as possible, since in some
countries the schools are funded by
organisations or institutes which has
affects on their curricula (Pickersgill,
2013, p.330). Although science can also be
treated as an ideology, it usually promotes
. . . valuing evidence, logical consistency,
parsimony and other intellectual virtues.
(Harris in Brockman, 2013, p.333).
Hence, even if science does entail a certain
liberal bias, its values are not absolute,
but molded by new discoveries, which
makes them open to change and progress.
As
an
example
of
societal
implementation of neuroeducation, in
2005, the German Federal Ministry
for Education and Research set up the
Neuroscience, Instruction and Learning
initiative which aimed for evidence-based
education with the help of neuroscientific
findings. Although this was partly because
of the . . . relatively poor performance in
the OECDs Program for International
Student Assessment (PISA), such
initiatives could also help in teaching
children from a young age to have a critical
mind towards ideological indoctrination
(Ansari et al., 2011, p.107.) Another
driving force behind neuroeducation is

the improvement of educational systems

in general: . . . the application of
neuroimaging methods has the potential
to provide incremental insights into
learning-related cognitive (sub)processes
at a more detailed level. . . (Ansari et
al., 2011, p.106). Neuroeducational
research has also shed light on the learning
processes of adults by revealing how
brain plasticity changes once new skills
have been acquired (Ansari et al., 2011).
Hence, detecting differences in learning
patterns neurologically could have positive
outcomes, for then educational systems
could become more accommodating of
individual needs. Neuroeducation could
also tackle some of the deep-rooted myths
about our brain structure or learning, such
as being left-brained or right-brained or
that people only use 10% of their brain
capacity (Ansari et al., 2011, p.112-113).
CRITICISM OF NEUROETHICS
In order for neuroethics to develop, its
limitations should not be overlooked. This
section examines one key vulnerability
of neuroethics, the reinforcement
of sex and gender differences.
The problem lies in the concept
of hardwiring; if certain hormones are
responsible for fixed sex differences, and
these hormones are hardwired into our
brain, it means that there is such a thing
as a female and male brain (Fine, 2010,
p.285). Abiding by such a mindset, no
matter how biologically accurate, may
lead to the re-inscription of backward
claims (Pickersgill, 2013, p.332.) The
issue is in the presentation of the theory

29

of characteristic female and male stress the importance of interdisciplinarity

attributes, because if they are regarded when reformulating moral norms, the
as fully scientific, they might have self- field of gender studies should not be
fulfilling effects, meaning that if such an excluded from the discussion (Dussauge
idea is out, it might attract or generate & Kaiser, 2012, p.212). Cooperation
behavioural data which falsely supports between these two fields is then necessary
the claim: . . . just as the tangible objects in order to minimize further negative
produced by science and technology can stereotyping and to reach optimal equality.
affect our lives, so too can
Something radically
the ideas and concepts that For the first time, we
new is in the air: new ways
science also creates (Fine, have the tools and
of understanding physical
2010, p.286). Examples the will to undertake
systems, new ways of
of negative consequences the scientific study of
thinking about thinking
are . . . the permanent human nature.
that call into question many
short-term activation of
of our basic assumptions. .
gender stereotypes in everyday life, the . For the first time, we have the tools and
reinforcement of the neuroscientists and the will to undertake the scientific study of
medias lack of interest in identifying human nature. (Brockman, 2013, p.292).
gender bias or changing the status quo. The enthusiasm about neuroscience is in
. . (Dussauge & Kaiser, 2012, p.214). not in vain; neuroethics not only assesses
Although gender is generally considered new technologies but uses the information
a social construct, differentiating between acquired to re-evaluate existing moral
the biological sex and gender proves norms and systems; comprehension
difficult in practice, especially in terms of can lead us to greater equality and
neuroscience (Jordan-Young & Rumiati, discredit some of the oppressive
2011, p.306). Recreating sex differences notions held in the name of morality.
would, in Foucaultian terms, result in the
This paper examined some of the main
formation of power relations that could concepts scrutinized by neuroethics, such
be used to define gender characteristics as the limitations of rational thinking and
in an fundamental way, and hence limit the creation of false memories. It discussed
the individuals possibilities in society. neuroeducation, and how findings can
Hardwiring could also account for a belief be implemented to educational systems
in an absolute human essence, which in order to make them more considerate
could have immense consequences on and efficient. They can also help us
what is considered normal. So, although abandon belief-based theories which
neuroscience in itself does not aim at are responsible for teaching children
establishing oppressive differences, it may conjectures about the world: . . . there
further enable prejudices by presenting are trained scientists who are Biblical
data as factual. Yet, since neuroethicists Creationists, and their scientific thinking

30

The Emergence of Neuroethics

is purposed toward interpreting the data

of science to fit the Book of Genesis.
Such people claim to be doing science
of course, but real scientists are free, and
indeed obligated, to point out that they
are misusing the term. (Harris, 2010,
p.36). Science, as discussed, can also be
regarded as an ideology, yet, the values it
advocates are of a universal nature, and
they generally aim for greater fairness and
well-being instead of ideological agendas
Since neuroethics is still a relatively
new approach to moral affairs, this
paper also reviewed the effect on sex/
gender perceptions. This was to show that
neuroethical research does not occur in a
vacuum, but that it can also have regressive
effects. Due to the limitations of this paper,
only one vulnerability was elaborated

on, although future research needs to be

done on, e.g. the Libet experiment from
the 1980s, which showed that certain
actions occurred in the brain before the
subject became conscious of them (Libet,
1985, p.529). This may have tremendous
effects on how free will is constituted
and what it means for an intrinsic sense
of morality (Bonete, 2012, p.228).
Despite the novelty of neuroethics,
it bears a promise of improving living
standards and including science in the
discussion of right and wrong. Ideally,
it could challenge moral authorities by
pointing out their flaws, and strive for
accuracy in the field of moral thought
whilst still remaining open to new
breakthroughs and the fundamental
complexity
of
human
nature.

