Durham E-Theses

The problem of objectivity in sociology and its

implications for explanation
Clarke, M. J.

How to cite:

Clarke, M. J. (1972)

The problem of objectivity in sociology and its implications for explanation, Durham

theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7940/

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MJc CLARKE - PhD THESIS, 1 9 7 2

ABSTRACT

1)

I f men define their situations as r e a l , they are r e a l i n their conseq=

uenceSo

2)

I t i s not the consciousness of men which determines their being, but

rather their social being that determines their consciousness.

I f ( 1 ) i s true, societies are s o c i a l products inexplicable except i n

terms of their definitions.

But these vary with time and place

Many men

are aware of the possible r e a l consequences of definitions alternative to

those prevailing, which hence are associated with potential conflict and
necessarily have evaluative aspects.
culture i s a value concept"

Hence Weber asserts "The concept of

This implies ( i ) any s o c i a l situation which

i s described has a value to those described and to the describer; ( i i ) any

theory used to compare and explain s o c i a l situations w i l l also have evaluative
implications

Sociology i s concerned v/ith investigating prevailing definit-

ions with a view to providing "better" oneso

I f ( 2 ) i s true i t contradicts ( 1 ) , since i t implies the s u p e r f i c i a l i t y

of definitions i n social changeo

But t h i s depends upon the sense of "determines".

I t cannot mean "directly determines", because action mediates consciousness,

"Determines" i s thus weakened to mean that men's ideas s t a r t from their habitual
s o c i a l practice; hence consciousness must be seen i n relation to social being

This s t i l l allows the importance of human definitions i n their consequences for

s o c i a l r e a l i t y and i n s o c i a l change.

I f being determined consciousness

directly, change could come only through changes i n the physical situation,
( 2 ) therefore only implies the existence of continuities between changing
definitions.
Hence sociology must always recognize and cannot ultimately objectively
transcend the actors' definitions.
currently e x i s t s

I t can only explain s o c i a l r e a l i t y as i t

I t cannot predict change except by predicting those fresh

definitions which w i l l implement i t , and i t cannot predict these though i t may

sometimes be able to indicate their general nature.
p a r t i a l l y dissimilar to natural science.

Sociology i s thus

M.J.

CLARICE o

The Problem of O b j e c t i v i t y i n S o c i o l o g y
and i t s I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i i x p l a n a t i o n .

Ph.D.

Thesis, 1 9 7 2 .

U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.

No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged.

C O N T E N T S ,

Chapter 1 .

Introduction,

Chapter 2 .

Max Weber:

Chapter

Understanding,

Value

Relevance,

Chap t e r k

Explanation,

Chapter 5

Tfhat i s S o c i a l

Chapter 6 ,

Marxism and t h e S o c i o l o g y o f Knoitfledge,

C h a p t e r 7 <

O b j e c t i v i t y and i i x p l a n a t i o n .

Appendix

The M e t h o d o l o g i c a l
Thesis".

Structure?

s t a t u s o f "The Weber

P R E F A C E .

T h i s work h a s

i t s o r i g i n s i n my

a s an u n d e r g r a d u a t e and my
s l o w l y became c l e a r to me
monolithic

'scientific'

which reached

first

experiences

of

y e a r s a s a g r a d u a t e , when i t

t h a t the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h

style

of t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t

what was

wrong i n i t s p r a c t i c e , i t became a p p a r e n t

just

really

f o r a time

sufficient

efforts,

of

to p o i n t

the a s p i r a t i o n s of t h i s k i n d of

i t s practical

1960's

of t h a t k i n d

sociology

not

W h i l s t i t was

criticisms

the

studies

t h e i r peak of development i n the e a r l y

amounted t o more t h a n n e g a t i v e

t h a t i t was

sociology

by

degrees

sociology,

t h a t xvere misguided,,

This

s t u d y i s a c c o r d i n g l y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
a l t e r n a t i v e view of the s o c i o l o g i c a l
t e r m s of t h e a t t i t u d e i t h a s
Rather

than emphasising

those

t o w a r d s i t s o b j e c t o f study
a s p e c t s of human a c t i o n w h i c h

of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , I have t r i e d

and

t h a t men

on to t h o s e

to d e v e l o p

t h a t a c t i o n s be

assumed to be

that

the d i s t i n c t i v e

I n my

v i e w i t i s o n l y by

conscious

o r not

going
at

taking this position

f e a t u r e s of a c t i o n c a n be

at a l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y o

lines

only then

s i t u a t i o n s were t h i s i s o n l y p a r t i a l l y ,

the c a s e

the

a methodology w h i c h

be c r e d i t e d w i t h minds to make up,

all,

an

enterprise, defined i n

make i t amenable to s t u d y a s p a t t e r n e d e v e n t s a l o n g

s t a r t s from the p r i n c i p l e

out

taken account

of

It

i s difficult

t o s a y how

much o f the r e s u l t

i s my

own.

I n many r e s p e c t s i t i s an a t t e m p t t o s y n t h e s i s e the comments

and

c r i t i c i s m s t h a t have b e e n made from a l l q u a r t e r s

s o c i o l o g i c a l methodology i n t h e l a s t
a t t e m p t o u t l i n e o f a s y n t h e s i s , and
support

i t , a r e c h i e f l y my

to a t t e m p t t h i s and

own,

I certainly

ten y e a r s

o f f e r them a t t h i s

any

s t a g e not

the
to

I am by no means the
s h a l l not be

the l a s t

first
My

o f w h i c h I am v e r y

from l a c k o f c l a r i t y

aware

o n l y b e c a u s e i n the c o n t e x t

ongoing d i s c i p l i n e , a c l a i m to f i n a l i t y i s a b s u r d ,

b e c a u s e I have r e a c h e d

by

But

the arguments I use

e f f o r t s t h u s have a p r o v i s i o n a l n a t u r e
I

on

of

but

a p o i n t a t w h i c h the a b s u r d i t i e s d e r i v i n g

i n conception

and

expression are

the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y ,

balanced

were I t o go

on

and work out i n more d e t a i l t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

the

v a r i o u s p o i n t s I make <,

But

internally

I t i s w i t h t h e need f o r s o c i o l o g y t o

consistent

I do hope t h a t what I p r e s e n t i s

have a c o n s i s t e n t and w o r k a b l e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
I

am most

foundation

a s my

s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h i n k i n g about t h i s

q u e s t i o n o f the o b j e c t i v i t y o f s o c i o l o g y , a m a t t e r
not

only i n t r i n s i c a l l y

interesting,

but

a s a p o i n t o f f r i c t i o n between t h o s e who
a s a s c i e n c e and
claim,,

that

concerned,,

I used

t h o s e who

had

which i s

a l s o has a l o n g
would see

the

history

sociology

d o u b t s about the wisdom o f

this

More i m p o r t a n t l y i t p r o v e d v a l u a b l e a s a probe f o r

d i g g i n g i n t o the s u b j e c t and
differences.

clarifying

the e x t e n t o f

A c c o r d i n g l y q u e s t i o n s o f v a l u e s and

the

the
nature

3.

of o b j e c t i v i t y

constitute

theme, w h i c h I have t r i e d

not a s i n g l e

topic but a r e c u r r e n t

to e x p l a i n , i n a s o c i a l

scientific

methodologyo
In

this

context,

some comment on t h e i n v o l v e m e n t

own v a l u e s and p e r s o n a l i t y i n my w r i t i n g i s c a l l e d

o f my

for

On

a s u b j e c t o f s u c h g e n e r a l i t y i t i s more t h a n u s u a l l y d i f f i c u l t
to be p r e c i s e about t h e n a t u r e
are

o f p e r s o n a l committments => t h e r e

no o b v i o u s p o l i c y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t h a t f o l l o w f o r example,

There i s l i t t l e

t h a t I c a n u s e f u l l y add t o what I t h i n k w i l l be

obvious to the readers

an ( a t times

what i s sometimes known a s b o u r g e o i s

s c e p t i c a l ) acceptance
individualism5

sympathy w i t h M a r x i s m b u t a n i n a b i l i t y
reluctant belief
political

i n moral r e l a t i v i s m ;

these matters

considerable

t o embrace i t ; a
and a p o s i t i o n on t h e

spectrum which i s u s u a l l y n e b u l o u s l y

left-liberal.

of

described as

Where p e r s o n a l i t y ends and c h o i c e b e g i n s i n

I c o n f e s s I cannot t e l l

a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n matters
which a reasonable

- n o r do I t h i n k t h a t t h e

What does i s t h e e x t e n t t o

d i s c u s s i o n of g e n e r a l i s s u e s

Many p e o p l e have h e l p e d

and t h e r e b y

c a n be attempted,,

i n f l u e n c e d me.

In

r e a d i n g J o c k Young's r e c e n t book The Drugtakers"*", I was s t r u c k

at

the extent

to which i t echoes a t the l e v e l

empirical issues
have t r i e d
it
I

concerned

of p a r t i c u l a r

w i t h drug t a k i n g , matters

t o d e a l w i t h a t a g e n e r a l level

that I

I n some r e s p e c t s

c o u l d be r e a d a s a n e x t e n d e d example o f t h e k i n d o f methodology
proposeo

R e a d i n g t h e book made me r e a l i s e

participants at several

how much I owe t o

s e s s i o n s of the National

Deviancy

4.

Conference.
his detailed

In particular,

I am

grateful

comments on C h a p t e r F i v e and

to S t a n Cohen f o r
f o r a c t i n g as

my

s u p e r v i s o r f o r a s h o r t period,,
I

am

o v e r two

a l s o i n d e b t e d t o J o h n Rex
y e a r s a s my

s u p e r v i s o r and

over i n the f i n a l y e a r ,

I am

to M a r t i n Albrow f o r t h e i r
my
But

work and

In

g r a t e f u l too t o G i Baldamus

s y m p a t h e t i c comments on a d r a f t

the f i n a l

sharpened

s t a g e s the r e v i s i o n o f t h e work was

y e a r s spent working

company o f Mike S t a n t , I a n P r o c t e r and

t i n g a s I d i d and

I owe

support

e n l i v e n e d and
The

study

on i t i n t h e

P a u l C o r r i g a n and

the e x p e r i e n c e as i n t e l l e c t u a l l y

that

they w i l l

u n i n t e n t i o n a l borrowing
Liz

handwriting,.

to

d i s c u s s i o n s o v e r t h r e e y e a r s w i t h P e t e r Lassman
t h e y found

of t h e i r

f o r g i v e my
ideas.

the time

less

and

at times

myself

stimula-

wife

financial

f o r her

t o e x p l a i n what I was

than c l e a r

doing at

Birminghamo
Michael

August,
Clarke

tt

but

t o my

s p e n t on the s t u d y , and

f o r b e a r a n c e i n n o t p r e s s i n g one
t i m e s when I was

inevitable

Finally

a great deal f o r her emotional

throughout

manuscript

t h e i r h a v i n g t o l a b o u r w i t h my

p o s s i b l y owes most t o the two

I hope t h a t

of

to o f f e r i t to o t h e r s

by d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h H a r r y Stopes-Roe

intermittent

and

Moore f o r h i s comments on the A p p e n d i x

form I s h o u l d have b e e n u n a b l e

comment w i t h o u t

support

t o P h i l i p Abrams f o r t a k i n g

f o r the k i n d n e s s o f June W a l l i s i n t y p i n g the

in draft
for

to R o b e r t

for h i s unstinting

1972

C H A P T

E R

ONE,

INTRODUCTION.

The

question of the " o b j e c t i v i t y "

of the s o c i a l

to t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s i s one %vith a l o n g and

history.
and

acrimonious

I t has a r i s e n r e c e n t l y i n the context of u n r e s t

d o u b t s about t h e f u n d i n g

and aims o f r e s e a r c h and i t h a s

a c e n t r a l place i n the Methodenstriet

social

i n contras

scientists

that has continued

from t h e c l a s s i c y e a r s a t t h e t u r n o f t h e

century to present debates

between s y s t e m s

and a c t i o n t h e o r i s t s

and b e t w e e n p r o t a g o n i s t s o f s u r v e y and m a t h e m a t i c a l
ticipant

o b s e r v a t i o n a l techniques

these are s i g n i f i c a n t

components t h e i s s u e

i s a t i o n of s o c i a l
objectivity,

the i s s u e

The q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r

i n c l u d e d a s one o f i t s c e n t r a l

o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f human c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

on t h e one hand, i n t r o d u c e new c o m p l e x i t i e s , b u t o f

a s i m i l a r order,

standing.

and p a r -

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e N a t u r - and t h e

G e i s t e s w i s s e n s c h a f t e n has always

Does t h i s ,

among

o r on t h e o t h e r r e q u i r e a r a d i c a l

reconceptual

s c i e n t i f i c methodology - new n o t i o n s

explanation, v e r i f i c a t i o n ,
I t i s my c o n c e r n

of t r u t h

d i s c o v e r y and u n d e r -

to pursue t h i s q u e s t i o n ,

using

of o b j e c t i v i t y a s a probe.

I n d r a w i n g c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n n a t u r a l and s o c i a l science''"
I

shall

latter,

concentrate

on what I c o n c e i v e

t o be a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e

and my r e m a r k s about t h e f o r m e r w i l l be d i r e c t e d n o t so

much a t t h e e n t e r p r i s e
the

of natural

dominant n e o = p o s i t i v i s t

conceives

science

school

of the philosophy of s c i e n c e

i t t o b e , and more f r e q u e n t l y ,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of those philosophers
scientistso

i t s e l f b u t a t what

the r a t h e r

loose

by p r a c t i s i n g s o c i a l

What I am i n t e r e s t e d i n then, i s v e r y much t h e

nature of s o c i a l science

and t h e m i s t a k e s made about i t , some

o f w h i c h h a v e b e e n made on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i t i s l i k e a
particular

theory of the nature of n a t u r a l

wrangle the q u e s t i o n

science

of o b j e c t i v i t y h a s been h i g h l y

and

i s therefore

a promising s t a r t i n g pointo

the

protagonists

of "natural

objectivity
is

against

respectability
to q u e s t i o n
with

sensitive,

On t h e one hand

s c i e n c e " have m a i n t a i n e d t h e

o f s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s and e x p l a n a t i o n s ,

defined,

I n this

however

a l l comers, a s a symbol o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c

of s o c i a l sciencej

on t h e o t h e r hand t h o s e

willing

o r r e j e c t o b j e c t i v i t y have b e e n h a r d p u t t o cope

t h e c o n s e q u e n t t h r e a t o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l anarchy,,

ingly I w i l l

s a y why t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i o n s

necessary,

From t h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t

the n a t u r e o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e
to i t

Accord-

o f o b j e c t i v i t y have t o be

abandoned and go on t o s a y how t h e y c a n be r e p l a c e d

priate

that

I will

and t h e k i n d s

or a r e un-

develop an account of

of explanation

appro-

Thus I s h a l l n o t remain t i e d to the o b j e c t i v i t y

question,

but I s h a l l constantly

pervasive

importance

return

The r e s u l t

to i t to demonstrate i t s

o f my e f f o r t s w i l l

I hope be t o

o u t l i n e a c o n s i s t e n t v i e w o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e w h i c h does n o t a t t e m p t
to i n c o r p o r a t e
grips with

i t into natural

science

and w h i c h t r i e s t o come t o

i t s d i s t i n c t i v e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , human a c t i o n , w h i l s t

7o

r e t a i n i n g the a b i l i t y
statements

and

b o t h l a r g e and

to make f a i r l y

to d e s c r i b e and

s m a l l s c a l e s a c c u r a t e l y and

I hope to i n d i c a t e f i r s t

t i v e about s o c i a l

s c i e n c e , and

and

general

explain social relations

When I s a y " o u t l i n e " I mean t h a t my

Rather,

sure

aim

on

satisfactorily.,

cannot

be

completeness,

t h a t t h e r e i s something

second

to go

some way,

on some

p o i n t s , t o w a r d s p r o v i d i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e methodology,,
r e m a r k s I make to t h i s end
but w i l l

are thus intended

distinc-

The

to be c o n s i s t e n t ,

i n e v i t a b l y have a l o t o f l o o s e e n d s ,

T h e s e l o o s e ends c a n o n l y be d e a l t w i t h a t much g r e a t e r
l e n g t h and u l t i m a t e l y o n l y a t a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e v e l .
much o f what I s a y t o u c h e s

Whilst

on p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s , I t r y

to a v o i d them s i n c e t h e y f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e a book to
and my

aims a r e more v a r i o u s .

e p i s t e m o l o g y and

I n the p h i l o s o p h y

i n moral philosophy

themselves,

of mind, i n

i t would be v e r y

helpful,

I d i s c o v e r e d , to have s o l u t i o n s to b a s i c d i f f i c u l t i e s ,

and

indeed

explication

be
and

o n l y i n the l i g h t

given.

But

of such s o l u t i o n s can a f i n a l

i t i s p o s s i b l e to go

t o c l e a r some o f the w o r s t

towards

by

t h e o r y and methodology,

o n l y a t times i n terms of p h i l o s o p h y

a s i t i s now

and

conventionally

I t i s n e c e s s a r y , however, t o d e v o t e some s p a c e

a d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o b l e m s i n t h a t g r o w i n g a s p e c t o f the
o f mind t h a t i s c o n c e r n e d
o b j e c t i v i t y o f any
is

this,

o f the p r e s e n t c o n f u s i o n ,

t a l k i n g i n terms o f s o c i o l o g i c a l

practised.

some way

account

to

philosophy

w i t h a c t i o n , f o r i t emerges t h a t the
we

a r e to g i v e of s o c i a l

dependent upon an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

phenomena

o f the d i s t i n c t i v e

nature

8.

of e x p l a n a t i o n s of a c t i o n .

A concern w i t h the s o c i o l o g i c a l

problem of o b j e c t i v i t y then, w i l l

i n v o l v e me i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l

i n q u i r y , and w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f a c t i o n .
The

v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s and p u z z l e s w h i c h I w i l l

t a k e up

have b e e n p o s e d by w r i t e r s w i t h a l a r g e range o f i n t e r e s t s
and

i n several disciplines.

interrelate

Their discussions certainly

and t o some e x t e n t o v e r l a p , and I am t h u s

w i t h t h e need t o impose some k i n d o f c o n c e p t u a l

to s t a t e a t h e s i s which r e f e r s
is

presented

order i n t r y i n g

t o a l l o f them.

Given

that i t

o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t I t a k e a s my s t a r t i n g p o i n t , and t o some

e x t e n t a s a r e c u r r e n t theme, I s h a l l
what I t a k e t o be t h r e e d i s t i n c t
objectivity,
in their
shall

therefore distinguish

statements

e a c h o f w h i c h have a n o t a b l e

o f a problem o f

intellectual

history

own r i g h t , b u t w h i c h i n f a c t a r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d .

t h e n go on i n t h e e n s u i n g

c h a p t e r s t o p r e s e n t my v i e w s i n

the framework o f t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n , though o f t e n h a v i n g

c l o s e r r e g a r d f o r groups o f w r i t e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h
would a p p e a r from t h e r a t h e r a b s t r a c t e d s t a t e m e n t
What w i l l

emerge, i s t h a t a l t h o u g h

v a r i o u s concerns

than

follows

s e p a r a t e l y , the

i n f a c t a r e a l l l i n k e d by a common i n t e r e s t

i n the d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s
account

conceived

that

of s o c i a l

of which they presuppose.

s c i e n t i f i c methodology, a n
I maintain

that despite i n

many c a s e s t h e a u t h o r ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e s e
accounts

a r e u n l i k e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , and e s s e n t i a l l y

similar.

THE LAYMAN'S WORRY.

I g i v e t h i s name t o t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n b e c a u s e

i t reflects

a c o n c e r n most f r e q u e n t l y e x p r e s s e d by o u t s i d e r s who come

into contact with s o c i a l
history
Is

assumptions?

truth,

s o c i o l o g y and

T h i s i s u s u a l l y expressed i n such q u e r i e s a s ;

the account

elicits

science, particularly

biased?

I s t h e a u t h o r making

political

I s he t e l l i n g t h e whole s t o r y ?

the r e p l y that indeed

This usually

they a r e not t e l l i n g

t h e y a r e o n l y t a l k i n g about what c o n c e r n s

t h e whole

them, and

the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f a n ' u n b i a s e d * a c c o u n t i s
incomprehensible,
s o p h i c a l l y based
has

The s o c i o l o g i s t r e t r e a t s i n t o t h e p h i l o a s s e r t i o n t h a t i n o r d e r t o s a y a n y t h i n g one

t o make a s s u m p t i o n s

to i n v e s t i g a t e i t ,
answer.

- one h a s t o d e f i n e a problem i n o r d e r

t o pose a q u e s t i o n b e f o r e

one c a n g e t a n

P u t more a b s t r a c t l y ,

t h i s becomes a n argument f o r t h e

i n e v i t a b i l i t y and d e s i r a b i l i t y

of theory as a b a s i s f o r r e s e a r c h

and

a s c o r n i n g of ' f a c t s which speak f o r themselves' = the

q u e s t i o n b e i n g w h i c h f a c t s , and how d e f i n e d and o r d e r e d .

h i s t o r i a n c a n p o i n t out t h a t i t i s u n r e a s o n a b l e

The

t o e x p e c t him

to c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h e v e n t s o u t s i d e h i s p e r i o d , and f o r
p a r t i c u l a r purposes,
i n that period.
e.g.
is

w i t h e v e n t s o u t s i d e t h e scope

of h i s

concern

Thus he does n o t p r e s e n t a p a r t i s a n v i e w o f

o n l y one s i d e o f a p o l i t i c a l

c i r c u m s c r i b e d by h i s i n t e r e s t

q u a r r e l , b u t what i s s a i d

i n that p o l i t i c a l

quarrel.

10.

One

then has

t o go

on to e l u c i d a t e the s t a t u s o f

a s s u m p t i o n s o r problem d e f i n i t i o n s .
l e v e l f o r the h i s t o r i a n o r the
s e l e c t i o n and

At a s i m p l e

sociologist

sense);

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t man

an e x p l a n a t i o n may

i s a problem-solver

he i s i n h e r e n t l y s e l f i s h .
notions

concern,

o f man

on t h e l e v e l

be p r e m i s e d on

f o r example, o r t h a t

I n e i t h e r the c a s e o f

general

of g e n e r a l i t y o f the i s s u e

The

of

o f a d h e r e n c e the

an a c c o u n t

personal r e p l i c a b i l i t y ,
the enquiry

c a n be

an a t t e m p t t o

conceptual
state

which c o l l e c t i v e l y give s c i e n c e i n t e r =
i.e.

a l l o w a s e c o n d i n v e s t i g a t o r to

a t a l a t e r date

c o n c l u s i o n s i n r e l a t i o n to the

and

check v a l i d i t y of

evidence

these

premises

to q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r r e s e a r c h b a s e d upon them

is

left

in relativistic

it

i s b a s e d d e r i v e from the p e c u l i a r i n t e r e s t s o f the

thus a r e not

the

i s t h e n p e r t i n e n t to a s k i n what s e n s e

a r e n e c e s s a r y , and

o b j e c t i v e by

s c i e n t i f i c v a l u e s o f e,g,

c l a r i t y , h o n e s t y , c o n s i s t e n c y , and
v e r i f i a b l e hypotheses,

and

c o n s e n s u s i s , however, t h a t w i t h i n

the t e r m s o f t h e s e p r e m i s e s ,

and

the

the u l t i m a t e m o r a l v a l u e s o f the i n v e s t i g a t o r w i l l

d e f i n i t i o n s a r e made,

It

or

evaluative (often

a l s o have an i n f l u e n c e on what k i n d o f a s s u m p t i o n s

repeat

may

o r p a r t i c u l a r p u z z l e s , the r e l a t i v e prominence o f w h i c h

depends m a i n l y

virtue

the

They

about the n a t u r e

o f s o c i e t y w h i c h a r e b o t h d e s c r i p t i v e and
in a political

practical

they i n v o l v e

d e f i n i t i o n o f an e m p i r i c a l p u z z l e

a l s o i n v o l v e more g e n e r a l n o t i o n s

these

i s o l a t i o n , b e c a u s e the p r e m i s e s

c o m p a r a b l e to o t h e r r e s e a r c h b a s e d on

on

which

investigate
other

llo

premiseso

The a n s w e r t o t h i s i s u l t i m a t e l y Y e s , b u t w i t h

qualifications.

A t t h e s i m p l e l e v e l o f problem

formulation,

p r o b l e m s change a s t i m e s do, t h e h i s t o r i a n b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y
aware o f t h i s

Not o n l y i s one now i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h a

h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon a s t h e

E u r o p e a n Economic Community,

w h i c h d i d n o t e x i s t u n t i l r e c e n t l y , b u t t h e n a t u r e o f one's
interest

i s i n e v i t a b l y a f f e c t e d by t h e dominant e v e n t s o f t h e

c e n t u r y , two w o r l d w a r s and a m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n ,
the

end o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e e t c .

t h e C o l d War,

At the l e v e l

of p h i l o s o p h i c a l

a n t h r o p o l o g y t h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s , though s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e
conceptualisation

of r e s e a r c h

strategy,

a r e so g e n e r a l

be

unverifiableo

be

a w o r t h w h i l e t a s k t o s p e l l out t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s

They a r e a l s o f a i r l y numerous, and i t would

have b e e n so f a r , so t h a t
recognisedo
notions,

there

rationalistic

as to

o f more t h a n

c o m p a r i s o n s c a n be made and l i m i t a t i o n s

At the ( o f t e n o v e r l a p p i n g ) l e v e l of general
have b e e n few r e c e n t
e t h i c s which could

moral s t a r t i n g p o i n t

moral

a t t e m p t s t o expound a

claim

to p r o v i d e an o b j e c t i v e

However, t h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t

with

time and e f f o r t some p r e m i s e s do n o t g e t d i s c r e d i t e d a s d u b i o u s

o r u n h e l p f u l , eg
organismic analogy,

evolutionism

and t h e c r u d e r v e r s i o n s

Certainly a greater

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e problem l e a d s

awareness of the

to concentration

statement of premises a t a general

w o r k i n g out o f t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s

of the

on and a c l e a r

l e v e l , and a more

explicit

To a p p r o a c h i t from a

s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , i t does a p p e a r t h a t
p r o b l e m s a r e more permanent t h a n o t h e r s ,

e.g,

some human

t h e problem of

1 2 ,

economic p r o d u c t i o n .

The p r o s p e c t s f o r g e n e r a l i s a t i o n

thus

depend, i t a p p e a r s , on agreement a s t o what a r e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

problems

on t h e b a s i s

of c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s ,

the e l i m i n a t i o n of

m i s l e a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s , and a c o n s t a n t c o m p a r i s o n
results

on d i f f e r i n g a s s u m p t i o n s

so t h a t

e v e n though t h e s e

a r e n o t commensurable, t h e y may s h e d l i g h t
short

comingso

h a s p r o b a b l y b e e n t h e most n o t a b l e r e c e n t

c l e a r l y n o t be d i r e c t l y
conclusionso
If

on e a c h o t h e r ' s

The c o n s e n s u s - c o n f l i c t d e b a t e

R e s e a r c h b a s e d on d i f f e r e n t

a s s u m p t i o n s and d e f i n i t i o n s

comparable

Relativism will

and l e a d

will

to d i f f e r i n g

therefore persist

to everyday concerns t h e i r e v a l u a t i v e

be e q u a l l y e v i d e n t .

i n sociology

example o f t h i s .

t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and d e f i n i t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e

close

of r e s e a r c h

a s a problem.
p r a g m a t i c and

implications

will

B u t even i f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e a b s t r a c t

and g e n e r a l , e v a l u a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s w i l l
r a r e f i e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l atmosphere.

not d i s s o l v e

I t may be l e s s

in a

obvious i n

t h e a s s u m p t i o n s b u t i t w i l l be a p p a r e n t i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n s
t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s have

l e d - though n o t by any means c o m p l e t e l y

d e t e r m i n e d - t h e argument i n a p a r t i c u l a r

II,

that

direction.

CAUSE AND MEANING.

The

problem

of o b j e c t i v i t y re-emerges

i n another context

w h i c h h a s a l o n g and complex p h i l o s o p h i c a l h i s t o r y ,
attempted

to r e c o n c i l e

the i d e a l i s t

o f human minds and a c t i o n s ,

Kant

w i t h the e m p i r i c i s t

accounts

and Max Weber was much c o n c e r n e d t o

13 o

follow

this

through i n S o c i o l o g y , i n the

a c c o u n t o f a c t i o n w h i c h would do
c o n s c i o u s n e s s of
objectivity,,
gone i n an

the

This

actors

j u s t i c e b o t h to the
to

the

demands o f

e m p i r i c i s t d i r e c t i o n i n sociology,
scale studies

and

which i n d i v i d u a l f e e l i n g s count f o r l i t t l e

incorporated

into

s t r e s s e d a t the
though, the

and

the

life

by

the

the

idealist

with a widening
mathematisation,
and

words.

are r e l e n t l e s s l y
deeds

I n philosophy

v i e w o f the m a t t e r

work o f W i t t g e n s t e i n ,

Quinton c o n c i s e l y

human

recently

importance of

e x p e n s e o f t h o u g h t s and

importance of

b e e n g i v e n new
q u o t a t i o n by

statistics,

an

scientific

debate c o n t i n u e s today, h a v i n g

desire for precision, large

in

and

attempt to give

as

has

this

shows

">.... one of the t h i n g s t h a t was most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s a c c o u n t o f the mind was h i s v i e w t h a t
human a c t i o n s , human d e c i s i o n s , human i n t e n t i o n s , t h e
whole a r e a o f man's l i f e a s an a g e n t - h i s a c t i v i t i e s
and the d e c i s i o n s and i n t e n t i o n s t h a t l e a d up to h i s
a c t i v i t i e s - w e r e n ' t c a p a b l e o f b e i n g c a u s a l l y explained,,
The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i s t h a t t h e r e c o u l d n ' t be a
s c i e n c e o f human b e h a v i o u r , t h a t t h e r e c o u l d r e a l l y be
no s u c h t h i n g a s P s y c h o l o g y o r S o c i o l o g y a s t h e s e a r e
u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d by t h e i r practitioners
To put i t
i n more m e t a p h y s i c a l l a n g u a g e , man i s n ' t a p a r t o f
nature.
I t a l l s t a r t e d , t h i s i d e a of
Wittgenstein's,
from a v e r y s i m p l e i n i t i a l p o i n t .
What, he s a y s , i s
the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n my arm g o i n g up and my r a i s i n g
my arm?
Now somebody might s a y ;
my r a i s i n g my
arm
i s c a u s e d by an a c t o f w i l l , w h e r e a s my arm j u s t g o i n g
up may be due t o some s m a l l m u s c u l a r s e i z u r e somewhere
a r o u n d my s h o u l d e r , and the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
two
e v e n t s w i l l be a m a t t e r of t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
causeso
W i t t g e n s t e i n s a i d t h a t t h e r e i s no a c t o f
v o l i t i o n w h i c h p r e c e d e s one's arm g o i n g up and t u r n s
i t i n t o a c a s e o f r a i s i n g one's arm.
To s a y a man
r a i s e d h i s arm i s to s a y s o m e t h i n g v e r y much more
c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n t h a t he r a i s e d h i s arm a s a r e s u l t of
an a c t o f w i l l ;
i t ' s to s a y s o m e t h i n g about the s o r t
of t h i n g he would s a y i f you a s k e d him what he
was
d o i n g and what the c i r c u m s t a n c e s w e r e .
Now out o f t h i s

apparently small point, a very large scale philosophical

d i v i s i o n c a n d e v e l o p between t h o s e who s a y t h a t man i s
a p a r t o f n a t u r e and t h a t what i s most i m p o r t a n t about
man a s an a c t i v e b e i n g i s embodied i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c
p i c t u r e of t h e w o r l d , and t h o s e who t a k e t h e o p p o s i t e
v i e w t h a t human a c t i o n s n e e d t o be u n d e r s t o o d a s a k i n d
o f t h i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from n a t u r a l h a p p e n i n g s . "
Listener

The
account

q u e s t i o n to be

actors;

and

p 8 0 8 .

c o n s i d e r e d then, i s whether a c a u s a l

o f a c t i o n s c a n be g i v e n w i t h o u t

h u m a n i t y , and

1 0 . x i i , 7 0 .

e s p e c i a l l y the f r e e w i l l

v i o l a t i n g the
and

essential

c o n s c i o u s n e s s of

on t h e o t h e r hand w h e t h e r an a c c o u n t

t h e r e a s o n s and m o t i v e s

o f the a c t o r s , w h i l e more

i n t h i s r e s p e c t , i s not

essentially unverifiable

the

i n terms of
satisfactory
because

dependent on what goes on i n t h e i r h e a d s , and r e l a t i v e

because

bound to t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y , ,

problem

The

o f o b j e c t i v i t y r a i s e d h e r e i s t h u s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from
concerned
specific

that

i n what I c a l l e d the l a y m a n ' s w o r r y , i n b e i n g n o t

c o n c e r n w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f b i a s , but a c o n c e r n

about

the n e c e s s a r y d e g r e e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y and hence p r i v a c y and

ephemerality

of s o c i a l knowledge,.

h e r e , a s i t o n l y d i d by d e g r e e s
difficulties

cannot

be

I t r a p i d l y becomes

obvious

i n the l a y m a n ' s w o r r y , t h a t

solved without

confronting wider

the

questions

about the n a t u r e o f e x p l a n a t i o n , g i v e n t h e human c o n s c i o u s n e s s

and human a c t i o n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e
q u e s t i o n t h a t a r i s e s now
based

the d a t a

The

crucial

i s t h u s t h e e x t e n t w h i c h knowledge

on s u c h d a t a c a n be l o c a t e d l i k e

the f a c t s of n a t u r a l

s c i e n c e , which are u s u a l l y conceived as being'^objectively

out

1 5 o

there"
that

i n d e p e n d e n t o f our

s o c i a l f a c t s o n l y sometimes a r e

that o b j e c t i v i t y i n t h i s
in

t h o u g h t s and

i t s implications

to the

attempt to

natural

for social

But

I t now

in a

becomes

s e n s e i s the more r a d i c a l

construct

science.

perceptions

one

way
evident

question

s c i e n t i f i c methodology,

leading

d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from

objectivity in this

c l o s e l y l i n k e d to i t i n i t s e v a l u a t i v e

sense i s of

sense i n that

course

the

c o n s c i o u s n e s s of i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h i s problem i s
necessarily evaluative
perception
case

o f and

though, t h e

= i t i n v o l v e s

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e world
first

present

scientific

made to cope w i t h s o c i a l

I n p r a c t i c e , i t emerges t h a t a p u r e l y

constructive

I n the

i s s u e i s whether a n a t u r a l

c a u s a l methodology c a n be
data

a s e l e c t i v e and

scientific

causal

account

i s very

r a p i d l y f o r c e d b a c k upon the

a purely

external

actor's

same s i t u a t i o n , and

o r o v e r t l y the
given t h i s ,
be

one

g i v e n o f them on

t h i s b a s i s , and

then has

give

to a s k

the

s t a r t i n g point,

must f i r s t

can go

beyond the

a change o f r e f e r e n c e

s h o r t c o m i n g s and

point

can

to

below),

a c t o r ' s view i n

to o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e s w h i c h a p p e a r t o be

requires

but

know

h i s a c t i o n amounts

a summary o f what i t i n v o l v e s

i f one

Covertly

o b j e c t i v e account

t h u s one

a c t o r ' s v i e w and

an e f f o r t to e x p l a i n a n o m a l i e s and
it

d i f f e r e n t responses

same t o d i f f e r e n t o n e s .

t h e n must a s k w h e t h e r an

what u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

one

the

a c t o r ' s v i e w s have to be

T h a t done ( i

on

d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , i t becomes

u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , as they apparently give

t o the

views, since

from t h a t

to compare

similar,.

o f the

actor

This
to

16

t h a t o f a n o b s e r v e r and, i t t u r n s
type o f e x p l a n a t i o n

t h a t may be g i v e n

(understanding) to c a u s a l
quasi-causal

out, a c r u c i a l
from

i n terras o n l y

typifications

motivational

of a c t i o n , but t h i s

a r e l e g a t i o n o f the a c t o r a s an agent w i t h

him

i n the

W i t h a number o f p r o v i s o s ,

a c c o u n t c a n be g i v e n

free ranging imaginative

shift

consciousness

a
involves

a free w i l l

and a

i n favour of a view of

o f t h e a c t i o n s he h a s u n d e r t a k e n , and o f

of h i s a c t i o n s

The a c c o u n t w i l l n o t l e a d t o

c a u s a l l a w s however, b e c a u s e o f t h e a b i l i t y

of actors to

r e s p o n d i n a new way t o s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a p p e a r on t h e b a s i s
o f any a c c o u n t o f t h e i r p a s t
simple l e v e l
falsify

this

actions

t o be s i m i l a r

c a n be s e e n i n t h e a b i l i t y

any p r e d i c t i o n one c a r e s

At a

o f anyone t o

t o make about t h e i r

future

actions
but

Causal

a c c o u n t s c a n t h u s be g i v e n

are contingent i n holding

actors

continuing

situationso

to take

f o r the f u t u r e

retrospectively,
on t h e r e l e v a n t

t h e same v i e w s o f t h e same k i n d o f

J u s t a s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t c a n d e c i d e how t o d e f i n e

h i s p r o b l e m , so c a n t h e a c t o r

This

does o f c o u r s e

raise

p r o b l e m s about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a n a c t o r ' s and a n

observer's

accounts of a c t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i r claims to

truth, accuracy
The
the

and completeness

( S e e below)

d i s c u s s i o n of causal accounts of actions a l s o

question

o f what h a s b e e n , o f t e n m i s l e a d i n g l y ,

'free w i l l ,

B a s i c a l l y , the existence

c o r o l l a r y of consciousness,
consciousnesso

raises

called

of f r e e w i l l

i sa

o r more p a r t i c u l a r l y o f s e l f -

I t i s because the a c t o r

c a n t h i n k about t h e

1 7 o

w o r l d and h i s p l a c e i n i t , b e c a u s e he c a n remember the p a s t

and i m a g i n e t h e f u t u r e , and b e c a u s e he c a n i n h i s mind i m a g i n e
sequences of events i n i t under d i f f e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s , because i n
o t h e r words he c a n p l a n , t h a t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g i n g the w o r l c
and o f r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o be c h o s e n and
m a n i p u l a t e d f i r s t arises
But t h i s c a p a c i t y a l s o g i v e s r i s e
t o the p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n between i d e a and a c t i o n ;
they are
c o n c e p t u a l l y o r m e a n i n g f u l l y r e l a t e d j u s t b e c a u s e the a c t o r a c t s
out t h e p r o j e c t i n h i s mind.
He does so however, i n a w o r l d
w h i c h i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y j u s t o r o n l y a s he s e e s i t , and i n
w h i c h i t may t u r n out t h a t h i s p r o j e c t won't work a s he t h i n k s
S o c i o l o g i s t s are p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned w i t h t h i s l a t t e r aspect
o f h i s a c t i o n , and t h u s though t h e y must u n d e r s t a n d how
and
why t h e a c t o r a c t s a s he does, i t i s t h e i r b u s i n e s s t o show
what i n so d o i n g , he a l s o b r i n g s a b o u t ;
the u n i n t e n d e d con~
s e q u e n c e s of action,,
T h i s may be a t the l e v e l o f the a c t o r
h i m s e l f - he may have f a i l e d t o n o t i c e s o m e t h i n g t h a t , g i v e n
h i s way o f s e e i n g t h i n g s , he might h a v e ;
o r i n d e e d he
may
choose to i g n o r e i t
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , he may be c o n t r i b u t i n g
t o t h i n g s w h i c h c a n be s e e n to be t a k i n g p l a c e g i v e n a
d i f f e r e n t frame o f r e f e r e n c e o r c o n t e x t o f meaning, e s p e c i a l l y
i f t h i s a l l o w s f o r the consequences of h i s a c t i o n f o r o t h e r s
t o an e x t e n t w h i c h he does n o t
From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f
t h e a c t o r t h e n , he makes h i s p r o j e c t t r u e i n t h e w o r l d , and
t h u s t h e i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r o j e c t and a c t i o n s
w h e r e a s from the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w the p r o j e c t i s
0

1 8 .

t r a c e d i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d o f i t s o r i g i n s and t h e a c t i o n s e e n
b o t h i n t h e a c t o r ' s l i g h t and i n d i f f e r e n t and o f t e n w i d e r
contextso
What i s t o be r e c o g n i s e d i s t h a t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e a c t i s done from w i t h i n t h e a c t o r ' s w o r l d , b u t e x p l a i n i n g
i t i m p l i e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n and r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t a c t
i n a d i f f e r e n t frame o f r e f e r e n c e w h i c h t h e s o c i o l o g i s t c h o o s e s ,
and i n t h i s frame o f r e f e r e n c e t h e a c t i s a n e v e n t s
This i n
no way compromises t h e a c t o r ' s freedom b e c a u s e he was n o t a t
t h e time i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s v i e w p o i n t
In
p r a c t i c e o f c o u r s e , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t a l s o b e i n g a member o f
s o c i e t y , t h e v i e w p o i n t he t a k e s w i l l be l i a b l e t o be one t h e
a c t o r f i n d s i n d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t , and so may i n t h e f u t u r e be
r e c o g n i s e d and t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n a c t i o n .
I n t h i s way t h e
s o c i o l o g i s t c a n e n l a r g e h i s freedom by b r i n g i n g a w a r e n e s s o f
u n i n t e n d e d consequences
Whether one c h o o s e s t o c a l l t h i s
r e s u l t c a u s a l explanation or not i s p a r t l y a matter of ter=
minological predilection.
C e r t a i n l y , t o do so h a s a t e n d e n c y
to l e a d t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r i n t o a n over-wooden c o n c e p t i o n o f
human b e i n g s , a n d t o a m i s l e a d i n g v i e w o f a c t i o n s a s c a u s e d
by i d e a s i n men's m i n d s
On b a l a n c e i t seems t o be b e s t t o
s t i c k w i t h a d i f f e r e n t terminology which c o n s t a n t l y reminds
one o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s from a g e n u i n e c a u s a l a c c o u n t
0

O b j e c t i v i t y i s t h u s dependent on t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
sociologist
fact

and t h o s e he i n v e s t i g a t e s .

Much s o c i o l o g y

s i m p l y e t h n o g r a p h i c - u n d e r s t a n d i n g what i s g o i n g o n

means t h a t i t i s l i m i t e d a s i t s t a n d s t o t h e c o n t e x t s

i s in
0

This

concerned,

l 9 o

but

i t i s possible

subject

t o the

to o b t a i n

condition

a reasonably objective

t h a t one

c a n n e v e r f i n a l l y be

what i s g o i n g on i n a n o t h e r ' s h e a d
t y p i f i c a t i o n and

verbal

what goes on

i n s o c i e t y , and

f a i r l y p r e c i s e about t h i s
to r e l a t e
inside',

and

with care

w h i c h c a n n o t do

Here one

justice

that i t i s impossible

i t appears that there

a c c o u n t , and

s i m p l i f i e d a s one
The
t a k i n g up
the

g e n e r a l i s e s by

the

to

'from

stream

question

have and

those that

way
of

not

yourself

relativism

r e s u l t s become more

comparison of v a r i e d

like

cases

t h a t of comparison,

to t h e

first

of premises a p p l i e s both to those t h a t

0

implies

r a t h e r than dwelling

here a l l that applied

sociologists have

the

parallels

problem a g a i n a p p l i e s , e x c e p t t h a t i t i s now

t h a t the

be
tries

same

element o f

the

upon w h i c h t o e x p l a i n ,

a c t o r ' s w o r l d , and

ment o f the

i s an

of

to

i n t o drawing

i s a n o t h e r and

i n this instance,

attempt a t explanation,
a stand

sphere

to communicate one's own

about

i n d e e d does

a r i s e when one

to b o t h , i n p r e c i s e l y t h e

c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o a n o t h e r b e c a u s e he

i n the

and

evidence as

i n one

i s forced

sure

techniques

i t i s possible

Difficulties

can

considerable

compare what i s l e a r n e d

t o another,,

Once a g a i n ,

W i t h the

c o m m u n i c a t i o n one

i n everyday i n t e r a c t i o n obtain

understanding,

The

crucial

remember i s w h e t h e r an o b s e r v e r ' s o r an a c t o r ' s p o i n t

stateclear
actors

thing
of

in

to

view

i s b e i n g maintained,,
B e c a u s e of t h i s i t i s o f t e n b e e n m a i n t a i n e d t h a t
a difference

of l e v e l s of c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n

n a t u r a l from s o c i a l

science

which

T h e r e i s a t one

there

is

distinguishes

level

the

world,

2 0

which, a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s ,
they a l s o conceptualise
about how

the

about e a c h o t h e r ' s

s o c i e t y operates.

The

d e v e l o p s t h e o r i e s to e x p l a i n t h e s e
T h e r e i s t h u s t h o u g h t to be
s c i e n c e , the
equivalent

t o and

s o c i o l o g i s t comes i n

one

higher

level

extra level i n

a t times e m p i r i c a l l y concerned with

to a c o n s i d e r a b l e

Analytically this

s i n c e these

extent,

but

have v i e w s

s o c i o l o g i s t ' s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n b e i n g on a

p r a c t i c a l l y i t i s misleading,

penetrate

v i e w s , and

at a s t i l l

at l e a s t

about what n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s d o
but

conceptualise,

and
0

social
level
theory

i s helpful

levels

inter-

I have a l r e a d y

suggested

t h a t much s o c i o l o g y

c o n s i s t s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g and

thus remains

more o r l e s s on

actor's level,

argue

they are not

in

the

this i s often

i s a c t i n g a s e x p l a i n e r and

a c t o r s ' v i e w s , the
on

is

evident

that

theories current

i n t h e i r work.

conceptualising

sociologist i s s t i l l

often l i a b l e

about
t o draw

i n the a c t o r s ' w o r l d i n a p a r t i a l

t h i s i s a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e i f he
The

may

a c t u a l l y being actors implies a c e r t a i n distance

t h e i r v i e w p o i n t , and

E v e n i f he

though one

d i s j u n c t i o n o f l e v e l s and
thus l e s s r a d i c a l

whether a n a l y t i c a l l y

i s studying

the

separation

than appeared.

The

h i s own
o f the

senses

society

investigator

important matter i s

s p e a k i n g an a c t o r ' s o r o b s e r v e r ' s

viewpoint

is

b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d = i f t h i s i s not

c l e a r , as i t o f t e n

it

i s also unclear

a c c o u n t expounds t h e

as to whether the

w o r l d o r w h e t h e r i t a t t e m p t s t o g e n e r a l i s e and
e x t e r n a l and

p e r h a p s more g e n e r a l

t h i s a f f e c t the

assumptions,

is

e x p l a i n by
Not

p r e c i s e amount of r e l a t i v i s m i n v o l v e d

only
and

not,
actors
making
does
the

2 1 ,

limits

of comparability, i t a l s o leads to considerable

as to the r e l i a b i l i t y
to a confusion

of the account

confusion

g i v e n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r

o f c a u s a l and m o t i v a t i o n a l o r r e a s o n = b a s e d

e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e action,,

This question w i l l

be r e t u r n e d

t o below,.

III,

SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE,

The
false

t r a d i t i o n w h i c h h a s grown o u t o f Marx's t h e o r y o f

consciousness

way by s u g g e s t i n g

r a i s e s the o b j e c t i v i t y problem i n a d i f f e r e n t

that a l l ideas are related

and

historical

context,

not

only of d i f f e r e n t

thus implying a r a d i c a l

I n the doctrine that a l l

o f them a r e i d e o l o g i c a l ,

of the o b j e c t i v i t y problem r a i s e d b e f o r e
starts

relativism

s o c i e t i e s and a g e s b u t o f t h e i d e a s o f

h i s t o r i a n s and s o c i o l o g i s t s a l s o
ideas or explanations

to s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

ideas are claimed

While i t has been ready

the conceptions

are u n i t e d

from t h e

a s c o n t e x t - b o u n d and a s e v a l u a t i v e ,

to analyse others i n these

terras, the

s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge h a s b e e n u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e
relativistic

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i t s e l f and h a s d e p l o y e d v a r i o u s

s t r a t e g i e s f o r a v o i d i n g the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t s t h e o r i e s too
are t i e d
important

to a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c o - s o c i a l

context.

The most

kind of s t r a t e g y c o n s i s t s i n t r y i n g to e s t a b l i s h

some k i n d o f p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f w h i c h a n
a n a l y s i s c a n t a k e p l a c e , b u t so f a r t h i s h a s p r o v e d

unsuccessful.

2 2

An

a l t e r n a t i v e i s to q u e s t i o n

an u n c o m f o r t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s ,
i s not

p l a u s i b l e to regard

p r o d u c t i o n of i d e a s

and

t h a t the f a c t t h a t i d e a s
context implies

that

and

man

are involved

they are

hand o f a w a t e r t i g h t
a c o n c e p t i o n of the

a shift

dialectic,
and

and

point

and

t h o u g h t up

two

and

on

the

as the

the

o t h e r i n terms
result

of a

of

free

invested

s o c i e t y are

t o be

and

s t a b i l i t y of

concepts

part

a possibility,,

of d i s j u n c t i o n s i n p e r c e p t i o n

and

groups i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s

and

expectation

of s o c i e t y i m p l i e s

by
that

two,,

given

of
On

inadequacy of c o n c e p t i o n s of s o c i a l

and

ongoing

b e t w e e n the

i n p a r t i c u l a r ideas

the

terms

b e i n g an

t e n d e n c y f o r e a c h to o s s i f y a t any

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i f l o n g term p r o j e c t s on

o t h e r hand the v e r y

one

I t emerges t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n

t h e n e e d f o r c l a r i t y and

i n d i v i d u a l s i n the

are

have t h e i r

s o c i a l context i s , i n Marxist-Hegelian

because of the v a l u e

and

that ideas

o f g e s t a l t i n f a v o u r on

action explained

inherent

are

autonomously

o r i n W e b e r i a n ones m e a n i n g f u l , t h e r e

i n s t i t u t i o n s and

it

understanding

ever= c h a n g i n g p r o c e s s o f m u t u a l m o d i f i c a t i o n

T h e r e i s an

the

suggest

product of

on a c t i o n , and

explanation,

r a n g i n g human c o n s c i o u s n e s s , ,

that

d i f f e r e n c e between these
are

such

social-historical

s t r u c t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s i n w h i c h men

s o c i a l being - involves

to

autonomy i n

c a u s a l i t y and

so have an i n d e p e n d e n t i n f l u e n c e

between i d e a s

in a

"merely" the

i n i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the

from t h e

that leads

careful inquiry reveals

a s h a v i n g no

k i n d s of a c c o u n t s = t h a t i d e a s

derived

claim

a l s o t h a t i t i s m i s l e a d i n g to

Here the p r e c e d i n g r e m a r k s on
relevant

the

the
reality

individuals
the

2 3

i n t e r a c t i o n which c o n s t i t u t e s the process of s o c i e t y w i l l i n a

s i g n i f i c a n t s e n s e be ongoing r a t h e r t h a n s t a t i c o r r h y t h m i c ,
l e a d i n g both to changes i n b e h a v i o u r without c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n c o n c e p t s and t o s p e c u l a t i v e c h a n g e s i n c o n c e p t s
w h i c h a r e ahead o f changes i n behaviour

The

various

attempts to create

a platform of objective

t r u t h from w h i c h t h e r e s t o f s o c i e t y may be a n a l y s e d
have i n p r a c t i c e
subtle,

t o a t t e m p t t o l e v e r t h e m s e l v e s out o f t h i s

everchanging o r d e r l i n e s s ,

nothing,,

and i n p r a c t i c e

the d e s p a i r i n g

suggested because the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f ideas

sided

come t o

A c c o r d i n g l y t h e r e l a t i v i s m i m p l i e d must be a c c e p t e d ,

though t h i s w i l l n o t have q u i t e

two

therefore

quality at f i r s t

and s t r u c t u r e i s

= men may change t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s o f a c t i o n by t h e i r

e f f o r t s a s w e l l a s r e s p o n d i n g t o them a s g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s
s h o u l d a l s o be added t h a t
relationship

t h e a w a r e n e s s and e x p l o r a t i o n

I t

of t h i s

e n a b l e s t h e a v o i d a n c e o f some o f t h e c r u d e r forms

a t l e a s t o f s t r u c t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t o r t i o n o f i d e a s and
t h u s , a s was s t a t e d
of

e a r l i e r i n another context, the e l i m i n a t i o n

some o f t h e l e s s p l a u s i b l e

explication

and t h e

o f some g e n u i n e l y f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e

human c o n d i t i o n , .
stated

v i e w s o f man and s o c i e t y ,

T h i s k i n d o f r e l a t i v i s m c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t be

i n simple c l a s s terms

2k

On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y c o n d e n s e d g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t ,
w h i c h I hope n o n e t h e l e s s g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e
t h r e e f o r m u l a t i o n s I have s i n g l e d out a r e d i s t i n c t
conceptions,
t h e y a l s o r e l a t e i n i m p o r t a n t ways and d e a l nrith the same
p r o b l e m s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g i v e an o v e r v i e w o f the s u b s t a n t i v e
chapters which deal with matters i n d e t a i l o

C h a p t e r Two

will

c o n s i d e r Max

Weber's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o

debate, p a r t i c u l a r l y as represented
in

S o c i a l Science

and

w h i c h was

the

first

two

layman's w o r r y , w h i c h he
relevance
he

(Verstehen)
value
and

c a n be

introductory

s o c i o l o g i c a l methodology

of h i s l i f e

in

1 9 2 0

Weber

o f the p r o b l e m s I have o u t l i n e d ,
conceptualises

( W e r t b e z i e h u n g ) , and

t r i e s t o s o l v e by

his

G e s e l l s c h a f t on

w r i t t e n t o w a r d s the end

deals with

by h i s 190h e s s a y ' O b j e c t i v i t y

S o c i a l P o l i c y ' and

C h a p t e r o f W i r t s c h a f t und

claiming

the

i n terms of

the

value=

cause-meaning problem, w h i c h

that a meaningful understanding

causally validated.

On

the q u e s t i o n

r e l e v a n c e , h i s c l e a r i n s i g h t i n t o the r e l a t i o n of

moral v a l u e s

the

to d i s p a s s i o n a t e

s o c i a l i n q u i r y was

of
political

the

source
k

o f an e x p o s i t i o n o f the problem w h i c h h a s

remained accepted

w i t h m i n o r e l a b o r a t i o n s , t o t h i s day.

As

the

the

only reasonable

course

i s to a c c e p t

I i n d i c a t e d above,
r e l a t i v i s m of

e v a l u a t i v e assumptions contained

i n the d e f i n i t i o n o f

problem, to make t h e s e

and

explicit,

t o r e n d e r the

o b j e c t i v e by

t h e method o f i n q u i r y , i e

replicability

to a l l o w

the

the

account
interpersonal

2 5 o

As r e g a r d s c a u s e and meaning, h i s s o l u t i o n i s l e s s t h a n
a d e q u a t e , and a s I w i l l show i n the a p p e n d i x , does n o t do
j u s t i c e t o h i s own e m p i r i c a l work,
Weber was much i n v o l v e d
on b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n d e b a t e s w i t h o t h e r s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s .
The 1 9 0 4 e s s a y r e f l e c t s h i s c o n c e r n w i t h R i c k e r t and t h e
l a t t e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between the h i s t o r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l i s i n g
( i d i o g r a p h i c ) and t h e n a t u r a l g e n e r a l i s i n g s c i e n c e s ( n o m o t h e t i c ) ,
Weber d i d n o t a c c e p t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , and was t h u s a r g u i n g
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b o t h a g a i n s t i t and f o r h i s own a c c o u n t o f
V e r s t e h e n f o l l o w e d by a c a u s a l v e r i f i c a t i o n , a s w e l l a s g i v i n g
an answer to the l a y m a n ' s w o r r y
His f i n a l version i n
W i r t s c h a f t und G e s e l l s c h a f t p a y s much l e s s a t t e n t i o n to the
l a t t e r problem, and i t would seem t h a t he was most c o n c e r n e d
w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u s o f the N a t u r
- and t h e
G e i s t e s w i s s e n s c h a f t e n , one o f whose most s i g n i f i c a n t p r o t a g o n i s t s
was D i l t h e y ,
I t seems l i k e l y however, t h a t the most s i g n i f i c a n t
f i g u r e s a t the time f o r Weber were Stammler, a p o s i t i v i s t l a w y e r ,
and Simmel, w i t h whose w r i t i n g s on s o c i a l forms Weber had b e e n
much i m p r e s s e d .
He was v e r y c o n c e r n e d to g i v e an a n s w e r t o
the i d e a l i s t - e m p i r i c i s t q u e s t i o n w h i c h would do j u s t i c e t o b o t h
s i d e s , and f o r t h i s p u r p o s e a s e t of c o n c e p t s o r c a t e g o r i e s o r
s o c i a l forms w h i c h were i n some s e n s e f u n d a m e n t a l and
necessary
t o s o c i a l l i f e would form a u s e f u l b a s e .
He was however, a l s o
s t i l l w e l l aware t h a t the c o n c e p t s he u s e d , d e s p i t e t h e i r
g e n e r a l i t y , had t h e i r o r i g i n s i n h i s own v e r y wide e m p i r i c a l
s o c i o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t s .
0

2 6 o

T h i s p a t h t h e n , was n o t t h e one t h a t Weber s t r e s s e d , ,

In
the l a s t a n a l y s i s he was e m p h a t i c t h a t o b j e c t i v i t y c o u l d n o t be
g a i n e d by t r y i n g t o g i v e p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s t o some p o s i t i o n b u t
must c o n s i s t i n t h e r a t i o n a l and p u b l i c l y v e r i f i a b l e p r o c e d u r e
by w h i c h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g g a i n e d by c l o s e f a m i l i a r i t y and
p a i n s t a k i n g e l u c i d a t i o n o f meaning was c h e c k e d c a u s a l l y
He
t h u s t a k e s t h e same e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o
o b j e c t i v i t y i n t h e s e n s e o f v e r i f l a b i l i t y a s he does i n r e l a t i o n
t o i t i n t h e s e n s e o f v a l u e d - r e l e v a n c e , b u t t h i s time he r a d i c a l l y
c o n f u s e s t h e i s s u e by t r y i n g t o m a i n t a i n a s p e c i o u s " s c i e n t i f i c "
r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , by f o r c i n g s o c i a l a c t i o n s , the d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e
o f w h i c h he h a s i n d i c a t e d a t l e n g t h , i n t o a n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c
v e r i f i c a t i o n i s t methodology,,
The e x a c t p r o c e s s b y w h i c h s u c h
a c a u s a l c h e c k was t o be a c h i e v e d Weber was l e s s t h a n c l e a r a b o u t
He a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d a f i r m e r g r a s p on u n d e r s t a n d i n g , f o r w h i c h
he d e v e l o p e d i d e a l t y p e a n a l y s i s , t h a n he d i d o f c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n
and seems t o make t h e m i s t a k e o f e q u a t i n g meaning and m o t i v e ,
and more i m p o r t a n t l y o f t r y i n g t o g i v e a c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f
motivated a c t i o n , while not adequately d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the
v i e w p o i n t o f t h e a c t o r from t h a t o f t h e o b s e r v e r
T h i s has
l e d to a c c u s a t i o n s that c a u s a l v e r i f i c a t i o n of a meaningful
a c c o u n t i s i m p o s s i b l e , s i n c e t h e r e l a t i o n between a m o t i v e o r
an i n t e n t i o n and a n a c t i o n i s c o n c e p t u a l , n o t c o n t i n g e n t
Weber was c l e a r l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t s o m e t h i n g c o u l d be, and was
b e i n g done h e r e , b u t he was u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t e i t h e r c o n s i s t e n c y
i n s t i c k i n g , as d i d D i l t h e y , w i t h a meaningful account, or
0

2 7 c

apparent

c o n s i s t e n c y i n c l a i m i n g t h a t i t was o n l y t h e b e h a v i o u r ,

not the a c t o r s ' views, that mattered,

and t h a t t h i s c o u l d be

c a u s a l l y a n a l y s e d l i k e any o t h e r e v e n t .
insight
in

t h a t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g v e r y p e c u l i a r about

t h a t i t was a n e v e n t i n t h e w o r l d and y e t a l s o

related
one

to i t s proximate

action

meaningfully

" c a u s e " , and h i s r e f u s a l t o l e a n t o

s i d e o r t h e o t h e r t o s i m p l i f y t h e dilemma, t h a t l e d him

into

difficulty,,
It

t h u s b e g i n s t o l o o k a s though t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g

fundamentally
of

I t was t h u s h i s

social

unacceptable

about a " n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c "

s c i e n c e i n terras o f w h i c h

view

f a c t s are gathered,

g e n e r a l i s a t i o n made about them, and c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s g i v e n

w i t h the help of laws.

The d i f f i c u l t y

i s first,

t h i s i s u n a c c e p t a b l e , and s e c o n d l y how much t r u s t

r e a s o n a b l y p u t i n a form o f e n q u i r y b a s e d
as

one may

on f a c t s a s d u b i o u s

t h e a t t i t u d e s and i d e a s o f a c t o r s r a t h e r t h a n j u s t

behaviour
I

how much o f

i n a more l i m i t e d and o b s e r v a b l e sense

adopt i s f i r s t

to a n a l y s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

p o s s i b i l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y ,
this basis,

procedure

i n regard to i t s

s c i e n t i f i c explanation,

A c c o r d i n g l y i n Chapter

i n v e s t i g a t e the notion of understanding

o t h e r s , which

to

any s o c i a l

it

c a n be made c l e a r , p r e c i s e and p u b l i c o

self-evident

The

and s e c o n d l y t o c o n s i d e r what on

c a n be t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l

and what i t s l i m i t a t i o n s a r e

their

3 I
i s basic

e n q u i r y , and c o n s i d e r i f i t i s p o s s i b l e and i f

that

some degree

I t i s taken as

o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g may e x i s t

two members o f a s o c i e t y , and t h u s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l

between

problem

28,

o f w h e t h e r knoxvledge o f o t h e r minds i s p o s s i b l e
pursued d i r e c t l y .

R a t h e r I t r y t o e x p l i c a t e what i s i n v o l v e d

i n e v e r y d a y understanding,,

I accept

that

element t h a t w i l l n e v e r be u n d e r s t o o d :
finally
and

a t a l l i s not

t h e r e w i l l be a n

one c a n n e v e r be

c e r t a i n t h a t one h a s i n t e r p r e t e d a n o t h e r

one's u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l

correctly,

a l w a y s be l i m i t e d t o t h o s e

o f h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h he c a n c o m m u n i c a t e

But there a r e

p r o c e d u r e s b y w h i c h e v i d e n c e i s sought and e v a l u a t e d ,
a p r o c e s s o f t y p i f y i n g t h e o t h e r and h i s a c t s , and
this typification,

these

c a n be made r e l a t i v e l y

aspects

and by

elaborating

objective,

c l e a r and a c c u r a t e .
The
and

question

consideration

of understanding other c u l t u r e s then

arises,

must be g i v e n t o t h e l i m i t s t h i s p u t s on

c o m p a r i s o n and g e n e r a l i s a t i o n .

I n e v i t a b l y some

simplification

o c c u r s i n comparison, but i t i s argued t h a t provided t h a t the

i n v e s t i g a t o r i s aware t h a t he i s s i m p l i f y i n g , t h a t

i s provided

he h a s u n d e r s t o o d t h e c u l t u r e on i t s own t e r m s f i r s t ,

and a l s o

t h a t he i s c l e a r a s t o t h e p u r p o s e o f h i s o b s e r v a t i o n

and

comparison, there
Difficulties

i s no r e a s o n why t h i s

are l i k e

as f a r a s u n d e r s t a n d i n g goes.

t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s
More s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e

f o r comparison, i n that d i f f e r e n c e s

i n c u l t u r e imply p o t e n t i a l

i n c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e whole o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y , and

hence t h e n e c e s s i t y i n a d o p t i n g a p o i n t
the

place.

a r e p o s e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between c u l t u r e s b u t

fundamentally these

differences

should not take

cultures.

The t r a n s l a t i o n i n v o l v e d

outside

one o r b o t h

i n this necessarily

2 9 o

does some v i o l e n c e to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g g a i n e d from i n s i d e ,

and i t i s i m p o r t a n t i n p r a c t i c e t o be aware o f t h e l i m i t s s e t
by p a r t i c u l a r v i e w s - the r e l i g i c o - m a g i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c
c o n c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y have b e e n much d e b a t e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t

The

q u e s t i o n o f a p o i n t o f v i e w and

i m p l i e d by i t becomes more i m p o r t a n t
d i s t i n c t i v e k i n d of s o c i a l
up i n C h a p t e r

is

limitations

when the n o t i o n o f a

scientific

explanation i s taken

Here t h e d e b a t e a s t o w h e t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n

i n terms of causes i s compatible

and m o t i v e s

the

i s discussed.

w i t h t h a t i n terms of

reasons

I p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r t h a t i f t h e r e

any d e s i r e t o go beyond o r t o q u e s t i o n t h e framework i n v o l v e d

i n understanding, a p o s i t i o n outside t h i s i s implied, which

must be

clarified

kinds of accounts

The f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s
are the tendency

t h e freedom o f the a c t o r by
e v i t a b l e , because
o r m o t i v e and

caused,

and

effect

i s s p u r i o u s because

a Gestalt

or paradigm s h i f t

t o t h a t o f an o b s e r v e r s

that

t o deny

the r e l a t i o n between r e a s o n

i s contingent.

The

Vfhereas f o r t h e a c t o r t h e

whereas

concern

the d i f f e r e n t accounts

from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w

o f a c t i o n a r e s e e n a s open and

about

involve

of the a c t o r
possibilities

a r e o n l y c l o s e d by h i s a c t i o n ,

an o b s e r v e r s e e k s to e x p l a i n n o t what m i g h t have

been b u t what a c t u a l l y took p l a c e , and

o f e v e n t s - be

two

suggesting that h i s acts are i n -

free w i l l

by

of a c a u s a l account

a c t i o n i s often construed as i n t e r n a l ,

t h a t b e t w e e n c a u s e and

the account

of the

t r a c e s the a c t u a l

sequence

these d e s i r e s , d e c i s i o n s , i n t e n t i o n s or actions,,

I n a s e n s e t h e a c t i s s e e n a s an e v e n t

motive-reason

3 0

explanation

however i s a l w a y s r e l a t e d t o t h e a s s i g n a t i o n o f

m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and s t o p s

the explanation

n o t a t t h e end

of a c a u s a l c h a i n b u t where t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f a n a g e n t c a n
be

presumed t o have b e e n o p e r a t i v e .
The

s e c o n d d i f f i c u l t y i s r e s o l v e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

analogy o f c a u s a l accounts o f p h y s i c a l e v e n t s i n terms o f

which the cause, although claimed

t o be c o n t i n g e n t l y

related

t o t h e e f f e c t i s i n p r a c t i c e deduced from a l a w , once i t h a s

been e s t a b l i s h e d a s an i n s t a n c e
n e c e s s i t y of causation

o f t h e l a w - hence the p e c u l i a r

I draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e t r o s p e c t i v e

r e d e s c r i p t i o n of actions i n order to bring

different

a c c o u n t and make s e n s e o f i t

i t u n d e r some
Whereas t h e r e l a t i o n

between c a u s e and e v e n t i n t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d i s o n l y
logical i n retrospect, for action this
event because of the uniquely
future

takes

place

made

before the

human c a p a c i t y f o r p r o j e c t i n g a

c o u r s e o f e v e n t s and d e c i d i n g

to intervene

T h i s p r o j e c t may o f c o u r s e be i n a c c u r a t e
n e c e s s i t a t i n g adjustment a t a l l points

i n them,,

o r be f r u s t r a t e d , so

from vague

initial

t h o u g h t s about t h e a c t t h r o u g h t h e enactment t o r e t r o s p e c t i v e
r e d e s c r i p t i o n i n the l i g h t

of l a t e r events,

a c t o r s behave i s dependent i n l a r g e p a r t
s i t u a t i o n , but the accounts they give
spurious,

The way i n w h i c h

on t h e i r v i e w s o f t h e

acquire

an a t times

b u t t o them e s s e n t i a l c o h e r e n c e b e c a u s e o f t h i s

constant

r e v a m p i n g o f what i s g o i n g on, and c o n s t a n t

modification

what t h e a c t o r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n amounts t o .

I t i s thus not

incoherent

t o s e e a c t i o n a s a s e t o f e v e n t s w h i c h may be

of

3 1 .

c a u s a l l y a n a l y s e d , but i t must be remembered t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e

p r e c l u d e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e a c t o r ' s freedom i n a f u l l s e n s e ,
though i t may w e l l c o n t r i b u t e to an a c c o u n t o f the e x t e n t o f t h e
c o n s t r a i n t s on h i s a c t i o n
D

then point

quasi-causal
past

out

t h a t whereas t h i s view i n d i c a t e s t h a t

account of a c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e ,

i n t h a t the

a c t o r s have a c a p a c i t y

t h e w o r l d c o n t i n u a l l y and
configuration
have a c c e s s
future

o n l y be

t o the

which as

s e e n i n the

the w o r l d i n the

same way.

vestigator,

constant

this

i n the w o r l d and

As

the

actor

From the

c o n t i n u e s to
point

are

of new

a causal

one,

to

so h i s a c t i o n s ,

requires,

so must

view takes

light

them

there

are

or meaningful
important

c a u s a l language

to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s

the
social

I conclude t h a t although

w h i c h make i t m i s l e a d i n g to u s e
'suicide' i s discussed

in-

a changing viewpoint

c o n c e r n s because of

s i m i l a r i t i e s between a m o t i v a t i o n a l

of a c t i o n and

thus

perceive

i n v e s t i g a t o r d e v e l o p h i s v i e w to t a k e a c c o u n t o f the new
this gives b i r t h

his

r e w r i t i n g of h i s t o r y i n the

a c t o r ' s v i e w s change and

phenomena

to

o f v i e w o f the

thus a changing s o c i a l world which

d e v e l o p m e n t s and

causal

previous chapter, i s

revision involves

as s t a t e d e a r l i e r , a constant
b o t h of new

knowledge of

'Causal' g e n e r a l i s a t i o n w i l l

f o r a s l o n g a s the

the

reconceptualising

would t h u s have

a c t o r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n and

impossibility

valid

i t i s l i m i t e d to

t h u s c h a n g i n g t h e b a s i s of any

I n o r d e r t o p r e d i c t one

experiences,

a logical

for

there

account

differences
Durkheim's

U n l e s s the

'causal'

p r o p e r a c c o u n t o f a c t o r s r e s p o n s e s to s i t u a t i o n s i t

32.

is

liable

view

to

slide

into

a projection

of

what

the

actions

emerges

that

the

maintenance

veriflability
in

part

actor

on

the

before

verification
standing'

to

out

and

to

by

the
that

though at

at

used

two

least

check

rejected

attempts

to

plain
views

of

such

of

points

be
sense

of

that

The

these
the

detail
are

or

at

how

valuable

social

least

to

The

variety

of

and

as

and

the

situa-

culture

the

inves-

investigated,
the

originals

investigated.

t h e m s e l v e s however,

embedded

r e l a t i o n s h i p s operate,

to

aids,
each
of

rooted

investigated.

are

of

not

which

in

in social
have

which

any

there

knowledge has

We

by

This

f a i t h f u l n e s s to

sociology

models are

the

under

diminish

the

by

of

comparison

processes.

concepts

heurictie

testable,

actors

i s hence

boundedness

within

u n n o t i c e d by
are

causal

under-

r e l a t i v i s m , which

of

and

the

that

chapters

context

of

set
the

concepts
of

of

'interpretive

developmental

of

least

impossible.

overcome

encompasses both

alternative.
that

understanding

public
at

between d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s

construction

expense

dependent

own

I t

and

Weber's v i e w

as

kind

place.

accuracy

in earlier

levels.

sociologist's

take

indicating factors unnoticed

t h e y may

one

clarity,

correct

to

one

investigator's

a rudimentary

they

explain.

implies

p a r t i c u l a r models

whilst

the

be

why

the

complex m a t t e r

to

similarities

the

includes

These

it

could

clearly

tigator

in

attempts

s i g n i f i c a n t i n terms

leads

and

he

operate

pointing

but

of

investigator's

explanation

tions

and

relativism established

standing
and

remain a

i s accordingly

The
seen

must

are

of

is

at

made

reality

thus

but

come

as
full

33 o

c i r c l e to C h a p t e r 2 where Weber e m p h a s i s e d t h e n e c e s s a r i l y e v a l u a t i v e n a t u r e of t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h ,

and u r g e d r e s e a r c h e r s to be e x p l i c i t i n t h e i r a i m s , and t o
r e l a t e them to a s e a r c h f o r e v e r b e t t e r forms o f s o c i a l
organisation.
I f r e l a t i v i s m i s t h u s i n e s c a p a b l e , he recommends
u s t o make a v i r t u e o f it
The i s s u e w h i c h h a s a c q u i r e d
dominance i s t h u s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a s a f u n d a m e n t a l component of t h e d a t a f o r a d i s c i p l i n e t h a t
s t i l l a s p i r e s t o be i n some s e n s e s c i e n t i f i c < ,
The i m p o r t a n c e
o f the e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b o t h i n v e s t i g a t o r and
a c t o r and t h e i r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n
i s explored i n
C h a p t e r k

I n Chapter
practical

5 these c o m p l e x i t i e s are explored i n the

attempts

o f s o c i o l o g i s t s t o g i v e an e x p l a n a t i o n of

a c t i o n i n terms o f s o c i a l
is

s t r u c t u r e , and

g i v e n t o a t t a c k s made on t h i s k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n f o r

reasons b a s i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h those
two

chapterso

crucial

"Social

time

previous

I t refers

seen c o l l e c t i v e l y

action, a social
and

i d e n t i f i e s w i t h to some d e g r e e ,
c a n make some i m p a c t

one

to
and

t h a t f o r any

o t h e r s ' a c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e f o r him

to change a t w i l l ,

p r i n c i p l e , he

science

i n p a r t i c u l a r to t h e f a c t

c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s own
his ability

in social

social relationships

m a c r o s o p i c a l l y , and
i n d i v i d u a l a t any

o u t l i n e d i n the

s t r u c t u r e " i s chosen because i t i s a

e x p l a n a t o r y concept

s o c i a l a c t i o n s and

and

particular attention

order which l i e s
w h i c h he b o t h

given
the

beyond

understands

b u t upon \v\hich a t l e a s t
towards l a r g e or s m a l l

in

scale

3 *

change, g i v e n t i m e ,
structure

e f f o r t , and

insight.

The

concept

t h u s f o c u s e s the i s s u e a t a s i n g l e point

d i s c u s s i o n of i t s p r a c t i c a l use
h i s t o r y of t h i s use,

i n r e s e a r c h and

the arguments o f the l a s t

f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d and

developed.

possible

the one

t o show how

on

t h i s i s allowed

is

impossible except

the i n d i v i d u a l we

Y e t i f we

immediately

be

it is

hand an accommodation n e e d s

t h o s e g i v e n by
0

the

chapter can

how

on t h e

t o d o m i n a t e , a l l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n and

at a p a r t i c u l a r time

social

From a

some o f

In particular,

to be made f o r i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and
if

of

the i n d i v i d u a l

curtail

other,
explanation

concerned

the s i g n i f i c a n c e

cease to account

for real

and work o n l y w i t h models o f p e o p l e w i t h a r t i f i c i a l l y

of

people

limited

capacities,.
The
it

c a s e o f the e x p l a n a t i o n of d e v i a n c e

i s discussed,

i s shown t h a t t h e a t t e m p t a t a s i m p l y c a u s a l a c c o u n t

and

tends

to l e a v e the a c t o r a s n o t h i n g more t h a n a c i p h e r , t h a t i s t o
d e f i n e him

i n t e r m s o f a few a c t s he h a s a c t u a l l y done, b u t

t h a t the a l t e r n a t i v e
fully

conscious agent

o f a l l o w i n g the a c t o r t o dominate a s a
w i t h a v e r y wide r a n g e o f

for a c t i o n introduces such complexity

possibilities

t h a t an e x p l a n a t i o n

g e t s beyond h i s i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n and h i s a w a r e n e s s o f
response

to i t .

s t r u c t i o n and

I t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t the c o n t i n u o u s

development o f the a c t o r ' s w o r l d

never
and

con-

i n interaction

i m p o s e s l i m i t s upon an e x p l a n a t i o n i n t h a t i t i s c o n s t a n t l y
being

outdated.

On

t h e o t h e r hand, c o n c e n t r a t e d

the c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f t h e a c t o r ' s i n t e r a c t i o n and

a t t e n t i o n on
his evaluation

3 5

and

responses

t o them r e s u l t s

which i g n o r e s the

i n a very circumscribed

importance of wider

factors,

account

A middle

t h a t p r e s e r v e s some p o s s i b i l i t y

of g e n e r a l

is

w h i c h makes a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y , but

one

g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s t r u c t u r e and
be

o f c a u s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , and

mediation

the a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e

of them does n o t
does i t i m p l y

t h a t he may

imply

a notion

be

said

of him

which

also

to r e s p o n d i n t e r m s

as a b i l l i a r d b a l l ,

t h a t he r e s p o n d s .

a more p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
p l a c e of c a u s a l concepts
I n Chapter

6 the

t h e g e n e r a l one

a r r i v e d a t i n Chapter

of

i m p l i e d by

the

initially

sociology
social

knowledge i s u n i t e d from the s t a r t w i t h t h a t o f t h e n a t u r e

nature

o f a l l s o c i a l knowledge.

e x p l a n a t i o n i n the d o c t r i n e of the

d e t e r m i n e d by

socio-historical

is

i n the l i g h t

considered

conclusion reached

The

suggestion

context

o r by

of p r e c e d i n g

c a u s a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n them, and

r e l a t i o n s i n a c t i o n as w e l l as noting
changes accompanying s t r u c t u r a l

that ideas are

social structure

single

t h a t an a n a l y s i s o f

i n t e r r e l a t i o n must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t

i n t e r n a l and

the

one-way
the

conceptual

the l a r g e s c a l e

changeo

of

ideological

a r g u m e n t s , and

t h a t t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y no

the

4,

Here t h e q u e s t i o n o f the o b j e c t i v i t y o f

scientific

the

about

t h i r d problem f o r m u l a t i o n p o s e d

social

nor

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n echoes a t

level

d i s c u s s e d , the r a d i c a l r e l a t i v i s m

to

and

t h a t i t i s only i n terms of h i s e x p e r i e n c e

structural factors

o f knowledge.

explanation

f a c t o r s that are l i k e l y

o f t h e s e f a c t o r s f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , and

a l l o w s t h a t the f a c t

is

structural

course

behavioural

I make an a t t e m p t

to

36e

bring

out

some o f t h e

ideas

and

structure

s u b t l e t i e s o f the

to s u p p o r t the v i e w t h a t i t i s a s a t

a s p l a u s i b l e to r e g a r d
t h a t i n the
primacy of
I

last
ideas

the

one

Lukacs are

it

won't work,

a c c e p t e d , but

a t t e m p t s to c r e a t e

t a k e n up.

w i t h the

p o s s i b l e , by
up

by

I n a l l cases

at f i r s t

a process that

possible

validity

of

the

and

claimed
can

conclusion

of what h a s

described

to e n l a r g e
to be
On

the

p r e m i s e s and

scope and

a l s o e x p l o r e the

i n h i s work and

the

to

pulling
of

t h i s b a s i s i t should

others*

t o t h i s point

be

aware o f t h e i r

some v i e w s as a g a i n s t

w i t h the

as

element

argument about the

b e e n s a i d up

to

earlier

t o have some f r u i t f u l

s t a t e m e n t of v a l u e
t i o n of the

has

I t would a p p e a r

e x i s t i n g s o c i a l order.

o b j e c t i v i t y p r o b l e m s and

i s that

structure, i t s implications

o n l y be

at l e a s t

avoid

o f Marx, Mannheim

C h a p t e r 7 i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h some more r e c e n t
o f the

the

position

so

r e l a t i v i s m implied

bootstraps,

autonomy t h a t i d e a s h a v e , and

be

s o c i e t y and

theories

r e l a t i o n of i d e a s

one's own

r e l a t i o n to the

a privileged

q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t from the

a s d i r e as was

oneself

evaluate

A c c o r d i n g l y the

d i s c u s s i o n of the

be

and

are reasons f o r opting f o r

I n p a r t i c u l a r , the

and

other,

least

from w h i c h to i n v e s t i g a t e and

a r e not

as p r i m a r y as the

a n a l y s i s , there

review various

relativism,

ongoing r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

relative

discussions

practical implications
The

need f o r a c l e a r

i m p o r t a n c e o f an

p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of these

investiga-

i s emphasised.

s o c i o l o g i s t ' s m o r a l / p o l i t i c a l involvement

h i s s o c i e t y i n an

everyday p r a c t i c a l sense,

37o

w i t h the

conclusion

t h a t he

answer q u e s t i o n s a s t o how

i s i n e v i t a b l y drawn to t r y to
a s o c i e t y ought t o be

t r y i n g t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s a s t o how
f a r as p o s s i b l e

these

s h o u l d be

i t does r u n ,

separately

o f t h e v i e w p o i n t s o f a c t o r and
I

then d i s c u s s

the

these

has

has

t o be

c a n be

last

suggestion that
kind

derive

closeness

o f the

Ethic

but

o f the

and

the

r e l a t i v i s m that
i t i s concluded
that

the r e l a t i v i s m

r e l a t i o n between

from h i s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e

the A p p e n d i x r e c o n s i d e r s

t h e s i s i n the

some s u g g e s t i o n s a s

light
to t h e

process,

Weber's

t h a n he

structure

Protestant

b e e n s a i d and

I a l s o suggest that

work, Weber i n p r a c t i c e d e a l t b e t t e r w i t h t h e
i s s u e s r a i s e d by him

the

concerns

reasons for i t s continuing

0

the

for.

of a l l t h a t has

methodological importance

des-

possibility

s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the

c u l t u r e of a s o c i e t y i s a l s o argued
Finally,

and

out

the

inseparable

The

their

t h e k i n d s o f a n s w e r s o b t a i n e d depend on

of q u e s t i o n s put,

o f a man
and

ones

resort

done i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n and
The

and

s t r e s s i n g that

are i n the

e t h i c s a s a way

accepted.

moral

conceptualisations

b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d so f a r i s d i s c u s s e d ,

that l i t t l e

as

difficulty

the n a t u r e o f man

from t h e i r m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l e v a l u a t i v e
of a r a t i o n a l i s t i c

The

importance of d i f f e r e n t

of

that

practical interpenetration

for different theories,

c r i p t i v e aspects

and

i n v e s t i g a t o r r e f e r r e d to earlier

o f s o c i e t y , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and
implications

while

s t a t e d and

arguments waged where t h e y a r e a p p r o p r i a t e , ,

o f d o i n g t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n the

run,

makes

fascination
in

this

methodological

does i n the works r e f e r r e d t o

in

3 8 ,

the
Chapter 2 - i n f a c t

he i g n o r e s / p r o c e d u r e o f c a u s a l

w h i c h was prompted b y t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s
provides
and makes

a final

illustration

he had.

of the contentions

verification

This

appendix

made

throughout,

some comments on t h e b a s i s o f them on a p i e c e o f

e m p i r i c a l s o c i o l o g y of the f i r s t

importance.