31

Reference List:
Ansari, D. & De Smedt, B. & Grabner, R. H. (2011). Neuroeducation A Critical Overview of
An Emerging Field. Received: 15 December 2010 / Accepted: 20 May 2011 / Published online: 22
June 2011. Neuroethics (2012) 5:105117. | Bonete, E. (2012). Neuroethics in Spain: Neurological
Determinism or Moral Freedom? Received: 7 December 2011 / Accepted: 3 January. Neuroethics
(2013) 6:225232. | Brockman, J. (edit.) (2013). Thinking. The New Science of Decision-Making,
Problem-Solving, and Prediction. HarperCollins Publishers. New York. | Dennett, D. (1995).
Darwins Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. Part III: Mind, Meaning,
Mathematics and Morality. Simon & Schuster. | Dubljevi, V. (2012). Cognitive Enhancement,
Rational Choice and Justification. Received: 17 August 2012 /Accepted: 4 December 2012 /
Published online: 16 December 2012. Neuroethics (2013) 6:179187. | Dussauge, I. & Kaiser, A.
(2012). Neuroscience and Sex/Gender, Received: 4 September 2012 / Accepted: 13 September.
Neuroethics (2012) 5:211215. | Farah, M. J. (2007). Social, Legal, and Ethical Implications of
Cognitive Neuroscience: Neuroethics for Short. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. Volume
19, Number 3. 2007 Massachusetts. | Fine, C. (2011). Explaining, or Sustaining, the Status
Quo? The Potentially Self-Fulfilling Effects of Hardwired Accounts of Sex Differences.
Received: 8 December 2010 / Accepted: 4 May 2011 / Published online: 22 June 2011. Neuroethics
(2012) 5:285294. | Giordano, J. J. & Gordijn, B. (edit.) (2010). Scientific and Philosophical
Perspectives in Neuroethics. Chapters: 2 - The origins of the modern concept of neuroscience pp.
37-65. | Greene, J. (2003). From neural is to moral ought: what are the moral implications
of neuroscientific moral psychology? Nature reviews. Neuroscience. Volume 4 October 2003. pp.
847-850. | Harris, S. (2010). The Moral Landscape. How Science Can Determine Human Values.
Free Press. A Division of Simon & Schuster. New York. | Jordan-Young, R. & Rumiati, R. I. (2011).
Hardwired for Sexism? Approaches to Sex/Gender in Neuroscience. Received: 20 December
2010 / Accepted: 11 August 2011 / Published online: 24 September 2011. Neuroethics (2012) 5:305315.
| Levy, N. (2008). Introducing Neuroethics. Received: 25 January 2008 / Accepted: 29 January
2008 / Published online: 14 February 2008. Neuroethics (2008) 1:18 DOI 10.1007/s12152-008-90077. | Levy, N. (2011). Neuroethics: A New Way of Doing Ethics. AJOB Neuroscience, 2(2): 39,
2011. Copyright _c Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. ISSN: 2150-7740 print / 2150-7759 online. DOI:
10.1080/21507740.2011.557683. 11. | Libet, B. (1985). Unconscious cerebral initiative and
the role of conscious will in voluntary action. The behavioral and brain sciences (1985) 8, pp.
529-566. 1985 Cambridge University Press. 014O-525X/B5l04O529-38l$06.00. | Pickersgill, M. (2013).
The social life of the brain: Neuroscience in society. Current Sociology. 61(3) 322340 The
Author(s) 2013. Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav. | Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (2013). Kants Account of Reason. Retrieved on 29/01/2014 from: http://plato.
stanford.edu/entries/kant-reason/and (2013). Auguste Comte. Retrieved on 29/01/2014 from: http://plato.
stanford.edu/entries/comte/.

32

Advertisement

33

34

essay

Happiness
The new big thing in policy making?

Retrieved from http://learningcog.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/shutterstock_107639858.jpg

Florian Lorisch
INTRODUCTION
To compare oneself to others is
an important aspect of human life.
Comparison helps to figure out ones
own status quo. It is not merely popular
among individuals but also among
societies(Easterlin, 1974). In any case,
comparison asks for an reliable indicator.
Accordingly the GDP per capita measures
not only the economic performance of an
economy but is also regarded to be an
indicator for the well being of the people
of a country. The reliance on the GDP as an
indicator for the well being of a country
is based on the assumption that changes
in economic welfare indicate changes
in social welfare in the same direction,
if not in the same degree(Abramowitz,
1959, p.3). This strong relation between
economic welfare and social welfare
is increasingly questioned by scholars
and politicians alike. Hence, politicians
throughout the world design alternative
measures to sustain the well being
of their people. But, where does this
mistrust originate? This paper attempts
to clarify how recent research on well
being guides policy makers around
the globe. Initially a conceptual analysis
of happiness is conducted and an
overview on happiness research provided.

Hereafter the increasing mistrust of

policy makers in economic growth is
described by means of the paradoxical
relation of GDP and well being.
Therefore the so called Easterlin paradox,
and contesting research is presented.
HAPPINESS - FROM A VAGUE
CONCEPT TO A SOLID
ACADEMIC DEFINITION
The concept of happiness is commonly
referred to as the feeling that prevails
in times of sudden positive experiences
(Thompson, 2013). But there are many
other definitions to it. This elasticity of
the concept is one of the main reasons
that happiness was, until recently, barely
acknowledged in economics and policy
making. Happiness was considered as
being too vague, to be seriously referred to
(ibid.). In recent years however, attempts
were made to define, and research
happiness around the globe. The World
happiness report, one of the most extensive
and respected studies in that field, refers
to happiness in terms of subjective well
being (SWB). SWB accounts for a
subjective evaluation of the quality of
ones life. This evaluation is divided into
emotional and cognitive judgements.
Emotional judgements are ascribed to
35

short time happiness. A typical question 1809, p.249). Current studies suggest
that elucidates the short time happiness of that individual well being might be
a survey participant is; were you happy greatly determined by genetic factors that
yesterday?(Helliwell, Layard, & Sachs, questions the ability of governments to
2013). Evaluative judgements refer to the anticipate well being as an aspect of policy
perception of the overall satisfaction of making(Mulgan, 2013; Bok, 2010).
ones life. A typical survey question that There is however evidence for both sides.
aims to reveal the evaluative judgement of On the one hand, the level of well being
a participant is; Are you happy with your seems to remain stable over time. That
life as a whole?(World happiness report, suggests that the influence of policy is
2013). The SWB is the prevailing concept limited (Lucas, 2007). In contrast to
in the academic research(Thompson, that, Bok (2010) points out that the fall
2013) on happiness and is also employed of the Berlin Wall raised the percentage
throughout this paper. The SWB is of highly satisfied people from 38 to
not constituted by mere
54(p. 53) in east Germany.
economic aspects, but Happiness research
Additionally, Mulgan(2013)
takes many factors into ignites interest
puts forward that the countries
account. According to among politicians in that performed best on the six
Sam Thompson the SWB many countries.
dimensions of governance, also
of a person is determined
perform well in terms of well
by biological endowment, aspects being(p.520). Both examples suggest
of individual psychology and social a correlation between the performance
influences (Ibid.). Hence the research of governments and well being.
on SWB constitutes a departure from
Even though the extent to which
the classical perception that the GDP governments can influence the well
suffices to account for the happiness of a being of its people remains unclear,
society. The current paper is limited in its happiness research kindles interested
scope, as it merely accounts for the social among politicians in many countries(Bok
determinates on well being. This focus 2010; Mulgan, 2013). In Europe Sarkozy,
is chosen, as only the social influences the former president of France, initiated
can be changed by policy making (Bok, the measurement of happiness of the
2010) that is the core interest of this paper. French population. In Great Britain, the
current prime minister David Cameron
HAPPINESS RESEARCH
uttered that we should be thinking not
KINDLES INTEREST IN THE
just about what is good for putting money
POLITICAL REALM
in peoples pockets but what is good for
Is it, as Thomas Jefferson says that the putting joy in peoples hearts(Bok, 2010,
care of human life and happiness [] p.4). Camerons utterance summarizes
is the first and only legitimate object of the increasing suspicion in economic
good government (Thomas Jefferson, growth as the highest policy goal. But
36

Happiness

where does this suspicion come from? Is

it not true that rising levels of GDP has
generated advancements in healthcare,
level of education and employment? How
is it possible that these effects do not
suffice, according to David Cameron and
other political leaders around the globe?
THE RELATION BETWEEN
SWB AND GDP - EASTERLINS
SIGNIFICANT INVESTIGATION
In classical economics it is presumed
that an economic growth in society is
directly and positively linked to the
SWB of its people (Easterlin, 1974,
p.7). Easterlin tests this presumption
by contrasting it to various data sets. A
first set of data illustrates the happiness
of the U.S. population in relation to
income. The participants are divided in
six categories according to their income.
These categories reach from >15000$ to
<3000$. Easterlins data suggest that 56 %
among the richest (>15000$ income), and
merely 29 % among the poorest(<3000$)
participants consider themselves to be
very happy. Hence the data serve as strong
evidence for a clearly positive correlation
between
income
and
happiness.
Thereupon Easterlin conducts a cross
national comparison of the relation of
GDP and SWB. Therefore Easterlin draws
on national data of 13 different countries.
The GDPs of the countries under research
vary between 2790$ (U.S.) and 134$ in
Nigeria. Drawing on the insight presented
in the previous paragraph, there should be
a clear correlation between a nations GDP
and SWB evident. This presumption
does not hold true. The United States

exhibit the highest level of well being.