C H A P T E R

MAX WEBER;

In this
called

chapter

TWO.

VALUE RELEVANCE.

I s h a l l d e a l p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h what I have

the layman's worry,

Weber was c o n c e r n e d w i t h

q u e s t i o n and i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e ,
most i m p o r t a n t

this

but h i s

d i s c u s s i o n o f i t i s t o be found i n h i s e s s a y on

O b j e c t i v i t y i n S o c i a l S c i e n c e and S o c i a l P o l i c y ' ^ , w r i t t e n i n
ii

1904,

when he assumed c o - e d i t o r s h i p o f t h e Ar.chiv f u r S o z i a l -

w i s s e n s c h a f t und S o z i a l p o l i t i k .

Here he p o i n t s t o t h e f u n d a -

mental r e l a t i v i s m of a l l the s o c i a l

or c u l t u r a l

that a l l t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s involve evaluative

(Wertbeziehung) .
light
be

premises

i s t h u s t o show i n t h e

o f Weber's and l a t e r a n a l y s e s , why t h i s r e l a t i v i s m must

accepted.

i n response
it

My g e n e r a l aim h e r e

sciences $ i n

I n l a t e r chapters I w i l l
to other

show how i t r e - e m e r g e s

s o r t s o f p r o b l e m s and c o n t e n t i o n s ,

has been d e a l t w i t h i n these

cases.

and how

By way o f i n t r o d u c t i o n

t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s = what I have c a l l e d t h e c a u s e - m e a n i n g
problem i n p a r t i c u l a r = I w i l l
of understanding

and e x p l a n a t i o n .

s a t i s f a c t o r y than h i s theory
deficiencies

g i v e a n o u t l i n e o f Weber's a c c o u n t
T h i s i s v e r y much

less

o f v a l u e - r e l e v a n c e , and i t s

s e r v e t o i n d i c a t e some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s

resolved, as w e l l as providing
i n c l u d e d i n such a s o l u t i o n .

39o

t o be

some i n s i g h t s w h i c h must be

4o

Weber r e a c t s t o the s u g g e s t i o n t h a t
o b j e c t i v e and v a l u e - f r e e

social

s c i e n c e must be

' l i k e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e ' , w i t h an emphatic

r e j e c t i o n , w h i c h he t h e n goes on t o j u s t i f y a t l e n g t h and w i t h
subtlety, f i n a l l y explaining that
scientific

the v a l u e s i n v o l v e d i n s o c i a l

e n q u i r y do n o t p r e c l u d e o b j e c t i v i t y , b u t a r e a con=
3

d i t i o n o f it

He

t a k e s h i s e p i s t e m o l o g y e x p l i c i t l y from K a n t ,

c o n t r a s t i n g t h e s c h o l a s t i c v i e w t h a t c o n c e p t s and the l a n g u a g e i n
terms o f w h i c h we
more o r l e s s
of

t a l k about r e a l i t y r e p r o d u c e s t h a t

faithfully,

i t , w i t h h i s own

t a l k about r e a l i t y ,

may

on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e a c c o u n t

v i e w t h a t l a n g u a g e i s t h e means by w h i c h

we

and t h a t w h i l e c o n c e p t s do t o a g r e a t e r o r

l e s s e r extent r e f l e c t
particular-viewpoint

depending

reality

reality,

t h e y do so o n l y by t a k i n g a

What we

c a n s a y about t h e w o r l d t h e n ,

be a s s e s s a b l e i n terms o f e m p i r i c a l a c c u r a c y , b u t e v e n i f

a c c u r a t e , i n no way

amounts t o t h e t r u t h ;

p a r t i c u l a r point of view.

T h u s we may

i t i s t r u e from

that

say t h a t language g r a s p s

r e a l i t y and i n d o i n g so c o n s t r u c t s o r g i v e s m e a n i n g f u l o r d e r
to

t h a t w h i c h i t grasps

of

r e a l i t y w i t h w h i c h we

by w h i c h we
to

What we u n d e r s t a n d a r e t h o s e a s p e c t s
a r e concerneds

l a n g u a g e i s t h e means

f o c u s our a t t e n t i o n , and by w h i c h we

obtain

answers

t h e q u e s t i o n s we p u t , w h i c h i n t u r n d e r i v e from the p e c u l i a r

problems

o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n , .

I t i s n o t t h a t what we

i n l i n g u i s t i c p r o p o s i t i o n s i s not t r u e , but t h a t

assert

the e x t e n t

i s bounded by the t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e we

of

its

t r u t h or f a l s i t y

give

it,

and t h u s t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f p e r f e c t knowledge = a s e n v i s a g e d

for

example by t h e E n c y c l o p a e d i s t s - r e c e i v e s a s e t - b a c k .

4 1 .

T h e r e a r e many o v e r l a p p i n g and i n t e r r e l a t i n g p o s s i b l e s e t s o f
knowledge.
Thus s u c h f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s a s a t a b l e o r a cow,
w h i c h f o r much o f our e x i s t e n c e we would a s s e r t a s b e i n g
i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l y and n e c e s s a r i l y bounded a s the c o n c e p t s
' t a b l e ' and 'cow' i m p l y , d i s s o l v e i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e when
v i e w e d from a n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e .
E v e r y schoolboy l e a r n s
t h a t t h e s o l i d i t y o f a t a b l e i s t h e consequence o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f o r c e s and t h a t i t i s ' r e a l l y ' m o s t l y s p a c e , t h e subn u c l e a r p a r t i c l e s c o n s t i t u t i n g but a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of i t s
volume.
S i m i l a r l y the a r t i s t , and p a r t i c u l a r l y the modern
a r t i s t ( s i n c e I m p r e s s i o n i s m ) , may s e e the 'cow' a s a p a t c h o f
c o l o u r , a p a r t o f a l a r g e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n w h i c h he a t t e m p t s t o
d e p i c t on c a n v a s and xtfhich p o i n t s t o a v i e w o f t h e w o r l d and
r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n i t t h a t we do n o t n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r .
We t h u s
come t o r e a l i s e t h a t the c o n c e p t s ' t a b l e ' and 'cow', though

their empirical referents

c a n be v e r i f i e d , a r e o n l y p a r t i c u l a r
k

ways o f g r a s p i n g r e a l i t y , n o t n e c e s s a r y ways .
From t h i s p o s i t i o n Weber a s k e d :
the

what does t h i s

imply f o r

i n v e s t i g a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l phenomena?

be t r e a t e d i n t h e same way
s i t u a t i o n was

as n a t u r a l

ones?

He

Can

saw t h a t

they
the

r a t h e r more complex, s i n c e the s u b j e c t m a t t e r to

be d e a l t w i t h was n o t a r e l a t i v e l y

tangible

c o n c r e t e w o r l d upon

w h i c h o r d e r might be imposed, b u t t h e d i f f e r e n t v i e w s o f many

i n d i v i d u a l s of t h i s world, t h e i r v i e w s of each o t h e r s '
and the s o c i a l
exist

s c i e n t i s t s ' v i e w s o f them a l l .

views

Social relations

i n t a n g i b l y i n the minds o f a c t o r s and i n t h e i r t r a n s i e n t

42 o

behaviour to each o t h e r

But n o t o n l y a r e t h e y much l e s s

t a n g i b l e t h a n t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , t h e y a r e a l s o much more
variable
may

be o n l y more o r l e s s

Finally,
are

- p e o p l e s v i e w s o f e a c h o t h e r and o f o t h e r
congruent,

and

change

and most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s and

r o o t e d i n human c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h a l l o w s man

upon t h e w o r l d and h i s p l a c e i n i t , and

possible
the

t h e y may

people

courses of a c t i o n

possibility

to

so t o i m a g i n e

reflect
different

Man's c o n s c i o u s n e s s a l l o w s him

T h i s he does by c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g i t i n

d i f f e r e n t ways and

i n working

e v a l u a t i n g them

The

i s v a l u e - l a d e n because

out p o s s i b i l i t i e s and

becomes ' c u l t u r e ' t o u s b e c a u s e

and

their

As Weber s a y s s
Empirical

i n s o f a r a s we

(Methodology, p, 7 6 )

reality

relate

Whereas t h i s

i t to

element

o b s c u r e d i n our c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f

p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y , because

t h e r e i s a measure o f agreement

what i s i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e man

p h y s i c a l predicament

physical,

the a c t o r ' s v i e w s o f r e a l i t y and

o f c u l t u r e i s a value-concept

of v a l u e i s r e l a t i v e l y

then

s o c i a l w o r l d , a s opposed t o t h e

a c t i v i t y on t h e b a s i s o f t h i s a r e v a l u e d o

value ideas'.

changes

o f c h o i c e and o f c h a n g i n g h i s r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r

o b j e c t s i n the w o r l d .

'The c o n c e p t

about

h a s a common

i n the p h y s i c a l w o r l d , i n t h e w o r l d

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s v a l u e s are of c o n t i n u i n g s a l i e n c e ,

of

since

within
5

v e r y wide l i m i t s , he

can a l t e r h i s s o c i a l

relations at w i l l

At t h i s p o i n t Weber r e a p p l i e s h i s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c l a i m
w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s f o r the s o c i a l
world.

than f o r the

physical

4 3 .

"We w i s h to u n d e r s t a n d on the one hand the r e l a t i o n s h i p s

and the c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t s i n
t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , and on the o t h e r the
c a u s e s of t h e i r b e i n g so and not o t h e r w i s e
Now,
as
soon a s we a t t e m p t to r e f l e c t about the way i n w h i c h l i f e
c o n f r o n t s us i n immediate c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s , i t p r e s e n t s
an i n f i n i t e m u l t i p l i c i t y of s u c c e s s i v e l y and c o ~ e x i s t e n t l y
emerging and d i s a p p e a r i n g e v e n t s , b o t h " w i t h i n " and
" o u t s i d e " ourselves
The a b s o l u t e i n f i n i t u d e o f t h i s
m u l t i p l i c i t y i s s e e n to r e m a i n u n d i m i n i s h e d e v e n when our
a t t e n t i o n i s f o c u s s e d on a s i n g l e " o b j e c t " , f o r i n s t a n c e ,
a c o n c r e t e a c t o f e x c h a n g e , a s soon a s we s e r i o u s l y a t t e m p t
an e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a l l the i n d i v i d u a l components
of t h i s " i n d i v i d u a l phenomenon", to s a y n o t h i n g o f e x p l a i n i n g i t causally,,
A l l the a n a l y s i s o f i n f i n i t e r e a l i t y
w h i c h the f i n i t e human mind c a n c o n d u c t r e s t s on the t a c i t
assumption t h a t o n l y a f i n i t e p o r t i o n of t h i s r e a l i t y
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e o b j e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and
t h a t o n l y i t i s " i m p o r t a n t " i n the s e n s e o f b e i n g "worthy
o f b e i n g known".
0

Methodology, p<,72<>
Practically,

t h e n , the

same p r o b l e m a s t h a t
ful

t h i s , we

may
be

already
be

must impose meaning-

become aware t h a t Weber i s a v o i d i n g a p o i n t

result

has,

he

o f the

at l e a s t

u n d e r s t o o d by

the

the

One

o f the

crucial

of v i e w of an
to w h i c h he

to a d e g r e e , a m e a n i n g f u l o r d e r , w h i c h
investigator,,

In this

He

a party,

case,
1

an

what

i s clearly

from the

can

infinite

c o e x i s t e n t l y emerging

and

s p e a k i n g from the

o b s e r v e r t r y i n g to make s e n s e o f

i s not

the

a c t i v i t i e s of i t s inhabitants<,

o f s u c c e s s i v e l y and

disappearing events'?

that

differences

n a t u r a l world i s that

Weber's j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r e f e r r i n g to i t a s

multiplicity

the

s o c i a l w o r l d and

f o r m e r i s the
It

it

e l s e w h e r e u s e s to advantage

b e t w e e n the

of s o c i a l r e a l i t y f a c e s

of p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y ;

c o n c e p t u a l o r d e r on
At

he

investigator

social

position in fact

point

activity
of

the

kk

historian.

B e f o r e r e j e c t i n g t h i s a s m e r e l y the

o f h i s own

practical difficulties,

he w a n t s to draw.

He

consider

the

i s making e s s e n t i a l l y

a s M y r d a l , on the b a s i s o f the

same K a n t i a n

consequence
consequence

the

same p o i n t

episteraology,

Q u e s t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y p r i o r to a n s w e r s , and
are

conceivable

t h a t are not

' T h i s i s the

thus

a d e q u a t e t o the r e a l i t y u n d e r s t u d y ' ^ .
assumptions a r e , i n the
tive,

case

f o r t o t a l k o f how

of a l l s c i e n c e s

to go

c o u l d be

observer

on

t o become more
These i n e v i t a b l e

s o c i e t y i s ordered i s only
Unlike

a r r a n g e d d i f f e r e n t l y , but

a g a i n s t the w i s h e s o f a t l e a s t

society.

Now

w h e t h e r one

to do

a m a t t e r o f what i s p e r s o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
has

i n t e r m s o f some c o n c e p t u a l
for h i s experience,

and

one

so f a r a s Weber's

is

who

selects,

order,

making.

the

and

f o r b o t h of them the

v i e w and

I n p r i n c i p l e the

two

the

be

or

point

one's s e l e c t i o n
I t i s not

h i s subject matter

a c t o r too h a s

to do

this

order which i s

existence.

t o s a y however, t h a t the

the a c t o r ' s v a l u e s

and

to c o n c e p t u a l i s e

u s e d w i l l d e r i v e from t h e i r s o c i a l
T h i s i s not

t h i s would

adopts the p o s i t i o n of a c t o r

concerned:

observer

reflect

some p o s s i b l e members o f

t h i s matter i s immaterial
i n e i t h e r case

to

evalua-

the n a t u r a l w o r l d ,

is

m e r e l y the

to f i n d

of s o c i a l s c i e n c e , c l e a r l y

o f a number o f p o s s i b l e v i e w s .

things

the

crux

This

a l w a y s b e g i n s a p r i o r i but must c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v e

an e m p i r i c a l b a s i s f o r knowledge and

one

answers

a n s w e r s to q u e s t i o n s ' .

l e a d s M y r d a l to c o n t e n d t h a t
It

no

d i s t i n c t i o n between

observer's

are quite

i s not

separate

and

worth
the

4 5 .

q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n between them i s one

which every

s c i e n t i s t must c o n f r o n t .

I n i t i a l l y he w i l l

strive

s t a n d the a c t o r ' s v i e w and

to a degree i d e n t i f y w i t h i t .

on the b a s i s o f s u c h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
compare i t w i t h t h o s e
in a theoretical

c a n he

of o t h e r a c t o r s and

c o n t e x t o f h i s own

to u n d e r -

step back

cultures,

makings

social

inly
and

o r put i t

I n doing

this

he w i l l become aware o f t h e p o i n t s a t w h i c h the a c t o r ' s v i e w

and

the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i t a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e

with other views,

w i t h h i s own

t h a t i s i n Weber's terms he w i l l

aware o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s of v a l u e a s s u m p t i o n s
o f many e n q u i r i e s however, i t w i l l be
evidence

o f enough d e t a i l

become
I n the

difficult

to

or s o p h i s t i c a t i o n to be

ones - t h e r e may

What i s l i k e l y

be

to happen h e r e

a number o f

case

obtain
sure that

the g e n e r a l v a l u e "assumptions a t t r i b u t e d t o the a c t o r ( s )

the c o r r e c t

or

possibilities

are
0

i s a f u s i o n o f the a c t o r ' s and

o b s e r v e r ' s views, w i t h the observer

"filling

i n the g a p s "

and

so p o t e n t i a l l y or a c t u a l l y d i s t o r t i n g the p i c t u r e .

T h i s i s an

i n h e r e n t problem w i t h Weber's i d e a l t y p e s w h i c h a r e

designed

p r e c i s e l y t o s t a t e i n s i m p l e and

pure t e r m s t h e e l e m e n t s i n v o l v e d

i n a particular configuration.

Unless great a t t e n t i o n i s paid

t o d e t a i l and

to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f the e v i d e n c e

f u s i o n of v i e w s

i s liable

to be p r e s e n t e d

o f the a c t o r ( s ) .

I t i s not

t h i s as a d i s t i n c t

d i f f i c u l t y or not.

m e n t i o n of the f a c t

available,

as the genuine view

c l e a r w h e t h e r Weber was

aware

of

C e r t a i n l y he makes no

t h a t i t i m p l i e s a double v a l u e r e l e v a n c e ;

the e v a l u a t i v e outlook

o f the a c t o r and

the e v a l u a t i v e u n d e r -

k6.

s t a n d i n g o f t h i s by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r .
The e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h i s
s e c o n d e v a l u a t i o n i s a t a s k f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t a s soon a s
the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o m p a r i s o n , o r e x p l a n a t i o n w i t h i n a
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s making i s r a i s e d ,
the d i f f i c u l t i e s p o s e d b y t h e a c t o r ' s s t a n d p o i n t have t o be
r e s o l v e d e i t h e r by t a k i n g a c o m p a t i b l e p o s i t i o n o r one t h a t
i n c l u d e s and t r a n s c e n d s i t ; o r i f n e i t h e r o f t h e s e i s p o s s i b l e ,
a c c e p t i n g t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o m p a r i s o n o r e x p l a n a t i o n on
t h i s b a s i s , e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s t h e two p o s i t i o n s shed l i g h t
on e a c h other,,
T h i s problem w i l l be t a k e n up a g a i n i n C h a p t e r
F o r t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t m a t t e r i s t h a t e v a l u a t i o n s form
the b a s i c p r e m i s e s o f e i t h e r a c t o r ' s o r o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w .

I n not d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the a c t o r ' s

h e r e , Weber t h e r e f o r e
the

same r e s u l t .

p a r t i c u l a r aspects

aspects
The

which lead to
that

continue to i n t e r e s t themselves i n

o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y and t h a t

of view.

Thus t h e y w i l l

they d i s c u s s i t

t e n d t o p i c k on t h o s e

t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t t o them, w h i c h t h e y c a r e

about.

h i s t o r i a n f o r example s e l e c t s a p a r t i c u l a r r e i g n , war,

political

s t r u g g l e , s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , and d e s c r i b e s

way w h i c h n o t o n l y t r i e s
bearing
is

two p o i n t s

He c l e a r l y makes t h e p r a c t i c a l p o i n t

h i s t o r i a n s do and w i l l

from t h a t p o i n t

also conflates

and t h e o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w s

t o be a c c u r a t e

on h i s own i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s .

i n e v i t a b l e and n o t t o be f e a r e d j

things

but which a l s o has a

T h i s Weber

claims,

i f h i s t o r i a n s wrote

no one was i n t e r e s t e d i n w i t h no r e f e r e n c e

society,

i tin a

t h e y would be m e a n i n g l e s s and i g n o r e d .

about

t o t h e i r own
Thus he goes

on t o argue t h a t e v e n i f one c o u l d s t a t e a number o f a b s t r a c t

7
h i s t o r i c a l laws,
except

t h e y w o u l d be o f l i t t l e

i n s o f a r a s t h e y c o u l d be f i l l e d

situations,

interest

t o anyone

out i n t e r m s o f c o n c r e t e

i n w h i c h c a s e t h e i r l a w l i k e c h a r a c t e r would be

compromised by t h e c o m p l e x i t y

of the i n d i v i d u a l

situation,

'The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l
and

the b a s i s of t h i s

and

rendered

significance

intelligible

cannot

by a s y s t e m

phenomena

however be d e r i v e d

of a n a l y t i c a l

laws

( G e s e t z e s b e g r i f f e n ) , however p e r f e c t i t may be, s i n c e t h e

significance

of c u l t u r a l events presupposes a v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n

towards these e v e n t s *

of view of the observer

(Methodology, p.76)
then,

Prom t h e p o i n t

though s o c i a l r e a l i t y may n o t be

u n s t r u c t u r e d , i t i s by ho means a n e a t l i m i t e d map t o be~ d e s cribed,,

Actors i n v o l v e themselves

activities,

i n a l l kinds of d i f f e r e n t

t h e e x a c t n a t u r e , and c e r t a i n l y t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s

between which a r e o f t e n o n l y vaguely understood^

selects

The

t h o s e w i t h w h i c h he i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d

observer
and o n l y

l o o k s a t o t h e r s i n s o f a r a s t h e y t u r n o u t t o be i m p o r t a n t l y
r e l a t e d t o them

I n a more f u n d a m e n t a l s e n s e however, t h e same c o n c l u s i o n

may be r e a c h e d ,
value concept,

f o r a s Weber s a i d , t h e c o n c e p t

and i t i s i n t e r m s o f a c u l t u r e t h a t t h e a c t o r ' s

e x i s t e n c e i s framed.
logies attest
their

of c u l t u r e i s a

C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y and c o n f l i c t i n g

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h o i c e i n t h e way men

social lives

collectively,

ideo=

order

t h e way i n w h i c h t h e y s o l v e

the many dilemmas p o s e d b y t h e f a c t s o f t h e i r human s o c i a l

48

existenceo

I f we adopt t h e v i e w p o i n t

of an a c t o r , then, or

o f a group o f a c t o r s l a r g e o r s m a l l , we a r e , e q u a l l y , t a k i n g
an e v a l u a t i v e s t a n d p o i n t

on how s o c i e t y i s ordered,.

o f c o u r s e , qua i n v e s t i g a t o r s , d o i n g

We a r e

t h i s w i t h a view to under-

s t a n d i n g t h e s e a c t o r s , b u t i n s o f a r a s we do n o t q u e s t i o n
v i e w b u t expound i t we a r e a d o p t i n g

t h e i r view o f society,,

When we come t o compare t h i s w i t h t h e v i e w s

society of d i f f e r e n t
immediately

their

of others i n the

o p i n i o n s , o r w i t h o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , we s e e

t h a t c h o i c e i s p o s s i b l e from t h e v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n a way t h a t h a s no c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e p h y s i c a l
worlds

Por the d i s t i n c t i v e

feature

a r e human c r e a t i o n s w h i c h a l w a y s
ally

of s o c i e t i e s i s that

c a n b e , and o f t e n a r e ,

they

drastic-

a l t e r e d o v e r time by t h e i r c r e a t o r s , u n l i k e t h e n a t u r a l

world,

w h i c h h a s t o be m a n i p u l a t e d ,

and c a n be

manipulated

b e c a u s e i t r e m a i n s unchanged i n i t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s
to t r a n s f o r m p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y i s always

Our a b i l i t y

c o n s t r a i n e d by o u r

understanding

o f i t s permanent c h a r a c t e r , e v e n though

understanding

may be a c h i e v e d and a p p l i e d t h r o u g h

c o n c e p t u a l means
s o c i a l world

I n c o n t r a s t our a b i l i t y

this

changing

to transform the

i s a l l but u n l i m i t e d , questioning a t times

the c o n s t r a i n t s o f o u r p h y s i c a l beingo
a man o r a woman i n s o c i a l

terms?

even

What f o r example i s

I t i s c l e a r that these

c a t e g o r i e s , w h i c h d e r i v e from p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , may be
accentuated,

reversed or ignored with r e l a t i v e

From t h i s c h o i c e t h e n ,

impunity

the value-laden nature of s o c i a l

g
a n a l y s i s d e r i v e s i n a b a s i c sense
When we d e s c r i b e a n a s p e c t
0

49.

of s o c i a l r e a l i t y , t h e q u e s t i o n must a l w a y s a r i s e s
what
i m p l i c a t i o n s does t h a t have f o r what I t h i n k and b e l i e v e , and
f o r t h e way I r u n my l i f e ?
I t i s a l w a y s a s Weber p u t s i t
r e l e v a n t t o some value
E v e n though we a r e d e s c r i b i n g , we
a r e n o t d e s c r i b i n g i n t h e way t h a t we d e s c r i b e t h e p h y s i c a l
world
We a r e c o n s t a n t l y d r i v e n t o compare w i t h o u r s e l v e s
and w i t h o t h e r s and t o e v a l u a t e
With the p o s s i b i l i t y of
human c h o i c e and e v a l u a t i o n goes t h a t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
praise,
blame and m o r a l i t y , .
The more we u n d e r s t a n d o f how o t h e r s r u n
t h e i r s o c i a l l i v e s , t h e more aware we a r e o f t h e i r s u c c e s s e s
and f a i l u r e s i n r e l a t i o n t o ourselves
When we compare
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f two s o c i e t i e s we a r e t h u s c o m p a r i n g , e s s e n t i a l l y ,
two human s o c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s n o t j u s t two s e t s o f f a c t s
The f a c t s o f t h e i r s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e a r e a s t h e y a r e b e c a u s e ,
i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e y have c h o s e n t o make t h e f a c t s so by l i v i n g
i n t h a t way
The v e r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two p o i n t t o
the p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r b e i n g o t h e r w i s e
0

T h i s i s t o r u n ahead o f m y s e l f
o f t h e above w i l l

thoughs

o n l y become a p p a r e n t

the f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s

i n the f o l l o w i n g chapters

and

t h e theme w i l l be r e t u r n e d t o s p e c i f i c a l l y i n C h a p t e r

The

p o i n t t o be n o t e d a t p r e s e n t i s t h e i n t r u s i o n o f v a l u e s a t

a fundamental l e v e l

i n t o any s o c i a l

enquiry

Seven

Weber, and o t h e r

commentators i n p r o f u s i o n more r e c e n t l y , have b e e n q u i c k t o

p o i n t out t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e end o f t h e m a t t e r ,
critical

l o o k a t any s o c i a l

e v a l u a t i o n s and v a l u e

reasonably

i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e v e a l s a host of

judgements o f d i f f e r e n t

k i n d s and w i t h

50

different
free*

scope and

reference.

A l l a t t e m p t s to w r i t e

h i s t o r y o r s o c i a l s c i e n c e have f a i l e d ,

b e i n g t o o b s c u r e the v a l u e s
proseo

The

school,

and

t h e i r only

c o n c e r n e d i n t u r g i d and

w r i t i n g s of the A m e r i c a n
i n p a r t i c u l a r o f the

'valuesuccess

neologistic

structural-functionalist

s y s t e m t h e o r i s t s , most o f

d i s c i p l e s o f P a r s o n s , c o n s t i t u t e the

l a r g e s t r e c e n t body

them

of

9
e v i d e n c e on
Is

i t possible

the
be

this

foregoing,

score',

to g i v e

c a n be

what does

' o b j e c t i v e ' mean?

displaced,,

r e a d i l y once the n o t i o n
O b j e c t i v i t y does not

t r u t h = the

method by w h i c h t h e
For r e s e a r c h
say,

thus r a i s e d s

i n the

What c a n

to be

s h o u l d i f he

should

of value-freedom has

consist i n a search

search

i s c o n d u c t e d and

o b j e c t i v e , i t must be
could

s c h o l a r l y p r o c e d u r e , w h i c h though c e r t a i n l y not

the
same

same k i n d

only

of debates i n t h e i r

s t a t u s of p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e s
r e l a t i o n to a t h e o r y .

research,
conclusion.

codified

i s this a feature

j o u r n a l s a s do n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s

presented.

and

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h i s t o r i a n s , s o c i o l o g i s t s and

engage i n e x a c t l y the

the

r e p l i c a b l e , t h a t i s to

i n p r i n c i p l e repeat

Nor

fbr~

i t s results

d i d so i n e v i t a b l y a r r i v e a t the

clearly practised.

been

i n the way,

T h i s i m p l i e s an a d h e r e n c e to t h e norms o f s c i e n t i f i c

sciences

or

of

values?

i d e a i s m e a n i n g l e s s - but

another researcher

quite

light

a n s w e r t o the q u e r y a s t o what o b j e c t i v i t y c o n s i s t s i n

given

absolute

are

an o b j e c t i v e a c c o u n t , and

done about the m u l t i t u d e o f i n t r u d i n g

The

and

A number o f q u e s t i o n s

of

are
natural

others

academic

These normally concern

o f e v i d e n c e and

their

critical

Obviously i n n a t u r a l science

the

the

51.

p r o c e d u r e s a r e more e x a c t and t h e e v i d e n c e u s u a l l y e x p e r i m e n t a l ,
w h e r e a s i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i t i s l e s s c l e a r , b u t t h e same
basic questions reappear
What r e l e v a n c e s does i t h a v e , i f
any, t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s s e r t i o n ?
I f i t i s relevant, i s i t
conclusive or merely confirmatory?
I s i t r e l i a b l e as evidence?
What c o u n t e r e v i d e n c e i s t h e r e and what l i g h t does t h i s throw
on t h e e v i d e n c e i n q u e s t i o n ?
What i m p l i c a t i o n s does i t h a v e
for r i v a l theories?
0

It

s h o u l d be c l e a r t h e n , t h a t when I q u e s t i o n

c o n c e p t i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y and o f s c i e n c e ,
attacking
exist

the v a l u e s

i n reality

of scholarship,,

a particular

I am n o t t h e r e b y

I f the i d e a t h a t

facts

l i k e p e b b l e s on a b e a c h and a t t i m e s ( o r a l w a y s )

"speak f o r t h e m s e l v e s " , "or a r e s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y , h a s t o be~

r e j e c t e d i n favour of a view that
part

emphasises the i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s

i n t h e s e l e c t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r and t h e

of f a c t s , the i n t e g r i t y

p u b l i c nature of the processes

i n v e s t i g a t i o n become more, n o t l e s s important

or the a b i l i t y

to avoid

Hence o b j e c t i v i t y

d i s t o r t i o n i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n because of

emotional involvement w i t h the s u b j e c t remains a c e n t r a l

of s c i e n t i f i c

discipline

t h e i r creed

w o r k s , r a t h e r t h a n t h a t p e o p l e c a n be b u l l i e d o r f o o l e d

distinctive

aspect

B o t h t h e C a t h o l i c and t h e M a r x i s t

need o b j e c t i v i t y i n t h i s s e n s e t o p r o v e t h a t

supposing that i t does

of

What n e i t h e r

to b r i n g

into c l e a r focus,

Marxist

and C a t h o l i c and i n t h a t

into

c a n do w i t h o u t a r e t h e i r

assumptions, which i t i s the business

science

really

of s o c i a l

both i n the case

of the

o f h i s own r e s e a r c h .

I f this

is

t o come about t h e s o c i a l

self-critical

scientist

w i l l have to d e v e l o p

a w a r e n e s s of a h i g h o r d e r e n t i r e l y

w i t h s c i e n t i f i c v a l u e s of o b j e c t i v i t y .
accept

criticism

He

from a l l q u a r t e r s and

A s c r u t i n y of r e s e a r c h i n any

will

compatible
a l s o have

to

e v a l u a t e i t fairly"*"^

s e r i o u s s u b j e c t concerned

e m p i r i c a l t r u t h w a l l r e v e a l the same c o n c e r n w i t h cogency,

and

c o n s i s t e n c y of theory,

s t a t u s and
But

c l e a r l y presented

evidence

of

with
clarity

specified

sources, e m p i r i c a l accuracy, i n t e r p e r s o n a l corroboration

a l l r e s e a r c h must b e g i n by

a s k i n g s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s and
l o g i c a l and

t r y i n g to f i n d

something out,

by

so by making a s s u m p t i o n s of an

of an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l k i n d .

the answers t h a t are obtained

one

has

I n o r d e r to

onto-

understand

to have c r i t e r i a f o r what

c o n s t i t u t e s an answer, though t h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e u s u a l l y r e f i n e d
i n the c o u r s e

of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

assumptions are regarded

little

moment.

as t h e o r e t i c a l

on i t s own
indirect
ranging

assumptions i s a p t

There

i n d i c a t i o n s from the f a c t s
theoretical

p l a n a t i o n s based
different

on d i f f e r e n t

t r y i n g to shed

i s no

direct

test,

light
only

l e n g t h y and

d e v e l o p e d , and

a s s u m p t i o n s and

q u e s t i o n s b r i n g to l i g h t

to r e c o g n i s e f a c t s

and

Hence M y r d a l s

that at times

e x p l a n a t i o n s can be

r e m a r k s , an i m p o r t a n t

course

tail

context
1

unverifiable

of s c i e n c e c h a s i n g i t s own

and

or p r e - t h e o r e t i c a l i s o f

Their p e c u l i a r i t y i s that i n providing a

f o r r e s e a r c h they are themselves

picture

Whether t h e s e q u e s t i o n s

that

wide-

ex-

i n answer t o

relevant facts.

As

Weber

component of o b j e c t i v i t y i s the w i l l i n g n e s s

counter

to one's t h e o r y , w h i c h may

arise

i n the

o f a t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d to a n s w e r a p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n ,

as a r e s u l t

the

of r e s e a r c h b a s e d

on q u i t e d i f f e r e n t

assumptions.

or

54

O b j e c t i v i t y t h e r e f o r e , does n o t c o n s i s t i n v a l u e - f r e e
r e s e a r c h , b u t i n a d h e r i n g t o t h e norms o f s c i e n t i f i c
to a l l o w

replicability,

procedure

and i n s t a t i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o f one's

t h e o r y c l e a r l y " * " " * " W e b e r i n s i s t s i n many p l a c e s i n t h e

Methodology, t h a t f a c t s and v a l u e s
separate

i n t h i s f a s h i o n , b u t by t h i s he means t h a t i t i s q u i t e

impermissible
the

c a n and s h o u l d be k e p t

to introduce

enquiryo

f r e s h evaluative notions

I t i s t h i s h a b i t , and w i t h

later i n

i t the h a b i t of

d i s t o r t i n g the evidence to f i t such e v a l u a t i o n s ,

t h a t i s meant

12
by b i a s

B u t i t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t t h e e v a l u a t i o n s

i n the i n i t i a l

a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e e n q u i r y do n o t d i s a p p e a r

once

t h e y have b e e n s t a t e d , b u t i n f o r m and d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n i t
takes

and t h e k i n d

of concepts i t

uses

I n c o n s e q u e n c e , 'the

whole e n t e r p r i s e i s l i m i t e d t o t h e t e r m s o f i t s p r e m i s e s = n o t
that this
with

s h o u l d s u r p r i s e u s ~ and i s t h e r e f o r e

incompatible

r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d on d i f f e r e n t a s s u m p t i o n s
The

nature of the assumptions v a r i e s considerably,

and i n

p r a c t i c e p r e m i s e s o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f g e n e r a l i t y may be f o u n d
i n t h e same p i e c e
highly

of research..

At t h e l o w e s t

level,

s t r u c t u r e d by d e s c r i p t i v e and e v a l u a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s , a s

i n a piece

of p o l i c y r e s e a r c h designed to discover

how t o p r o v i d e a c e r t a i n number o f t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s
date

i t may be

C l e a r l y very

large aspects

of the s o c i a l

s c r u t i n y a r e assumed t o be o f a c e r t a i n k i n d
c e r t a i n normatively defined
policy researchers

ways

f o r example,
by a c e r t a i n

s i t u a t i o n under

and t o o p e r a t e i n

One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f

i s that they f r e q u e n t l y

discover

that

55*

institutions

do n o t

operate

a s t h e y a r e thought t o , t h a t

social

r e l a t i o n s a r e n o t a s t h e y a r e r o s i l y p e r c e i v e d from a f a r .

At

a more g e n e r a l l e v e l ,

such

as

how

do we

cure the a d d i c t , c o n t r o l the d e l i n q u e n t , i n t e g r a t e

and a s s i m i l a t e

the a l i e n ,

the d i s a d v a n t a g e d .
prominently

provide

educational opportunities for

A l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s have f i g u r e d v e r y

i n t h e f i e l d s o f c r i m i n o l o g y and

r e l a t i o n s and
t h e y beg

the r e s e a r c h i s s t r u c t u r e d by n o t i o n s

education research i n recent years.

a number o f g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s and

assumptions

deviance,

at a higher l e v e l

race

Once a g a i n

i n v o l v e making

about t h e n a t u r e

of t h e

social

phenomena t h e y a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g .

A significant

of any d i s c u s s i o n o f r e s e a r c h b a s e d

on low l e v e l p r e m i s e s

p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s i s n e c e s s a r i l y concerned
assumptions

implicit

one might argue t h a t

the i d e a t h a t f o r e i g n e r s s h o u l d

or p l u r a l i s t

one,

and

view

of s o c i e t y ,

s o l v e d i n any

on to d i s c u s s what i s

i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e v e r y g e n e r a l n o t i o n s about t h e n a t u r e
and

Thus

be

o f s o c i e t y , and n o t

t h e n go

with

w i t h the g e n e r a l

i n such p o l i c y - o r i e n t e d premises.

a s s i m i l a t e d i m p l i e s a consensus
conflict

proportion

of

man

about b a s i c dilemmas and p r o b l e m s w h i c h must

social

organisation.

p h i l o s o p h i c a l anthropology,

These are q u e s t i o n s

be

of

some of w h i c h have a l o n g h i s t o r y ->

13
f o r i n s t a n c e , the problem o f o r d e r , t h e p r o b l e m o f c o n t r o l ,
14
15
t h e problem o f meaning
, t h e p r o b l e m o f economic p r o d u c t i o n
are

c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r r i n g themes i n s o c i a l r e s e a r c h , w h i c h a r e

c o n s t a n t l y shown t o have new

and

important

implications.