Surprisingly the United States are closely
followed by Cuba, even though the
Cuban GDP is a fraction of the one of
the United States. Hence the presumption
that income correlates with SWB holds
only for national comparisons. The cross
national comparison however reveals
that the happiness differences between
rich and poor countries that one might
expect on the basis of the within-country
differences by economic status are not
borne out by the international data (p.23).
These research findings date from
1974 and are nowadays referred to as
the Easterlin paradox. Easterlins findings
subsequently initiated research on
happiness in the field of economics. This
increasing significance that was ascribed
to happiness in economics, eventually
led to the emergence of the discipline
of happiness economics. Happiness
economics is the genus for studies
conducted on the relevance of happiness
in economics. This new discipline is a field
of interdisciplinary research that embraces
economics, sociology and psychology
(Thompson, 2013). The scholars in the
field of happiness economics employ
quantitative as well as theoretical studies,
whereby the focus lays on maximizing the
SWB of a society, rather than its GDP.
EASTERLIN PARADOX
- STARTING POINT FOR
HAPPINESS ECONOMICS
In an attempt to explain his findings,
Easterlin relies on relative-income
instead of absolute-income, since
relative income expresses the utility of
37

income in a particular society. Easterlin

suggests that an increase in income
will have a significant influence on the
happiness in poor countries, whereas the
significance of income fades out in rich
countries (Easterlin, 1974). He argues
that economic growth leads to a higher
level of consumption standards, which
is characterized by the adaptation of the
needs to the increased income. To explain
this upward pressure in consumption
norms (Easterlin, p.32), Easterlin draws
on a basic analogy: A house may be large
or small; as long as the surrounding houses
are equally small it satisfies all social
demands for a dwelling. But if a palace
rises besides the little house, the little house
shrinks into a hut(Easterlin, pp.27-28).
Easterlin is not the only advocate
of the relative income in the field of
happiness economics. Richard Layard
shares Easterlins insights. Layard (2005)
claims that people are concerned about
their relative income and not simply
about its absolute level. (p.45). Similar
to Easterlin, Layard puts forward that
absolute income is merely significant
happiness, when the income is low.
According to Layard, increases in income
lose significance, since once a country has
over 15.000$ [GDP] per head, its level
of happiness appears to be independent
of its income per head(2003, p.17).
CRITICAL RECEPTION BEYOND
THE DISCIPLINE OF HAPPINESS
ECONOMICS
While Easterlin and Layard enjoy
great support within the field of happiness

38

economics, the reception of their work

beyond the border of the discipline is
ambiguous. In 2008 their work was
severely criticized by Stevenson and
Wolfers. The two economists claim to
undermine the possible role played by
relative income comparisons(ibid.).
Their research is mainly based on data of
the Gallup World Poll that, as they say,
exceed the data of Easterlins research.
The crucial difference between
Easterlins and Sevenson and Wolfers is to
be found in the methodology employed
by the latter. In contrast to Easterlin,
Stevenson and Wolfers rely on 2log
GDP as an indicator for the relation
between income and SWB. The graphs
illustrate a clear relation between an
increasing real annual household income
and SWB on a cross national basis. The
steady raise of the graphs led Stevenson
and Wolfers to the conclusion that,
contrary to what is claimed by Easterlin
and Layard, there is no evidence of
satiation(Stevenson, Wolfers, 2012, p.6).
These findings must be regarded
on the background of a logarithmic
scale. A logarithmic scale is convenient
to illustrate a large amount of data. To
label the increments on the x axis in
exponential values changes the graph
significantly. Due to the exponential
values on the x axis the same data on
a logarithmic scale produce in a much
steeper graph than on a linear scale.
It is the illustration on a logarithmic
scale that creates the impression of a
linear correlation between satisfaction and
income. Stevenson and Wolfers are aware

Happiness

of this and acknowledge that for instance, impact on subjective well being.
per capita GDP in Burundi is about oneLane argues that Western societies
sixtieth that in the United States, and move from a survival standard to a well
hence a $100 rise in average incomes being standard. The survival standard
would have a twenty-fold larger impact on is applicable on less developed countries.
measured well-being in Burundi than the In these societies increases in absolute
United States (Stevenson &Wolfers, 2008 income contribute significantly to well
p.13).Hence, the research of Stevenson being. This significance of income
and Wolfers does not question but affirm decreases in Western countries, as
significant parts of Easterlins findings. previously proven by Easterlin et al.. Thus
Stevenson and Wolfers
Lane argues, people in
have theoretically proven The pursuit of evermore
Western societies pursue
that there is no station economic growth
different
priorities,
point since SWB correlates is accompanied by
than maximizing their
with
the
exponential undesirable side-effects that income. He identifies
increase
in
absolute go beyond environmental
these
priorities
in
income. Stevenson and pollution.
family integrity, social
Wolfers neglect that, if, an
contacts and work
exponential increase in absolute income enjoyment. Lane contrasts these priorities
is necessary to sustain increase in SWB, it to rise in depression in Western societies.
is implied that income loses significance He argues that the pursuit of maximal
as soon as a certain wealth is sustained. economic growth is irreconcilable with
the new priorities of the people and
STEVENSONS AND WOLFERS
thus calls for governments that provide
BLIND SPOTS - HAPPINESS IS
a framework, in which people can
MORE THAN GDP
pursue their happiness (Lane, 2000).
Furthermore,
Stevenson
and
Lanes findings coincide with Layards
Wolfers do not take into account that claim that modern societies demand for
sustaining exponential growth is limited a greater geographic mobility that causes
by environmental as well as human a lack of family stability (Layard, 2005).
resources. The pursuit of evermore Similar to Lane, Layard identifies family
economic growth is accompanied by as an important aspect for SWB. Based on
undesirable side-effects that go beyond Layards account on geographic mobility,
environmental pollution. Economic Mulgan argues that consumption based
growth demands for greater geographic economy has systematically undermined
mobility(Layard, 2005) and implies social not only the environmental conditions
impoverishment (Lane, 2000). According on which future well being depends,
to Lane (2000) and Layard (2005) these but also certain social conditions
market external entities do have a negative such as family, community, trust and

39

friendship that are critically important

for well being now (2013, p.509).
The findings of Easterlin, Lane
and Layard recall Oswalds (1997)
utterance that the relevance of economic
performance is that it may be a means to
an end. That end is [] the enrichment of
mankinds feeling of well being(p.149).
But if growing prosperity contributes
only marginally to happiness, one needs
to ask whether it makes much sense for
public officials to attach such importance
to economic growth as a measure of
nations progress?(Bok, 2010, p.7).
CONCLUSION
The significance of the Easterlin
Paradox for policy making cannot be
underestimated.
Easterlins
research
kindled the curiosity among scholars
that would then lead to the emergence
of happiness economics. The research
conducted in this novel discipline triggered
significant rethinking in the fields of
economics and policy making. Previously
the concept happiness was regarded as
too vague to be referred to. Hence the
introduction of subjective well being

40

as the prevailing definition of happiness

in academia must be seen as a major
achievement of this yet young discipline.
The clear definition of subjective well
being offers a more reliable tool to measure
happiness on a national and cross national
scale. Even though these measurements
can still be improved, they already offer
a solid set of data. These data are already
now highly appreciated by policy makers
around the globe. But happiness research
is not merely about semantics. Easterlin
made significant investigations on the
relation between SWB and GDP. Even
though Easterlin and his successors where
repeatedly criticized outside the discipline
of happiness economics, their arguments
could not entirely be refuted. The potential
and significance of happiness research for
policy making is increasingly recognized
and implemented by policy makers
around the globe. A shift of focus, away
from maximal economic growth to the
increase of SWB offers a valuable approach.
Although the steps appear to be little, it
might be that these new approaches offer
an answer on David Camerons question,
of how to put joy in peoples heart.