56c

At

t h i s l e v e l a s a t the more s p e c i f i c

ones, the

descriptive

c o n t e n t o f what i s a t i s s u e i s i n e x t r i c a b l y bound up
evaluative
possible
covert

and

the morale

to keep out

general

of a p i e c e

one's u s e

general

assumptions necessary
On

l e v e l i s never j u s t

i n v a r i a b l y too
empirical

so - and
political
from the

general
case

im~

implications

s o r t , even i f the

= there

conclusions

to one
the

o t h e r hand the

U n a v o i d a b l y t h e n , the

Value relevance
' d i s t o r t e d ' , nor

that

- the

research

ought t o b e

but

pervasive

t r u t h and

value

result

c r i m e and

of
left

i s 'biased*

i s thus e v a l u a t i v e
value

conclusions

not

position

also

simply i n
rather

necessarily reflect

t h a t , f o r example r e s e a r c h

u n t i l quite

or

compromised

a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h i t makes a r e

just

delinquency could

follow

theoretical matter

f a l s i t y i n i t are

r a t h e r t h a t the

I t i s not

kind

and

s e n s e t h a t i t happens to s u p p o r t one

the premiseso

Moral

i n t o r i g h t and

mean t h a t r e s e a r c h

the

t h a n a n o t h e r , but

the

i s drawn i n t o making a s s u m p t i o n s

implications

does n o t

The

argument a t

consensus-conflict discussion

or i r r e l e v a n t , only t h a t
assumptionso

the

i s evidence compatible with i t s being

of a g e n e r a l

political

as i n

about what i s a r g u a b l y

or s o c i a l l i f e

takes

certain

i n t e r m s o f what i s , s i n c e t h i s i s

camps a c c o r d i n g to one's v i e w o f the

w i t h m o r a l and

and

argument i s

v i e w or other,

problem of o r d e r i s t h u s r o u g h l y d i v i d e d

political

the

hand i t i s c l e a r l y

of r e s e a r c h

t o v e r i f y , but

about hew man

s i d e one

one

the

o f l o w e r l e v e l a s s u m p t i o n s r u l e s out

race r e l a t i o n s example

the

the

assumptions of a general

only that

the

On

with

r e c e n t l y be

almost

into

57.

entirely

construed

a s a n a t t e m p t t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n "Why do

p e o p l e commit c r i m e s ? " ,

w h e r e a s r e c e n t l y some r e s e a r c h h a s

r e d i r e c t e d i t s a t t e n t i o n t o s e e k a n answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n
"who d e c i d e s

what i s and i s n o t a c r i m e , and who i s and i s n o t

a c r i m i n a l , and f o r what r e a s o n s ? "

do

i n v e s t i g a t e d i f f e r e n t problems d e f i n e d

interests
there

- that there

i s no s u c h t h i n g

this exists

i s applied

i n natural science.

part not only

i n terms o f t h e i r

Not m e r e l y some b u t a l l
c h a r a c t e r because they a r e
of s o c i a l r e a l i t y

i t a d e q u a t e l y , b u t one t h a t

d e s i r e a b l e and u n d e s i r e a b l e

with which they deal i s i t s e l f

way o f l i f e

people

or p o l i c y r e s e a r c h - but that

of a c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n

attempts to describe

that

a s pure r e s e a r c h i n the sense i n which

c o n c e p t s and t h e o r i e s b e a r t h i s

its

I t i s not j u s t

qualities,.

that

highlights

The s o c i a l

evaluative - part

of a

reality

valued

- and t h u s t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o i t

constantly raises

h i s evaluation

o f i t a s an i s s u e .

Does he

s e e k m e r e l y t o u n d e r s t a n d and t o d e s c r i b e ? - t h e n i m p l i c i t l y o r
e x p l i c i t l y he i d e n t i f i e s .
features

Does he p o i n t

out how i t s d i f f e r e n t

i n t e r l o c k t o form a s t a b l e w h o l e ? - t h e n i s t h i s n o t

a l s o an apologia?

Does he p o i n t

t i o n s ? - t h e n he p o i n t s

out s h o r t c o m i n g s and c o n t r a d i c -

t h e way t o change.

the n a t u r e o f h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n

B u t i n what d i r e c t i o n ?

indicates i t .

As

B e r g e r h a s o f t e n remarked, the t r a i n i n g of the s o c i a l

makes him a c c u t e l y aware o f t h e f r a g i l i t y
because i n a p p r e c i a t i n g
it

could

be o t h e r w i s e .

of s o c i a l

Peter
scientist

order,

t h a t i t i s s o , he a l s o a p p r e c i a t e s

that

Whereas i t i s r e a s o n a b l e i n t h e n a t u r a l

58

sciences

to c o n s i d e r

innovation

one's e f f o r t s a t c o n c e p t u a l and

a s a t t e m p t s to c o n s t r u c t

can

o n l y e v e r be

the

plasticity

part

the

o f the

a net

social

i s inescapably

last

to

a n a l y s i s i t i s of

theoretical

to c a t c h r e a l i t y ,

scientist's

o f human r e l a t i o n s i s s u c h t h a t

i n a c e r t a i n way
In

activities

For

to d e s c r i b e

suggest that

this

things

t h e y become

course i m p o s s i b l e to

so.

convince

some
/one t h a t he
o f the
One

f a c t s he

can

To

restrictive

develop h i s t h e o r i e s

discovers

only point

cismsa

force

does not

to

the

and w i t h o u t any
evaluative

a r g u e f o r example, t h a t

i s t h e r e b y f o r c i n g up

descriptive
sequenceso
evaluative
What to

the

the

job,

a c c o u n t o f the
But

i s , on

price

the

If

soberly

on

f i r m was

t r a d i t i o n a l way,

argument i s s u b j e c t

p r i o r i t i e s may

con-

Union i t s

And

c o n t e x t o f an

p e r h a p s t o work i n the

and

thereby

the

to f u r t h e r

assumption

was

economic i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e
Of

the

r i g h t t o work,
most important

e s c a l a t i o n the

come i n t o question,,

the

most i m p o r t a n t ,

the

threat

w i l l become a p p a r e n t i n a d i s c u s s i o n s

economic e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e

which p o l i t i c a l

labour

r e a d i l y seen i n t h e i r r e a c t i o n s

assumption that

value

large

i t s unintended

the

the

criti=

p r o d u c t and

cope w i t h i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s

workers t h e i r r e p l y
and

o f the

one r e a d i n g of, i t a

i n v e s t i g a t o r f r a m e d h i s r e m a r k s i n the
that

artifically

i n v e s t i g a t o r i s a d e s c r i p t i o n i s to them a

i n values

basis

a Trades Union employing a

s i t u a t i o n and

w i l l be

the

e v a l u a t i v e content

i f t h i s v i e w i s p r e s e n t e d to t h e

implications

w h i c h t h e y may
difference

of

the

on

consequences of h i s

p r a c t i c e w h i c h m a i n t a i n s an

t h e m s e l v e s out

purely

way

o r d e r e d and

in
their

course i t i s a

59*

fact

t h a t i f t h e U n i o n members c o n t i n u e

present
only
it

circumstances,

they

jeopardise

t o do a s t h e y do i n
t h e i r jobs, but i t i s

so i f t h e w o r l d r e m a i n s a s i t i s , and i t n e e d n o t = i n d e e d

very probably i s not.

trenchantly that

For the i n v e s t i g a t o r to s t a t e

'those a r e t h e f a c t s '

with i t ' s remaining as i t i s

i s to i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f

I t i s not a matter then, of

t h e r e b e i n g a r e l a t i o n between t h e w o r l d o f f a c t s and what one

ought t o do i n t h e w o r l d ;

r a t h e r such r e l a t i o n a r i s e s i n s o c i a l

s c i e n c e when one p u t s a c o n s t r u c t i o n on t h e w o r l d and i t a c q u i r e s

an o r d e r

of p r i o r i t i e s

Weber, w h i l e

recognising

p r o c e d u r e was t o s t a t e t h e s e
and

this,

a s s e r t e d that the c o r r e c t

assumptions as c l e a r l y as p o s s i b l e

t o show how t h e r e s e a r c h c o n c l u s i o n s

Thus one c o u l d
means n e c e s s a r y

portray

them a s a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s ,

f o r c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d ends.

d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s of the s c i e n t i s t
the p o l i t i c i a n t o make h i s c h o i c e
debate.

were r e l a t e d t o them.

He s t a t e s h i s c a s e

as the

One a f f e c t s t h e

or administrator

and l e a v e s

and t o engage i n t h e e v a l u a t i v e

i n some

detail.

"Thus t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t s c a n h a v e
the f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n s :

only

( a ) The e l a b o r a t i o n and e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e ,
i n t e r n a l l y " c o n s i s t e n t " v a l u e - a n x i o u s , from w h i c h t h e
divergent a t t i t u d e s are derived.
People a r e o f t e n i n
e r r o r , n o t o n l y about t h e i r o p p o n e n t s ' e v a l u a t i o n s b u t
a l s o about t h e i r own.
T h i s procedure i s e s s e n t i a l l y
an o p e r a t i o n w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r
e v a l u a t i o n s and a n a l y s e s t h e i r meanings and t h e n moves
to t h e more g e n e r a l l e v e l o f i r r e d u c i b l e e v a l u a t i o n s .
I t does n o t u s e t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f an e m p i r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e
and i t p r o d u c e s no new knowledge o f f a c t s .
I t s "validity"
i s s i m i l a r to that of l o g i c
Q

60

( b ) The d e d u c t i o n o f " i m p l i c a t i o n s " ( f o r t h o s e a c c e p t i n g c e r t a i n v a l u e j u d g e m e n t s ) w h i c h f o l l o w from c e r t a i n

i r r e d u c i b l e v a l u e axioms, when the p r a c t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s
of f a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n s i s b a s e d on t h e s e axioms alone
T h i s d e d u c t i o n depends on the one hand, on l o g i c , and
on t h e o t h e r , on e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e compl e t e s t p o s s i b l e c a s u i s t i c a n a l y s e s of a l l such e m p i r i c a l
s i t u a t i o n s a s a r e i n p r i n c i p l e s u b j e c t to p r a c t i c a l
evaluations
(c)
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the f a c t u a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h
the r e a l i s a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n must
haves
( l ) i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f b e i n g bound to c e r t a i n
i n d i s p e n s a b l e means,
( 2 ) i n consequence of the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n , not d i r e c t l y d e r i v e d r e p e r c u s s i o n s
T h e s e p u r e l y e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s may l e a d us t o the
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t ( a ) i t i s a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e to
r e a l i s e the o b j e c t o f t h e p r e f e r e n c e , e v e n i n a r e m o t e l y
a p p r o x i m a t e way, b e c a u s e no means o f c a r r y i n g i t out c a n
be d i s c o v e r e d ;
( b ) the more o r l e s s c o n s i d e r a b l e improba b i l i t y of i t s c o m p l e t e o r e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e r e a l i s a t i o n ,
e i t h e r f o r t h e same r e a s o n o r b e c a u s e of the p r o b a b l e
a p p e a r a n c e o f u n d e s i r e d r e p e r c u s s i o n s w h i c h might
d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y render the r e a l i s a t i o n u n d e s i r a b l e ;
( c ) t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t s u c h means or
s u c h r e p e r c u s s i o n s as t h e proponent o f the p r a c t i c a l
p o s t u l a t e i n q u e s t i o n d i d n o t c o n s i d e r , so t h a t h i s
e v a l u a t i o n o f end, means and r e p e r c u s s i o n s becomes a
new problem f o r h i m
Finallys
( d ) the u n c o v e r i n g o f
new axioms ( a n d t h e p o s t u l a t e s t o be drawn from them)
w h i c h the p r o p o n e n t o f a p r a c t i c a l p o s t u l a t e d i d n o t
take i n t o consideration,,
S i n c e he was unaware o f
t h o s e a x i o m s , he d i d not f o r m u l a t e an a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s
them a l t h o u g h the e x e c u t i o n o f h i s own p o s t u l a t e c o n f l i c t s w i t h the o t h e r s e i t h e r ( l ) i n p r i n c i p l e o r ( 2 )
a s a r e s u l t o f the p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , ( i e
actually
or l o g i c a l l y ) .
I n ( l ) i t i s a matter i n f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o b l e m s o f t y p e ( a ) ; i n ( 2 ) , o f t y p e (c) "
0

Methodology, p p
I t was one

o f Weber's o f t e n r e p e a t e d

beliefs

s c i e n c e would l e a d to a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
unnoticed

but

d e c i s i o n s , and

nontheless

20=21

that

social

o f the a t

present

important consequences of a c t i o n s

t h a t t h i s would t h e r e b y

i n a c h i e v i n g j u s t what was

wanted and,

l e a d to g r e a t e r
by

and

success

i n c r e a s i n g man's

s e l f knowledge, i n c r e a s e an a r e a o f r a t i o n a l

choice

Here

he

6l.

is

arguing

like

an a d m i n i s t r a t o r

on a p a r t i c u l a r m a t t e r and
of v a r i o u s

other

of a c t i o n .

simple

b e c a u s e he

in a clear

e x h a u s t i v e l y be

ends and

simple

undertaken.

t h e i r exhaustive

form i s not

policy goals.

blurred;

and

thus

describes

Whilst

administrative

the d i s t i n c t i o n between the

i s rarely

Most i m p o r t a n t l y

one,

difficulties
t r y t o do
some s e n s e

The

easily

t h a t he

dealt with

to d i s e n t a n g l e

c o n t r a s t s him

overt p o l i t i c a l

choice i s
to p o i n t

out.

evaluative aspects

aware o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s ,

i s left

final

of

s p e c i f i e d and
o f the

d i d not

them f o r

but

he

do

failed

them, and

the

this

to

or
in

articulate

unfortunate

himself.

w i t h Marx f o r example, the

c o n c e r n and

laid

major

r e s u l t s of h i s e f f o r t s show t h a t he was

the p r o c e d u r e s by w h i c h he

one

be

the

quick

i n d e e d i t i s one

o f Weber's s o c i o l o g y

i t .

and

a s Weber was

s o c i a l r e s e a r c h c a n n o t i n any way

the

tw^o i s

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d = people

though, the g e n e r a l

f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and

social

a r i s e i n t h a t means a s w e l l

espouse v a l u e s which d i r e c t l y c o n f l i c t ,
ultimately a political

distinction

case of

t i g h t l y bounded by

this

comparison

i n t h a t e v a l u a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t ends and

d e c i s i o n as to what to do

If

proposed

l i s t i n g and

p o s s i b l e i n the

Difficulties

a s ends a r e v a l u e d

reader

o f any

assumes t h a t t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e s he

r e s e a r c h u n l e s s i t i s to be

out

constraints

so f o r many a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s , the n e a t

o f means and

and

light

the

H i s a n a l y s i s , though t h o r o u g h , i s d e c e p t i v e l y

c a n a c c u r a t e l y and
be

h a v i n g to e v a l u a t e

c u r r e n t aims i n the

course

may

f a c e d w i t h t h e need f o r a c t i o n

h i s d e l i b e r a t e and

latter's

painstaking

62.

e x p l a n a t i o n of h i s b a s i c views
he w i s h e d
and

to r e j e c t

other s o c i a l i s t

c l e a r and

coherent

(the bourgeois

to s t a t e a

p h i l o s o p h i c a l anthropology
of man

t h e n a b l e to show not

and

o n l y how

t h e y had

d i f f i c u l t y and

as an agent

yet determining

a c o n s i d e r a b l e way

been d e a l t w i t h ,
t h e y might

c r e a t i n g h i s world,

man's e x i s t e n c e , he

h i s own s o l u t i o n to i t .

v e r y concerned

and

i s a b l e to

In contrast

to work out a c o n s i s t e n t

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a v i s i o n o f man
a t once d e s c r i p t i v e

to draw h i s p o l i t i c a l
is

and

and

counterposed

alternative

no

concepts,

him

t h a t Weber

o f Marx, f o r

are f a m i l i a r

alternative vision,
albeit

of

d e r i v i n g from

w i t h the p r o b l e m s o f order, c o n t r o l

and meaning - t h e n o t i o n s o f r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n ,
legitimation.

with.

only a s e r i e s

of g r e a t importance,

r e l a t i v e l y autonomous c o n c e r n s

d o m i n a t i o n and

which

s e e n a s f o c u s s i n g on a s p e c t s o f Marx's

v i s i o n w i t h the f r u i t f u l r e s u l t s t h a t we
But he

society

I t i s significant

s a i d t o have engaged i n a d e b a t e w i t h the g h o s t

much o f h i s work c a n be

their

e v a l u a t i v e and w h i c h e n a b l e d

conclusions.

go

this

W e l t a n s c h a u u n g t o d e a l w i t h a l l t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n s and

was

be

Where dilemmas

i n e x p l a i n i n g the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

to suggest

to Weber, Marx was

He

cope w i t h , a s w i t h the c o n t r a d i c t i o n

between h i s v i e w o f man
of t h a t w o r l d

detailed

of h i s b a s i c p r o b l e m s .

d e a l t w i t h i n t h e f u t u r e , i f changes were made.

cannot

Economy

relatively

which

but what t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s were and how

a r i s e w h i c h he

those

n o t i o n of P o l i t i c a l

t h e o r i e s ) l e d him

h i s v i e w o f the n a t u r e
was

i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to

disenchantment,

Whereas Marx was

concerned

to

6 3 o

show how
on

one

a l l these

has

matters f i t t e d

t o g e t h e r and

t h a t one's v i e w

i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r one's v i e w on

Weber t r e a t e d them r e l a t i v e l y d i s c r e t e l y , d e v o t i n g
care

to

d i s c u s s i o n of

philosophical

i n t o the

'ultimate value=axioms' then,

e n q u i r y of c o n s i d e r a b l e

concerned:

the

plication,

represented

s t a t e d , and

these

undertaken,

But

from them,

the

A l l that

of

drawn out

ex-

implicit

where t h e y a r e

not

general

problems of s o c i a l a n a l y s i s cannot

can

c a n be

' i m p l i c a t i o n s ' be

s a i d i n most c a s e s

others

'deduced'

i s that

certain

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h them,

not

same p r o b l e m s a r i s e i n d i f f e r e n t forms i n d i f f e r e n t
T h i s b e i n g so,

contend n a i v e l y t h a t
politician.

i t i s not

the

The

evaluative

t h e o r y and

by

as s e p a r a t e

p h i l o s o p h y , and

from s o c i a l

where p h i l o s o p h i c a l

and

c a n be

left

to

discusses

in a practical

political

and

social

d i s c i p l i n e s c a n n o t be
Weber i s c o r r e c t t o

made a s e x p l i c i t

c o n d u c t e d on

f o r Weber t o

discussions

form by

these

science,

t h a t a s s u m p t i o n s must be
research

legitimate

q u e s t i o n s w h i c h he

form a r e d e a l t w i t h i n a g e n e r a l

the

This kind

k i n d s o f c r i t i q u e s have i n c r e a s i n g l y b e e n

c o m p a t i b l e and

places,

the

theory,

a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y a s an

c a n be

be r e d u c e d t o f o r m u l a e , n o r

the

into ethics.

sophistication

C e r t a i n l y , the more b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s

i n empirical researches

views are

d e p t h and

ramifications lead into p o l i t i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y o f mind and

e n q u i r y c a n n o t be

that

intensive

each,

I n the

is

another,

as p o s s i b l e

regarded

contend
and

that

the b a s i s o f them s h o u l d t r y t o

t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n ends and

clarify

empirical

6 4 .

i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e g i n s , b u t i t must be remembered t h a t an assumpt i o n , o r a premise, o r a b a s i c s t a n d p o i n t i n f o r m s t h e whole o f

t h a t e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h , though i t does n o t d e t e r m i n e i t completely,,
I t d e c i d e s what i s r e l e v a n t , i n Weber's own term.,
To go on t o c o n t e n d t h e n , a s Weber p e r s i s t e n t l y d o e s ^ ^ , t h a t
s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s an e m p i r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h c a n g i v e no
a n s w e r t o the q u e s t i o n s about how we o r d e r our l i v e s and a r r a n g e
our s o c i e t y , b u t c a n o n l y s a y how t h i n g s a r e o r a t b e s t what
f o l l o w s from c e r t a i n e v a l u a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s , i s humbug.
That
s o c i a l s c i e n c e i s i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e d i n d i s c u s s i n g what might
be and s h o u l d be i s by no means t o s a y t h i s i s a l l i t i s d o i n g
B o t h p a r t s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the o t h e r .
0

Weber's p o s i t i o n i s i m p l i c i t l y t h a t de p r i n c i p i i s non e s t
disputandum;
premises

he r e g a r d s i t a s enough t o expound one's v a l u e

i n a p i e c e of r e s e a r c h .

He

s e e s i t a s no p a r t

s o c i o l o g y to argue about the m e r i t s o f t h e s e p r e m i s e s

accepts a r a d i c a l r e l a t i v i s m ,

at l e a s t

of

and

so

as f a r as h i s academic
1 7

s e l f i s concerned
But

- in politics

i t i s a d i f f e r e n t matter

a s M y r d a l p o i n t s out i n the q u o t a t i o n a l r e a d y

cited

' T h i s i s the c r u x o f a l l s c i e n c e s
i t always begins
a p r i o r i but must c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v e to f i n d an e m p i r i c a l
b a s i s f o r knowledge, and t h u s to become more a d e q u a t e
to t h e r e a l i t y u n d e r study'
The

argument o f the s l o g a n , a s F e i g l put

i t , that

' I n o r d e r to r e s o l v e doubt o r d i s a g r e e m e n t we must n o t ,

a t l e a s t i n the g i v e n c o n t e x t and u n t i l f u r t h e r n o t i c e ,
c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n the v e r y means by w h i c h doubt and
d i s a g r e e m e n t i s to be r e s o l v e d , '
only holds

g i v e n two

considerations.

First,

i t h o l d s i f we

65.

s t i c k f i r m l y t o the
do

not

merits

s t e p b a c k and
o f our

constant
if

the

same c o n t e x t and
change the

or a s s e r t i v e a s p e c t ,
r e a l i t y and
I

not

logical level

i f they involve

a selective construction
and

cognitive

the
a

cognitive

o n l y an a t t i t u d e
of r e a l i t y , ,

interpenetrate

r e l a t i v e l y and

to

I f , as

in practice

and

are

is,

a s M y r d a l s r e m a r k a s to t h e i r 'adequacy' i n d i c a t e s , a

deal

only d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

and

Secondly, i t holds

' p u r e l y e v a l u a t i v e ' w i t h no

i.e.

contend, e v a l u a t i v e

to c o n s i d e r

Myrdal s suggestion involves

f r o i n g between l e v e l s

assumptions are

same l o g i c a l l e v e l

assumptions,,

t o i n g and

the

a n a l y t i c a l l y , there

of d i s c u s s i o n p o s s i b l e

about the

great

practical implications

of

1 9

different
It
clearly
The

assumptions

i s thus not
s t a t e d and

enough to s a y

science

lies

m a i n t a i n e d , but

i n the

t o have a d i a l o g u e one
the

must have two

mutual i n f l u e n c e

K a n t i a n e p i s t e m o l o g y w i t h the
g u i d e s our
see

tions,,
and

also reflective?
how

we

see,

two.

We

r e a l i s a t i o n that

two

but

so i s our
what we

T h i s may

l e a d us

I n order

in

the

the v i s i o n t h a t

m o d i f i e d by

what

these

we
assump-

p h y s i c a l world i s s e l e c t i v e

v i e w o f the
see

successful

r e t u r n to Weber's

s p e c t a c l e s , w i t h t h i s t h e o r y , on

J u s t a s our v i e w o f the

constructive

e s s e n s e of

i n t h e i r b e i n g two
of the

be

distinguishable parties,

v i e w of s o c i e t y i s c o n s t a n t l y

through these

the

should

investigation,,

d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the

d i a l o g u e c o n s i s t s not

r e l a t i o n and

that valuations

d i s t i n g u i s h e d from e m p i r i c a l

d i s t i n c t i o n i s to be

social

but

i s not

s o c i a l w o r l d , but

it is

s i m p l y a consequence

of

to ignore t h i n g s ,

to

conflate

6 6

t h i n g s , to o v e r - e m p h a s i s e t h i n g s , but
i l l u s i o n o r h a l l u c i n a t i o n , u n l e s s we
and

f a l s i f i c a t i o n of the

i t need not

l e a d to

a l l o w ad hoc

evaluation

evidences

Weber's l i m i t a t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t emerges when the

is

r a i s e d o f -what i s to be

So

f a r he h a s

claimed

to c o n d u c t an e n q u i r y

must make a s s u m p t i o n s , a s k q u e s t i o n s ,

relative

and

thus

t o a way

evaluative

t h a t w i t h i n the

and

that these

of l o o k i n g
He

t i o n s must be b r o u g h t t o l i g h t
claims

question

done about the r e l a t i v i s m implied

that i n order

framework o r g i v e r i s e

and

at things which i s

e m p h a s i s e s t h a t the
c l e a r l y s t a t e d and

t e r m s so d e f i n e d ,

the

accepts

e v i d e n c e and

these

r u l e s of evidence,

the e n q u i r y

d i s c u s s e s the

i t s r e l a t i o n to e x p l a n a t o r y

assumpthen

i s objective

t h a t has

sources

conclusions

- are p u b l i c l y v e r i f i a b l e

The

of
All

difficulty

c o n c e r n e d l a t e r commentators however, i s t h a t

l e a v e s the

e n t i r e p r o j e c t i n i s o l a t i o n , bound by

its

own

and

u s e d to r e f i n e and

supplement i t i f t h e y

D i f f e r e n t ones w i l l

i o n s of r e a l i t y ,

not

c o n s i d e r e d , but
conceptSo

just

i n the

different

of

added t o i t

a r e b a s e d on

the

l e a d to d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t -

sense

of d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s

to

c o n f i g u r a t i o n s which are i n c l u d e d

T h u s , i f r a t h e r m i s l e a d i n g l y , we

number o f e l e m e n t s i n r e a l i t y a ,
conceptualise

this

the n a t u r e

p r e m i s e s . O t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a n o n l y be

same p r e m i s e s .

the

presents

p r o c e d u r e s = the mechanisms by w h i c h an e m p i r i c a l e x p l a n a =

t i o n i s b u i l t up

be

one

form a

i n t h a t i t a d h e r e s to the norms o f s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e ,
evidence,

pure

n,

one

t h i n k of

view of i t

may

them i n g r o u p s o f t h r e e , w h i l s t a n o t h e r may

take

in

67o

groups of f i v e
"left

out"

thereby

or

and y e t a n o t h e r

" i n c l u d e d " , what i s the

c r e a t e s a world

i s isolated,,

commentators and

cannot

see r e a l i t y

i n any

T h i s r e l a t i v i s m has perturbed
social

scientists

What i s

"constitution"

f o r the u s e r o f t h e c o n c e p t

o f d i s c o u r s e i n w h i c h he
he

o n l y e v e r y s i x t h one,,

of a

a universe
o t h e r ways

subsequent

to such a degree t h a t r a t h e r

t h a n a c c e p t i t t h e y have c h o s e n e i t h e r t o i g n o r e i t and
a s though t h e i r work d i d i n d e e d
social

social
and

epistemology

waiting

to be

discovered

t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n and
But

is

The a c t i v e

concept

limited

Not

to r e v e r t

i n concepts

and

to

theory,

s e e n a s b e i n g homogeneously "out

these d i f f i c u l t i e s

accept t h i s p o i n t

or e l s e

i n t e r m s o f w h i c h n a t u r a l and

o b j e c t s were g e n u i n e l y r e f l e c t e d

t h e s o c i a l w o r l d was

behave

c o n t r i b u t e t o some u n i t a r y

s c i e n c e ( o r even u n i t a r y s c i e n c e ) ,

a naively realistic

concept,

c r e a t i v e element i n

f o r m a t i o n was

do n o t

there"

denied.

end h e r e , e v e n s u p p o s i n g

we

o n l y i s i t a r g u e d by Weber t h a t r e s e a r c h

i n t h e scope o f i t s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n by

but

these assumptions,

and

t h e s o c i a l phenomenon o f t h e e n q u i r y , b e i n g human c o n s t r u c t s ,

are l i a b l e
without

t o change.

referring

t h e v a l u e s and

How

c a n one

t o the u s e

phenomena i n t h e p a s t , b u t
uniqueness

t h a t cannot

be

o f the

t a l k of post~war

of the atomic

t h e U,N,the E . E . C , , a l l s o c i a l
parts i n social relations

interests

i t s assumptions,
enquirer

history

bomb, the c o l d

ideas with i n s t i t u t i o n a l

t h a t have some s i m i l a r i t i e s

to

which a l s o possess a n o v e l t y
a s s i m i l a t e d by

e v e r y r e a s o n t o suppose t h a t t h i s w i l l

comparison?

continue.

The

war,
countersother

and
There

is

very

data

6 8 .

w h i c h the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t h a s to d e a l w i t h c h a n g e s , t h e p r o b l e m s
p r e s e n t e d i n s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e change and the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s
r e l a t i o n t o them a l s o c h a n g e s
The e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i s a p r o d u c t o f h i s time and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n i s one t h a t
Weber l a r g e l y i g n o r e d , and t h a t I s h a l l l e a v e f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n
i n C h a p t e r Six
But t h i s does n o t a l t e r t h e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e
e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e a r e c o n s t a n t c h a n g e s i n s o c i a l i d e a s and
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and t h a t t h e s e a r e t r i v i a l i z e d i f t h e y a r e
r e d u c e d t o t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s and made a b s u r d i f i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n some i n v i s i b l e o v e r a r c h i n g w h e e l o f H i s t o r y a l a S p e n g l e r o r
Toynbee
T h i s f a c t i n i t s e l f i s enough to u p s e t t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n t i s t s assumptions:
what i s true t o d a y may n o t be tomorrow,
or n e x t y e a r .
And i n d e e d one p a r a d o x i c a l a s p e c t o f t h i s i s
t h a t i t may n o t be, b e c a u s e he shows t h a t i t is_ t r u e t o d a y =
p e o p l e may t a k e i t i n t o t h e i r h e a d s t o m o d i f y t h e i r b e h a v i o u r
on t h e b a s i s o f t h a t knowledge so a s to f a l s i f y i t o
Weber
p r o p o s e s t h e c o n c e p t o f an i d e a l t y p e , w h i c h I s h a l l s a y more
of l a t e r , t o b e g i n the p r o c e s s of making s e n s e of s o c i a l
phenomena,,
I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y an i n s t r u m e n t f o r s e t t i n g out
t h o s e a s p e c t s o f the phenomena one xvants to c o n s i d e r , i n , a s he
p u t s i t , a pure form, u n c o m p l i c a t e d by p r a c t i c a l
entanglements
w i t h o t h e r phenomena,
Weber s e e s i d e a l t y p e s a s a s o u r c e o f
h y p o t h e s i s and t h e o r y about r e a l i t y , n o t a s t h e o r y t h e m s e l v e s ,
t h e y b e i n g too o n e - s i d e d and over-simplified
'The coming o f
age o f s c i e n c e ' , he s a y s , ' i n f a c t a l w a y s i m p l i e s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f the i d e a l - t y p e , i n s o f a r a s i t was thought o f a s
0

69.

possessing

e m p i r i c a l v a l i d i t y or as a

(Gattungsbegriff)
is

g r a n t e d , and

. There are

class-concept

sciences

to w h i c h e t e r n a l y o u t h

the h i s t o r i c a l d i s c i p l i n e s are

t h o s e t o w h i c h the

e t e r n a l l y onward f l o w i n g

perpetually

new

among them - a l l

stream of

culture
20

Not

brings

problems,

o n l y i s Weber c l a i m i n g

Methodology. p.

10h

r e l a t i v i s m t h e r e f o r e , he

is

21

claiming
point

that i t i s constantly

updated

remember t h a t Weber i n 1 9 0 4 was

historian,

and

t h a t he

was

We

might a t

w r i t i n g p r i n c i p a l l y as

m a i n l y concerned w i t h the

u n i q u e n e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l phenomena r a t h e r t h a n w i t h
Is

there

no

standpoints
and

way

o f l i m i t i n g the number o f p o s s i b l e

f o r the

social

this

s c i e n t i s t who

individual
generalisation

value-

w i s h e s to g e n e r a l i s e

s u r e l y e v e n h i s t o r y must make some g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s ?

answer to t h i s i s t h a t i n p r i n c i p l e no,
must be

accepted.

the

The

radical relativism

T h e r e a r e a s many a s s u m p t i o n s upon w h i c h

conduct a s o c i a l i n q u i r y as there

a r e p e o p l e w i l l i n g to

to

think

22

them

up.
The

m a t t e r i s not

t o be

abandoned t h e r e ,

however.

There

i s n o t h i n g to p r e v e n t c o m p a r i s o n s and

c o n t r a s t s b e i n g made

between d i f f e r e n t p i e c e s

provided t h e i r b a s i c

of r e s e a r c h ,

i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y i n terms of r e f e r e n c e
c o m p a r i s o n c a n be

not

Two

h e r e a s I have a l r e a d y

i s room f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l , p o l i t i c a l

d i f f e r e n t v i e w s may

t h e y do
reverse.

not

This

o n l y i n terms of e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s ,

o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r e m i s e s , and
there

i s recognised.

shed l i g h t
Weber p o i n t s

be
on

i n c o m p a t i b l e but
one

outs

and

but

suggested

e t h i c a l debate.

t h i s i s not

a n o t h e r - sometimes q u i t e

to
the

say

70 o

One o f our f o r e m o s t j u r i s t s once e x p l a i n e d , i n

d i s c u s s i n g h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o the e x c l u s i o n o f
s o c i a l i s m from u n i v e r s i t y p o s t s , t h a t he too would
n o t be w i l l i n g to a c c e p t an " a n a r c h i s t " a s a t e a c h e r
of law s i n c e a n a r c h i s t s deny the v a l i d i t y o f law i n
g e n e r a l - and he r e g a r d e d h i s argument a s c o n c l u s i v e <
>
My own o p i n i o n i s e x a c t l y the opposite
An a n a r c h i s t
can s u r e l y be a good l e g a l s c h o l a r .
And i f he i s
s u c h , t h e n i n d e e d t h e A r c h i m e d e a n p o i n t o f h i s conv i c t i o n s , w h i c h i s o u t s i d e the c o n v e n t i o n s and p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e so s e l f - e v i d e n t to u s , can
e q u i p him to p e r c e i v e p r o b l e m s i n the f u n d a m e n t a l
p o s t u l a t e s o f l e g a l t h e o r y w h i c h e s c a p e t h o s e who
t a k e them f o r g r a n t e d .
F u n d a m e n t a l doubt i s the
f a t h e r o f knowledge
1

Methodology,
S i m i l a r l y the

p 7
0

c o n f l i c t / c o n s e n s u s debate which has

been c e n t r a l

to s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y f o r so l o n g c a n be

seen as m u t u a l l y

illuminating

other's c r i t i c i s m s

as

Both s i d e s reacted

to t h e

to t h e i r i n a d e q u a c i e s by m o d i f y i n g and

F u n d a m e n t a l l y , t h i s makes n e i t h e r
f a c t o r y = they represent
o f o r d e r and

control

- but

on

o f them any

different solutions

a r e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d and
c a n make h i s c h o i c e

incorporating
the more
to the

the

t h a t he who

has

level

evaluations

Hence one
value

might c o n t e n d t h a t

a s I have a l r e a d y

understanding,,

t h a t low

be

valuations
the

the
was

one

value

major

e f f e c t i v e number of

r e d u c e d by

function

r e l a t i o n of

doing t h i s

argued p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s

"deduced" from g e n e r a l
to c l a i m

judgements t h a t

to u l t i m a t e

assumptions could

problems

t o choose e i t h e r

t h e b a s i s of a f u l l e r

d i s c u s s i o n of value

satis-

i t does mean t h a t a s models t h e y

Weber a r g u e d i n an e a r l i e r q u o t a t i o n about the

of

them.

task,

possible
Because,

cannot

be

p o s i t i o n s however, i t i s not

l e v e l evaluations

are

lower

insignificant,,

possible
Several

71.

may

be

compatible

be d i s t i n c t

low

different kinds
has

w i t h one

l e v e l e v a l u a t i o n s themselves
of r e s e a r c h c o n c l u s i o n s .

o n l y to c o n s i d e r how

are capable

more g e n e r a l v a l u e p o s i t i o n and

concepts

At

selective

system

the extreme

l i b e r t y and

The

democracy

a r e i n c l u d e d , and

p o i n t r e m a i n s however,

specific

i t i s by

low

level

e v a l u a t i o n i n which

c o m p a r i s o n and

r e l a t i o n s between o t h e r w i s e

criticism

of

be

Chapter
It
but

done b e f o r e

example o f r e c e n t d e v i a n c y

it
may

much

The

t h e o r y w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n

5
i s very d i f f i c u l t

to s p e c i f y t h e s e problems i n d e t a i l

The

problem o f o r d e r

s e l f i s h human i n t e r e s t s do not
a war

and

the i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f i t s

some o f them a t l e a s t have a c o n s i d e r a b l e

history.

they

i s o l a t e d p i e c e s o f r e s e a r c h worked

t h e o r e t i c a l assumptions w i t h o t h e r s i s demonstrated.
specific

for

these

i s maintained

t a k e a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of time and

e m p i r i c a l work may

individual

pervasive significance

g e n e r a l problems t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l p r o g r e s s

T h i s may

'equality

t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n by

r e s e a r c h e r s a r e o f more c r u c i a l and
t h e i r work t h a n t h e

one

be u s e d to j u s t i f y a d i s c r i m i n a t o r y

of education

t h a t g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s and

out.

so l e a d t o

o f d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i c a l u s a g e , o r e v e n how

of e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y ' may
and

like

and

yet

of a l l a g a i n s t a l l .

i s t h a t men

The

intellectual

f o r example a s k s how
give r i s e

i t i s that

to i n t e r n e c i n e s t r i f e

problem o f meaning wonders

c o n f e r meaning o f t h e i r s o c i a l l i v e s .

be made about the n a t u r e

o f mans

esteem;

how

Assumptions

i s he b a s i c a l l y

o r does he n a t u r a l l y s e e k o t h e r s ' l o v e and

selfish

does he

have

7 2

instincts 5
there

any

does he have b a s i c s o c i a l

necessary

or b i o l o g i c a l n e e d s ?

s i g n i f i c a n c e i n sexual

man

an a c t i v e c r e a t i v e a n i m a l o r a p a s s i v e

all

of these

yet

they a l l concern fundamental a s p e c t s

which are
and

one

t o any

i t i s therefore

social

point

last

analysis will

o f v i e w " f o r the

p r a g m a t i c one?

enquiry large

that

it,

and

can be

e i t h e r be

and

a p p l i c a t i o n o f the

How

truth,
condition

scale,

a question

s h a l l we

One's

issues,

of adopting

but

one

time b e i n g " o r more l i k e l y , w i l l a r t i c u l a t e

o r d e r our

as p a i n f u l l y as a s o c i a l

on

The

important

thing

f o r i t i s o n l y by means

r e s u l t s i n new

d e v e l o p e d , c o n f i r m e d and

question

or s m a l l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

t h i s d i s c u s s i o n s h o u l d go
the

To

the

of man's s o c i a l

w i t h one's b a s i c m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l outlook,,
is

is

i m p o r t a n t to d i s c u s s what i s i n v o l v e d o

answer depends p a r t l y on a f u l l
i n the

differentiation;

w a n t s t o r e s p o n d t h a t none r e p r e s e n t s

relevant

Is

research that

discredited,,
lives?