Happiness

Reference List:
Abramovitz, M. (1959). The welfare interpretation of secular trends in national income
and product. In Abramovitz M. (Ed.). (1959). The allocation of economic resources:
essays in honor of Bernard Francis Haley. Stanford: Stanford University Press. | Bok. D. (2010). The
politics of happiness. What government can learn from the new research on well being.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. | Easterlin, R. A. (1974). Does economic growth improve the human lot?
In Easterlin, R. A. (Ed.). Happiness in economics. (pp.5-41). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing
Limited. | Helliwell, J.F., Layard, R., Sachs, J.D. (eds.). (2013). World happiness report 2013. (Retrieved
January 30, 2014, from: http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/09/WorldHappinessReport2013_online.pdf | Jefferson,
T. (1809). In Milner, M., Rawson, H. (Eds.). The Oxford dictionary of American quotations. Oxford
University Press. | Lucas, R. E. (2007). Adaption and the set point model of subjective well being: Does
happiness change after major life events? Current Directions in Psychological
Science. 16, 75 80. | Lane, R.E. (2000). The loss of happiness in market democracies. New
Haven: Yale University Press. | Layard, R. (2003). Happiness: Has Social Science A Clue? Retrieved
January 30, 2014, from http://cep.lse.ac.uk/events/lectures/layard/RL030303.pdf | Layard, R. (2005).
Happiness: Lessons from a new science. London: Penguin Press. | Mulgan, G. (2013). Well
being and public policy. In David, S.A., Boniwell, I., & Ayers, A.C. (Eds.) The Oxford handbook of
happines (pp.517-532). Oxford: Oxford University Press. | Netherlands GDP (n.d.). Gross domestic
product. Retrieved January 30, 2014, from http://countryeconomy.com/gdp/netherlands | Oswald, A.J.,
(1997). Happiness and economic performance. In Easterlin, R. A. (Ed.). Happiness in economics. (pp.
149 165). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. | Stevenson, B., Wolfers, J. (2008). Economic
growth and subjective Well being: Reassessing the Easterlin paradox. Bonn: IZA. | Sacks,
D.W., Stevenson, B., Wolfers, J. (2012). The new stylized facts about income and subjective well
being. Bonn: IZA. | Thompson, S. (2013). Introduction to happiness and society. In David, S.A., Boniwell,
I., & Ayers, A.C. (Eds.). The Oxford handbook of happiness. (pp.427-430). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

41

essay

Homophobia
within the male
world of sports
Retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/07Athletengrab.jpg

Bibian Ogier
Only in 2013 France legalized gay
marriage. Gay couples can now not
only cohabitate, but also marry. This
legalisation is a sign of acceptance and
tolerance towards homosexuals. This
view of tolerance contributes to the
perception of contemporary Western
society, where homosexuality is mainly
accepted, but unfortunately there is an
example opposing this view. The world
of sports shows us another side, where
only a few homosexuals are out in the
open. Lesbians and gay men who have
an interest in sport often have avoided it
because of the dominance of heterosexism
and homophobia (Pronger, 2000, p.232).
Sport is based upon an ideal of aggression
and power, which are characteristics of
the ideal of masculinity. Hence, as in the
case of the military, sports organizations
and male sports performers have tried to
negate the well-documented incidence of
homosexuality in the general population
by asserting that the essential sportsmans
values of aggression, toughness and so on
are inherently antithetical to homosexual
desire and conduct (Cashmore, 2000,
p.151). The male world of sports is based

on an ideal masculinity and this essay

describes how masculinity within the
male world of sports causes homophobia.
I will answer the following research
question: How is masculinity a cause for
homophobia in the male world of sports,
especially in the world of football? Sport
is theorized to be one of the last bastions of
cultural and institutional homophobia in
North America (Anderson, 2010, p.13).
MASCULINITY, HOMOSEXUALITY
AND SPORTS INTERLINKED
When one thinks about the world
of sport, one could get the image of big
strong men running around a field with
a ball in their hands or feet; a world
full of strong, sweaty, muscled men.
Of course this image is quite
superficial, but it does refer to the general
idea of masculinity within sports. This
masculinity represents power, the opposite
of weakness. Scholars acknowledge
the particular importance of sports as a
means of demonstrating physical prowess
important to the display and achievement
of hegemonic masculinity (Hasbrook &
Harris, 1999, p.14). In this paragraph I
43

will explain what we exactly mean with

the concept of masculinity and how
masculinity is viewed upon and considered
as an important aspect in the mentality
of sports. Furthermore I will explain
how masculinity can cause homophobia
amongst heterosexual athletes and how this
gets stronger within the world of sports.
MASCULINITY
What exactly is masculinity? It is
difficult to get one answer to this question,
while different theories exist. The nearest
that we can get to an answer is to state
that masculinities are those behaviors,
languages and practices, existing in
specific cultural and organizational
locations, which are commonly associated
with males and thus culturally defined
as not feminine (Whitehead & Barrett,
2001, p.15). In this essay I will make
use of the definition that states that
masculinity had nothing to do with
biological processes, but that it is merely
a cultural process. Masculinity is a set
of fluid social and cultural performances
and as such is not a product, in the
first instance, of our hormonal stage
(Whitehead & Barrett, 2001, p.16).
Generally we see masculinity as an
image of power. In our view, power and
masculinity are relational constructions,
processes of ongoing creation and
action between individuals and political
categories of individuals (Whitehead
& Barrett, 2001, p.17). A specific
kind of masculinity referring to this
is called hegemonic masculinity. ,
the image of masculinity of those men

44

who hold power, which has become the

standard in psychological evaluations,
sociological research, and self-help and
advice literature for teaching young men
to become real men. The hegemonic
definition of manhood is a man in power,
a man with power, and a man of power
(Kimmel, 2001, pp.271-272). Thus in
this essay I discuss masculinity as a sign
of male power, rather caused by social
processes than by biological features.
HOMOSEXUALITY AND
MASCULINITY
Within this ideal of masculinity,
it being a sign of power, is no room
for homosexuality. In taking up these
localized and culturally specific signifying
practices, males achieve an association
with other males and also a differentiation
from the Other not only women but
also those males who appear different
(Whitehead & Barrett, 2001, p.20). From
a masculine perspective, homosexuality
is still seen as different, as not masculine.
The idea of the physical appearance of a
male homosexual does not match with
the ideal appearance of masculinity. To
them homosexuality is synonymous
with physical weakness and emotional
frailty, and the term gay athlete therefore
remains an oxymoron (Anderson, 2010,
p.13). This is not a statement made by
gay men themselves, but mainly by other
men. Masculinity namely causes a certain
fright of the other, of being different. If
masculinity is a homosocial enactment, its
overriding emotion is fear (Kimmel, 2001,
p.276). The most frightening for a man is

Homophobia within the male world of sports

to be not masculine, which is a sign of notions of compulsive heterosexuality

weakness according their own dictionaries. and homophobia reinforced through
To admit weakness, to admit frailty or idealized media images of heroic men
fragility, is to be seen as a wimp, a sissy, (Whitehead & Barrett, 2001, p.19).
not a real man (Kimmel, 2001, p.275).
I have already stated that masculinity SPORTS
is not a biological concept. It is a way of
In general the idea of an absence of
behavior, caused by cultural structures. masculinity amongst homosexuals has
If masculinity is a structure of practice decreased in society, grown with social
that provides resources for
progress. About this
constructing identity, not The idea of the physical
I will elaborate later.
all men have equal access appearance of a male
Although there has been
to the same resources, homosexual does not match progress there is a part
nor do all men seek these with the ideal appearance
of society still sticking
resources
(Whitehead of masculinity.
on to the paradox of
& Barrett, 2001, p.18).
homosexuality
and
This tells us that it is possible to be not masculinity and to homophobia. This
masculine, which is the case, according part of society is the male world of sports.
to heterosexual men, for homosexuals. There can be little doubt that, of all
According to certain heterosexual men fields of popular culture, sport has been
this is the reason why male homosexuals one of the most effective in the making
are not masculine. They claim that and sustaining of supremacist forms of
homosexuality mainly occurs in certain masculinity (Cashmore, 2000, p.151).
social groups. The constructions of these
The ideal of masculinity reflects
social groups does not match the general certainly the male world of sports. On
masculine behavior, therefore it will not the surface, these two statements affirm
develop in a stage of masculinity. But the stereotype of the athlete as a confident
in practical life this statement does not young man at ease with himself and with
seem to be true. Even among gay men, his sexuality among his peers (Messner,
however, varieties of masculine identity 2001, p.255). On a superficial level male
exist (Whitehead & Barrett, 2001, p.18). athletes are seen as strong, masculine men.
The term masculinity contradicts The ideal of masculinity and the belief
itself. On the one hand the definition that homosexuality is its opposite counts
says that everyone can develop towards even more within the world of sports.
masculinity, but on the other hand the According to homophobic male athletes,
idea does not match with the idea of homosexuality within sports will lead to
homosexuality. In short, masculinity is a decrease of the ideal masculinity. The
rife with contradictions. For example, institution produces an orthodox form
hegemonic masculinity depends upon of masculinity that is rigid and exclusive

45

for many types of men and most women.

It is predicated upon homophobia and
misogyny and is even theorized to be
crucial to the reproduction of patriarchy in
American culture (Anderson, 2010, p.13).
Homosexuals also give a possibility to
criticize something, which strengthens the
confidence of male, heterosexual athletes.
The image of gays serves a useful purpose
in the world of gender politics by providing
an object to be criticized and contrasted
with the ideal of athletic manliness
(Harry, 1995, p.110). By criticizing the
other one makes the position of the
own stronger. The bound between male
athletes can be seen as rather homosocial,
being friends and strengthening their
masculinity. We are under the constant
careful scrutiny of other men. Other
men watch us, rank us, grant our
acceptance into the realm of manhood.
Manhood is demonstrated for other
mens approval (Kimmel, 2001, p.275).
The world of sports was rather seen
as a place to prevent homosexuality, by
reuniting in masculine circles, rather than
a place where homosexuality got accepted.
Organized sport, as it arose in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
was based in part on a Victorian anti-sexual
ethic. First, it was believed that homosocial
institutions such as sport would
masculinize young males in an otherwise
feminized culture, thus preventing
homosexuality (Messner, 2001, p.257).
Some male heterosexual athletes even
go one step further. They claim that because
of the extensive link between masculinity
and sports, homosexuality in sports is a rare

46

given, almost impossible even. According

to them the characteristics of a gay male
do not match with the characteristics of
an athlete, therefore there does not exist
such a thing as a gay athlete. In fact,
sport remains so homophobic that many
(ostensibly heterosexual) athletes maintain
that the hyper-masculinity exhibited in
sports nullifies the possibility of gays even
existing in their space, even though they
are well aware that gay men exist in large
numbers in the culture at large (Anderson,
2010, p.13). To make it more clear:
according to them there does not have
to be acceptance towards homosexuality
within the world of sports, mainly because
there exists no such thing to be accepted.
Male sports ideology is strongly
linked to an ideal of masculinity. We
have stated that homosexuality is not
generally matched with this ideal of
masculinity, because of its feminine
features.
Therefore
homophobia
strengthens within the world of sports.
DIFFERENCE MAN VS. WOMAN
So masculinities exist as both a
positive, inasmuch as they offer some
means of identity signification for males,
and as a negative, inasmuch as they are
not the Other (feminine) (Whitehead
& Barrett, 2001, p.16). But what is the
acceptance towards homosexuality in
the world of the sports of this other,
the female world of sports. If the
homophobia within sports is linked to
the fright of a decrease of masculinity,
does this mean that the homophobia will
not occur in the female world of sports?

Homophobia within the male world of sports

It was found that sport ideology is they would also subscribe to an associated
positively associated with sexist and anti- ideology of sexism and male dominance.
homosexual attitudes, but only among Whether sports ideology is also associated
males. Among females only sexist attitudes with anti-homosexual attitudes among
were associated with negative attitudes women is arguable since that association
towards gays and lesbians. Among might also require a sexist interpretation
males, the link of sports ideology to anti- of sports. We expect little association
homosexual attitudes was independent of between sports ideology and sexism
sexist beliefs (Harry, 1995, p.109). This among women (Harry, 1995, p.110).
quote tells us that there is a difference
As there is a contradiction between
between the interpretation of the male homosexuality and masculinity, there
and female perspective on homosexuality is a contradiction between females and
in sports, but why is this the case? masculinity. Male homosexuals and
The homophobic perspective of the women are, so to speak, on the same
male athlete was linked to the fact that side. Historically and developmentally,
male homosexuals show characteristics masculinity has been defined as the
of femininity, decreasing the masculinity. flight for women, repudiation of
Masculinity, in this model, is irrevocably femininity (Kimmel, 2001, p.273).
tied to sexuality (Kimmel, 2001, p.273).
Female gay athletes would be more
This perspective is rather sexist, assuming likely to get accepted, because of their
that a woman would be less adequate for lack of ideal masculinity. The theory of a
doing sports, than a man. Together with link between masculinity and sports even
the male homosexual athletes, female gets an entire different reaction in the
athletes are also included in the offense. female sports world. Whereas male gay
According to the female athletes this athletes are accused of being too feminine
sexist view is the problem of homophobia, are female athletes accused of being too
which has as a result that the homophobia masculine. This has as a cause that female
will not exist as extensively in the female athletes are soon to be seen as gay, because
world of sports as it
of their masculine
The homophobic perspective of characteristics. For
does in the male world
of sports. In more the male athlete was linked to
women, sport is a
recent years women the fact that male homosexuals much more dangerous
have come to see a show characteristics of
place
one
where
place for themselves in femininity, decreasing the
femininity is brought
sports. This may mean masculinity.
into question. Being
that they have come to
too physical or tough
subscribe more to sports ideology, i.e. sport casts doubts on ones heterosexuality
is good for you. If so, it seems dubious that (Cashmore, 2000, p.151). This point

47

causes an entire new discussion about

gender rules, but this will distract me from
responding to my research question of this
essay, therefore I also have to leave out the
subject of the transgendered sex. The only
relevant point for my essay is that the
contradiction towards homosexuals in the
female world of sports compared to the
male world of sports proves my point of
the ideal of masculinity being the cause of
homophobia in the male world of sports.
DIFFERENCE FOOTBALL AND
GYMNASTICS
There is a possibility that the
acceptance rage is difference within
different sports. I will name some causes
for this difference, linking it to my main
cause of homophobia: masculinity. I will
limit myself to only two sports. I will
compare the acceptance of homosexuality
within the world of football to the
acceptance within the world of gymnastics.
First of all I should state that it can
be quite hard to compare one sport to
another. The word sport obviously refers
to a vast array of activities, institutions,
and often contested sociocultural
practices, and this makes it very difficult
to speak of it generically (Pronger, 2000,
p.235). Every sport demands its own
specifications, which has as a consequence
that each sport can look differently
towards the need for an ideal masculinity.
The ideal of masculinity thus again
pops up in this comparison. After the
previous paragraphs we might state that
the grade of acceptance is connected to the