The

of
views

answer to

t h u s emerges a s

the

slowly

s c i e n c e b a s e d upon a l i m i t e d

and
2 3

consxstent

s e t of assumptions d o e s

this i s likely

t o be

i n the

would you

do

and

discovered

wife/sister/daughter?".

the

must be

l i m i t a t i o n s and

l i m i t e d and
of v a l u e

incompatible general

paradox of the p a c i f i s t

i f you

such as these

Myrdal p o i n t s

out

a l o n g time acoming, s i n c e p e o p l e h o l d

a l l k i n d s of d i s p a r a t e
displayed

As

The

studied

the

consistent

a s s u m p t i o n s and

one

who

of the

implications
in detail

values

- amply

i s a s k e d "What

enemy r a p i n g

your

o f m o r a l dilemmas

i f we

are

to

realise

p r o g r e s s t o be made i n w o r k i n g out
at l e a s t

to

i n t h e i r application - set

a v i e w o f man

and

of s o c i e t y w h i c h

7 3 o

reflects

them and
I t will

be

allows f o r a s o c i a l existence which

them

one

how

t h i s g e n e r a l d i f f i c u l t y emerges a g a i n and

l e a d i n g to r e l a t i v i s t i c
I

t h e r e f o r e agree

o f the p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y

conclusions are

fulfils
t o show

again as

questions

raised,

w i t h A l a n Dawe i n d e d u c i n g t h e need f o r

moral debate as w e l l as e m p i r i c a l e n q u i r y

in social

science;

' R e s e a r c h i n e d u c a t i o n i s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y g e a r e d to
t h e theme t h a t h a s b e e n c e n t r a l to B r i t i s h s o c i o l o g y
s i n c e the work of B o o t h and Rowntree;
namely t h a t o f
working-class deprivation.
I n f a c t as f a r as B r i t i s h
s o c i o l o g y i s concerned e d u c a t i o n a l d e p r i v a t i o n has
become the c o n t e m p o r a r y e q u i v a l e n t of m a t e r i a l dep r i v a t i o n , , o . C l e a r l y , t o c o n c e n t r a t e on d e p r i v a t i o n
i s an e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n .
Y e t t h a t we s h o u l d do so i s
t a k e n to be v i r t u a l l y s e l f - e v i d e n t ,
I n v e r y much the
same way t h a t Weber had i n mind, the r i g h t to e d u c a t i o n a l e q u a l i t y becomes a l m o s t a n a t u r a l r i g h t and i s
t h e r e f o r e b u i l t i n t o the s o c i o l o g y of e d u c a t i o n unquestioned.
Once t h e r e i t becomes, not the e t h i c a l
i m p e r a t i v e i t r e a l l y i s , b u t an e x p l a n a t o r y c o n c e p t .
One r e s u l t o f t h i s c o n c e a l m e n t o f i t s e t h i c a l n a t u r e
i s t h a t i t i s not d e f e n d e d i n t h e o n l y terms i n w h i c h
i t c a n be d e f e n d e d = the t e r m s o f v a l u e - b e c a u s e i t
i s not t h o u g h t out i n t h o s e t e r m s .
I t assumes t h a t
'conventional s e l f - e v i d e n t n e s s ' which l e a v e s those
who b e l i e v e i n i t , and t h e s o c i o l o g y w h i c h p r o p a g a t e s
i t , wide open to the k i n d o f a t t a c k on s o c i o l o g y and
i t s r o l e i n what i s now b e i n g c a l l e d the ' p r o g r e s s i v e
c o n s e n s u s ' t h a t , we a r e t o l d , i s about to be launched,.
T h a t a t t a c k w i l l be mounted, q u i t e o p e n l y on t h e b a s i s
o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e t of v a l u e s .
I t c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d
by i g n o r i n g , i f o n l y be d e f a u l t , the i s s u e s o f v a l u e
involved.
I t c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d by r e s e a r c h and y e t
more r e s e a r c h .
I t c a n o n l y be a n s w e r e d by a c o n s c i o u s
d e f e n c e o f an a l t e r n a t i v e s e t o f v a l u e s .
I n the c a s e
o f e d u c a t i o n , f o r example, i t n e e d s to be a r g u e d t h a t ,
a f t e r a l l the r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n done, the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
of comprehensive education i s fundamentally a moral
^4
decision,'
But

i t i s misleading

separated!
misleading

t o r e p r e s e n t the

t h e y a r e d i s t i n c t b u t not

two

as

separated.

entirely
And

to r e p r e s e n t the m o r a l argument, n e c e s s a r y

it is
though

7 4

it

i s to r a i s e

i t and

stop covert assumptions

i n the midst

of

e m p i r i c i s m , a s though i t were t h e manning o f t h e barricades

In

s t r a i g h t ~ f o r w a r d p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n t h i s may

terms of s o c i a l
for

be

so, but

s c i e n c e , m o r a l argument i s n o t m e r e l y

p a s s i o n a t e d i s p l a y , but f o r a s much c a r e and

a t t e n t i o n to d e t a i l

as i n e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h ,

a place

cogency
Petty

engaged and where t h e low l e v e l

f i x e d entrenched

o f t h e argument

p o s i t i o n s to emerge b a s e d

differences i n ultimate values:

and

squabbles

o c c u r a t the l e v e l a t w h i c h men's i m m e d i a t e p r a c t i c a l
are

in

interests
enables

on s p u r i o u s l y s i m p l e

t h i s i s the s t u f f

of p o l i t i c a l

conflict o
When t h e d i s c u s s i o n t a k e s p l a c e a t the l e v e l
m o r a l n o t i o n s and
the p a r t i c u l a r
possibility

conceptions

of s o c i a l

of g e n e r a l

o r d e r however, w i t h

a s example r a t h e r t h a n a s p r e s s i n g i s s u e ,

of an e n t r e n c h e d

p o s i t i o n only a r i s e s

a t the

o f the a c c u s a t i o n ' i d e o l o g y ' , t h a t the o t h e r p a r t y i s

to

d i s a g r e e on a l l c o u n t s .

clearly

see t h e i m p o r t a n c e

a l l y evaluative nature
is

I f one

At

lifes

the same time

over-involvement,

criticised for their

determined

o r Marx one

'the c o n c e p t

i n h e r e n t i n t h i s r e a l i s m a l s o g i v e r i s e to
b l i n d n e s s and

expense

can

of t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e fundament-

of s o c i a l

a i s a value-concept',

takes M i l l

the

the

of

possibilities

one-sidedness,

B o t h Marx and M i l l

ideological

culture

are

s t r a i g h t j a c k e t i n g o f the

issues,

T h i s h a s l e d to t h e development i n t h e a c a d e m i c w o r l d

of s e p a r a t e

disciplines

scholaticised

or at l e a s t

a s p e c t s o f the problems

fields

of study d e a l i n g w i t h

P o l i t i c a l theory remains

fairly

open,

7 5 o

sociology i s r a p i d l y being engulfed

dominated e c o n o m i c s and p s y c h o l o g y
is

only j u s t

i n the empiricism which has

f o r y e a r s , and p h i l o s o p h y

s h o w i n g some s i g n s o f r e c o v e r y from a n o b s e s s i o n

w i t h , i n t h e words o f one o f i t s m a s t e r s ;
words'o
state

I am b y no means t h e f i r s t

of philosophy

and t h e s o c i a l

'Doing t h i n g s w i t h

t o r e m a r k on t h e p e r i l o u s

sciences;

Professor Williams
OK

h a s r e c e n t l y p r o n o u n c e d more s e n t e n t i o u s l y t h a n I .
'The s i m p l e i s - o u g h t d i s t i n c t i o n ' d i s t r a c t s a t t e n t i o n
from, r e g a r d s a s s e c o n d a r y t h e enormous number o f
c o n c e p t s w h i c h we o u r s e l v e s u s e and o t h e r s o c i e t i e s
u s e , and p e o p l e i n t h e p a s t have a l i r a y s u s e d , w h i c h
have g o t a n e v a l u a t i v e f o r c e o f a c e r t a i n k i n d t h a t
i s t h e i r deployment h a s s o m e t h i n g t o s a y f o r o r a g a i n s t
a c t i n g i n c e r t a i n ways.,. T h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e n o t
s i m p l y c h o p p a b l e up i n t o t h e s e , a s i t were, 'ought'
and ' i s ' b i t s
Take a n e v e r y d a y c o n c e p t , t h e c o n c e p t
o f owing somebody s o m e t h i n g - I mean l i t e r a l owing,
money-owingo
You might a l m o s t s a y i t ' s a q u e s t i o n
of f a c t = c e r t a i n l y t h e l a w r e g a r d s i t a s a q u e s t i o n
o f f a c t = a s t o w h e t h e r A owed B some money,
Question?
how i s 'he ought t o pay i t ' r e l a t e d t o 'he owes i t ' i n
that l e g a l or i n s t i t u t i o n a l sense,
A g a i n , what
about a n o t i o n l i k e ' i t ' s h i s j o b t o ' ?
Or t h e n o t i o n
of p r o f e s s i o n a l e t i q u e t t e .
A g a i n l e t ' s t a k e more
e x o t i c e x a m p l e s , , , l i k e t h e o r i e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n o f
f a c e and l o s i n g f a c e .
T h i s i s a notion which
obviously has very strong evaluative i m p l i c a t i o n s ,
g o v e r n s what p e o p l e do, b u t i s d e e p l y t i e d up w i t h a
n e t w o r k b o t h o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
o f human b e h a v i o u r ,
a , . Because moral concepts a r e n ' t as d i s t i n c t i v e l y
m o r a l a s a l l t h a t , b u t a r e t i e d up w i t h s o r t s o f c o n c e p t s we u s e t o d e s c r i b e human n a t u r e , t h e s o r t s o f
human c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s we f i n d i n t e r e s t i n g , i m p o r t a n t ,
s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e l i n e b e t w e e n where you've g o t a n
e v a l u a t i v e d i s a g r e e m e n t and a f a c t u a l
disagreement
i s much l e s s s h a r p t h a n t h e o t h e r p i c t u r e s u g g e s t e d ;
and one o f t h e t h i n g s about t h i s i s t h a t t h e r e a r e
p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f u s i n g one s e t o f v a l u e s r a t h e r
t h a n a n o t h e r , and t h e s e c a n be e x p l o r e d by p h i l o s o p h y .
L e t me j u s t t a k e one c a s e .
Some m o r a l o u t l o o k s p u t
an enormous premium on a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c a l l e d s t r e n g t h
of w i l l ;
and t h i s a c t i o n i s n o t u n c o n n e c t e d , f o r
example, w i t h t h o s e g e n u i n e l y m o r a l q u e s t i o n s about
0

76o

the f a n a t i c - w h e t h e r he s h o u l d be a d m i r e d f o r
d o i n g what he s i n c e r e l y b e l i e v e s i s r i g h t o
These
i s s u e s a r e r e l a t e d , not j u s t to other moral or
e v a l u a t i v e q u e s t i o n s , b u t t o a whole s e t o f
q u e s t i o n s - about what t h e s e l f i s , what t h e w i l l
i s , what a c t i o n i s w h i c h a r e t o be e x p l o r e d a t
the p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e v e l , so t h e
f i r s t t h i n g I want t o s a y i s t h a t we c a n t r e a t some
e v a l u a t i v e d i s a g r e e m e n t s , not a t t h e pure l e v e l o f
a d j u d i c a t i n g t h e e v a l u a t i v e d i s a g r e e m e n t , b u t by
p u r s u i n g t h o s e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h make s e n s e
o f t h a t s e t o f v a l u e s - v i e w s o f human n a t u r e , o f
s o c i e t y , o f what human b e i n g s a r e - and some o f
t h o s e may be f o u n d t o be i n c o h e r e n t a t t h e p h i l o sophical l e v e l o
1

To
or t h a t

say that

t h i s aspect

'society functions

of s o c i e t y i s of c e n t r a l importance

like

this'

be

true, but only ever within

It

c o n s t i t u t e s a s e l e c t i o n of aspects

s o l v e and w i l l

do g r e a t e r

than o t h e r s o

To some e x t e n t

there

i sa 'territorial

i s o f t e n h e l p f u l and may

the l i m i t s

justice

o f t h e terms used,,

f o r study, problems to

t o some i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s

' a l l t h e w o r l d ' s a s t a g e ' and

imperative',

but i t i s misleading

to

see

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o n l y i n terms o f r o l e s o r o f o v e r c r o w d i n g

and

t o do so h a s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n

life
it

i n terms of a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s

'Common v a l u e s

gories;

there

of s o c i a l

As M a r t i n s

puts

and norms h i n g e on common c o n c e p t s and c a t e -

i s a s o c i a l problem o f c o g n i t i v e

order as w e l l

26

as a Hobbesian problem of moral o r d e r '

i n terms o f a s e t o f c o g n i t i v e
set

of moral choicest,

categories

Seeing the world

leads

Changing the c o g n i t i v e

p r o v i d e a new o r d e r o f m o r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s *
of O r w e l l ' s

Newspeak i n 1 9 8 4

c e r t a i n kinds

to a l i m i t e d
categories

The

counterpart

w h i c h made c e r t a i n i d e a s

of a c t i o n l i t e r a l l y unthinkable

may

and so

i s the s i t u a t i o n

77*

of today's
vandalism

p o l i t i c i a n s and
or u n o f f i c i a l

l i t e r a l l y without
and
is

social

strikes

of t h o s e who

so d i f f e r e n t

quite u n i n t e l l i g i b l e ,

'mindless'

i n their

r e c o g n i z e , nor

them.

motivation
the c o u r t o
s t a n d i n g by
analysis

censure

them a s to

and

and m i s i n t e r p r e t e d

from t h e l i m i t a t i o n s

j u d g e them, a s t h e y

so deny

t o be

is

motivated

experiences

intelligible

c o m p r i s e d by

and
to

under-

i n the

last

moral

e x p r e s s i o n s of emotion,

contain

Similarly cognitive categories represent

interests.

I n the d i s c u s s i o n of the

' t h e o r e t i c a l assumptions'
conducted t h i s

do

responsibility

a d e c i s i o n t o see c e r t a i n t h i n g s i n a c e r t a i n way

and

attempt

i n d i c a t e s above, m o r a l c a t e g o r i e s ,

u n l e s s they are seen as simply

evaluative

Similarly

c o g n i t i v e c a t e g o r i e s employed i s n o t

c o g n i t i v e aspects

be

vantage

c o u r t d e f e n c e , b e c a u s e any

t o have one's d e s i r e s ,

As W i l l i a m s

view

outrages

q u e s t i o n o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s imposed on

separable

categorieso

than

distorted

the

these

c a n t h e y comprehend t h e d e s i r e s t h a t

acts,

The

world

on c h i l d r e n o f t e n c l a i m a

B e t t e r to avow m i n d l e s s n e s s

f o r o n e ' s own

'anarchic'

The

p u r p o s e or m o t i v e

a t e x p l a n a t i o n i s u s e l e s s t o t h o s e who
not

or

adolescent

so t h a t t h e a c t s e e n from t h e

commit s e x u a l a s s a u l t s

'mental b l a c k o u t '

perpetuate

from t h o s e who

p o i n t o f a u t h o r i t y c a n h a v e no
t h o s e who

as

r e f e r to

o r d e r , m o r a l o r cognitive

experience

i n fact

m a g i s t r a t e s who

overlap

and

so

'value

upon w h i c h s o c i o l o g i c a l

s h o u l d be b o r n e i n mind and

reflect
premises'

research
the

argument, a s Dawe m a i n t a i n s , waged i n w h a t e v e r form i s a p p r o priates

e m p i r i c a l research, conceptual

e x e g i s i s and

moral

78,

debate are

a l l e s s e n t i a l to achieve

i s b e i n g s a i d and

was

the

d e f i n i t i o n s and

a conclusion

social

science

conclusion

o f Weber's d i s c u s s i o n

r e l a t i v i s m w h i c h s t r e s s e d the

a s s u m p t i o n s and
It

c l a r i t y about what

claimed

R e l a t i v i s m was
value-relevance,

final

t h e i r value

lines

c u m u l a t i v e and

objective.

q u e s t i o n e d and

shown to be

importance

of

implications

t h a t d e a l t a blow t o the

a l o n g the

of

conception

of

of n a t u r a l

science

as

T h i s view has

at l a s t

been s e r i o u s l y

unrealistic

for natural

independent,

science

2 7

also,

but

there

are

o t h e r important d i f f e r e n c e s between

young a n d - p e r h a p s e v e r y o u t h f u l
scienceso
relativism
i n the

G i v e n t h a t he

had

availability

argued t h a t

o f the

strongly

to a t h r e a t

I n l^Oh he
cerned with

wrote

psychological

I n the

and

the

the

exact

Methodology
wrote

natural
p.

74.

social

'Sociology

...

end

are

con-

( g e i s t i g e ) phenomena

can

of h i s l i f e

schemes

o r s e e k to
t o w a r d s 1920

i s a s c i e n c e w h i c h a t t e m p t s the

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o c i a l
causal explanation

the

of

redefined i t .

s c i e n c e s we

intellectual

sciences i n general
At

degree

assumptions

o f a s p e c i f i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t t y p e from t h o s e w h i c h the
of

natural

s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Weber s h o u l d

to o b j e c t i v i t y a s he

'....

the

o b j e c t i v i t y consisted

r e s u l t s , not

on w h i c h t h e y were b a s e d , i t i s not
react

s c i e n c e s and

accepted a considerable

i n h i s s u b j e c t , and

public

social

the

solve'.
he

interpretive

a c t i o n i n order thereby to a r r i v e a t

o f i t s c o u r s e and

effects'.

The

problem

7 9 o

o f the ' g e i s t i g e ' phenomena of s o c i o l o g y and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

p r i o r to c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n t h u s r e a p p e a r s , and a s Weber c o n t i n u e s ,
the d i f f i c u l t i e s become more evident
I n "action" i s included
a l l human b e h a v i o u r when and i n s o f a r a s the a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l
a t t a c h e s s u b j e c t i v e meaning to i t
A c t i o n i n t h i s s e n s e may
be e i t h e r o v e r t o r p u r e l y i n w a r d o r s u b j e c t i v e 5
i t may
consist
of p o s i t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a s i t u a t i o n , or of d e l i b e r a t e l y
r e f r a i n i n g from s u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n o r p a s s i v e l y a c q u i e s c i n g i n
the s i t u a t i o n s
A c t i o n i s s o c i a l i n s o f a r a s , by v i r t u e o f the
s u b j e c t i v e meaning a t t a c h e d to i t by the a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l ( o r
i n d i v i d u a l s ) , i t t a k e s a c c o u n t o f the b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s and
i s thereby oriented i n i t s course' <
>
T h e o r y o f S o c i a l and
Economic O r g a n i s a t i o n , p 8 8
1

Weber i s p r o p o s i n g a d e l i b e r a t e l y n o n - b e h a v i o u r i s t d i s c i p l i n e
which recognises
think

the n e c e s s i t y

to u n d e r s t a n d what

they are doing, t h e i r reasons, i n t e n t i o n s ,

m o t i v e s and

the

s o c i a l worlds they create

t r y i n g to e x p l a i n what t h e y d o
i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s and
a s the

expression

and

and

I t gives

to c u l t u r e

aims

inhabit

full

and

individuals
and
before

recognition

to

social relations

c o n s e q u e n c e of man's r e f l e c t i v e and

i m a g i n a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s as w e l l as b e i n g , f o r each i n d i v i d u a l ,
a w o r l d w h i c h he
like

the

e x p e r i e n c e s as a f a c t i c i t y

p h y s i c a l world,

who

confers

own

existence

Weber's v i e w o f man

meaning upon a l l a s p e c t s
i n i t , who

v i e w o f r e a l i t y and

a l i e n from
i s of a

o f r e a l i t y and

a c t s i n terms of

thereby contributes

himself,
creature

upon h i s

t h i s meaning and

t o and

creates

this

a world

8 0 o

o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and

i d e a s i n w h i c h to d w e l l a s w e l l a s

r e a c t i n g to what a l r e a d y e x i s t s a s a r e s u l t
those

t h a t went b e f o r e him.

product
He

before

i t c a n be

i s t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d to g i v e some a c c o u n t
which w i l l

explained,,

of a method o f

conform to the demand f o r the

p u b l i c v e r i f l a b i l i t y of o b j e c t i v i t y ,

a c t i o n thus understood

c a n be

causally

and

accuracy

t h e n to show

He

had

place i n a world

which v a r i e d w i t h

t i m e , p l a c e and

individuals

d i f f e r e n t l y and

to a c t d i f f e r e n t l y a t d i f f e r e n t

I f p o e p l e t e n d e d to see

t h i s meant t h a t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r any

between t i m e s
t i o n s and

and

social

s e n s e by

p l a c e s , and

t i m e s and p l a c e s ,

o f t h e i r v i e w s was

science.

things

an

essential

O b j e c t i v i t y was

the l i m i t a t i o n on
the v a r i e t y

raised

comparability

of i n t e r e s t s ,

assump-

d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h the r e s e a r c h e r , l i k e w i s e human

w i t h h i s own

v i e w o f the w o r l d ,

s e t up h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , ,

I n t h i s d i r e c t i o n l a y v a l u e r e l e v a n c e and
e m p h a s i s on the s i g n i f i c a n c e
l e d to the p o s i n g
of v e r i f l a b i l i t y o
one

element

s t r e s s e d the i m p o r t a n c e o f a c t i o n s a s t a k i n g

c o n s t r u e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r way

a s a problem i n one

propounded

s c i e n c e w h i c h a t t e m p t e d t o come t o

terms w i t h human c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a c r u c i a l m e d i a t i n g
in action.

how

explained

I n h i s e a r l i e r e s s a y on v a l u e r e l e v a n c e Weber had
a s i m i l a r view of s o c i a l

of

H i s v i e w o f s o c i e t y i s a s a human

w h i c h must be u n d e r s t o o d

understanding
and

o f the e f f o r t s

relativism,.

of c o n s c i o u s n e s s

The

i n a c t i o n however,

o f a q u e s t i o n about o b j e c t i v i t y i n the
Weber had

earlier

would a c c u r a t e l y u n d e r s t a n d

same

context

taken i t f o r granted

o t h e r p e o p l e and

other

that

cultures

81.

But

i f c o n s c i o u s n e s s was t o be t h e c e n t r a l

p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t was a c o n s c i o u s n e s s

element i n t h i s , and

s e p a r a t e d from one's

own by a g r e a t c u l t u r a l gap, how c o u l d one be s u r e a s t o what

one

might a s s e r t

natural
least
not

of i t ?

One c o u l d n o t u s e t h e p r o c e d u r e s

s c i e n t i f i c v e r i f i c a t i o n by e x p e r i m e n t a l

i n any u s u a l s e n s e , s i n c e t h e e v i d e n c e

only physicals

of

testing, at

concerned

was

And i f one c o u l d n o t do t h i s how c o u l d one

l a y any c l a i m t o c e r t a i n t y and a c c u r a c y , how c o u l d one s a y t h a t

the f a c t s about w h i c h one spoke were i n d i s p u t a b l e , and i n t h i s
sense

objective?

Weber h a d b e e n c a r e f u l n e v e r

objectivity i n this

to s a c r i f i c e

sense i n h i s e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n , b y

claiming

t h a t e v e n though r e s e a r c h was l i m i t e d i n i t s scope by i t s

premises,

i t must be i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y r e p l i c a b l e , s o t h a t a

l a t e r r e s e a r c h e r would i n e v i t a b l y p r o d u c e t h e same r e s u l t s i f
he began w i t h t h e same a s s u m p t i o n s .
understanding

When t h e c r i t e r i a f o r

a c t i o n a s a p r e c o n d i t i o n o f p r o v i d i n g a more

g e n e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n were r a i s e d f o r e x a m i n a t i o n ,

i t began t o

l o o k a s though t h e r e would be some d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g them

to h o l d up.
It

appears

t h a t Weber i s c l a i m i n g a t t h i s

stage that the

a c t o r ' s v i e w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n must be u n d e r s t o o d
behaviour

c a n be r e c o g n i s e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y .

before h i s

An e x t e r n a l

o b s e r v e r ' s p o s i t i o n l e a d s t o m i s - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h r o u g h egocentrism, with the r e s u l t

in

situations

t h a t people a p p a r e n t l y a c t d i f f e r e n t l y

t h a t a r e s e e n a s t h e same by a n o b s e r v e r , and

t h e same i n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a r e s e e n a s d i f f e r e n t .

O n l y when

82

the way

the a c t o r i d e n t i f i e s s i t u a t i o n s i s r e c o g n i s e d w i l l

genuine r e g u l a r i t i e s

i n h i s behaviour

d e r i v e not

'objective'

but

o n l y from

be

to them b o t h a s r e g a r d s how
them

he

comprehended f o r t h e s e

similarities

from r u l e s and meanings w h i c h g u i d e

the

i n circumstances,

the a c t o r ' s

s e e s them and

how

response

he r e a c t s

to

I n f a c t Weber g i v e s v e r y l i t t l e
by u n d e r s t a n d i n g

( V e r s t e h e n ) and

account

takes a f a m i l i a r i t y

c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f the method and

a s b a c k g r o u n d t o h i s own

view

He

t o what he means

the concept

with

for

granted

r e f e r s t h e r e a d e r to

Jaspers,

28
Rickert

and

Simmel

and he might have added, W i l h e l m D i l t h e y

whose p a r t i c u l a r

concern

i t was

method o f s o c i a l

s c i e n c e and who

to make V e r s t e h e n
was

an i m p o r t a n t

the

basic

protagonist

i n the c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e on w h e t h e r s u c h a method was

o r u s e f u l , and w h e t h e r i f i t was
sufficiently

c l e a r and

used,

necessary

t h e r e s u l t s would

publicly verifiable

be

to a l l o w a s u b s e q u e n t

' r e s p e c t a b l e ' c a u s a l a n a l y s i s , or a l t e r n a t i v e l y could stand

29
t h e i r own

a s an e x p l a n a t i o n

Weber i n i t i a l l y makes a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n l o g i c a l
rational,

and

e m o t i o n a l l y e m p a t h i c understanding,,

have a p e r f e c t l y c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

or the

what a p e r s o n

Thus 'We

Pythagorean

theorem i n r e a s o n i n g o r argument, or when someone

correctly

t r a i n of r e a s o n i n g a c c o r d i n g to

a c c e p t e d modes of t h i n k i n g

i s d o i n g when he

I n the same way

tries

or

o f what i t means when

someone employs t h e p r o p o s i t i o n 2 x 2 = 4

c a r r i e s out a l o g i c a l

on

we

to a c h i e v e

also

our
understand

certain

ends

8 3 .

on the b a s i s o f the f a c t s o f the s i t u a t i o n a s e x p e r i e n c e h a s

a c c u s t o m e d us t o i n t e r p r e t them.
S u c h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
t h i s type of r a t i o n a l l y p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n p o s s e s s e s , f o r t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c h o i c e o f means, t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f
verifiable certainty .
We know t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s the a c t o r
w a n t s to b r i n g about and the a l t e r n a t i v e s open to him and so
we c a n s e e why he d i d what he d i d ,
'On the o t h e r hand, many
u l t i m a t e ends o r v a l u e s t o w a r d s w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t
human a c t i o n may be o r i e n t e d , o f t e n c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d comp l e t e l y , though some t i m e s we a r e a b l e to g r a s p them i n t e l l e c t u a l l y
The more r a d i c a l l y t h e y d i f f e r from our own u l t i m a t e v a l u e s ,
however, the more d i f f i c u l t i t i s f o r u s to make them u n d e r s t a n d a b l e by i m a g i n a t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n them'.
ToS.E.Oo
p 91
G e n e r a l v a l u e i d e a s a r e v a g u e , though t h e y may be
i m p o r t a n t to a c t o r s and t h u s we may have t o r e l y on our i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the a c t o r and h i s c u l t u r e to g a i n some f e e l i n g
f o r the s i t u t i o n , where i t cannot be e a s i l y s p e l l e d out i n
t e r m s of means and e n d s .
At the same time Weber i s q u i c k to
r e j e c t the d u b i o u s i n t u i t i v e k i n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s i m p l i e s ;
I t i s a g r e a t h e l p to be a b l e to put one's s e l f i m a g i n a t i v e l y
i n the p l a c e o f the a c t o r and t h u s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y t o p a r t i c i p a t e
i n h i s e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t t h i s i s not an e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n o f
meaningful i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
p.90
1

Weber t h e n

goes on

to d e a l w i t h t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t

a c t i o n s t a k e p l a c e , f o r so f a r we
h i s immediate s i t u a t i o n .
explanatory

understanding.

He

i n which

a r e l i m i t e d t o the a c t o r

contrasts observational

and

and

8 4 ,

U n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n be o f two k i n d s s
the f i r s t i s
the d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the subj e c t i v e meaning o f a g i v e n a c t a s s u c h , i n c l u d i n g
verbal utterances.
We t h u s u n d e r s t a n d by o b s e r v a t i o n , i n t h i s s e n s e , the meaning o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n
2 x 2 = 4 when we h e a r o r r e a d i t
This i s a case
o f the d i r e c t r a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i d e a s .
We
a l s o u n d e r s t a n d an o u t b r e a k o f a n g e r a s m a n i f e s t e d
by f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , e x c l a m a t i o n s o r i r r a t i o n a l
movementSo
T h i s i s d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n a l unders t a n d i n g o f i r r a t i o n a l e m o t i o n a l reactions
We c a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n a s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n a l way, the a c t i o n
o f a w o o d c u t t e r o r somebody who r e a c h e s f o r t h e knob
t o s h u t a d o o r o r who aims a gun a t an a n i m a l ,
This
i s r a t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n a l understanding of a c t i o n .
c

U n d e r s t a n d i n g may, however, be o f a n o t h e r s o r t , n a m e l y
e x p l a n a t o r y understanding,,
T h u s we u n d e r s t a n d i n
terms o f m o t i v e t h e meaning an a c t o r a t t a c h e s t o t h e
p r o p o s i t i o n t w i c e two e q u a l s f o u r , when he s t a t e s i t
o r w r i t e s i t down, i n t h a t we u n d e r s t a n d what makes
him do t h i s a t p r e c i s e l y t h i s moment and i n t h e s e
circumstanceso
Understanding i n t h i s sense i s
a t t a i n e d i f we know t h a t he i s engaged i n b a l a n c i n g
a - l e d g e r o r i n making a s c i e n t i f i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n , o r
i s engaged i n some o t h e r t a s k o f w h i c h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
a c t would be an a p p r o p r i a t e part
This i s rational
understanding of motivation, which c o n s i s t s i n p l a c i n g
t h e a c t i n an i n t e l l i g i b l e and more i n c l u s i v e c o n t e x t
o f meaningo
Thus we u n d e r s t a n d t h e c h o p p i n g o f wood
o r a i m i n g o f a gun i n terms o f m o t i v e i n a d d i t i o n t o
d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n i f we know t h a t t h e woodchopper i s
w o r k i n g f o r a wage o r i s c h o p p i n g a s u p p l y o f f i r e w o o d
f o r h i s own u s e o r p o s s i b l y d o i n g i t f o r r e c r e a t i o n .
But he m i g h t a l s o be 'working o f f a f i t o f r a g e i n
an i r r a t i o n a l c a s e .
1

P o 9 5 o

The

c o n t r a s t Weber i s d r a w i n g

l e d g e o f the a c t i o n .
u n d e r s t a n d what he
a l s o , we

h e r e i s t h e e x t e n t o f our know-

By o b s e r v a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g we

i s d o i n g , b u t when we

understand

only

motives

c a n s e e why.

There

a r e a number o f d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h i s a c c o u n t

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , not

of

t h e l e a s t b e i n g the d i f f i c u l t y f o r the r e a d e r

o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g what Weber i s s a y i n g .

As he

admits

' T h i s book,

8 5 c

to be s u r e , i s w r i t t e n i n a somewhat d i f f i c u l t

style

and i t s

argument does n o t a p p e a r e v e r y w h e r e t o have been t h o r o u g h l y

thought t h r o u g h ' , p 8 8
o

t h e o n l y way

U l t i m a t e l y , a s w i l l become e v i d e n t ,

out i s a s y s t e m a t i c

t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h o f the q u e s t i o n

but there are proximate d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h the d i s t i n c t i o n

o b s e r v a t i o n a l and e x p l a n a t o r y understanding,,

We

cannot s i m p l y

r e a d o f f the meaning o f a p i e c e o f b e h a v i o u r t h a t we
w i t h o u t making a s s u m p t i o n s about
it

the c u l t u r a l

i s s e t and t h e n c e t h e m o t i v e s i n v o l v e d .

between

see

context i n which
So f a r from b e i n g

s e p a r a t e d , r e c o g n i t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n a r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d

To

i d e n t i f y an a c t a s c h o p p i n g wood i s t h u s e i t h e r t o s a y t h a t
i s what we

the o b s e r v e r s c a l l

u n d e r s t a n d s by i t

e a r l i e r i s to f a i l
d i s t i n c t i o n between

One

it,

o r t h a t i t i s what t h e

actor

o f Weber' s i m p o r t a n t " m i s t a k e s n o t e d

to t h i n k through the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the

t h e a c t o r ' s and t h e o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w , a

d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y
examples

this

from c u l t u r e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t

s h a r p when we
from our own

take
We

under-

s t a n d the c h o p p i n g o f wood w i t h i n a c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t
w h i c h a s s o c i a t e s i t w i t h t h e k i n d s o f m o t i v e s Weber goes on t o
suggest,

And

he i s s u r e l y c o r r e c t t o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e same

a c t d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f p u b l i c c u l t u r e may

have d i f f e r e n t

specifi

meanings f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f the m o t i v e s

involved

But i t i s e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e f o r the a c t t o t a k e on

a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t meaning i n terms o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r e - one

might

t h i n k o f t h e c u t t i n g o f m i s t l e t o e by t h e D r u i d s , where

the p o s s i b i l i t y

of t o t a l m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r i s e s

i f we

locate

8 6 .

a ritual

acti n a u t i l i t a r i a n

cultural

contexts

Weber

fails

at t h i s point to r e c o g n i s e t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s i n a
c u l t u r a l xtforld w h i c h i s l e a r n e d and h e l d i n common and w h i c h he
makes u s e o f and m o d i f i e s i n h i s own a c t i o n b u t w h i c h
the b a s i c

context

o f meaning f o r a l l h i s a c t s .

provides

I t even s u p p l i e s

30
m

Mills'

terms

'vocabularies of motive',

associated with typical acts.

typical

motives

Weber i s a b l e t o s u p p l y a r a n g e

o f p o s s i b l e m o t i v e s f o r c h o p p i n g wood b u t t h e range i s i n
p r a c t i c e not l i m i t l e s s .
than those
they tend

I f a c t o r s c l a i m t o have m o t i v e s

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y understood

i n the p r e v a i l i n g

other

culture,

t o be s e e n a s e c c e n t r i c o r i n s a n e .

Weber goes on t o s t a t e

the importance of understanding the

m o t i v e o r s u b j e c t i v e meaning o f t h e a c t , w i t h o u t ,

except

i m p l i c i t l y , p a y i n g v e r y much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o v e r a r c h i n g
c u l t u r e and i t s i n f l u e n c e i n l i m i t i n g t h e a c t o r ' s aims and
i n f o r m i n g him a s t o what t h i n g s a r e m e a n i n g f u l and why.

His

v o l u n t a r i s t i c v i e w o f t h e a c t o r l e a d s him t o e m p h a s i s e t h e
v a r i a b i l i t y o f s u b j e c t i v e meanings o f t h e "same" a c t s , r a t h e r
t h a n e x p l o r i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n s imposed upon s u b j e c t i v e meaning
by

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f common l e a r n e d c u l t u r a l meanings t o

specific practical

s i t u a t i o n s , i . e . suggesting that the actor

a c t s i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e way a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u l t u r e .
thus presented

w i t h a problem, w h i c h he n e v e r

t o , a s how we know we have u n d e r s t o o d

concern

appears

understanding

He i s

explicitly

refers

the a c t o r ' s motive,

His

i n the d i s c u s s i o n of the s t a t u s of i n t e r p r e t i v e

(Verstehen)

'Every i n t e r p r e t a t i o n attempts t o

8 7 .

a t t a i n c l a r i t y a n d c e r t a i n t y , b u t no m a t t e r how c l e a r a n
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s s u c h a p p e a r s t o be from
meaning, i t c a n n o t
valid

the point of view of

on t h i s a c c o u n t a l o n e c l a i m t o be t h e c a u s a l l y

interpretation

On t h i s

level

peculiarly plausible hypothesis',

i t must r e m a i n o n l y a

pp<>96<=7

He goes on t o r e f e r

to u n c o n s c i o u s and h i d d e n m o t i v e s , m u l t i p l e m o t i v e s , and m o t i v e s
t h a t may be u n d e r s t o o d

as similar

differently

( a n d t h u s have a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g ) t o

classified

the a c t o r o

Because

and v a r i a b i l i t y

to the observer but a r e

he i s a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o m p l e x i t y , p r i v a c y

i n the a c t o r ' s

s u b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g s , b e c a u s e we

c a n n e v e r know, i n j u s t

t h e way t h e a c t o r c a n , what he i n t e n d e d

o r meant, Weber i s l e f t

w i t h an i n s o l u b l e

lishing

o f t h i s k i n d o f underst"anding

the o b j e c t i v i t y

o f i t must r e m a i n g u e s s w o r k and i n t u i t i o n ,

difficulty

i n estabAspects

r e f i n e d though

this

may

be i n c a s e s where t h e r e i s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e a c t o r and

his

cultureo
Thus h i s a c c o u n t

o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l and m o t i v a t i o n a l u n d e r -

standing involve a r a d i c a l

confusion,,

Weber e f f e c t i v e l y

an o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w i n c l a i m i n g t o be a b l e t o i d e n t i f y
( t h o u g h n o t t h e i r m o t i v e s ) j u s t by o b s e r v i n g them
is

correct

i n asserting

takes

acts
W h i l e he

t h a t we do c l a i m t h a t p e o p l e h a v e done

t h i n g s i f t h e y have gone t h r o u g h t h e r e q u i s i t e m o t i o n s ,

whether

they intended i t or not, t h i s

i s o n l y t h e c a s e w i t h i n a common

cultural

t h e meanings o f s i t u a t i o n s and

context w i t h i n which

b e h a v i o u r i s assumed b y a l i o
because

we u n d e r s t a n d

We c a n o n l y t e l l

by o b s e r v a t i o n

t h e common c u l t u r a l meaning o f t h e symbols

88.

e r e a d o f f b e h a v i o u r

a s m e a n i n g f u l a c t i o n j u s t a s we

the meaning of words on a p r i n t e d p a g e

nise

that although

to u n d e r s t a n d

do not have to u n d e r s t a n d

be

of

to r e c o g =

the

individual

do have to

understand

our p o i n t o f o b s e r v a t i o n cannot

our t e r m s o f d e f i n i t i o n cannot

language

Weber f a i l s

h i s a c t s i n t h i s s e n s e , we

the c u l t u r e and
and

we

read

be

outside i t ,

i n some n e u t r a l o b s e r v a t i o n

T h i s p r o b l e m becomes s h a r p e r when he moves to

motivational understanding,

where on t h e one

have to g e t a t the a c t o r ' s i n t e n t i o n and

hand he

says

we

y e t on the o t h e r d e f i n e s

m o t i v e a s a complex o f meaning a d e q u a t e t o a c t o r o r o b s e r v e r
ground f o r the a c t .
maintaining

t h a t we

a c t o r meant and
imputing

At t h i s p o i n t he
can only understand

i s simultaneously
by knowing what

t h a t i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to u n d e r s t a n d

a m o t i v e by a n a l y s i n g the c i r c u m s t a n c e s

b a c k to o b s e r v a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of c i r c u m s t a n c e s
and f i n d him

as

We

the
by

then

to e n q u i r e what the

go

definition

i s - e x t e r n a l ' o b j e c t i v e ' o b s e r v e r s or a c t o r ' s

unclear,.

N o r m a l l y a number o f p o s s i b l e m o t i v e s

a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a c t d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of the common
c u l t u r e <= why

do you

p o s t a l e t t e r f o r example, o r go

Knowledge o f t h e s e a c t i o n s and
of them s p e c i f i e s
of

the a c t o r ' s p a r t i c u l a r

the meaning o f the a c t and

our

on

holiday

variant

understanding

it.
T h i s confusion i s manifested

i n i t s clearest

d i s a s t r o u s t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g f u l and
apply

t h e term adequacy on t h e l e v e l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a coherent

course

form i n h i s

c a u s a l adequacy,

'We

o f meaning t o the s u b j e c t i v e
o f c o n d u c t when and

insofar

8 9 c

a s , a c c o r d i n g t o our h a b i t u a l modes o f t h o u g h t and

feeling i t s

component f a c t s t a k e n i n t h e i r m u t u a l r e l a t i o n a r e r e c o g n i s e d
to

constitute a "typical"

complex o f meaningo

common to s a y " c o r r e c t " . *

importance

p99

Here Weber i s a d m i t t i n g

of g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l understanding

'typical'

complex o f meaningo

I t i s more

i n r e f e r r i n g to a

T h i s r e p r e s e n t s the s t r o n g e s t

s i d e of h i s c a s e f o r c l a i m i n g t h a t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
ably accurate, since
of

understanding/common c u l t u r a l meanings and

But

of being
the one

out

then i s a c a u s a l check
"produce" t h e r e s u l t s

thus
On

of

on t h e

other

He
can

cannot
never

to see whether

anticipated;

'The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a sequence of e v e n t s w i l l
called

the

to w h i c h a c t i o n s and

a c c e s s t o the a c t o r ' s mind w h i c h he

o n l y way

and

action

o r a r e o t h e r w i s e ineffective

t h e m o t i v e does i n f a c t

hand be

one,

to m a i n t a i n the i m p o r t a n c e

to be a b l e t o s a y w h i c h i d e a s l e a d

The

societies,

sure that

i d e a s l e a d i n g to i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n , but

t h i s without

have

the o b s e r v e r i s the c o r r e c t

hand Weber i s c o n c e r n e d

w h i c h come to n o t h i n g
do

of being

s u r e t h a t i t b r o u g h t about t h e o b s e r v e d

independent
he h a s

i n some

the

f o r l e a r n i n g many o f them ( e d u c a t i o n )

i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , t h e r e i s no way

m o t i v e a t t r i b u t e d by

is verifi-

t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s means f o r c h e c k i n g

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d procedures

the

on t h e

other

c a u s a l l y adequate i n s o f a r a s , a c c o r d i n g to

e s t a b l i s h e d g e n e r a l i s a t i o n from e x p e r i e n c e , t h e r e i s a p r o b a b i l i t y that i t w i l l
p99o

always

a c t u a l l y o c c u r i n t h e same way'

T h i s i s o f c o u r s e to assume a c o n t i n g e n t r e l a t i o n between

m o t i v e and

a c t i o n r a t h e r than a c o n c e p t u a l or meaningful

one

in

9 0 o

terms of which t h e a c t o r p e r c e i v e s the s i t u a t i o n .