48

image of masculinity linked to the specific

sport. Gymnastics is generally seen as
less masculine, which has as a result that
chances for acceptance could be higher.
There is no reputation of masculinity
that needs to be kept. Football however
expects a more masculine approach. This
difference in level of masculinity can be
caused by a difference in competitiveness.
Nevertheless, there are some elements
to competitive sport, ways in which
organizes, the body that are preponderant
and relatively stable (Pronger, 2000,
p.235). Competitiveness can lead to
aggression, which can be a characteristic
of power measurements, which is a
characteristic of masculinity. Football
is more directly competitive, while
the opponent is right in front of you.
EVOLUTION
Being in the middle of an environment
where culture towards homosexuality is
changing it is impossible to stand still and
not flow even a little bit along with the
mainstream. In other words, if everything
changes around sport, sport will either
have to change or it will lose its social
significance and be viewed as a vestige of an
archaic model of masculinity (Anderson,
2005, p.16). This change is visible: In
short, the research data disseminated in
this book leads me to maintain that the
hegemony sport once maintained over
the production of orthodox masculinity
is not seamless and that it is under
contestation. Gay athletes represent
that challenge (Anderson, 2010, p.16).
Even in the world of sports changes

Homophobia within the male world of sports

have been made: Although mainstream upon homophobia, and homophobia is

sport still may be overwhelming the chief policing agent against behaviors
homophobic and sexist, it could be argued coded as feminine, then the reduction
that the development over the last 20 years of cultural homophobia would lead to
of extensive networks of lesbians and gay a significant change to the manner in
community sporting activities signifies which masculinity is both constructed
progress for sexual minorities in the arena of and maintained (Anderson, 2010, p.14).
physical activity (Pronger, 1990, p.225).
We could wonder if there is not
However, we can see that the changes some kind of compromise between
are rather made from the perspective of the masculine heterosexual and the
the male gay athlete, than from the side homosexual. In contemporary Western
of the heterosexual homophobic athlete society this compromise can be found
or supporter. Gay
in the form of the
community
sports Masculinity is the main cause
metrosexual man. A
organizations
have of homophobia within the
metrosexual is said to
made concerted efforts male world of sports, because it represent a heterosexual
to change the social causes the fear of getting weak. male who permits
organization of sports,
himself to act in
so they are more inclusive of lesbians culturally ascribed gay ways (Anderson,
and gay men (Pronger, 2000, p.231). 2010, p.15). The question is whether this
We can also see that the homosexual metrosexual will occur also within the
athlete combines its resistance towards male world of sports and whether it really
male homophobic sports culture diminishes the homophobia or if it will
with resistance towards a rather sexist give an opportunity for gay athletes to hide
perspective within sports. Many gay behind the image of being a metrosexual.
community sports groups have gone out of
their way to stress inclusiveness, regardless
After this essay I can state that
of ability, age, gender, race, class, and masculinity is the main cause of
sexual orientation (Pronger, 2000, p.231). homophobia within the male world of
Actual changes on the side of the sports, because it causes the fear of getting
male heterosexual athlete will remain weak. Here, homosexuality is still seen as
to be difficult, because it means that the the weak version of a real man, and thus
entire image of masculinity needs to be not adequate sport material. If the ideal of
reshaped. If masculinity is predicated masculinity is not present, the homophobia

49

decreases. This happens in situations

where a less masculine ideal is applied,
such as with female gay athletes and less
masculine sports, such as gymnastics.
Interviews tell us that gay athletes still feel
very uncomfortable and until that remains
to be the case one need to find a solution
for this intolerance. One should try to
show that masculinity and homosexuality
does not always have to be an opposition.

We should be aware that the intolerance

comes from the heterosexual male athlete
and gets stronger by the sports fan. Gay
athletes do try to resist this intolerance,
but the only changes that can be made is
to decrease the ideal of masculinity. If the
paradox of masculinity and homosexuality
is set aside, homophobia within the
male world of sports will diminish.

Reference List:
Anderson, E. (2010). In the Game: Gay Athletes and the Cult of Masculinity. New York: Suny Press.
| Cashmore, E. (2001). Sports Culture. An A-Z Guide. London: Routledge. | Harry, J. (1995). Sports
Ideology, Attitudes Toward Women, and Anti-Homosexual Attitudes. In Frieze I.H. (Eds.). Sex Roles. A
Journal of Research. DeKalb: Northern Illionois University. pp.109-116. | Hasbrook, C.A., & Harris,
O. (1999). Wrestling with Gender: Physicality and Masculinities among Inner-City First and Second Graders.
Men and Masculinities, 1, 302 318. | Kimmel, M.S. (2001). Masculinity as Homophobia: Fear, Shame,
and Silence in the Construction of Gender Identity. In Whitehead, S.M., & Barrett, F.J. The Masculinities
Reader. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc. pp.266 287. | Majors, R. (2001). Cool Pose: Black Masculinity
and Sports. In Whitehead, S.M., & Barrett, F.J. The Masculinities Reader. Malden: Blackwell Publishers
Inc. pp.209-218. | Messner, M.A. (2001). Friendship, Intimacy, and Sexuality. In Whitehead, S.M., & Barrett,
F.J. The Masculinities Reader. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc. pp. 253 265. | Pronger, B. (1990).
The Arena of Maculinity: Sports, Homosexuality, and the Meaning of Sex. New York: St.
Martins. | Pronger, B. (2000). Homosexuality and Sports: Whos Winning? In Mckay, J. & Messner, M.A. &
Sabo, D. Masculinities, Gender Relations, and Sport. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. pp.222
244. | Whitehead, S.M., & Barrett, F.J. (2001). The Masculinities Reader. Malden: Blackwell Publishers
Inc.

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Advertisement

51

52

Retrieved from http://jordanandeddie.files.wordpress.com/2014/05/poster-a-clockwork-orange-2.jpg

The Educative
Violence of
Demented
Laboratory Rats

essay

Jakob Zeijl

TIME placed A Clockwork Orange

(ACO) on 9th place on their list of the Top
Ten Most Ridiculously Violent Movies and
as I watched it, my initial reaction was one
of admiration. I admired the way violence
was aestheticized in ACO; whereas violence
is condemned and considered repulsive in
every-day life, in ACO I had the feeling
of watching something of sublime beauty.
The fact that I was enjoying violence
got me thinking. My ethical framework
seemed to be partially shut down by
this film. My initial reaction was one of
aesthetic admiration and only after some
time did my moral framework evaluate
the happenings on screen. In everyday
life, people shun violence. This raised the
following questions: What is so special
about ACO that makes violence enjoyable?
The content is deeply immoral but is it after
all appropriate to assess artworks morally?

Is art allowed to glorify violence? If it is

allowed, is it also ethical to glorify violence?
This paper investigates how Kubrick
manages to seduce viewers into admiring
something which is usually despised and
evaluates the relationship between art and
morality by using ACO as a case study.
Firstly, it will be argued that the viewer
is alienated from the happenings on the
screen by formal features of the movie
and by the impact of the argot Nadsat.
Being alienated, one can enjoy the beauty
of violence and our aesthetic perception
beats our moral evaluation. The aesthetic
depiction of violence prompts the
next questions, namely in how far it is
morally appropriate to present violence
in an enjoyable way, whether it is after
all appropriate to assess artworks morally
and whether artistic freedom should
go as far as aestheticizing violence. In

53

order to provide a structured approach VIOLENCE FROM A VANTAGE

to that question, autonomism and POINT
ACO is a punch in the face to the
moralism will be discussed. A moderate
autonomist point of view will be endorsed contemporary moral framework. What
by referring to Carrolls clarificationist is being shown is completely immoral,
view. It will be argued that in certain yet one is not led to an instantaneous
cases it is appropriate to evaluate art on rejection of the depicted. Instead, one
a moral level and that the aestheticized instinctively marvels at the beauty of the
violence in ACO helps us to deepen our horrible scenes and only later does one
moral understanding and to re-evaluate think about the ethical implications.
abstract moral precepts. Moreover, by Kubrick invites us to admire violence by
aestheticizing and decontextualizing adopting a very detached style. By using an
violence, a more substantial debate about extreme wide-angle lens, the perspectives
are exaggerated which
violence is enabled.
The clarificationist Kubrick uses explicit techniques has a strange effect as
Barr (1972) argues.
view provides a of alienation in order to portray
generous
account the willing and joyful destruction One has the feeling
of extreme proximity
of artistic freedom, of humans as an aesthetic
and of alienation at
something which is pleasure.
the same time (p.22).
widely endorsed in
our society. Recently, however, the notion This effect of alienation is amplified by
of artistic freedom is being criticized. Kubricks repeated use of hand-held shots
Virilio wrote a compassionate attack depicting violent combat from bizarre
on contemporary art in which he draws angles, creating a comical depiction.
parallels between dismembered body Sometimes when Kubrick shows Alex,
parts in art and science. He complains he uses a wide-angle lens and places
about the profanation of bodies in avant- Alex in the middle, so that he alone
garde art and links this profanation to seems normal whereas the proportions
Nazi concentration camps. Virilio attacks of other characters get distorted. Another
the notion of artistic freedom and claims factor contributing to the alienation is
that in the name of artistic freedom, all the artificial argot Nadsat. Even though
pity is eliminated from contemporary some words are easily translatable,
art. This paper argues that even though at some points one has the feeling of
Virilio has some valid points, ACO does learning a completely new language.
not fit into his concept of pitiless art, Instead of evaluating the happenings on
because it is a pitiful film par excellence. screen, one is being forced into the role
of an excluded and alienated translator.
The formal features of the film and

54

The Educative Violence of Demented Laboratory Rats

the use of Nadsat amount to a distanced

depiction of violence. The viewers are
free to sit back and enjoy the aesthetic
kicks of sex and violence presented
balletically (p. 28). Whereas the critics
seem to endorse this cold gaze, Barr
criticises it and claims that it is more
immoral, than almost anything I have
seen precisely because it is so distanced
from what one knows it to be like, from
its emotional and physical feel (p. 28).
In summary, one has a pitiless juvenile
delinquent as object of identification in a
movie that
aestheticizes violence
to such an extent that the usual moral
evaluation is partially shut down. This
interplay raises questions concerning
the status of art. Is it morally acceptable
for art to aestheticize violence? On a
more basic level, is it even appropriate
to assess artworks morally? If yes,
how far does artistic freedom reach?
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
ACO was condemned, and in some
cases even banned due to its extreme
depiction of violence, because it invited
the viewers to sympathize with a
sociopath. This philosophy of art is called
moralism and holds in its most extreme
form that the artistic value of an artwork is
determined solely by its moral dimension.
Moralism sees art as an instrument
of moral education. One of the first
moralists was Plato who rebuked art for
being mimetic, meaning only mirroring

reality and stated that the identification

process involved in art destabilizes the
personality of the consumer. Moreover,
he claimed that art undermined the
reign of reason by aiming at emotions.
Diametrically opposed to the
moralistic view, autonomism beliefs the
artistic and moral spheres to be separate,
implying that the moral content of an
artwork does not impact its aesthetic
value. Autonomists claim that art cannot
be a moral educator because a moral
dimension is not a common denominator
of all artworks. Problems with both
theories are obvious: Plato greatly
overstated the impact of art on behaviour.
Moreover, the opposition between reason
and emotion is not as grave as Plato
assumed (compare Carroll, 1998, p. 131).
As for Autonomism, it seems counterintuitive to separate art from every other
human activity since art is not produced
in a vacuum but emerges from the thick
of life. Additionally, since art relates to
the external world, in order to understand
an artwork one needs ones knowledge
of the real world, including ones
moral reasoning. For example, without
knowledge of the obligation to protect
your family and of the obligation to
follow divine commands, Agamemnons
dilemma is unintelligible for us. Carroll
states that the common-denominator
argument has a point but that does not
imply that it is not appropriate to assess
some artworks morally. Some artworks are
engaging exactly because they challenge
our moral reasoning and for those, a

55

moral evaluation makes sense (pp. 136ff). presenting violence in an enjoyable way,
In order to understand a narrative we the viewers are made willing accomplices
have to use many beliefs and emotions of Alex. By making Alex an object of
that we employ in our everyday life, thus identification, the viewers might be incited
a narrative does not teach us something to copy him. However, the message is not
new but rather it activates the knowledge as easy as that. ACO forces us to deal with
and emotions, moral and otherwise, our abstract moral precepts in extreme
that we already possess (p. 141). situations. Violence is largely dismissed
This conception of the relation of in our society but the question of how far
art to morality is called clarificationist one should go in order to prevent it is still
view and holds that we do not acquire as disputed as it was in the 70s. Alex free
new, interesting propositional knowledge will is severely damaged by the aversion
from artworks, but rather that the therapy for the greater good of society and
artworks in question can deepen our debates about a trade-off between personal
moral understanding by, among other rights and wider security still strike a
things, encouraging us to apply our very familiar chord. ACO constructs a
moral
knowledge ACO encourages us to think
fictional case and asks
and
emotions
to
the viewer whether a
about the implication of the
specific cases (p. 142).
person being forced to
The
clarificationist existence of human wickedness. do good is better than
view is based on a distinction between a person voluntarily choosing evil. The
knowledge and understanding. We movie encourages us to think about the
might already know abstract principles implication of the existence of human
but a good artwork advances our wickedness. Most movies present violence
understanding of them, meaning that as abhorrent which is reassuring but too
they are refined and made intelligible simple. ACO goes one step further and asks
by applying them appropriately. Thus, how far we should go in order to suppress
moral engagement with an artwork is aggression. Pulitzer Prize winner Roger
positive when our moral understanding Ebert wrote a scathing review of ACO
is deepened and engagement is negative based on Alex psychology. Ebert does not
when our moral understanding is understand that Alex not only represents
perverted. Therefore it is not only natural a villain but also, and more importantly,
to discuss artworks in terms of moral the concept of absolute freedom. Taming
considerations but there are also certain that freedom constitutes an act of force.
grounds for a moral assessment of art. Kubrick implies that if someone is willing
In which category does ACO belong? to defend the invulnerability of personal
Does it pervert our moral understanding freedom and free will, one must consider
or does it advance it? At first glance, it its dark sides as well and has to account
seems to mislead moral understanding: by for the possibility of human wickedness.