I f the
w o o d c u t t e r i n t e n d e d t o chop some wood f o r h i s f i r e , he w i l l
define h i s a c t i o n i n those terms
To assume a c o n t i n g e n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h h a s t o be p r o v e d c a u s a l l y i s t o deny t h e
v e r y p o i n t t h a t Weber was t r y i n g t o make i n i t i a l l y , t h a t
r e c o g n i t i o n must be g i v e n t o a c t o r s ' i d e a s and m o t i v e s i n
g i v i n g a n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r a c t i o n s , and t h a t i t i s t h e i r
view of the world t h a t they a c t i n terms o f
0

Meaningful
at

a d e q u a c y t h u s r e p r e s e n t s Weber's f i n a l

r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h the view

t h a t an understanding

a c t o r s i s t h e o n l y way t o u n d e r s t a n d
is

attempt
of the

social interactions.

I t

l i n k e d to t h e s t a n d p o i n t t h a t l o o k s f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n i n terms

of how t h e a c t o r e x p e r i e n c e d t h e w o r l d
up t o t h e a c t .

i n the s i t u a t i o n l e a d i n g

C a u s a l adequacy t a k e s t h e opposed v i e w

that

the s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f c o n c e i v e d i n some o b j e c t i v e way i n d e p e n =

d e n t l y o f what t h e a c t o r s e e s and a c t s i n t e r m s o f , e x e r c i s e s
a determining

i n f l u e n c e which w i l l

enable

the true causes of

the a c t t o be r e v e a l e d , o r a s Weber p u t s i t i n a n a t t e m p t t o
p a t c h t h e s i t u a t i o n up, t h o s e m o t i v e s
e f f e c t i v e i n l e a d i n g to a c t i o n .
thus c o n s t i t u t e

of the a c t o r which a r e

T h e s e two k i n d s o f 'adequacy'

the p a s t i n g together of p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y

incom-

p a t i b l e p o s i t i o n s , one o f w h i c h r e g a r d s c a u s a l c i r c u m s t a n c e a s
irrelevant
and

except

i n s o f a r a s t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d and r e s p o n d e d t o ,

the other of which regards the a c t o r ' s views as i r r e l e v a n t

except

i n s o f a r a s t h e y embody a ' c o r r e c t '

circumstances which operate

conception of the

c a u s a l l y to determine

action.

9 l o

The

paste used

to j o i n the two

i s the n o t i o n o f m o t i v e ,

a m b i g u o u s l y a s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n e i t h e r be
w h i c h l e a d s him

t o a c t i n a c e r t a i n way

o b s e r v e r w h i c h c a u s e s him
our e v e r y d a y
why

to do

d i s c u s s i o n of

so>

conceived

an a c t o r ' s i d e a

o r an i m p u t a t i o n by

I t i s significant

'motives'

we

r e a s o n s , and h e r e we

on h o l i d a y may

be

F o r example t h e

t o have a r e s t ,

have a s a r e a s o n t h a t I e n j o y the sun and

a failure

at work

the
0

there

t h e o t h e r s , g i v e f o r h i s a c t i o n , none

of these n e c e s s a r i l y b e i n g i d e n t i c a l

impute to me

to

d i s t i n g u i s h v e r y c l e a r l y an a c t o r ' s h a v i n g

b e i n g a r e a s o n w h i c h we,

may

ask
but

a r e a s o n , t h a t r e a s o n b e i n g h i s r e a s o n f o r a c t i n g , and

I have f o r g o i n g

that i n

do n o t , when we

a p e r s o n a c t e d a s he d i d , u s u a l l y r e f e r t o m o t i v e s

an

'real'

I may

t h e s e a but

r e a s o n t h a t I am

Motives are best l e f t

reason
also

others

r u n n i n g away from

for detectives i n
31

n o v e l s to f i n d whence, I s u s p e c t , t h e y d e r i v e d

Weber's c o n c e r n w i t h the autonomous i n d i v i d u a l

t h u s l e a d s him
account

into insoluble d i f f i c u l t i e s

of a c t i o n b e c a u s e

the i m p o r t a n c e

i n o r d e r t o do

t h i s he h a s to deny

to assume t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y a

it,

think

and what r e s u l t s i n t e r m s o f b e h a v i o u r ,

t h i s r e s p e c t h i s concern with i d e a l
saw

scientific

c o n t i n g e n t c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n what some p e o p l e

some o f t h e time

a s he

i n giving a

o f t h e r e l a t i o n between c o n s c i o u s n e s s and a c t i o n

t h a t he began by a s s e r t i n g , and
constant

consciousness

t y p e s a s a compromise,

temporary expedient u n t i l

c a u s a l n a t u r e c o u l d be made, was
means o f them he a t t e m p t e d

In
and

g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s of a

v e r y much more f r u i t f u l .

to s e p a r a t e out

i n t o pure form

By
cultural

9 2 o

c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o r c o m p l e x e s o f meaning w h i c h were r e g a r d e d
significanto

He

regarded

as

them a s a s o u r c e f o r h y p o t h e s i s

r a t h e r than as t h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s i n themselves,
as

e s s e n t i a l l y a t o o l f o r s i m p l i f y i n g the c o m p l e x i t i e s of the

a c t i o n c o n t e x t so t h a t

t h e y might be more r e a d i l y

I n h i s e a r l i e r y e a r s he

came t o w r i t e o f them i n The

O r g a n i s a t i o n , he was

as

understanding
of

Theory

o f S o c i a l and

only generalise

thesis,

and
to

i n the sense of imputing

the

o f , and a c t i o n on the b a s i s o f " t h e same complex

situations

protestant

cover

T h e y r e m a i n hoxirever a i d s

meaning t o a c t o r s o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d and

different

time

Economic

w i t h u s i n g them t o

did i n h i s protestant ethic

a s o u r c e o f generalisations

u n d e r s t a n d i n g and

s i t u a t i o n s , b u t by t h e

more c o n c e r n e d

l o n g e r p e r i o d s , a s he

understood,

c o n c e n t r a t e d on c o n s t r u c t i n g i d e a l

t y p e s to f i t i n d i v i d u a l h i s t o r i c a l
he

and

ethic

Thus he

suggested

i n apparently

t h a t elements

s u r v i v e d , though s u r r o u n d e d

by new

of the

elements,

33
to

become the s p i r i t
For

account

of c a p i t a l i s m

the p r e s e n t , t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o emerge from Weber's

i s the c o n f u s i o n o f h i s v i e w o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and i t s

breakdown when he moves on to e x p l a n a t i o n , ,

two

chapters w i l l

large notions
to

The f o l l o w i n g

t r y to g i v e a s y s t e m a t i c account
The

r e a s o n s f o r the c o l l a p s e

of both

o f Weber's

these

attempt

make u n d e r s t a n d i n g p u b l i c and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y d e p e n d a b l e

( o b j e c t i v e ) by means o f a c a u s a l v e r i f i c a t i o n a r e
in

that

they l e a d to the exposure

of

t h e methodology i m p l i c i t

of the r a d i c a l

instructive,
incompatibility

i n h i s a c t i o n of understanding

with

9 3 .

that i m p l i c i t

i n h i s a c t i o n o f c a u s e , t h e one b e i n g

to human a c t i o n ,

(social scientific),

events ( n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c ) .
is

first,

objective

the other a p p r o p r i a t e to

The m a t t e r t o be c o n s i d e r e d t h e n

w h e t h e r and i n what s e n s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
facts,

distinctive

can l e a d to

and s e c o n d l y w h e t h e r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f them

c a n u s e a n y o f t h e methodology a p p r o p r i a t e t o e v e n t s .
will

emerge i s t h a t g i v e n t h e d i s t i n c t i v e

e x p l a n a t i o n too h a s t o be g r e a t l y m o d i f i e d
features

What

nature of understanding,
t o t a k e on d i s t i n c t i v e

c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i m p l i c i t methodology o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

C H A P T E R

T H

R E E ,

UNDERSTANDING,

T h i s c h a p t e r b e g i n s t o t r y t o s o r t o u t t h e muddle

that

Weber was shown t o be i n a t t h e end o f t h e l a s t , by c o n s i d e r i n g

what i t i s f o r two p e o p l e

to understand

one a n o t h e r , and what

t h e l i m i t s upon s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e .
the t r a d i t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l approach

and a s k i n g i f s u c h a

knowledge o f o t h e r s i s p o s s i b l e , I s h a l l
sense assumption
elements
shall

Rather than t a k i n g

start

from t h e common

t h a t i t i s , and t r y t o g i v e a n o u t l i n e

i n v o l y e d and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s ,

of t h e

- I n doing t h i s I

t h e r e f o r e n o t d e a l i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l way w i t h t h e p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m o f o t h e r mindss

I shall

start

i n fact

from

Wisdom's''" c o n c l u s i o n a t t h e end o f t h r e e h u n d r e d p a g e s o f
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the matter, that

t h e problem o f o t h e r minds

i s m i s l e a d i n g l y c o n c e i v e d and l e a d s c o n s t a n t l y i n t o
scepticism.

R a t h e r t h a n w o r r y i n g about

p e r f e c t i o n o f s u c h knowledge, I s h a l l
there i snever f i n a l

radical

t h e c e r t a i n t y and

take i t a s obvious

that

c e r t a i n t y n o r p e r f e c t knowledge o f o t h e r s

and t u r n ray a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s i c r e a s o n s f o r t h i s , w h i c h l i e
i n men's s o c i a l r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r i n t h e w o r l d ,
I w i l l b e g i n by d i s c u s s i n g p e o p l e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e a c h
o t h e r w i t h i n a common c o n t e x t o f meaning o r c u l t u r e , and t h e n
consider the d i f f i c u l t i e s

involved i n understanding

9 4 ,

another

9 5 o

c u l t u r e and i n c o m p a r i n g

cultures.

The p o i n t t h a t w i l l

from t h e whole and w h i c h w i l l become

salient

emerge

i n the f o l l o w i n g

c h a p t e r i s t h e p o s i t i o n o f he who would u n d e r s t a n d i n r e l a t i o n
to t h o s e he t r i e s

to understand.

terms, or i n h i s terms?

Does he do so on t h e i r

own

B u t t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l e l s e t o be

s a i d b e f o r e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s d i c h o t o m y c a n be a p p r e c i a t e d

Understanding Others
I
have

take i t a s a fundamental

argued p r e v i o u s l y ,

independent

t h a t a r e a l w o r l d o f phenomena

exists

b o t h o f man's e x i s t e n c e and o f h i s a t t e n t i o n t o it

Human b e i n g s l i v e

i n t h i s p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y and a r e a p a r t

being also physicals

in i t ,

o n t o l o g i c a l assumption,, a s I

Thus t h e y impinge

upon and c a u s e

of i t ,

changes

and i t i m p i n g e s upon them, by t h e i r v e r y existence

As a n i m a l s , human b e i n g s have

an a w a r e n e s s

and e a c h h a s a p a r t i c u l a r and u n i q u e

of the world,

experience of i t because

of h i s p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n i n i t i n r e l a t i o n to the other o b j e c t s
in it,

i n c l u d i n g h i s f e l l o w men,

One c a n n o t be i n more

than

one p l a c e a t a time and t h u s we c a n n o t be i n t h e same p l a c e a s

anyone e l s e ,

though one c a n be r e l a t i v e l y n e a r o r f a r away.

Each i n d i v i d u a l ' s experience of r e a l i t y i s thus b a s i c a l l y

u n i q u e l y s u b j e c t i v e , whatever

a t t e m p t s may be made a t communica-

t i o n and community o f e x p e r i e n c e .

This individuality i s

compounded by d i f f e r e n c e s i n e a c h p e r s o n ' s make up, p h y s i c a l

and p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and by t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f h i s p o s i t i o n i n h i s
ongoing

r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r men,

No one c a n have

t h e same s e t

96

o f r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r p e o p l e , though some, f o r example i d e n t i c a l

twins,

often

All
beingso
are
that

come q u i t e

close to t h i s .

I have s a i d so f a r a p p l i e s
The d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e

a s much to r a t s a s t o human

of the l a t t e r i s that

aware o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d o f t h e i r e x i s t e n t i a l
they a c t r e f l e c t i v e l y

to r e f l e c t ,

on t h i s a w a r e n e s s ,

they

s i t u a t i o n , and
This

capacity

p r o j e c t , remember and i m a g i n e i s u s u a l l y

referred

t o a s human c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

What i t i m p l i e s

most p a r t , human a c t i v i t i e s

i s that, f o r the

i n t h e w o r l d a r e m e d i a t e d by t h e

v i e w o f t h e w o r l d formed by t h e individual<>

He does n o t r e a c t

t o h i s e x p e r i e n c e , b u t r e l a t e s i t t o and makes s e n s e o f i t i n
t e r m s o f a more g e n e r a l

picture

o f i t t h a t he i s p r e s e n t l y
to t h i s f e a t u r e

of r e a l i t y ,

concerned w i t h

o f h u m a n i t y by s a y i n g

and o f t h e a s p e c t
"We n o r m a l l y

refer

t h a t human b e i n g s do n o t

m e r e l y behave o r r e a c t , b u t a c t on t h e b a s i s o f a p a r t i c u l a r
v i e w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and a n e v a l u a t i o n

o f i t i n terms o f t h e i r

a i m s , b e l i e f s and v a l u e s ,
These n o t i o n s ,
variable

t o be a c c e p t a b l e ,

must, w i t h i n

limitations

from p e r s o n t o p e r s o n and s i t u a t i o n t o s i t u a t i o n , be

i n b r o a d a c c o r d a n c e w i t h what t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s and
experiences of r e a l i t y .

What a p e r s o n i m a g i n e s t o be t h e c a s e

o r remembers t o be t h e c a s e

can very often

d i r e c t l y by g o i n g and l o o k i n g

o r i n d i r e c t l y by c o n s u l t i n g

documents, p h o t o g r a p h s and n a t u r a l
or growth r i n g s i n a t r e e .
about r e a l i t y

that

be c h e c k e d on, e i t h e r

indications like

others

tidemarks

And i f he a c t s upon a s s u m p t i o n s

are f a l s e , h i splans are l i k e l y

t o go awry.

9 7 .

The r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n i d e a and r e a l i t y

i s n o t however, l i k e

o f map t o t e r r a i n ,

o f f o l l o w i n g out a p l a n

entirely like

nor i s the process

c o n s u l t i n g a map, though o f c o u r s e

similarities.

Maps, we s h o u l d

there a r e

remember, a r e made f o r p a r t i c u l a r

p u r p o s e s and o n l y show c e r t a i n k i n d s
t r e a s u r e map i s i m p o r t a n t

that

of features.

Thus a

j u s t because i t d e s c r i b e s not only

t o p o g r a p h y b u t t h e l o c a t i o n o f a n o b j e c t v a l u e d by a group o f
peopleo
and

S i m i l a r l y we have maps o f where b a t t l e s were

fought

o f what r o u t e s e x p l o r e r s t o o k , and we might have maps o f

where s p i r i t s d w e l l and where dogs b u r y t h e i r b o n e s .

I t

depends on what we a r e i n t e r e s t e d

f o r the

in

i n d i v i d u a l o r group, does n o t c o n s i s t
ranged s e r i a l l y

then,

of a simple

and e a c h w i t h a d i s t i n c t i v e

The o b j e c t s e x i s t

s e t of o b j e c t s

experiential flavour.

f o r u s a s we s e e them and we s e e them b e c a u s e

o f t h e way we l o o k .
experience.

Reality

R e a l i t y i s an i n f i n i t e

possibility for

The e x p e r i e n c e s we have o f i t o n l y t a k e shape

when we impose o r d e r

on them i n terms o f some c o n c e p t u a l

scheme,

t h a t i s when we know what k i n d o f t h i n g s we a r e l o o k i n g f o r and

what c o u n t s

as being

one.

we a r e l o o k i n g f o r them.

I f we know t h i s , we a l s o know why

Thus t h e r e i s a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n what we s e e and what we want t o s e e .

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y though, t h a t we o n l y s e e what we want
to s e e .
world

I began by a s s e r t i n g t h a t human b e i n g s

and a r e aware o f i t .

of i t but they a r e d i s t i n c t l y
senses.

First

Their experiences
theirs

live

are experiences

They r e f l e c t

they only attend to those

i n the

i n two

aspects of r e a l i t y

9 8

that

their interest

book on a l i b r a r y
in

and

with

s h e l f I w i l l not

the room, t o t h e

the c o l o u r and

i s concerned

size

looking for a

a t t e n d to the o t h e r

c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e b o o k c a s e s ,
o f the books, b u t

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e books

o b j e c t s i n the e n v i r o n m e n t and
those o b j e c t s o

I f I am

chairs,

w i t h q u i t e other a s p e c t s of t h i s

the books e x c e p t

s a y , I would be
content,

environment

c o n c e r n e d w i t h the

o f c h o p p i n g i t up

c a s e t h a t when l o o k i n g a t i t i n a new

result
in

so i s a t f i r s t

i s confusion,

extending

concepts

of

way

way,

inadequate

Much of our

that
that

to, involve a

Within

that i s experienced,

with

absorb-

and making s e n s e o f i t ,

o f r e l e v a n c e upon it

however, i t i s r e a l i t y

do

not

a s a box
The

temperature,

i s t h u s c o n s t r u c t i v e , i n the s e n s e

the t e r m s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e , what i s a t t e n d e d

impose c r i t e r i a

As

the r e l a t i v e humidity,

n o r w i t h the b u i l d i n g e x c e p t

r e a l i t y i s experienced

p a r t i c u l a r way

be

as o b j e c t s w i t h a c e r t a i n c a p a c i t y f o r

and w a t e r ,

we

concept

I might

given size with c e r t a i n i n s u l a t i n g properties <

>

the way

selection

environment

of the c u l t u r a l

l i g h t s w i t h i n a b u i l d i n g <,

volume o f a i r , i t s d u s t

heat

the

a s c o n t a i n i n g p r i n c i p a l l y books, s h e l v e s , p e o p l e ,

heating engineer

ing

title

I o n l y l o o k a t some a s p e c t s o f

T h i s k i n d o f s e l e c t i o n however i s o n l y

t a b l e s , and

concerned

even to

I o n l y l o o k a t some o f

t h a t i s , w i t h i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of a l i b r a r y ,

nor

o n l y to the a u t h o r ,

w i t h a common framework of what t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e

are,

people

and

these

and

terms

i t i s often

i n different

to r e a l i t y and

terms,
the

e x p l o r a t i o n of r e a l i t y

and ways o f l o o k i n g t o s i t u a t i o n s

the

consists

and

9 9 o

a s p e c t s t o w h i c h t h e y have n o t b e e n a p p l i e d b e f o r e
tvhat h a p p e n s o
t o be m o d i f i e d

Sometimes the o l d way

o r a new

one

devised

p r o c e s s i s n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , but
everyday
etc.

and

seeing

w o r k s , sometimes i t h a s
The

paradigm of

i t i s a s much t r u e of

this
our

p e r c e p t i o n o f p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y - p r o b l e m s of p e r s p e c t i v e

- and

depressed

o f our p e r c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y = i s Mary g e t t i n g
over examinations

like

John d i d or i s i t something

else?
The

most i m p o r t a n t

c o n s t r u c t i v e a s p e c t of t h i s p r o c e s s

p e r c e p t i o n i s , as I argued i n the l a s t
o f v a l u e s , aims and
c e r t a i n a s p e c t s by
being

concerned

p u r p o s e s i n it
chance,

one

w a n t s to go

v a l u e s and

One

does n o t

one

Now

i s the l a s t

purposes presuppose a c o r r e c t p e r c e p t i o n of
There

would be v e r y l i t t l e

reason

even of t h e i r

these

certain

point i n think=

c o n t i n u a l l y c o l d and
sunny human

p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i r

clotheso

wet

houses

Thus the e v a l u a t i v e

o f p e r c e p t i o n f e e d s upon t h e more p u r e l y c o g n i t i v e and

t h e two

it,

l o n g e r need t h e warmth and

t h e t i m e , nor

and we

the

analysis,

P i c n i c s a r e p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e when i t i s warm and

aspect

look at

l o o k s a t the weather because

i n g about p i c n i c s i n a c l i m a t e t h a t was

all

just

does so f o r a r e a s o n ,

f o r a picnic

a s p e c t s of reality,,

b e i n g s no

involvement

w i t h what one w a n t s to do w i t h o r i n r e l a t i o n

to t h a t a s p e c t of r e a l i t y ;
one

c h a p t e r , the

of

are interdependent

Our

view of r e a l i t y

d e v i s e the terms i n w h i c h we

b u t we

can never,

i n f l u e n c e upon u s ,
probably

be

shown u p

i n doing
I f we

this,

conceive
ignore

i s selective,

o f i t and

act i n

i t s constraining

a r e wrong o r too f a n c i f u l we

shall

1 0 0 o

So much seems t o be r e l a t i v e l y u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e
but

so f a r I h a v e s a i d n o t h i n g

man

and man i n r e a l i t y ,

The

first

about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

o n l y t h a t between man and r e a l i t y

t h i n g t o be s a i d about how we u n d e r s t a n d

and how we c a n c l a i m t o have a common e x p e r i e n c e

in

and o b v i o u s ,

each

other,

of the world

c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , i s t h a t we do so w i t h i n a common framework

o f meanings w h i c h i s p r o v i d e d
we a r e born

f o r u s by t h e c u l t u r e i n t o w h i c h

I n an important

the way we p e r c e i v e t h e w o r l d ,
our e x p e r i e n c e
have

s e n s e , t h i s framework s t r u c t u r e s
our experience

of i t ,

including

o f o t h e r p e o p l e and t h e aims and p l a n s t h a t we

We p a r t i c i p a t e i n e l a b o r a t i n g and t h i n k i n g f u r t h e r what

o t h e r s have t h o u g h t b e f o r e u s

This cultural

context

work o f meanings, b e c a u s e i t e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y

o r frame-

of the e f f o r t s

o f a n y one o f u s , and b e c a u s e we communicate i n t e r m s o f i t , i s

often c a l l e d o b j e c t i v e , i n contrast to the i d i o s y n c r a s y of
i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h , w h i l e i t may be i n t e r m s o f t h e
common c u l t u r e , i s n o n e t h e l e s s

a unique d e t e r m i n a t i o n

of those

terms f o r every i n d i v i d u a l , ,

E v e n i f we do n o t q u e s t i o n t h e

" s i m p l e " o b j e c t i v e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h i s framework t h e n , we

have to r e c o g n i s e t h a t i t i s used
particular projects

still

subjectively, realised i n

My r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a b u s c o n d u c t o r

for

example, i s i n t e r m s o f a s e t o f r u l e s and d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t b o t h
o f u s r e c o g n i s e and u n d e r s t a n d
my t i c k e t
in

and t r a v e l w i t h o u t

s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l f o r me t o buy

f u s s , b u t he and I a r e s t i l l ,

even

t h i s f l e e t i n g c o n t a c t , aware t h a t t h i s i s a p a r t i c u l a r

r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r u s b o t h and t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f b o t h

1 0 1 .

our s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h , though l a t e n t , might be b r o u g h t i n a s

a c t i v e elements i n the i n t e r a c t i o n ,
I m i g h t have a l a r g e p a r c e l w i t h me,
be a P a k i s t a n i ,

I m i g h t be s h o r t o f change?
or a s m a l l c h i l d ;

o r d r e s s unconventionally

I might

A l l these are

p o i n t s where t h e r u l e s g o v e r n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n a r e more o r l e s s
a d e q u a t e t o cope i n a "normal" m e c h a n i c a l f a s h i o n and where e a c h
o f u s i s made t o r e a l i s e
interacting at this

t h a t two m a r k e d l y d i s t i n c t

l i v e s are

point.

Nor i s t h e problem

s i m p l y a p r a g m a t i c one.

The bus

con-

d u c t o r ' s i d e a s about h i s r o l e and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p \irith p a s s e n g e r

i s probably f a i r l y
f o r example what

c l e a r o v e r a n e x t e n s i v e range o f c o n t i n g e n c i e s

t o do i f I have no money, o r am drunk, o r

abusive, or c a r r y i n g a l a r g e p a r c e l .

T h i s i s p a r t l y because

he spends a g r e a t d e a l o f time a t h i s j o b and h a s e v o l v e d

f o r h i m s e l f w h i c h p r o t e c t h i s own
most bus companies make f a i r l y

i n t e r e s t s , and p a r t l y b e c a u s e

explicit

c o n d u c t o r s s h a l l behave and what

r u l e s a s t o how

I may

my pound n o t e o r l e t me
i n t e r m s o f my
this

be i r r i t a t e d

on w i t h a l a r g e p a r c e l ,

and j u s t i f y

this

Even a t

t h e r u l e s and d e f i n i t i o n s a r e o n l y u n d e r s t o o d

i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same way

i n certain typical cases.

sense then the " o b j e c t i v e " r u l e s are s u b j e c t i v e ?

r e a l i s e d i n p a r t i c u l a r and s u b j e c t i v e
be a p p l i e d ;

i s proper

i f he i s u n w i l l i n g t o change

i n t e r e s t s and h i s b l o o d y - m i n d e d n e s s .

simple l e v e l ,

their

t h e i r passengers are permitted,

on t h e o t h e r hand have much v a g u e r n o t i o n s o f what

and r e a s o n a b l e ,

rules

I n a double

they are

s i t u a t i o n s - t h e y have t o

and t h e y a r e anyhow u n d e r s t o o d more o r l e s s

102,,

d i f f e r e n t l y by d i f f e r e n t

individuals

A visitor

from

f o r example would n o t e x p e c t t o f i n d a c o n d u c t o r ,
surprised
It

t o be a s k e d t o p a y

Cuba

and would be

was t h e s e s o r t s o f r e a s o n s t h a t l e d W i t t g e n s t e i n t o
3

equate

t h e meaning o f a word w i t h i t s u s e

frequent demonstration of the vagueness,

texture'

o f words, t h e r e s t i l l

persists

a m b i g u i t y and 'open
a tendency

be r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g c l e a r o r c l a s s i f i a b l e
t i o n s and c o n n o t a t i o n s o
and d e l i m i t a t i o n ,

Practical

Despite the

with limited

attempts a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

d e s c r i p t i o n s , have h a d t h e consequence

r u l i n g o u t many o f o u r s t a t e m e n t s a s m e a n i n g l e s s

achievement

even i n t h e i r own t e r m s

of

or 'metaphysical',

I t was W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s

and p r e o c c u p a t i o n t o show how c o n c e p t s a r e i m p r e c i s e

by t h e c r i t e r i a

o f l o g i c and y e t u s a b l e and f l e x i b l e , ,

a r e so f a r two b a s i c r e a s o n s ;

( a ) Because

t h i n g s do n o t a l w a y s behave a s t h e y
t i o n s and c o n c e p t u a l schemes,,
and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f i t ,

They

the e m p i r i c a l

to w h i c h t h e y r e f e r i s a c o n t i n g e n t and n o t a l o g i c a l

only

denota-

e g , C a r n a p ' s p r o t o c o l s e n t e n c e s and R u s s e l l ' s

theory of d e f i n i t e

and have f a i l e d

f o r them t o

world

one, where

'ought' a c c o r d i n g t o d e f i n i -

They a r e a l l a b s t r a c t i o n s

from

made f o r p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s , and t h e y

'work', a s I h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d , fbr a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f

'typical'
ing i t ,

situationso

b u t any c o n c e p t

to i t s e l f o

R e a l i t y c a n o n l y be g o t a t b y c o n c e p t u a l i s s e t s l i m i t s which

are arbitrary

except

As soon a s t h e l i m i t s and t h e c o n c e p t a r e q u e s t i o n e d

i n the r e c o g n i t i o n that
in this particular

t h e r e i s more t o r e a l i t y

conceptualisation, r e a l i t y

than

appears

a s i t were,

hits

1 0 3 o

b a c k , and a t t i m e s the c o n c e p t i s m o d i f i e d , a t t i m e s a n o t h e r
i s b o r n , b u t more o f t e n t h a n n o t t h e r e i s an argument i n w h i c h
e v e n t u a l l y both p a r t i e s agree that
by a , o o " ,

" I t depends what you mean

i , e , what you a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n ,

( b ) T h e o t h e r r e a s o n f o r the v a g u e n e s s

o f most terms i s t h a t

t h e y a r e d e v i s e d and u s e d i n e v e r y d a y i n t e r a c t i o n t o meet
p r a c t i c a l not s c i e n t i f i c
r e f e r to t y p i c a l
met.

We

or p h i l o s o p h i c a l

e x p e c t a t i o n s about

standards.

the world which are n o r m a l l y

do n o t w o r r y about l i o n s w i t h s t r i p e s and

possibility
creatures

of t h e i r b e i n g t i g e r s , because
The

consequence

They

the

t h e r e a r e no

such

of the l i m i t s of the c o n s e n s u a l

meaning o f p u b l i c terms i s t h a t t h e y e x i s t

i n what S c h u t z

calls

a common-sense w o r l d - a n d go to b u i l d up r e c i p e knowledge o f

it,

f o r m u l a s e n a b l i n g u s t o r e c o g n i s e s i t u a t i o n s and r e a c t

approp-

r i a t e l y i n most s i t u a t i o n s .

or i f

I f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s odd,

the p r o p r i e t y o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and the e x t e n t o f the knowledge

i n v o l v e d a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y q u e s t i o n e d - what do you mean?
Why?

Why? - t h e s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g o r r e f l e x i v e n a t u r e o f them

c r e a k s and f i n a l l y

c o l l a p s e s i n c o n f u s i o n and i r r i t a t i o n , .

Thus

Garfinkel
his

i n a s e r i e s of ethnomethodological experiments, asked

s u b j e c t s t o make t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n s e x p l i c i t ,

p e r s i s t e n t l y a s k i n g why,

o r by g e t t i n g them t o w r i t e down e v e r y =

t h i n g t h a t was u n d e r s t o o d i n a b r i e f p i e c e o f
It
one

soon emerged t h a t i t was

assumes

f o r example by

conversation.

q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e to say.

t h a t what took p l a c e was

Either

t y p i c a l and c o n f i n e d

e n t i r e l y t o the words u s e d , t h a t i s one

a c c e p t s t h e terms o f t h e

10k

conversation unhesitatingly,
day

interaction;

a s we do f o r t h e most p a r t

i n every-

o r e l s e one e x p l o r e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t i n

w h i c h i t t o o k p l a c e and t r i e s

to s p e c i f y

t h e meanings i n terms

of f a c t o r s

w h i c h were u n s t a t e d and unremarked upon b u t n o t , i n

the

s e n s e , u n n o t i c e d , e.g.

strict

the f a c t that

A i s a man and

B a woman when A s a y s t o B 'Do y o u want a c i g a r e t t e ? ' .

i s u n d e r s t o o d by b o t h s i d e s
and

i n a l l respects

that

will

i s c o n t e x t dependent, and may n o t ,

n o t be i d e n t i c a l .

V a r i o u s c u e s from t h e c o n t e x t o f i n t e r a c t i o n a r e

n o t i c e d by one o r b o t h p a r t i e s
a characterisation

and u s e d t o l i c e n c e

and c o n f i r m

of the s i t u a t i o n as t y p i c a l i n c e r t a i n

respects

t h e r e f o r e o f c a l l i n g f o r a c e r t a i n t y p e o f i n t e r a c t i o n with-

a limited
and

I t i s t h i s dependence

g i v e s what i s u n d e r s t o o d i t s r e f l e x i v e o r s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g

quality.

and

What

range of p o s s i b l e

interaction

outcomes.

This

understanding of

i n terms of t h e s i t u a t i o n i s r e f l e x i v e i n t h a t

once c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e a c c e p t e d a s h a v i n g a c e r t a i n
meaning a l l o t h e r f e a t u r e s

typical

of the s i t u a t i o n a r e i n c l u d e d

t h i s meaning a s t h e y t u r n up.

This

practice

enables

into

stable

e x p e c t a t i o n s t o be m a i n t a i n e d and meanings w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l
i n n a t u r e t o be a p p l i e d t o p a r t i c u l a r r e a l s i t u a t i o n s
o f t e n have f e a t u r e s
Garfinkel^

w h i c h do n o t o b v i o u s l y

to a s s e r t

or m e t h o d i c c h a r a c t e r ,

that

'fit'.

This

their use.

Their

do

w i t h what t h e y

will

leads

the ' r e c o g n i s a b l e ' sense, or f a c t ,

or impersonality or o b j e c t i v i t y of

accounts a r e not independent of the s o c i a l l y o r g a n i s e d

of

which

r a t i o n a l features

'make o f

consist

occasions

o f what p e o p l e

the accounts i n the s o c i a l l y organised

1 0 5 o

a c t u a l occasions of t h e i r use,

People's

accounts

are r e f l e c -

t i v e l y and e s s e n t i a l l y t i e d f o r t h e i r r a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s t o t h e
s o c i a l l y organised

occasions of t h e i r use f o r they a r e features

of t h e s o c i a l l y o r g a n i s e d o c c a s i o n s o f t h e i r use,
t h u s d e c e p t i v e , p e r f e c t and r e f l e x i v e

They a r e

i n t h a t t h e i r common-sense

existence as d e f i n i t i o n s of r e a l i t y - the r e a l i t y not a view of

r e a l i t y - p r e c l u d e s a q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e i r terms o f r e f e r e n c e
i n the t y p i f i e d s i t u a t i o n .
it

normally

When s u c h a q u e s t i o n i n g does

does s o by a t t e m p t i n g

the d i r e c t i o n o f a n o t h e r

occur,

to modify the d e f i n i t i o n i n

typification.

Although the terms i n which an i n t e r a c t i o n i s c a r r i e d out

a r e o s t e n s i b l y h e l d i n common t h e r e f o r e , what i s i n f a c t
s t o o d may by no means be the- same t h i n g
make t o o much o f t h i s ,

under-

Y e t we s h o u l d n o t

s u r e l y , f o r most i n t e r a c t i o n r u n s

very

s m o o t h l y on a n assumed common b a s i s and p e o p l e a p p e a r t o a g r e e

not
by

o n l y i n what t h e y mean by 'dog', ' c a t s ' and ' s k y ' , b u t a l s o

'marriage',

' v o t i n g ' , and 'the R e f o r m a t i o n ' ,

not do t h i s i n a n i s o l a t e d

context.

I f I asked

B u t t h e y do
someone what

' c a t ' meant I c a n t h i n k o f a t l e a s t

four d i f f e r e n t

might g e t , d e p e n d i n g on who I a s k e d

and what t h e y t h o u g h t I

was

asking.

Monday C l u b

answers I

I f i t were e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t I was a member o f t h e

or of the J a z z world

e q u i v o c a l , b u t t h i s would s t i l l

t h e a n s w e r might be l e s s
l e a v e t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f what

t h i s meaning o f ' c a t ' amounted t o .

The common ' o b j e c t i v e '

c u l t u r a l framexirork a c t s i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s n o t l i k e
book - e v e n t h e y need t h e House o f L o r d s

to i n t e r p r e t

a statute
them f o r

1 0 6 o

p r a c t i c a l purposes = but a s a guide

context,

to the s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the

I t i s o n l y when t h e meaning i s c l a s s i f i e d b y r e f e r e n c e

to other a s p e c t s of the context

c l e a r and a g r e e d

upon,

t h a t i t c a n become t o a n y e x t e n t

And t h e p r o c e s s does n o t s t o p h e r e , b u t

c o n t i n u e s w i t h t h e e l a b o r a t i o n and s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e meanings
to t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i e s
It

appears

understand

then,

the world

t h a t the o b j e c t i v e terms i n which people

and e a c h o t h e r a r e o n l y e v e r r e a l i s e d i n

subjective p a r t i c u l a r contexts.
constant

involved

s e r i e s of adjustments

The r e s u l t

and c o n f i r m a t i o n s b o t h i n e x p e c -

t a t i o n s o f o t h e r s and o f t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d ,
i n w h i c h b o t h a r e understood,.

That

i s n o t h i n g new, and t h a t i m p o r t a n t
l o v e , democracy, m a r r i a g e ,
f a r from b e i n g

of t h i s i s a

concepts

and o f t h e t e r m s
have a h i s t o r y

and c o n t e n t i o u s

ones-like

l a w , o r God do i s n o t o r i o u s

So

s t a b l e and o b j e c t i v e t h e common' c u l t u r e i s no

more t h a n one end o f a continuum a t t h e o t h e r end o f w h i c h

the i n e x p r e s s i b l y s u b j e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e ,

those

aspects

o f t h e c o n t e x t w h i c h i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o communicate e v e n
years of e f f o r t
of understanding

and e x p e r i e n c e .

I n between l i e v a r i o u s

and v a r i o u s d e g r e e s

of c o d i f i c a t i o n .

p e o p l e and o b j e c t s a c q u i r e s p e c i a l meaning f o r e a c h

w h i c h makes t h e g u e s t
the

after
degrees

Situations

individual,

some o f w h i c h may be h e l d i n common and may be e x p l i c i t

spouse o r c l o s e f r i e n d .

lies

to a

F a m i l i e s have t h e i r own way o f l i f e

f e e l an o u t s i d e r .

He does n o t u n d e r s t a n d

j o k e s , n o r t h e r e a s o n s why h o u s e h o l d o b j e c t s a r e k e p t

t h e y a r e , n o r why t h e house i s a r r a n g e d

and u s e d

as i t i s .

where

1 0 7

The

p r o c e s s goes f u r t h e r w i t h v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s ,

being

c o d i f i e d o f t e n o n l y v e r b a l l y , and

groups, t r a d e s unions
purposes

o b j e c t i f i e d and

further s t i l l

and p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ,

t h e most i n c l u s i v e

some r u l e s
w i t h work

F o r most

practical

c o n t e x t i s the language which i s

c o d i f i e d i n d i c t i o n a r i e s and

standard

texts,

but w h i c h c o n s t a n t l y evolves,,
All

t h i s l e a v e s the p o s s i b i l i t y of people

each other s t i l l

obscure

There

appears

i n s e r t i o n from w h i c h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
is

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the f a c t

if

less

c l e a r l y than has

the s c e p t i c a l

solipsist

understanding

to be no p o i n t

can begin,

and y e t

that i t nonetheless e x i s t s ,

o f t e n b e e n supposed,,

e v a l u a t e them and maybe he

others c l a s s i f y

o f t e n t h i n k s he

t h e same o r a t l e a s t

common t a s k s .

at

all?

Can he

Nonetheless
e v e r be

when a l l i s s a i d and

to be

then f a i l

s o m e t h i n g and

despite having a reasonable

for

cooperate

take a f a m i l i a r

o p p o r t u n i t y , how

them
since,

t o do

example,

it,

do you know w h e t h e r

or not?

t h i n k we may

s u r e , i s to g e t

if

can

s u r e t h a t t h e y mean what he means

To

intended

and

experiences

does he r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d

i n s i d e t h e i r h e a d s and have a l o o k ,

He

t a l k s about the same

t h e same k i n d o f

done, t h e o n l y way

I s a y I i n t e n d to do

way

things

communicates i n t h e same l a n g u a g e and

in

take

a p p r o a c h w h i c h I have so f a r a v o i d e d ,

l e a r n s a c e r t a i n amount about how

C e r t a i n l y he

one
even

F o r , to

s u r e l y e a c h o f u s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e w o r l d -inhi-s own

t h i n g s and h a s

of

a l l o w the s c e p t i c h i s triumph

he h a s a l r e a d y r u i n e d h i s c a s e i n an e a r l i e r

on t h i s

point,

admission.

108,

The whole o f my argument h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d

to indicate the

i n d i s s o l u b l e u n i t y o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e and t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t s
o f knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e and t o c l a i m t h a t t h e e x t e n t t o
which

e i t h e r predominates

depends on t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s

s i t u a t i o n and on t h e e f f o r t s w h i c h

the p a r t i e s a r e prepared to

make t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d
remains

a n i n e l i m a b l e element

of o t h e r s because

of the

each other.

There

always

o f s o l i p s i s m i n o u r knowledge

our experience i s not f u l l y e x p r e s s i b l e i n

b e h a v i o u r , and t h i s p u t s l i m i t s
o f communication,,

on t h e e x t e n t and e f f e c t i v e n e s s

L o v e r s , who o f t e n t r y t o e x t e n d

beyond i t s n o r m a l l i m i t s ,

communication

a r e f o r c e d t o r e l y on f e e l i n g s o f

sympathy - y o u know what I mean = and r e f e r e n c e s t o common e x p e r i e n c e s = l i k e wheii we "were a t ,,,,

to extend t h i s s o l i p s i s m
of each other, because

and

we c o o p e r a t e i n common

and t h e e x t e n t o f t h i s

claimed understanding i s s u f f i c i e n t

claim to the contrary.

makes" no s e n s e t o t r y

t o c l a i m t h a t we n e v e r know a n y t h i n g

we c l e a r l y dos

t a s k s f o r common p u r p o s e s

It

The f a c t

cooperation

t o make n o n s e n s e

t h a t f o r example, t h e members

o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y have d i f f e r e n t v i e w s b o t h about
happen and what t h e p a r t y s t a n d s f o r does n o t p r e v e n t
e x i s t i n g around

o f any

what s h o u l d
consensus

c e r t a i n v a l u e s and b e l i e f s and on c e r t a i n

S u f f i c i e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x i s t s i n most a r e a s o f l i f e

issues.

f o r co-

o p e r a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e d e s p i t e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and v a r i a tions:

the r e s u l t s

of the cooperation v a l i d a t e

There a r e thus a t l e a s t ,

the understanding.

i n W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s terms,

strong family

r e s e m b l a n c e s , or a r e a s o f o v e r l a p between t h e views o f d i f f e r e n t

1 0 9 .

members o f the

cooperative

group, and

often

also pieces

agreement about what i s s u e s , f a c t s , b e l i e f s , v a l u e s ,

of i m p o r t a n c e , and
The

etc.

solipsist

i s vindicated

i n t e g r i t y of an i n d i v i d u a l ,

p a r t i c u l a r time e x c e p t on

to be

of the

sure

including
to a s k

are

over other i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y
A token

d i f f i c u l t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g what a p e r s o n thought a t

existence

core

why.

t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g the
the

of

the

b a s i s of b e h a v i o u r l i e s

j u d i c i a l process,

in

i n which j u r i e s are

of

the

required

'beyond a l l r e a s o n a b l e doubt' about what happened,

the m e n t a l s t a t e o f the

them to be

sure

accused.

It is

impossible

c a t e g o r i c a l l y , b e c a u s e t h e y can

only

e v e r have c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s m e n t a l
state.
It

i s therefore

overdoing i t f o r R y l e to c l a i m

c r i b i n g t h e w o r k i n g s o f a p e r s o n ' s mind
c e r t a i n p h a s e s o f h i s one
ways i n w h i c h p a r t s
w h i c h we

namely, we

hypothetical

t h a t we

are

t h a t we

The

i n f e r to

subsume i t u n d e r h y p o t h e t i c a l

propositions',

describing

are d e s c r i b i n g

o f h i s c o n d u c t a r e managed.

' e x p l a i n ' h i s a c t i o n i s not

sources, but

later

career;

we

' I n des=

' Concept o f Mind, p.

sense
occult

and

semi-

49.

And

that
' T h i s does not i m p l y the s p e c t a t o r o r r e a d e r i n f o l l o w i n g what i s done o r w r i t t e n , i s making a n a l o g i c a l
i n f e r e n c e s from i n t e r n a l p r o c e s s e s o f h i s own to
c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n t e r n a l p r o c e s s e s i n t h e a u t h o r of
the a c t i o n o r w r i t i n g s .
Nor need he, though he
may,
i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t h i m s e l f i n the s h o e s ,
i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n and s k i n a s the a u t h o r .
He
i s m e r e l y t h i n k i n g what the a u t h o r i s d o i n g a l o n g
the same l i n e s a s t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r i s

the
in

1 1 0 ,

t h i n k i n g t h a t he i s d o i n g , s a v e t h a t t h e s p e c t a t o r
i s f i n d i n g what t h e a u t h o r i s i n v e n t i n g , ,
The
a u t h o r i s l e a d i n g and t h e s p e c t a t o r f o l l o w i n g
but t h e i r p a t h i s t h e same,'
p o 5 ^

The l i e i s g i v e n t o t h i s l i n e

o f argument

later

ons

The s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s knowledge o f what

he i s d o i n g o v e r t h a t o f t h e l i s t e n e r does n o t
i n d i c a t e t h a t he h a s P r i v i l e g e d A c c e s s t o f a c t s
of a t y p e i n e v i t a b l y i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e l i s t e n e r ,
but t h a t he i s i n a v e r y good p o s i t i o n t o know what
the l i s t e n e r i s o f t e n i n a v e r y poor p o s i t i o n t o
know,'
p
and i n t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t

the question

171<>

o f knowledge

o f minds,

mine o r o t h e r s '
' i s s i m p l y t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n o f how we
e s t a b l i s h and how j r e a p p l y c e r t a i n s o r t s o f - l a w l i k e p r o p o s i t i o n s about t h e o v e r t and s i l e n t b e haviour of persons,
1

1 6 2 ,

I n e x o r c i s i n g t h e g h o s t i n t h e m a c h i n e , t h e mind i s r e d u c e d
to

behaviour.
This

i s t o be u n f a i r t o R y l e , and I do n o t want t o d i s a g r e e

w i t h h i s major arguments.
the mind a s d i s t i n c t
is

I t i s my b e l i e f a l s o t h a t t o s e e

from, y e t o f t h e same c l a s s a s t h e body

t o e r e c t a m i s l e a d i n g d i c h o t o m y and t o make a c a t e g o r y

mistake.

I t w i l l become c l e a r i n t h e n e x t

recognition
crucial
asserted

o f w h i c h c a t e g o r y one i s w o r k i n g i n terras o f i s

to a s a t i s f a c t o r y explanation
the e s s e n t i a l u n i t y

this derives

chapter that the

like

the u n i t y

of a c t i o n

I have

already

o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e and t h e o b j e c t i v e s
o f mind and body from man's

existence

1 1 1 .

i n a world

o f r e a l phenomena.

sufficient

a t t e n t i o n t o i s the c o m p l e x i t y

n e s s , o f man's a b i l i t y
it

to r e f l e c t

b o t h a s i t i s , and how

to a c t i n t h e w o r l d
periential

to g i v e

implicit

about the w o r l d

i t was,

and

how

in-

i n consciousand

imagine

i t might be,

and

b o t h on the b a s i s o f p e r c e p t u a l and

c o n t a c t w i t h the world

i d e a s , w h i c h may

be more o r l e s s

w h i c h a r e the r e s u l t
are l i k e

What R y l e t e n d s

on the b a s i s o f

congruent w i t h other

of a t t e m p t s

i n themselves,

and

thus

ex-

imaginative
ideas

to d i s c o v e r what phenomena

t h a t i s to u n d e r s t a n d

in a

conceptual

scheme t h a t i s a d e q u a t e to a s g r e a t a r a n g e a s p o s s i b l e .
not

Men

o n l y s e e the e a r t h about them, t h e y have v i s i o n s o f h e a v e n

and h e l l ,
of j u s t i c e

and

f e e l i n g s o f l o v e and h a t r e d , and

and

pity,

and

social institutions

government, a l l o f t h e s e l a t t e r

of m a r r i a g e

the c o n s e q u e n c e o f

and

r e f l e c t i o n upon r e f l e c t i o n and

not

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y of a v i e w o f phenomena.

i n L ' E t r a n g e r t h a t i f a man
hollow

l i v e d f o r a day

periences at

Men

are capable

o f f a n t a s y o f t h e i r own

i s overzealous

i n the t r u n k o f a

and

experience

f u r t h e r exof l i v i n g i n

sarcastically calls

i n h i s cause.

G.J.

'Privileged

Warnock p u t s

case c o n c i s e l y ;
'However t h e r e a r e h e r e and t h e r e i n R y l e ' s book
some t r a c e s of a more e x t r e m e , and i n a way much
simpler t h e s i s
T h i s i s the t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e
8

reflection,

making.

So when R y l e a t t a c k s what he
A c c e s s ' he

of t h i s ,

and

Camus r e m a r k e d

on f o r a l i f e t i m e i f he had no

a l i o

concepts

reflection

a c t i o n i n terms o f

t r e e w i t h i t s top open to the s k y , he would

enough to r e f l e c t

a world

abstract

the

1 1 2

r e a l l y e x i s t o n l y b o d i e s and o t h e r p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s
and t h a t t h e r e r e a l l y o c c u r o n l y p h y s i c a l e v e n t s
o r p r o c e s s e s , and t h a t a l l s t a t e m e n t s o s t e n s i b l y
r e f e r r i n g t o minds a r e r e a l l y c a t e g o r i c a l s t a t e ments about c u r r e n t b o d i l y b e h a v i o u r , o r more
commonly h y p o t h e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s about p r e d i c t e d
bodily behaviour;
t h a t h e n c e , t h e r e i s r e a l l y no
s u c h t h i n g a s a p r i v a t e i n n e r l i f e a t a l l , and
t h a t i n p r i n c i p l e e v e r y t h i n g about e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l
would be known by s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o t r a c t e d o b s e r v a =
t i o n of h i s b o d i l y d o i n g s
I t i s true t h a t even
t h i s extreme t h e s i s might be p r e s e n t e d a s f a c t u a l l y
n e u t r a l , a s m e r e l y an ' a n a l y s i s ' of s t a t e m e n t s
about the mind, but i n f a c t i t would be f e l t , and
r i g h t l y , t h a t i t s r e a l c h a r a c t e r was p u r e l y b e h a v i o u r i s t i c , and t h a t by i t many w e l l - k n o w n f a c t s
must be s i m p l y r e j e c t e d , ,
I t c a n n o t , I b e l i e v e , be
w h o l l y an a c c i d e n t t h a t many p e o p l e h a v e b e l i e v e d
t h a t R y l e ' s book p r e s e n t s t h i s t h e s i s , '
0

It

may

the

be

that

point

one's f a n t a s i e s a r e b a s e d on

i s that

they are

e x p e r i e n c e of t h e
individual
that

w o r l d and

concerned

they are

often very unlike

precise

they are

This
= i f we

Although others

t h e y cannot c l a i m
is
one

about i s the
had

our

o n l y to s a y
personal

we

that

may l e a d us

reactions

because they are

i m a g i n a t i o n and
of f a n t a s y

and

a fusion
emotion,

i s true

Our

One

one

What i s t r u e

i n a l e s s r a d i c a l way

have
them,

discussion

might

think

o n l y to f i n d i t
thought

f a n t a s i e s and

r e m a i n o b s c u r e and

of p e r c e p t u a l

out,
we

What t h e

i s like,

to deny t h a t

confused
ideas

points

to a w a r e n e s s o f

o f t h e s e ideas

i s not

i t was

the

c a n make m i s t a k e s and

i m a g i n e d what a s q u a r e c i r c l e
that

possible

mean, a s he

f a n t a s i e s were false

description

i n e x p r e s s i b l e , but

any

i m a g i n e a page o f p o e t r y ,

c a n n o t r e a d i t b a c k w a r d s - and
confusionso

one's e x p e r i e n c e s

o n l y a v a i l a b l e to

does n o t

anything,

our

inexpressible

memories e l a b o r a t e d

by

i n the

way

most o b v i o u s

o f memory, and

of

1 1 3

perception,,

We

see what we

want t o see n o t

o n l y by

watching

our f a v o u r i t e programmes on TV<, , b u t by n o t n o t i c i n g the

in

them we

do

not

like.

T h i s i s by no means to c l a i m t h a t t h i s
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s the only important
but

to c l a i m t h a t i t i s one

o t h e r two
and

being

subjective

of t h r e e e s s e n t i a l

components, t h e

the l a n g u a g e o r p u b l i c s y m b o l i c meanings

To

communicate i s to u n d e r s t a n d

to

refer

t h a t we

the i n t e n d e d

use

and/or o t h e r i n t e n t i o n s )

do u n d e r s t a n d

actions independently

o f the a c t o r ' s i n t e n t i o n ,

and we

of our common language

The

i n not

Powell

referred

to o t h e r

argues

this

c o u r t s f o r example,

o n l y e x c u l p a t o r y i f the a c t o r i s o f

i e was
0

unable

the t i m e , and
comments and
to

to u n d e r s t a n d

partially
the v a r i e t y

clearly

of the law,

'diminished

e x c u l p a t o r y , as evidenced

i e <, o f

responsibility'

a d v a n t a g e a c c r u i n g to b e i n g a b l e to f l o u t
stealing

of s u b s i s t e n c e o
of i n d i v i d u a l

food b e c a u s e one

offences,
was

done p u r e l y f o r t h e
t h e law,

the

type

i s h u n g r y and h a s no

P u b l i c c r i t e r i a h o l d up

intention,,

act at

i n judges'

the e x t e n t t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n w i t h w h i c h the o f f e n c e

case being

It

f o r the same l e g a l

committed p r e c l u d e s t h e v i e w t h a t i t was

What P o w e l l

uses

because

t h e p u b l i c meaning of any

of sentences

cogently

t h e p u b l i c d e f i n i t i o n of an a c t , a s e n t i r e l y e x c u l p a t o r y
is

to

of our a p p r e c i a t i o n

a r e a b l e to do

allowing ignorance

used

of l a n g u a g e

to phenomena ( o r of c o u r s e , d e r i v a t i v e l y

recognise t h i s

element

component of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

p h y s i c a l phenomena w h i c h a r e c o n c e p t u a l i s e d and

of languages

things

a t times i n the

does n o t

do

means
face

i s to go

on

to c o n s i d e r t h e l i m i t s o f a l a n g u a g e o r more p r o p e r l y o f a
shared
how

cultural

c o n t e x t , and how

the l a n g u a g e i s l e a r n e d .

raising

we

extend

T h i s cannot

these l i m i t s ,
he done

the q u e s t i o n of what i s i n t e n d e d by a

reference both i n i t s denotation

and

or

without

linguistic

i t s connotation.

Language

viewed i n t h i s l i g h t

i s s i m p l y a means of m a i n t a i n i n g a common

consciousness,

q u e s t i o n s o f how

combined and

The

extended are s i m i l a r

to p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s ,
r o u t i n e account

and

this i s

to t h o s e

maintained,

o f how

i t i s applied

even though i t p r o v i d e s us w i t h

a b a s i s f o r everyday

interaction.

To

this

e x t e n t t h e r e i s t h u s s o m e t h i n g i n Weber's d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
o b s e r v a t i o n a l and m o t i v a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t
c a n by no means be
The

fact

a s s i m u l a t e d to the

the

latter

former.

t h a t every i n d i v i d u a l has

experiences which

he

c r e a t e s f o r h i m s e l f and w h i c h , though r e l a t e d t o h i s e x p e r i e n c e s
o f phenomena a r e b e t t e r d e s c r i b e d a s about them t h a n o f them,
i m p l i e s an e l e m e n t i n our knowledge o f o t h e r s t h a t i s p e r m a n e n t l y u n v e r i f i a b l e and
is

this

only p a r t i a l l y e x p r e s s i b l e .

same element - what the man

Yet i t

s e e s and b e l i e v e s i s t h e r e ,

r a t h e r t h a n what i s a c t u a l l y t h e r e , h i s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f
situation

understand

- that i t i s e s s e n t i a l
his actions.

to u n d e r s t a n d

This raises

i f we

and
it<>

a g a i n one

know and

are

the argument from

which R y l e a l s o f u l m i n a t e s a g a i n s t as m e c h a n i c i s t .
make a n a l o g i e s , we

c a n s e e what i s g o i n g

reasons.

First,

we

do

on, he

do

to

analogy,

We

must admit the f o r c e o f h i s c l a i m , w h i l e

I t i s f o r c e f u l f o r two

the

not

claims,

qualifying

indeed

see

H 5 o

t h e w o r l d around

u s , and a s a r e s u l t

c o n s t a n t l y c o n f i r m t h a t we
t h a t t h e whole a f f a i r
make no d i f f e r e n c e

o f our a c t i o n s i n i t we

see i t veridically<>

i s a product

To

suppose

o f our i m a g i n a t i o n would

e i t h e r t o our t h o u g h t s

o r our

actions

We a l s o h a v e p r a c t i c a l ways o f c h e c k i n g and making good

I f we want t o jump a s t r e a m we
distance|

perhaps

we

even t a k e a l o n g b r a n c h and
and

t h a t we

seems a b s u r d s

a g r e e , and we

s a y about

s u r e l y we

say

that

what you

claim

to

b o t h know from e x p e r i e n c e

b o t h know t h a t

s i m i l a r p h y s i c a l limits
I may

To

can

r e a l l y p e r c e i v e what I p e r c e i v e , and

so w h e t h e r I u n d e r s t a n d what you
perceive,

our b o d i e s have

Of c o u r s e t h e r e w i l l be

have poor e y e s i g h t o r h e a r i n g !

roughly

differences;

the b i r d w a t c h e r

can

more b i r d s q u i c k e r t h a n the layman, though t h e l a y m a n c a n

with

s e e i f we

t h e n see w h e t h e r we

jump t h e l e n g t h o f the b r a n c h on d r y l a n d
do n o t know w h e t h e r you

errors

look c a r e f u l l y i n j u d g i n g the

can touch the o t h e r s i d e w i t h i t ,

spot
learn

practiceo
The

argument a g a i n s t

the a s s u m p t i o n

the w o r l d i n a s i m i l a r way
is

thus s t r o n g because

we

do

t h a t we

experience

a s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f knowledge

i t t a k e s i t s ground from i t s opponent;

i n d e e d assume t h a t we

s e e the w o r l d

similarly,

have the same p h y s i c a l makeup and b o d i l y n e e d s , b u t

a b a l d or a w i l d assumption,
grounds f o r b e l i e v i n g
These

but

one

t h a t we

that
this

we
i s not

have v e r y good

grounds a r e s t r e n g t h e n e d i f we

which t h e manner o f our u n d e r s t a n d i n g

c o n s i d e r t h e way

in

each other i s r e f l e x i v e

l i 6

or

self-confirming

as

I p o i n t e d out above, n o t i n t e l l i g i b l e

elements alone,

The

The

c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h we

interact are,

i n terms of

their

s i t u a t i o n o n l y becomes c l e a r when i t i s

e s t a b l i s h e d i n r e l a t i o n to o t h e r elements, a l l of which
have a v a r i e t y o f i m p r e c i s e meanings,
recognisably typical
the

situation,.

but w h i c h u n i t e i n a

To r e v e r t

bus c o n d u c t o r , when I g e t on a c o a c h , my

does t h i s

to my

example

first

a ticket

As t h e e l e m e n t s o f the s i t u a t i o n l o c k i n t o an

first

i m p o r t a n t may

vanish;

or

a t the o f f i c e b e f o r e -

p a t t e r n , so t h e y t a k e shape, and i n d e e d some t h a t we

at

of

query i s ,

c o a c h have a c o n d u c t o r , o r do I pay the d r i v e r ,

maybe I s h o u l d e v e n have bought

hand.

singly

accustomed
thought

o f c o u r s e t h i s i s the a n n u a l

c l u b o u t i n g , w h i c h i s f r e e t o a l l members, so I pay no-one

Now
in

the f a c t

that

s i t u a t i o n s a r e c i r c u l a r and s e l f

t h i s f a s h i o n l e a d s t o t h e w o r r y t h a t when we

validating

claim

to under-

s t a n d what i s g o i n g on, and what e a c h o t h e r u n d e r s t a n d , we

are

making a l a r g e a s s u m p t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no a p p a r e n t way i n
w h i c h t h i s c a n be b u i l t up - i t seems a l l o f a p i e c e .
we a r e l e d t o c l a i m t h a t we
w o r l d a s we

assume t h a t

do and have minds a s we

do.

admitted s u b j e c t i v i t y of e x p e r i e n c e t h i s
it

Hence

others e x p e r i e n c e the
C o u p l e d w i t h the
seems p e r s u a s i v e ,

and

l o o k s a s though we might be t a l k i n g and a c t i n g a t c r o s s

p u r p o s e s i n a more o r l e s s

s e r i o u s way.

The r e a s o n t h a t we know we

a r e n o t and t h e way

i n which

s u r e o f our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e a c h o t h e r d e r i v e s from

we

can

be

the

way

i n which the s i t u a t i o n i s g i v e n i t s a p p a r e n t l y impregnable

1 1 7

common-sensicality,
t a k e n a s r e a d by

I n many c a s e s , the s i t u a t i o n i s of

a l l p a r t i e s , and

f e a t u r e s which give i t a

t y p i c a l d e f i n i t i o n are immediately
t i c u l a r l y t r u e of l i m i t e d

recognised,

such as t h a t of customer to shop-keeper.

s t r a n g e r , and
class,

over

time

relationships

Even here

however,

t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y from

f a c t o r s o f age,

sex, appearance,

c o n s u m p t i o n p a t t e r n s , p e r s o n a l i t y e t c , come t o

e x p l i c i t l y and

one

the words e x c h a n g e d on e a c h o c c a s i o n may

be

of i n t e r a c t i o n s h o r t .

time

Nonetheless

over

the
social

be

semi=explicitly r e c o g n i s e d by b o t h s i d e s

does n o t mean t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p i s now

clear

This i s par-

stereotyped r e p e t i t i v e

the r e g u l a r c u s t o m e r comes to be

course

This

of f r i e n d s h i p s

few

and

the

length

each p a r t y

takes

on a f u l l e r i d e n t i t y i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h i s r e c o g n i s e d
both.

by

T h i s i s a c h i e v e d by a p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n , i n w h i c h

e l e m e n t s t h a t e a c h wants to b r i n g i n t o the
f u l l y brought i n t o view, a t f i r s t
abandoned i f q u i t e u n a c c e p t a b l e ,
ment and

understanding

s i t u a t i o n are

care-

s u b t l y so t h a t t h e y may
t h e n more e x p l i c i t l y a s

i s reached.

The

same k i n d of

be
agree-

process

t a k e s p l a c e i n a l l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s t h e y accommodate t o
the p e c u l i a r i t i e s

o f the p a r t i c u l a r

What i s g o i n g
the

on i n t h i s p r o c e s s ?

B o t h p a r t i e s come t o

s i t u a t i o n w i t h e x p e c t a t i o n s about what i t w i l l be

These are o f t e n modified

I

situation.

suggested,

may

be

like.

when t h e y s e e what i t i s l i k e ,

f u r t h e r modified

i f others disagree

t h e i r v i e w or w i s h t o i n t r o d u c e o t h e r e l e m e n t s .

and

as

with

Each

person

i n v o l v e d draws on h i s knowledge o f a s e t o f s u p p o s e d l y

common

1 1 8

c u l t u r a l meanings, which are a t times appealed

j u s t i f y a view.

I n p r a c t i c e however, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

a p p l i c a t i o n of these i s c r i t i c a l
person's

and

i n d i v i d u a l understanding

meanings i n v o l v e d .

t h i s depends on

o f and

Each t h e r e f o r e has

be

a simple matter,

to
and

each

experience with

the

to n e g o t i a t e a p o s i t i o n

t h a t i s a c c e p t a b l e or l e a v e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
t h i s may

to i n o r d e r

To

some e x t e n t

i f i t i s a q u e s t i o n of

establishing

a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h s t a n d a r d i s e d t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s , though e v e n
here

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s of views

happens i s t h a t t h i s

s i t u a t i o n i s agreed

t y p i c a l - there are tolerance l i m i t s

i n engineering,,

w i l l mean t h a t what
to be

actually

"accepted"

or

i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s

as

V e r y o f t e n however, the r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

e l a b o r a t e d i n a n o n - s t a n d a r d way

and

the t y p i c a l

I f t h i s happens, i t f r e q u e n t l y

form a r e a c c e p t e d .

becomes, i n s o c i o l o g i c a l

terms,

e l e m e n t s not

included i n

"institutionalised"

Mark I I v e r s i o n o f the t y p i c a l form.

k e e p e r - c u s t o m e r example, the a d v e n t

into a

I n t e r m s of t h e
of supermarkets

shop-

brought

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s of more
a p u r e l y economic k i n d were i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d
i n o r d i n a r y s t o r e s on

"personal

Once a g a i n the u n i t y and

o b j e c t i v e i s apparent.

and

an

than

emphasis

service".

i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v e and

What can be

appealed

to a s the norm

depends upon w h e t h e r the o t h e r i s a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d w i t h

the

c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t where s u c h a norm i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

say

t h a t we

To

then,

assume on a n o l o g y w i t h o u r s e l v e s t h a t o t h e r s have minds

i s b o t h t r u e and m i s l e a d i n g .

We

assume i t b e c a u s e we

can

see

l l 9 o

it

happening.

I t i s o n l y on t h e b a s i s o f s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n

that the n e g o t i a t i o n could take p l a c e .

And once a g a i n , i f we

assume o t h e r w i s e , t h e w o r l d would be no d i f f e r e n t
we s h o u l d be d e n y i n g
see o t h e r p e o p l e
we r e l a t e

except

that

t h a t we do what we do, namely t h a t we

a s a c t i n g not r e a c t i n g or behaving

and t h a t

t o them a s c o n s c i o u s r e f l e c t i v e b e i n g s n o t a n i m a l s

or m a c h i n e s .
How t h e n does one i n d i v i d u a l s e t about
other i n d e t a i l ?

understanding the

He c a n n o t r e l y more t h a n v a g u e l y upon a

common s e t o f meanings and he i s f o r c e d t o r e a l i s e

that the

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e v a r i e s from p e r s o n t o p e r s o n ,
a l l o w i n g f o r the f a c t

even

t h a t t h e y a r e t e a c h a b l e and e x p l i c a b l e ,

and

t h a t e a c h s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t s p e c u l i a r problems o f a p p l i c a t i o n

All

t h a t he c a n r e l y on i s h i s e x p e r i e n c e .

He w i l l

learn i n

time t o be a b l e t o r e c o g n i s e some o f t h e xvays i n w h i c h

others

d i f f e r i n t h e i r v i e w s and d e f i n i t i o n s and how t o cope w i t h

this,

b u t h i s b a s e must a l w a y s be a t y p i f i c a t i o n d e r i v e d from h i s
own

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n p a s t s i t u a t i o n s o f how i d e a s and d e f i n i t i o n s

work i n p r a c t i c e .

Some o f t h i s may be u s e f u l l y c o d i f i e d

trans-

m i s s i b l e knowledge, b u t t h i s i s o n l y r e a l l y u s e f u l when i t c a n
be a p p l i e d , and u l t i m a t e l y o n l y i n t e l l i g i b l e
a p p l i c a t i o n i s understood.
detective
his

I t i s not f o r nothing that the

or the g e n e r a l a s k themselves,

situation?'

insofar asi t s

'What would I do i n

They c a n n e v e r become t h e i r opponent and

u n d e r s t a n d him t h a t way, so t h e y have t o t r y t o a c q u a i n t thems e l v e s w i t h t h e f e a t u r e s o f h i s s i t u a t i o n and t o u n d e r s t a n d

a l s o i f p o s s i b l e how he s e e s t h o s e

features.

1 2 0

The

most s u c c e s s f u l

s i t u a t i o n i n which understanding

occur i s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n .

I t i s t h e r e t h a t the

n e g o t i a t i o n s o f the d e f i n i t i o n i n v o l v e d c a n be most

detailed,

t h a t the amount and v a r i e t y of i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e

b o t h i n what i s d e l i b e r a t e l y communicated and

Here

c a n b u i l d a common c o n t e x t o f meaning and

d e f i n i t i o n to the f u l l e s t

e x t e n t , so t h a t the

u s e d become h i g h l y complex,

i s greatest,

what i s " g i v e n o f f "

i n i n v o l u n t a r y r e a c t i o n , g e s t u r e , grimace e t c .
parties

explore i t s

typifications

an o v e r w h e l m i n g

t h e y c a n a t t e n d to and

dwell i n i t ,

and

become to a l a r g e d e g r e e u n i t e d i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l
o f the w o r l d ,

Even here

being used,

experience

here
is
out

reason that understanding

e v e n though i t may

t h a t i n the f i r s t

place i t i s a refinement

classifications

i n t e n t i o n s - we

cannot

be

typified

modification,
and

development

i n t e r m s o f b r o a d and more p u b l i c l y

of the other person

understand

and

p e o p l e b e t t e r a s we

them* t h r o u g h q u e s t i o n i n g , o b s e r v i n g and
there always

information

i s called

be u n d e r g o i n g c o n s t a n t

of cruder understanding

available
and

The

i s at

albeit

t y p i f i c a t i o n s undergoing constant m o d i f i c a t i o n a s
flows i n .

this

i t can

though, w h i l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

i t s maximum, t y p i f i c a t i o n s a r e s t i l l

h i s ideas
"get to know

interaction;

secondly

r e m a i n s a minimum o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e

expressed

their

constant

need t o r e c o g n i s e t h e i r e x t e r n a l e x i s t e n c e a p a r t from
situations

the

They c a n a l s o c o n c e n t r a t e

a t t e n t i o n i n the s i t u a t i o n w i t h o u t

can

i n l a n g u a g e o r by

o t h e r means

a l o n g term s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p between two

which

Although

a c t o r s - say

1 2 1 .

b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s ~ may e n a b l e
of

them t o g a i n a d e t a i l e d

knowledge

e a c h o t h e r ' s c h a r a c t e r , o u t l o o k and t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e s , a n d

a l s o e n a b l e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a complex s h a r e d w o r l d - i n
t h i s case t h e i r b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e - they s t i l l
certain respects distinctly
i n t e n t i o n s i n terms

separate persons

o f common ( b e t w e e n

E v e n where u n d e r s t a n d i n g

remain i n

communicating

their

t h e two o f them) m e a n i n g s .

goes beyond words i t i n v o l v e s c l a s s i f i c a -

t i o n , and where words a r e u s e d ,

t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s obvious,

E v e r y term i m p l i e s a u n i v e r s a l , a c l a s s o f a c t u a l o r p o s s i b l e
o b j e c t s s i m i l a r to i t s e l f ,

and w h i l e t h e u s e o f many

terms g i v e s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e s u l t ,
The

i ti s s t i l l

r e a s o n t h a t he r e m a i n s

d e f i n e d i n terms
because

i s like

We c a n n e v e r i n any u l t i m a t e s e n s e know what

t o b_e John S m i t h o n l y what i t i s l i k e

i n understanding
people

t o have

qualities

Smith's.

At a g r o s s e r l e v e l

of

and communicable

t h e y c a n r e f e r t o o t h e r s w i t h s i m i l a r ( o r " t h e same")

l i k e John

use

are recognised.

a t y p i f i c a t i o n i s t h a t he h a s t o be

that a r e only meaningful

characteristics.
it

classification.

c l a s s o f o b j e c t s c a l l e d J o h n S m i t h may have o n l y one member,

whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h make him u n i q u e

The

interrelated

which

t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t y p i f i c a t i o n we

occur a s e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s f o r groups

a r e used a s paradigms or guides f o r d e f i n i n g

s i t u a t i o n s and c o n d u c t i n g s o c i a l

relationships.

s e e n t h e s e t e n d t o g e t r e f i n e d and m o d i f i e d

As we have

i n practice.

The

problem f o r t h e o u t s i d e r i s t o make s e n s e o f t h e s e , and i n

t r y i n g t o do t h i s i t s h o u l d now be c l e a r t h a t he f a c e s s e v e r a l

1 2 2 .

difficultieso

I n the f i r s t

place the d i f f e r e n t

sets of r u l e s ,

d e f i n i t i o n s and meanings p r o b a b l y w i l l n o t f i t n e a t l y and

logically

together into

contradictionso
count
of

one s y s t e m

Secondly,

= t h e y c o n t a i n gaps and

the consensus

a s t o what t h i n g s

a s common r u l e s and what do n o t , and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

what t h o s e t h a t a r e common mean v a r i e s

from group t o g r o u p

Thus t h e r e i s a n i m p r e c i s e h i e r a r c h y i n t h e agreement

about

what t h i n g s a r e r u l e s from t h e l a w s on t h e s t a t u t e book,

through

s u c h t h i n g s a s p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c s , , t o custom, c o n v e n t i o n , t o
l o c a l p r a c t i c e s a n d mores, t o s m a l l group u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , norms
and definitions

I n each of these c o n t e x t s the " e s t a b l i s h e d "

r u l e s modify or o v e r r u l e those i n o t h e r s .

Not o n l y t h i s , b u t

each i n d i v i d u a l i n each c o n t e x t h a s a d i f f e r e n t view

of the

r u l e s , and o n l y r a r e l y i s t h e r e a r u l e book t o r e f e r t o .
r u l e books depend on c o n s e n s u s
r e a c t i o n to t y p i c a l
are

and c o n s e n s u s

situations.

t h e y a r e , e v e n i f a t one time

depends on a s i m i l a r

T h i r d l y , because

c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g a p p l i e d b y new p e o p l e

Even

the r u l e s

t o new s i t u a t i o n s

c l e a r and agreed, c o n s t a n t l y

m o d i f i e d and e l a b o r a t e d , so t h a t e v e n i f e x i s t i n g u n d e r t h e
same name t h e y may by no means be t h e same t h i n g .

And o f c o u r s e

p e o p l e n e i t h e r do what t h e y b e l i e v e a n d s a y t h e y do, n o r what

t h e y t h i n k t h e y ought t o d o
The

o u t s i d e r then i s i n a d i f f i c u l t

s o l u t i o n i s to p a r t i c i p a t e

position.

H i s only

i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s he w a n t s t o u n d e r -

s t a n d and l e a r n t h e r u l e s a s t h e y o p e r a t e .
g i v e him a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s a p a r t i c i p a n t

This w i l l

at least

o f an a r e a o f s o c i e t y ,

1 2 3 o

w h i c h f o r most o u t s i d e r s

i s a l l that

however, w a n t s to have h i s cake and

make s e n s e o f
of i t , and
neatly

to the

sociologist

in

how
the

He

i n a c o r n e r , and
rest.

they are
light

o f the

just

More o f t e n

to r e l y on
can

by

ordinary

ordinary

group t h a t he
rest
own

to t e l l

t h a n not

what
and

inconsistent

%\rith

the

rules

are

are

societal rules

done
and

done i n t e r m s o f

several different definitions

r u l e s and

discover
but

d e f i n i t i o n s the

them and

this will

actions

was

tell

leave

which are
He

l i v e d among, and

of doing t h i n g s .

actors

a
and

with

in

overcome

t h a n the

i s t h u s i n the

same

rules

position

more a m b i t i o u s .

to a c c e p t

use

contradictions

o n l y be

done r a t h e r

is

use

w h i c h ones a r e
him

c o n t e n t to a c c e p t

o f s o c i e t y w h i c h had
way

part

f i n d out

whether a c t i o n s

they are

member o f s o c i e t y , but

outsider

to

i t does not f i t

to u n d e r s t a n d what the

w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y g o v e r n them.
a s the

a small

problem f o r

gaps i n h i s o v e r a l l p i c t u r e , w h i c h c a n
l o o k i n g a t the

wants

I n making s e n s e o f the whole t h e n , he

the

on w h i c h o c c a s i o n s ,
and

The

o f group o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r

compromise i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

i n s o f a r a s he

that

he

sociologist

people i n t h i s c o r n e r see

society,,

o p e r a t e d , but

conflicting factors.

just

as p a r t i c i p a n t

the

The

For

t h e i r v i e w s w i l l be

t h e n , i s not

definitions.

forced

it.

s o c i e t y not

can,

how

But

those i n other a r e a s

and

eat

so i s f r u s t r a t e d to d i s c o v e r

i n t o a system.

goes on
react

the whole of the

i s wanted,,

the v i e w o f the

My
limited

to t h e i r v i e w of

the

e v o l v e d i n terms congruent w i t h t h e i r
The

s o c i o l o g i s t however, s e e k s i d e a l l y

a s i m i l a r d e t a i l e d knowledge o f the

o u t l o o k and

actions

of a l l

12k

parts

of

s o c i e t y and

then t r i e s

to

how

i n p r a c t i c e , r a t h e r t h a n i n the

all

f i t together ( o r not,

to a c c o u n t f o r
When he
on but

do

coincide

will

and

fail

some e x t e n t

His

i s a work o f e x e g e s i s

people say
different

case

may

be,

a l l be

o f t h o s e he

to r e c o g n i s e
and

i s happening.
g r o u p s and

but

he

the

not

agreement, t h a t i t may

s h o u l d be

synthesis

What he

have

place

He

s o c i e t y e x i s t s and

and

same f a m i l y

may

society,

coupled with d e t a i l e d
as w e l l as

what

that

be

that

t h i s may

there

may

be

i s a whole,

be

coexistence

involved

family

Luckmann,

he

only

resemblances

members, members o f

actively inconsistent,

difficulties

extent

with

in this.

Stuart

Hall

Quoting Berger

and

the

b a s e d on m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r

that while

be

i s confronted

to t h a t

between t h e v i e w s of d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s and

the

will

f i n d s i n the

c a n n o t assume a r e

r e a d y to r e c o g n i s e

contact,

out

they

what i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g .

i n t o a s i n g l e whole.

fact that

points

f o r he

part,

parts with t h e i r d i f f e r e n t views w i l l f i t

the

the

one

say

more or l e s s l i m i t e d and p a r t i c u l a r ,

e x a m i n a t i o n of what i s t a k i n g

together e a s i l y

limited

v i e w o f any

them and

to make t y p i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h draw

w i t h any

since these

empirical

outside

conflict).

does t h i s , he h a s

not

to

a s the

stand

says:

" T h e o r e t i c a l knowledge i s o n l y a s m a l l p a r t , and

by no means the most i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f what p a s s e s
f o r knowledge i n a s o c i e t y ,,, The p r i m a r y knowledge
about the i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r i s knowledge on t h e
pretheoretical level
I t i s t h e sum t o t a l of 'what
e v e r y b o d y knows* about a s o c i a l w o r l d , and a s s e m b l a g e
of maxims, p r o v e r b i a l n u g g e t s o f wisdom, v a l u e s and
b e l i e f s , myths and so f o r t h , the t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of which r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e
intellectual
fortitude i n i t s e l f " , '

1 2 5 c

And

later

(p20)

E v e n t s a r e r e a l enough, b u t t h e y a r e a p p r o p r i a t e d
i n s o c i a l consciousness only as they are c u l t u r a l l y
s i g n i f i e d and defined,,
Our a n a l y s i s must t h e r e f o r e
a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e i d e a s , v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s
which inform those d e f i n i t i o n s .
I t must a l s o r e v e a l
the c a t e g o r i e s , c o n s c i o u s - u n c o n s c i o u s , i n t o w h i c h
e v e n t s a r e grouped and c l a s s i f i e d , r a n k e d and o r d e r e d ,
so a s t o make them m e a n i n g f u l .
T h e s e frameworks o f
v a l u e and meaning a r e " i n f e r e n t i a l n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s "
of s o c i a l l i f e .
They a r e w i d e l y s h a r e d , though n o t
by e v e r y o n e , and a r e n o t u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e same way
by g r o u p s who have d i f f e r e n t l i f e - s i t u a t i o n s and
p r o s p e c t s , and who may be t h e o b j e c t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e
s u b j e c t s or authors of such "accounts".
T h e s e maps
of meaning g i v e p l a u s i b i l i t y , o r d e r and c o h e r e n c e t o
d i s c r e t e e v e n t s , by p l a c i n g them w i t h i n a common w o r l d
of meanings.
C u l t u r e i s u n i t e d t o g e t h e r by t h e s e
o v e r l a p p i n g , p a r t i a l l y s h a r e d , i n c o m p l e t e mappings
of p r o b l e m a t i c s o c i a l r e a l i t y .
Such s t r u c t u r e s "
t e n d t o d e f i n e and l i m i t t h e range o f p o s s i b l e new
meaning, w h i c h c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d t o e x p l a i n new and
unfamiliar events.
I n p a r t , such normative s t r u c tures are h i s t o r i c a l constructs, already-objectivated
and a v a i l a b l e a s i n f o r m a l s o c i a l knowledge = "what
e v e r y b o d y knows" about a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n .
They have
b e e n r o u t i n i s e d and s e d i m e n t e d o v e r time and a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f o u r new d e f i n i t i o n s and
l a b e l s o n l y i n t r u n c a t e d form.
They a l s o e x h i b i t
v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f " c l o s u r e " and o f " o p e n n e s s " , o f
coherence or c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s ,
They a r e "moving
s t r u c t u r e s " i n t h a t t h e y must be c o n t i n u o u s l y r e v i s e d
and amended t o " c o v e r " new e v e n t s .
They a r e n e v e r
stable,
11

Y e t i t i s t h e s e same p a r t i a l
changing

incomplete,

and y e t p e r s i s t e n t meanings t h a t g i v e c o g n i t i v e and

evaluative order to s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ,
before

incoherent, constantly

imputing

We s h o u l d beware

too g r e a t a degree of system

then,

or order to the

i d e a s and t o t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w h i c h t h e y i n f o r m and be
c a u t i o u s i n the e x t e n t of our g e n e r a l i s a t i o n of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
from one s i t u a t i o n t o a n o t h e r .
if

This also raises

questions,

t h e y have n o t b e e n r a i s e d b e f o r e , o f t h e p r e c i s i o n and

1 2 6

verifiable
I will

a c c u r a c y w h i c h any u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t a k e up a t t h e end o f t h e n e x t

may c l a i m ,

This

section,,

I n making h i s t y p i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e a c t i o n s , r e l a t i o n s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s and g r o u p s , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t h a s t o t a k e a p o i n t
of view which w h i l e r e c o g n i s i n g the views
does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h any o f them.
c o u r s e have h a d t o e x p l o r e t h e v i e w s

of those

involved,

P r i o r t o t h i s he w i l l o f
o f p a r t i c u l a r a c t o r s and

groups and t o t a k e t h e i r v i e w , b u t i f he i s t o expand h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n he h a s t o go beyond i t s b o u n d s

Once a g a i n t h e n ,
come i n .

q u e s t i o n s o f what s t a n d p o i n t

taken

To some e x t e n t i t w i l l be c o n s t r a i n e d by t h o s e i n

the s o c i e t y s t u d i e d , but i t w i l l
sympathies
views

i s t o be

a l s o depend on t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

w i t h groups i n t h a t s o c i e t y , and w i t h h i s p e r s o n a l

and v a l u e s .