56

The Educative Violence of Demented Laboratory Rats

By aesthetizicizing violence, Kubrick

circumvents our usual rejection of it. A
rapid rejection of violence is reassuring but
ultimately too easy since we cannot simply
wish it away. Condemning violence is one
thing, but doing something about it is
another one and one step on that ladder is
to explore the motives and impulses that
drive people into violence. By presenting
violence that is not instantly condemned
by the viewer, Kubrick enables a more
substantial engagement with violence
instead of provoking a rapid rejection. All
the tension characterizing the movie, such
as freedom versus security, voluntarily
choosing evil versus being forced to be
good and individual rights versus group
rights, are held at balance. If viewers were
led to a rapid rejection of violence, this
balance would collapse and our moral
framework would not be challenged.
The clarificationist view grants a lot
of artistic freedom to the artist since the
artist is free in his way of clarifying moral
precepts. The notion of artistic freedom
is widely upheld in our society and it
seems that almost anything could be done
as long as it is disguised as art. Recently,
however, the notion of artistic freedom
is criticized by scholars, such as Virilio.
HUMANITYS SUICIDAL
TENDENCIES AND THE
CHRISTIAN MESSAGE IN A
CLOCKWORK ORANGE
Virilio (2003) laments the profanation
of forms and bodies in contemporary
art over the course of the 20th century
and directly links the horrors of the

concentration camps to contemporary

art and transgenic practices. He claims
that through the carnage of the two
world wars, modern art has developed
a taste for alienation and anti-human
cruelty. In his eyes, contemporary art is
essentially pitiless and emotionless. In the
name of artistic freedom, contemporary
art is embarking on an aesthetic terrorist
program murdering the signs of artistic
pity. Having broken the taboos of
suffocating bourgeois culture, we are now
supposed to break the being [. . .] (p. 55).
As an example, he refers to von Hagens
exhibition The World of Bodies which he
labels terminal art that no longer requires
anything apart from a showdown between
a tortured body and a camera. But this
was just the latest step in a development
starting the 18th century with the kind of
medical arts started by Dr Duchenne who
electrocuted faces of human guinea pigs in
order to study and take pictures of facial
expressions. This scientific voyeurism
annihilates the brutal truth of reality and
is powerless to express the actual extent of
human suffering. Moreover, it leads to the
self-alienation of humankind which has
reached such a level that humanity can
now experience its own destruction as
aesthetic pleasure of first order (Armitage,
2003, p. 22). Furthermore he argues
that total artistic freedom devalues art
because there is no value without limits,
a point comparable to Dantos (1998).
Virilios style of writing resembles
Nietzsches, however, Virilio proves to
be more hammer than philosopher. As
Armitage (2003) pointed out, Virilios

57

constant search for innovative body Alex has become. One suffers with Alex
artists and other multimedia projects when he is unable to defend himself,
led to wrong accusations (p. 20). when his parents tell him that he is no
Moreover, Virilio pleas for a return from longer welcome in their flat and when
presentational to representational art he is tortured by the government critics.
and draws a connection between todays The movie tests the viewers capacity for
presentational art and fascism in order pity to the maximum. In the end, we
to launch his critique on avant-garde pity someone we would usually despise.
movements. In doing so, he neglects
Through his scientific depiction of
the fact that the Nazi-regime brutally violence, Kubrick manages to disentangle
persecuted avant-garde artists in order to our aesthetic from our moral responses
promote state-approved representational to ACO. Violence is freed from its usual
art. However, Virilios plea is persuasive container of moral consideration what
and he does have some points. There is grants us access to other lines of thought
a trend in contemporary art to depict and alternative modes of dealing with
violence ever more graphically. Does issues like freedom and violence itself.
ACO fit into Virlios category of pitiless According to the clarificationist view,
art in the sense that
some
artworks
are
it portrays antisocial ACO challenges our
intriguing
exactly
trends disguised as art? usual moral framework
because they engage our
by providing an extreme
moral reasoning, and
At first glance, many scenario against which our
therefore, it is intelligible
of Virilios remarks abstract moral precepts can
to assess those artworks
about
contemporary be measured.
morally. An artwork
art seem to fit to ACO.
is praiseworthy when
By opting for a cold gaze, Kubrick gives it refines and substantiates our moral
the feeling of a scientist observing the reasoning and condemnable when it
behaviour of demented laboratory rats perverts it. ACO engages our moral
(Melly quoted in Barr, 1972, p. 27) with reasoning in a qualified way; it not only
the viewer taking voyeuristic pleasure in engages moral understanding but also
violence. However that may be, ACO does challenges it by providing an extreme
not belong Virilios class of pitiless art. scenario against which our abstract
Quite the contrary, it is a pitiful film par moral precepts can be measured. By
excellence. Even though one is shocked aestheticizing violence, the viewer is
by Alex deeds, one feels sympathy for deterred from an outright rejection of
him by the time the doctors screw their violence what enables a more substantial
clamps on his eyes. Finally, when one discussion about violence. Virilios Art
sees the result of the aversion therapy, and Fear might be blunt instrument,
one commiserates with the machine but some of his arguments cannot be

58

The Educative Violence of Demented Laboratory Rats

denied. There is more of the Baudelarian

contingent in contemporary art but his
assessment is launched from a subjective
point of view. Art does not initiate social
trends, it merely mirrors them. Virilios
and Dantos account of the declining value
of art due to total artistic freedom have to
be kept in mind. However, ACO does
not fit into Virilios account of pitiless art.
By showing that a vile human being can
also be an object of pity, Kubrick not only
tests our capacity for pity but also shows

that humans cannot be categorized in a

Manichean manner. In this sense, viewers
might reinterpret their categorization of
humans into good and bad, and think
about how deep abstract principles are
allowed to penetrate their lives. It is not
in the scope of this paper to provide an
answer to those questions, that task is
given to the viewers. This paper merely
argued that the aestheticized violence
is an appropriate way of raising them.

Reference List:
Armitage, J. (2003). Art and Fear: An Introduction, in P. Virilio, Art and Fear. Trans. J. Rose. London and
New York: Continuum. | Barr, C. (1972). Straw Dogs, A Clockwork Orange and the Critics. Screen, 13 (2). |
Carroll, N. (1998). Art, narrative, and moral understanding. In Levinson (Eds.). Aesthetics
and Ethics. Essays at the Intersection. (pp.126-155). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | Danto,
A. C. (1998). Dangerous Art. Beyond the Brillo Box. Visual Arts in post-historical perspective.
(pp.179-196). Berkely: University of California Press. | Kubrick, S. (1971). A Clockwork Orange. Warner
Bros. | Virilio, P. (2003). Art and Fear. London: Continuum.

59

MaRBLe
THE MARBLE PROGRAM AT
FASOS OF WHICH THIS VOLUME
OF MOSAEK IS THE FINAL
OUTCOME.
FASoS has two forms of excellence
programs: Marble and the Honors
program. Marble-projects are part of the
curriculum; the Honors program is on
top of it. Both programs are for European
Studies students as well as Arts &
Culture/Cultuurwetenschappen students.
Marble aims at introducing researchelements in the program. The main
element of Marble are the 18 ECTS third
year projects, in which the students follow
the complete research trajectory, ending
up in a bachelor. These projects lead every
year to publication of one or two of the
best theses in an academic journal or
yearbook. They also aim at valorization
of knowledge, meaning that outside
partners are interested in the results. These
projects are selective: the best 25% based
on GPA will receive a direct invitation,
but also other, highly motivated students
might enroll. It is important though, that
students do not lag too much behind
in completing their regular courses.

60

To prepare students for research and

research culture, three Marble-elements
are embedded in the first two years: the
Academic Skills course of the first year
A&C/CW which teaches the students to
analyze texts based on research, a selective
methodology project of 6 ECTS both for
ES and AC/CW in the 6th period of the
second year - as a kind of summer school
in which the students are trained in a
number of methodologies like archival
research, newspaper analysis, oral history
and visual analysis and lastly the Research
& Writing Course of the second year
AC/CW. By focusing on peer reviewing
and publication of the best papers, the
students are immersed in a research
culture. Hopefully they will feel the thrill
of the possibility of being published
and what it entails to prepare for that.
Students who have successfully
finished the methodology summer
school will be automatically admitted
to the Marble-projects of the third
year, irrespective of their grade.
Pieter Calj (Marble coordinator FASoS)