What he must be a b s o l u t e l y c l e a r about i s

when he i s d e s c r i b i n g t h e a c t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n t h e a c t o r ' s
t e r m s and when he i s d o i n g

so i n h i s own t e r m s ,

Conceptual

a n a l y s i s and e x e g e s i s c a n be h e l p f u l i n c l a s s i f y i n g a c t o r s '
concepts
not

as f a r as they

c a n be c l a s s i f i e d , b u t c a r e must be

t o make them c o n s i s t e n t and e x h a u s t i v e beyond t h e i r

usage.

Actors use concepts

taken

real

and d e f i n i t i o n s l o o s e l y and a t t i m e s

c o n t r a d i c t o r i l y and i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f u s e d i f f i c u l t i e s
apparent

to the p e r s i s t e n t

Whilst understanding
cannot
account
this

analytical

of a c t o r s ' views

be assumed t h a t t h i s w i l l
the s o c i o l o g i s t

o u t s i d e r may p a s s

i s t h e aim t h e r e f o r e , i t

lead d i r e c t l y

i s interested

unnoticed

in.

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t h a s t o make s t a t e m e n t s

to the k i n d o f

I n order to a c h i e v e
about t h e a c t o r ' s

127

concepts,

t h e i r usage

and t h e a c t i o n

He m u s t b e a w a r e

that

his

t h o u g h i t may b e b a s e d

of

picture

even

the actor's

leave

The

of

o f degree
views

t h e y a r e usebU
i n doing

on a n

Societies

understanding

involved

i n this

one s o c i e t y
rather

than

i n understanding

i s involved,
of k i n d

are redoubled

but the d i f f e r e n c e s

The range

of v a r i a t i o n s

between d i f f e r e n t groups w i t h i n

modern i n d u s t r i a l i s e d s o c i e t y

a r e so g r e a t

and

b e t w e e n t h e m a r e b y now

It

i s still

groups
if

clearly

societies

i n one n a t i o n

however,

the concepts

g i v e n group
terms

related
This,

and speak

i f we

used

ideas

with

already

f o r here

of the ideas
specifying

are variously

indicated
understood

of t h e i r application

notorious.

because

t h e same l a n g u a g e ,
i s seen

the

even
rather

between

the d i f f e r e n c e s
differences,

and a c t i o n s

of a

t h e i r meanings,

both

of the s i t u a t i o n s they are

to - s p e l l i n g out t h e i r s o c i a l

course

i s possible

a t the d i f f e r e n c e s

and i n terms

non-comprehension

are enshrined i n the l i n g u i s t i c

i s concerned

of other

that

The problem

look

of understanding

a s I have

concepts
the

understanding

with d i f f e r e n t languages,

A major part

in

that

they use i t very differently,,

more

in

of understanding
assumed

exist

involved

and a c t i v i t i e s

problems

this i s

section.

Other

than

he c r e a t e s

The d i f f i c u l t i e s

difficulties

w h e n more
are

views.

to the next

Understanding

the picture

i n which

action

implications,,

may b e v e r y d i f f i c u l t
and c o n s t a n t l y

a n d i n some

cases

because

modified i n
may h a v e

very

128,

few

or

arly
the

o n l y vague

to

general

action

evaluative

are

used,

i n an

attempt

when d i s c u s s i n g

done,

since

covered,

and

Basically,
everyday
set

out

may

be

one

u n d e r s t o o d by
i f one

the

game a n d

out

the

rules

involved
chess

the

normally
But
a

was

single

can

cultural

the

we

as

that

was

where

playing
one

so

not
be,

in

used
that

are
they

participated,,

with

Where t h e
referent

been

would

use

more d i f f i c u l t

the

knew

then

social

like

I t

someone who

went wrong, and

learn.

and

or

w h i c h we

not

not

author has

typifications

has

becomes

set

rules

rules

of

and

the

results

rules

and

situations

perfect.
may

and

basis
and

come t o

understand

of

the

t h i s does not

enable

to

t r a n s l a t e , and

unless

for

generalisation

outside

are

stranded

Haas^"^ i n a n

meanings

constructed

who

c h e s s by

to

reaction

the

concepts

i f t h i s has
the

of

ethno-

I t rapidly

systematically,

outsider

i s longer

than

context

descriptions.
that

that

c u l t u r a l context,

h a v e no

the

direct empirical

between contexts,
we

others

process

while

research

same a s

more

corrected

h a v e no

less

an

particulMuch

show how

s i t u a t i o n s which

except

learnt

for

of

i s the

i n more d e t a i l a n d

applies

in patient

i n d e t a i l to

c l e a r what

process

then,

become p r e c i s e ,

soon l o c a t e s

interaction,

much a s

consist,

a piece

i t i s not

the

to

This

r e l i g i o u s concepts.

situations

clear

in

and

s o c i o l o g i s t ' s work w i l l

graphy , d e s c r i b i n g

is

implications,,

the

two

illuminating

terms

e n t i t i e s to

with

for

which

we

sets

us

to

compare

can

do

this

any
of

article,

given
incomparable
reminds

t r a n s l a t i o n cannot

expressions

correspond.

be

us

129o

Meaning
in

lies

i n the

reality;

uses

of

use

i t i s an

the

of

the

organised

expression
and

contextso

However, n e i t h e r

the

planet
must
of

term

comparison i s thus

'Morning S t a r '

Venus, but

do

justice

objects

to

their

to

provide

Soir"

cannot

them

object

within

" w h a t we
we

can

terms

of)

imply
the

point

never

meaning

that
at"

find

the

be

from

to

i n a language,
generated

context,

or

possibility
any

of

more

other?'
from

an

to

Haas,

objects
the

world
only

i s that

need

we

or

than

colour

for
of

know

that

languages i f
within

(i.e. in
Though

p98.

this

i t s detection

the

translation

i n that kind

expression

or

denotation.

f o r our

and

of

and

refer

i t ) except

asks

shape

t o be

'How c o u l d

identify

uses

a neutral

translation,
to

problem

does

presence
can

not

apart
exist

from
apart

objectso
The

translator's

match i n the

two

context:

style,

he

fully

has

to

concerned.
as

i t (i.e.

abstracted

expression,

and

i s n e u t r a l between d i f f e r e n t

some l a n g u a g e

can

refer

referring

interest

cultural

du

i s different,

names f o r

the

parallel

"Etoile

f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g and

from

of

The

and

criterion

a name d e r i v e s

contexts,,

one

i t plays

many i n d i v i d u a l

said

We

exist

of

m e a n i n g be

a basis for

already

role

can

sense

this.

the

recollection

in particular

translation

Both

expression,

His

p o s s i b l e , but

problem

languages
period,

He

tense,

understand
aim

i s thus

i s as

the

has

to
to

find
take

expressions
full

person

etc.

and

meanings

of

both

literal

i n p r a c t i c e there

account

i n doing
the

a word-for-word
will

often

be

no

that
of
this

languages
translation
exactly

130

corresponding
lating

terms

connotation

have

the
is

ways i n p a r t i c u l a r

essential

this

cannot

culture
other

A creative effort
to obtaining

be p e r f e c t

The i t e m

the best

except

i t s own d i s t i n c t i v e

lation

c a n b e made.
problem

liberalo
and

differences
contexts
greater
more
the

also
In

range

of achieving

with

on t h e p a r t

that

early

European

anthropology

than

p o s s i b l e , and even

t o be

understood

the attempt

than

a short

that

himself

expressions

but with

will

and

their

a much

and i s f u r t h e r actions
of

In

this

be a l o s s

of

of expressions, but

play

he d i d so b y b e i n g

result

to explaining the

there

sets

a n d more

elegant

the t r a n s l a t o r ,

expressions

at trans=

greater

a comparison or t r a n s l a t i o n

will

phrases,

longer

hand he h a s t o c o v e r

o f one o r b o t h

the t r a n s l a t o r

of

of the t r a n s l a t o r

i s a t once

a s he w i s h e s

of expressions

probably

enough t o i n c l u d e t h e

before

to produce

i t i s i n e v i t a b l e not only

meaning

rendering

t o be b r o a d

On t h e o t h e r

concerned not only

kind,

i s often

i n m e a n i n g o f t h e two c u l t u r a l

of use.

process

a t the l e v e l

on t h e p a r t

f o r the s o c i o l o g i s t

a s much t i m e

used i n

i n s o f a r a s t h e one l a n g u a g e a n d

context

He i s n o t r e q u i r e d

can devote

t h e more

Hence he w i l l

t o be t r a n s l a t e d h a s t h u s

within

The

i n trans-

particularly

and the r e s u l t

i s o r c a n be e x p a n d e d

difficulties

contexts.

for translation

and p a r a g r a p h s ,

original,

have

and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s

to choose h i s u n i t

sentences

lie w i l l

as well as denotation,

complex r e s o n a n c e s
particular

Also

a significant

closely

c u l t u r e and so b i a s i n g t h e r e s u l t

role.

identified

i n favour

o f one

with
party

131*

This
the

tendency has p e r s i s t e d
sociologist

and w i l l

i t h a s become a p p a r e n t

interest

i n certain

what
are

aspects

and i n terms

such questions

as;

i s t h e form
kinship

sociologists

consider

recently

have

special

o f what

relations?,

as

societies.

i s t h e mode o f e c o n o m i c

and m a r r i a g e

From

production?

significance

and form

they have begun t o b u i l d

of comparing s o c i e t i e s .

In a

sense,

i s a l o g i c a l way o u t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y , b u t i t h a s t h e
that

in,

there

the l e s s

alarming
science
We

that

than

might

i s of the actors,

a n d many m o d e l s d i s p l a y

our attempts a t coherent

points.

As a l r e a d y

suggested

i n s t i t u t i o n s , functions,

relationships
f o r example

an

understanding

on i s s u e s

of a society,

of

h i s own t h e o r y .

by

looking

We

may

a t c a s e s where

and p e r c e p t ,

at various

a b o v e , we may

problems,

societies

deal

of food

i n the previous

taken

translation

argue

aspects

of

a r e common t o a l l s o c i e t i e s .

the provision

argued

the positions

etc.

l o o k a t how

death,

already

concept

i s allowed

t o d e p e n d more o n t h e l a t e s t f a d i n c o m p u t e r

may b e g i n

production,

there

on t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y i n q u e s t i o n .

certain

social

t h e more o f t h e s o c i o l o g i s t

tendency

different

of

More

since

of s o c i e t i e s which they define

o f government?

disadvantage

have

that

of which they

what

models f o r the purposes

this

t o do s o ,

t o o i s a member o f a s o c i e t y .

however,

important

continue

with birth, r e -

and of s h e l t e r ,

chapter

like

these

that

there

argue

that

i s at least

i f not i d e n t i t y

and I

consideration

i s essential

and f o r t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s
also

We

to an

awareness

a s t a r t c a n b e made
an overlap

o f meaning.

Both

between
I and

132.

a Hindu r e f e r
but

t o t h e same o b j e c t

w h e n we u s e t h e w o r d

o u r r e s p e c t i v e t e r m s do n o t h a v e

That

might

point

be s p e l l e d o u t b y u s i n g

as a base.

naturally

Finally,

and l o g i c a l l y

just

such

a common

we may a r g u e

criteria

t h e same

that

w h i c h we c a n e x p l i c a t e t h e s o c i a l

relations

meaning.

reference

there

of rationality

'cow',

exist

i n terms o f

of any c u l t u r a l

group.
The

difficulty

as w i t h
turns

the f i r s t

out i n f a c t

ground.
refer

i s t h a t what

a visitor

to a country
find

and t h a t

points

such

of these

coincidence

one a n o t h e r .

who k n o w s n e i t h e r

the language

t o communicate by

f o r good a n d s h e l t e r ,

a n d may u s e t h i s

to cover

needss

gestures

t h e customs

he n o t i c e s

what

b y whom, i n w h a t m a n n e r a n d how i t i s e a t e n .

however,

i snot i n using

o f a knowledge

these

points

asthe

of the society but of using

o f comparison between

bullock,

o f common

our references

to understand

i t possible

the s a t i s f a c t i o n

difficulty

beginnings

is

animal,

a b a s i s f o r expanding h i s understanding

food he i s s e r v e d ,

common g r o u n d

a cow ( o r p e r h a p s b e t t e r , a

the b a s i s f o rbeginning

the culture w i l l

surrounding

like

s o f a r a s one c a n t e l l

i n this

a b o u t b a s i c human n e e d s

The

looks

f o r comparison,

f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t b o t h I a n d a H i n d u may

that

and c o i n c i d e

provide

bases

t o be t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s p e r c e p t i o n

i ti s true

Similarly,

as

t h e two l a t t e r

t o t h e same p h y s i c a l o b j e c t ,

overlap

nor

one,

I fI claim,

bullock)

may

with

societies.

We b o t h

them a s

s e e t h e same

b u t we do n o t s e e i t i n t h e same w a y - o u r r e f e r e n c e

t h e same b u t o u r s e n s e

different.

A Hindu

sees

a bullock

l 3 3 o

as

of r e l i g i o u s

which

i s p e r h a p s

Whilst

we

cannot

initially,
assume

even

that

a l l o w us
assume

that

shape,
point

we

literally

assume

have

the

sense

tries
and

to

spell

social

out

bits

that

not

part

as

a l r e a d y noted,

The
as

the

o r a s p e c t s may

rationality

i s a logical

any

and

ally

and

can be,
be,

an

this

render

action

i t s rational
and

and

method.

same
developed
Our

words

meanings

the
then

to

compare

inconvenient

i s t o be
exists

terms

difficult

translated;

i n networks

and

appear

culture

irrational

starting

When t h e

acts,

i f we

use

argued

c a n be

of

to

con-

compare

meaningless
rationality

and

analysed

displayed.

a t a l l adequate,

i t i s absurd

an
and

at length

concept

features

i s t o be

To

comparison

a culture-bound

And

must

minimal.

the

Jarvie'''^ h a s

i n any

we

will

i s i n danger i n doing

the whole

i f our u n d e r s t a n d i n g

essential

and

must

nonetheless constitute

sense

i n single

not

that

of the

s e e s and

he

o f what

f o r comparison,

any

he

which

same k i n d o f d i f f i c u l t i e s

culture

s e e , we

differentially

i n h i s own

society,

sense

meanings, not

a basis

most

Hindu

same p e r c e p t s

o f w h a t we

in his translation

important

elements

out

compare, but

of

the

steaks,

colour, texture etc.

relations

of l e a v i n g

and

shape

i s thus i n p r i n c i p l e

this

cepts

have

p e r c e p t i o n s i n time,

heat,

of another

I have

we

f o r the

same p e r c e p t u a l a p p a r a t u s

them w i t h t h o s e

do

that

though p r o b a b l y

volume, w e i g h t ,

the h a b i t s

i t as p o t e n t i a l

i n a l l c a s e s a l l o w s us

abilities,

sociologist

see

i n the p h y s i c a l

this

in this

= unthinkable

then

to c o o r d i n a t e our

perceptual

of

significance,

suppose

that

that
rationThis
must

that a l l

cultures

and

a l l actions

criteria

for

c o m p a r i s o n and

suggest
acts

two

senses

of

r a t i o n a l l y on

They

do

seeds

but

not

sow

the

that

basis

and

not

difference.
phlogiston.

it

t o be

phlogiston

highest

But
but

conclude
possible

approximates

one

to

else, like
who

that

has

the

that
form

an

i s no
that

and

faith

in natural

Anything

this,

like

primitive

i s just

contributed

the

long

one

of

ritual,

no

with

Jarvie

that

trying

leeches
is

this

to

or
believe

quite
in i t s

is

e i t h e r more o r

people

no

makes

in either
be

the

people

i n leeches

not

but

else

and

and

only developed

irrational.

to

person

having

ritual

healing.

science,

i t .

way,

believers

r a t i o n a l i t y i s not

Agassi

some

magical

than

comparison should
and

of

primitive

no

better

and

beliefs,

basis

inefficient

of

magic,

the

that

provides

i n which a

irrational

ritual

assume

witches

only manifestation

or

suggest

i n a very

must

strong

r a t i o n a l l y held

then perform

We

Thus J a r v i e

r a t i o n a l l y on
"We

knowing

true".

happy to

of

B e l i e f i n magic

in

and

acts

t h e y grow c r o p s

tractors,

rationality also

evaluation.

conclude;
and

rational;

r a t i o n a l i t y , the

weak i n w h i c h a p e r s o n
beliefs.

are

the

less

grow

crops,

I t i s surprising
important

that

discussion

of

12

Melanesian

cargo

"irrationality"
thropologists,
in

this

and

hence

should

blatantly

did

i s why
not

became a p p a r e n t

as

so

that

c e n t r a l i s s u e s was

ethnocentric

i n that

people

bring

whose

incomprehensibility

take

investigation,

agriculture,

it

cults

should

about
the

the

to

western

a view.

of m a g i c a l

ends d e s i r e d

ends.

issue

surrounding

persist in activities
desired

an-

The

rituals

their

that

I n both

were m i s c o n s t r u e d

cases
by

135

western
that
or

outsiders

the

magical

spirits

existence
issue
by

of

or
of

be

any

of

of

life

view

have
to

taking

the

i s to

God

argued

reality

by

show t h a t
to

to

reality,

plained

away by

an

elaboration

emerges

constantly,
a

i s not

on

verified

philosophy

that

an

and
of

and

and

All

they

depends

upon

and

of

Marx termed
societal level

the

postulate

to

reflect

acts

consistent

view,

frameworko
ideology

and

which,
be

unquestioningly

circumstances

in his

i n i t , leads

comes t o

i s continued

i t an

way

excluded,

practice,

minor

that

have

ideology

i s to

w h i c h he

the

something

existence

gods

The

questions which genuinely

reference

at

w e r e no

western world.
his

of

coherent

of

operation

and

man's c a p a c i t y

i n terms

ask

there

Trobriander

depend

i s necessarily

c e r t a i n degree

common s e n s e

not

counterpose

that

crop growth.

and

science,

frame

its

This

i n the

to

culture

science

f r o m w h i c h God

becomes i m p o s s i b l e
whole

of

a relatively

once v a l i d a t e d

It

than

from n a t u r a l

about

as

more

do

have, a l r e a d y

accepted

favour

a f a c t which did

b e l i e v e r s , and

reality

ideas

him

to

deriving

of
I

any

out

because

embedded i n t h e

existence

have been able

of

pointing

cultural practices.

the

faith

use

powers to

was

was

no

were u s e l e s s

occult

spirits

disproved

disproved

the

rituals

crops but

a range

can

I t was

question

are

This
and

c r i t i q u e of

exfeature

discussed
the

classi-

13
cal

view, o f

political

interpersonal
interaction
and

gives

level,

puts

rise

to

economy

Garfinkel

where a q u e s t i o n i n g

i t s self-evident
irritation,

of

discerns
the

terms

i t at
of

coramon= s e n s i c a l i t y i n
14
b e w i l d e r m e n t and f e a r
;

an

everyday
doubt
IK

Kuhn

1 3 6

discovers
claims,

i t i n the

so

to

answer,

always w i t h i n

the

science

does have

talking

about

tions.

and

to

as

the

and

radical
in
And

i t s own
yet

there
which,

we

that

common s e t
rational

b u i l d up

only

occur

criticism,

rational

over
at

and

as

reject

culture,

do

not,

any

more

than

the

sense

on

which

argued,

as
the
the

simple

then

can

are

o b j e c t b o t h f o r me

long

are
True,

revolu-

time

of

as

the

there

be

even i f they
points
To
has
and

of

like

and

of

to

explain
1

Jarvie s

approach

and

stranded

s e t about

superficial

other.
object

with

f o r Kuhn i s

a g a i n s t him,

make t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d

i t m i g h t be

contrary

assumptions.

describe

c u l t u r e , we

can

least

deal

a l l because

clearly

at

they

a very

never

are

the

- scientific

terms, but
do

radical

themselves

J a r v i e would

done i n a r g u i n g

One

he

limited elaboration

a n a l y s i s to

of

on

approach,

I f h o w e v e r , we

coherence

ideal

set

of

who

anomalies.

straightforward

Winch has

clearly

physical

and

self

relativism.

to

of b a s i c assumptions

cultures.

entirely,
unity

so

puzzles

e x p l a i n away

extend

evaluate

of

a radically

of

to

i s not

contend

the

however only

norm

theories

so

context

accumulate,

scientific

It

and

with

everything,

assumptions i n order

changes

These

anomalies

J a r v i e says

constantly questioning

t o make c e r t a i n

problems

its

p r a c t i c e s of n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s ,

f a r from w r i t i n g as

rationality,
need

stress

in

understanding

any

point

of

points

of

and

similarity

derived

from

comparison, depend

r e t u r n to

the

i s e q u a l l y more
f o r a Hindu.

bullock
than
One

each

contact.

comparisons

are

one
on i t

example,

that
feels

of
some

137o

sympathy f o r J a r v i e s

contention that

translate

alien

want

s a f e g u a r d about

some

societies

into

terms

We

cannot but attempt to

1

of o u r s ^ ,

the e t h n o c e n t r i c i t y

b u t one

would

of such an attempt

17
And a s A p e l
in

points

the claim

that

out o f Winch,

cultures

leads

to d i f f i c u l t i e s

fully

argue

that

are

understandable

language
as

because

"outgrew"

of t h e i r

(cultural

are validated

contact

with visible
remind

complexes

and c u l t u r e

implied
own

success-

of meaning)
to the

which

are rarely

" t h e y do n o t a n d d i d n o t f u n c t i o n "

themselves i n the course of h i s t o r y ,

dialogue, the r e f l e c t i o n

own p r i n c i p l e s .

culture

relations

Winch c a n f a i r l y

o n l y i n t h e m s e l v e s , when a p p l i e d

t h r o u g h permanent

questioning

i n use, they also

reality,

us that

Although
undergo

and the v i s i b l e

there

i s i n this

and

critical

the ideas

of a

changes.

aspects

s e n s e ground

of

Their
social

on

which

compare.
The

be

games

and independent

they

producing

to

Although

games o f c o n c r e t e h i s t o r y

complete

relativism

c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e i r

terms

language

the r a d i c a l

Gordian knot

clearly

allowed an e x i s t e n c e

blow i s a c l e a n
said

earlier

about

i n their

society.

This

areas

varied.

destructive

From what

understanding, i t i s c l e a r l y
own

terms what

i s taking

i f i t i s large

I t i s , however, p o s s i b l e

both

possible

place

was

to

i n another

m a t t e r , and a s I

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g may h a v e

i n the s o c i e t y

i s to

What m a t t e r s i s w h e t h e r t h e

i s a complex and d i f f i c u l t

earlier,

or l e v e l s

at a l l .

one o r i s t o t a l l y

understand

suggested

h a s t o be c u t i f s o c i o l o g y

t o be l i m i t e d
or

to

culturally

to understand i n the

138,

normal

everyday

in

s o c i o l o g i c a l sense

the

many o f

the

cultural
of

view

sense

k n o w i n g how
of

an

to

this

particularly

as

ethnographic

understanding

that

for

a l l that

question,

he

culturally

remains
one,

a problem

as

clearly

of

actions,
to

mentally

as

describing

will

it.

just

for

and

i s that

now

he

sees.

His

justice

I n order

to

be

intelligible

the

relation

require

detail

of

on

the

culture

well

to

he

he

under

i n an

study.

in

being

to

state

understands

gives

an

i t i s possible

as

conscious
of

w h a t he

aim

will

culture
full

account

for

What i s

funda-

as

possible

is

doing

be

des-

i n question

identification

members o f
of

and

recognised

his

own

ambivalent
He

At

on

with

here
this

position

t h e n goes

and

culture

t r a n s l a t i o n , and

monograph i s i m p o r t a n t .

sociologist i s already
to

the

beyond

and

aim

thinks

aware

a fairly

some d e g r e e

the

process,

Ethnocentricity

fairly

initial
to

point

society

his

h i s work,

and

and

explanation,

settling

and

least

the

easy

i n the

of

s h o u l d be

based

and

on

be

care

time

%irhat he

to

the

to

p a r t i c u l a r l y that

his data

full

an

involves,,

improve

at

From

i t i s just

have

i t will

intention

by

out

s o c i o l o g i s t goes

aspires

explains

and

which does

set

not

idealised culture,

w h a t he

however,

stage

no

Indeed

he

r e l a t i o n s h i p to

cription

live

possible,

important

in

and

then, but

criticise

his

is clearly

assimulation

that

not

of

this

may

assimilated.

Provided

others

he

this

to

appropriately

situations, actions

commitment of

u s u a l l y has

i n words what

react

e s t a b l i s h t h e i r usage,

outsider
the

to

being able

r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

meanings
of

of

to

in
pick

139.

on

points

to

reanalyse

aware

them i n t e r m s

be

o f what

f o r what he s a y s
i s important

assumed

i sheld

societies

that

not only

They might

to

reproduction,

recognise

some c o n c e p t

matter

careful

like

those

physical

of marriage;

that

discovered

with

where

do n o t h a v e

elements,i . e .
these

i ti s arguable

to deal

i sa fact

would have

societies

w i t h and

possess

whether

a n d i t would be e t h n o c e n t r i c

That
not only

they a l l

t o be

dis-

t o be e x -

limited.

With a

none and

those

a n y common r e c o g n i t i o n

o f t h e meaning o f l i f e .

that

of this

i snot to say that

that

two a r e

the necessity of

t o have

of marriage

some

o f them, o r

some r e c o g n i t i o n

of i t , i ti s debateable

problem

Thus

and p r o b a b l y would be v e r y

religion,

h a v e no c o n c e p t

but this

he must

common p r o b l e m s a r e d e a l t

A l l too often

a l s o be s a i d

and any d e f i n i t i o n

ceedingly

have

to d i s c e r n

this

on h i s d e f i n i t i o n

to deal

they

o f h i s own

I n saying

may n o t .

have

final

t h a t he c l a i m s

cultures.

when t h e y

necessity.

covered,

ofthe

and i n going

The only

t o b e common a r e c u l t u r a l

food, but t h a t

recognise

this,

i s i n terms

and the f a c t

i n the cultures.

to overlap

providing

and

then,

o r common a c t i o n s u n d e r t a k e n

actor's views

most

of the culture.

w h e t h e r he i s s a y i n g

w h e t h e r what
the

He m u s t now b e

t a l k i n g i n terms

i t , and i n doing

common t o d i f f e r e n t

certain

with

interest.

t h a t he i s no l o n g e r

and c r u d i f y a s p e c t s

aspects

of this

t o be i m p o r t a n t and

c o m p a r i s o n s and g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s he w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y

justification
view

to him a s a s o c i o l o g i s t

s t u d i e d b u t about

t o make

omit

seem

of the fact

culture
on

that

t h a t do

o f a meta-

t o o i s t o be
to consider

1*4-0

this

a u n i v e r s a l l y recognised

universal

to

problem, but

a l s o to

consider i t

religion.
18

As

regards

elucidated
are

fairly

necessary

century
sorts

of

i f rationality

without

might

but

of

for

some o f

i s not
of

cannot

specific

a l l c u l t u r e s can

assert

criteria

by

be

different

assumed

to

t h e m t o be

distinguish

governing nonsensical

from

all

societies,

any

culture for i l l o g i c a l i t y

and

and

i l l u m i n a t i n g than
what

i n what

i s to
sense

what

i s rational

case

of magic

It

i n these

i s not

the

count

and

possible

ritual
to

say

be

ways,

a common r e a l i t y
-

ourselves

are

The

the

r u l e s of

n e c e s s a r i l y the
can

criticise

criteria

things

the

same

however,
a

I n these

for another,

i n a g r i c u l t u r e being
end

world
for

people

for holding

be

and

of

They are

exist.

not

logic

empirical

inconsistency.

that

unable

contradiction
to

an

of

i n some w a y s .

to

self

(and

society.

find

c u l t u r e may

simply

truth

particular

checked

a good r e a s o n
of

contextual

or

contextual

what k i n d s
f o r one

and

and

con-

of n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,

t e r m s we

as

to

reference

means-ends r e l a t i o n

two

logical

o f m e a n i n g and

i t s contrary.

inadequacy with

also

specify

we

statements,

and

less

the

law

culture-bound,

statement

methodological

the

twentieth

suggests

anything,

refer

r u l e s as

claim

He

that

cultures in different

If

such

equated with

f o r any

which a s s e r t i o n can

reject

has

distinctions

sciences

phenomena a g a i n s t
we

the

t o be

ontological criteria)

i s constructed

Lukes

s u c c e s s f u l communication,

w h i c h we

which are
add,

rationality,

satisfactorily

conditions

conditions

Reality

question

Anglo-Saxon philosophy

ditions,

one

the

obvious

sought

often

which
belief
terms
the
example.

i s better

141,,

crops;

the

cannot

reply

no

end

that

spirits;

your

includes
the

there

culture

but

the

appeasement

latter

are

no

there

cannot

spirits

may

be

be

of

an

end

because

in

spirits.

And

because

there

are

one

there

none

are

in

mine.
19

Lukes

goes

contextual
only
He

claims

that

logical

takes

criteria

take

of

Azande,

by

is

and

of
of

to

the

and

the

so

criteria

in

that

thought,

i s

there-

truth
not

depends

upon

science

many d a n g e r s :

as

the

is

such as

w h i c h he

coherent

and

deviations

of

that

hopes

to

investigator's beliefs

leads

to

than

they

making b e l i e f s
are

by

out

analysing

rather

than as

aspects

of

social

a p e c u l i a r i t y of

western

culture

to

theorise,

avoid
too,

than
to

them

relations.
and

of

Lukes

judgements a p r o v i s i o n a l r a t h e r

I t also

be

i n general

such

J a r v i e , that

has

doing

s a i d would

reality,

ethnocentricity,
of

logical

why

and

which v i o l a t e

continue

and

that

criteria.

such deviation

contends

like

to

adherence

where

line

beliefs

did

prescientific

criticism

status.

propositions

to

cognitive

more r a t i o n a l a n d

they

finally

harder

i t leads

giving

absolute

concepts

for

what

corresponding with

This

appealing

apply

however,

are positivistic

able

they

s h o w i n g how,

by

only

context

argue

independent

hold

understanding

i n the

rationality

recognises

and

of

not,

to

validity

context

they are

Thus Lukes

uses

superior

by

An

verification

social

the

form

place.

of

because
did

possible

the

t r u t h and

paper

a l t h o u g h p e o p l e may

I f they

only

subsequent

i n terms

unintelligibleo
fore

of

p a r t i c u l a r cases

general.

on

in

criteria

intelligible

basic
in

on

even

be
as
I t
we

142

ourselves
said

t o be i m p l i c i t

social
job

often f a i l

t o make e x p l i c i t
i n our p r a c t i c e

s c i e n c e t o make

such

complex.

A belief

as

well

to

explicate

and always

a belief

do j u s t i c e

may r a m i f y

number o f ' p r o p o s i t i o n s '

to

reduce

verify
not

social

s c i e n c e i s bound

cannot

be a

straightforward

Considered

directions
social

i n this

and i n v o l v e a

spheres.

To

them i s i t s e l f

t o be g u i l t y

of ethnocentrism

only

to understand

which

rationality
used

i n it,

between

this

and the u s e s

way t o d i s s e c t

d o e s n o t mean t h a t

irrational,
prominent.

but simply
There

i s perfectly

ask whether
religion,

that

i s thus

natural

a belief

about t h e

rationality i s

i s used

i n a

the world

scientific

into

a r e i n any g e n e r a l

a problem

i s less

and magic

simple
i n other

sense

normatively

of s c i e n t i f i c

fora scientific

sense

and i s

i t i s n o t so used

rationality

i n ritual

or merely

That

they

fail

there i s a

t o be c l e a r

to which

Rationality

statements.

attempt

to understand.

i t i s important

cultures.

testable

and t o

i s a precondition of understanding

i n a specialised

hopefully
cultures

b u t t o want

i t i s t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t to s a y t h a t

i n different

culture

or

i n different

feeling

p r o p o s i t i o n s and then to

difference

It

i n several

and a

to empirical

necessarily

put

to i t

they are

a l l beliefs

Although
in

a n d s i m p l e when i n f a c t

t h e s e words

be

i t i s not i t s

may b e s t u d i e d a s a n a t t i t u d e

i t i n words,

might

i t i s the job of

explicit,

a s a p r o p o s i t i o n and a l t h o u g h

assertion
light

While

theories

t o make t h e m r a t i o n a l i s t i c

a theory which

ethnocentrism.

analysis

t o want t o

i s e.g.

technology,

e x p r e s s i v e , a n d a c a s e m i g h t b e made o u t

1 4 3 o

for

saying

not

imply that

it

fulfils

that

i t was i r r a t i o n a l

to c o n f l a t e t h e s e ,

the c u l t u r e i s " i r r a t i o n a l " .

two c o n d i t i o n s ,

first

This

does

I t i s n o t so i f

that i t s b e l i e f s are i n t e r -

c o n n e c t e d and t h a t some n o t i o n o f ' b e i n g a r e a s o n f o r ' e x i s t s

to c o n n e c t them = hence t h a t
the

one c a n g i v e

r e a s o n s i n terms o f

c u l t u r e f o r p a r t i c u l a r b e l i e f s and a c t i o n s

This notion

o f what c o n s t i t u t e s a r e a s o n v a r i e s c u l t u r a l l y - f o r t h o s e
whose c u l t u r e does n o t i n c l u d e
a s a r e a s o n f o r action

spirits,

spirits

cannot

S e c o n d l y , t h e c u l t u r e must i n p r a c t i c e

r e l y on b a s i c l o g i c

This i s i n fact a t r i v i a l

if

n o t make any s t a t e m e n t s a t a l i o

i t d i d not i t could

feature

c e r t a i n l y does n o t mean e i t h e r t h a t
o r i e n t a t i o n to i t - that

there

condition

since

I t

i s any c o n s c i o u s

the use of l o g i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y i s a

norm - o r t h a t l o g i c may n o t be 'abused' and p l a y e d upon t o

make p a r a d o x i c a l
artificially

and ambiguous s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h j u x t a p o s e and

connect things

which a r e not ' r a t i o n a l l y

We do much t h e same o u r s e l v e s ,
one
of

connected

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n poetry, w h i c h i s

r e a s o n why p o e t s a r e a l w a y s r e l u c t a n t t o s t a t e t h e meaning
their verses

= t h e meanings a r e s e v e r a l simultaneously

Much t h e same i s t r u e

o f t h e way i n w h i c h r i t u a l

b e l i e f s operate i n t r i b a l
nificant

simultaneously

physics,

a s t h e expression

societies

and m a g i c a l

They a r e true

and s i g -

i n s e v e r a l ways - a s t e c h n o l o g y , a s meta
of personal

about c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s
t a s k t o u n d e r s t a n d and a p p r e c i a t e
by

f e e l i n g s and a s s t a t e m e n t s

this,

I t i s the sociologist's
and he c a n o n l y do i t

c a r e f u l l y t r a c i n g the connections i n v a r i o u s

directions

1 4 4 .

O n l y i f t h e b e l i e f c l a i m s t o be s u p p o r t e d

by s o m e t h i n g when i t

i s n o t , t h a t i s when i t i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t h e way i t
c l a i m s t o be does i t count
A mistake
The

and so i n c o r r i g i b l e

or something v e r y s i m i l a r to i t has to e x i s t .

c a s e o f a b e l i e f w i t h no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o t h e r b e l i e f s i s

a n o n - r a t i o n a l one where
and

as i r r a t i o n a l

accounting

t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l way o f

f o r i t i s no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e .

to l o c a t e i t i n a w i d e r

context

understanding

We a r e u n a b l e

and so a r e f o r c e d t o u s e o t h e r

methods - p e r h a p s f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n i n g , p e r h a p s a n a t t e m p t t o
correlate

t h i s phenomenon w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

get a l e a d .
if

B u t i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s we c a n o n l y

to t r y to
understand

t h e r e i s a d e g r e e o f b a s i c r a t i o n a l i t y w h i c h we c a n u s e a s

a b a s i s f o r communication i n our e f f o r t
The

the c u l t u r e .

p e c u l i a r i t y o f man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w o r l d

experience

o f i t i n terms o f i d e a s , n o r m a l l y

established
true that

to explore

s p e c i f i e d as an

c u l t u r e p r e c l u d e s an easy s o l u t i o n .

'real

phenomena c a n ' v e r i f y '

t i o n so t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g

to d i f f e r e n t

varieties

but n e i t h e r i s i t true that

the c o n s t r u c t e d c u l t u r e i n w h i c h men l i v e
We d i s t i n g u i s h f a n t a s y from e v e r y d a y
n e c e s s a r i l y and a l w a y s

I t i s neither

t h e t r u t h o f any a s s e r -

c a n be r e d u c e d

i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r environment;

and h i s

life.

i s c u t o f f from

C u l t u r e s a r e however

l i m i t e d and ' o n e - s i d e d *

i n their

relation

to phenomena, and t h e y a r e a l s o c o n s i s t e n t and o f t e n s e l f

f i r m i n g i n a l a r g e degree.
different

reality.

To r a t i o n a l l y u n d e r s t a n d

ones i s no e a s y t a s k and what i s g a i n e d

con-

and compare

i n points of

comparison i s o f t e n l o s t p a r i p a s s u i n the adequacy w i t h which

1 4 5 .

the meaning i s r e t a i n e d .
m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h i s

Much s o c i o l o g y

c r i t e r i a o f m e a n i n g f u l and
a c c u r a c y and

veriflability.

it

c l e a r t h a t our

i s nor

should contrive

same way

need

t o be

accurate

and

t h i n g depends upon the

t h a t you

job properly.

the n a t u r a l

a c c o u n t t h a t I have

and

verifiable in

p h y s i c a l world.

the

Verifiability
reality

f i n d what I found i f I have

respects.

does have the

Yet

the

changing

social

same b a s i c

scientist

attitudes

w h i c h conduce to a t t a i n i n g w h a t e v e r a c c u r a c y i s p o s s i b l e ,
i s he

i s patient,

persistent, painstaking,

detailed i n

a n a l y s i s o f e v i d e n c e , d e v e l o p s r u l e s f o r the
d i s c u s s i o n o f e v i d e n c e and

the

means the

c a n be

place

social

can be

can make h i s own

less precise

happened and
t o d e c i d e not
was,

development o f t h e o r y .

but

h e r e he

and

by

these

the

takes

relevant

comments on

w i l l have to r e l y upon c u m u l a t i v e

was

By

this.

i n d i v i d u a l meaning o f what

n e c e s s a r i l y w h e t h e r he

w h e t h e r he

and

f a i r l y p r e c i s e about what

extrapolations

about t h e

that

the

presentation

i n a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p as p u b l i c l y d e f i n e d

c u l t u r e and
He

scientist

neither

intention i t i s inevitably

assumption of a s t a b l e

will

given

Because i t

Social r e a l i t y i s constantly

scientist

for

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human a c t i o n

i n many d i f f e r e n t degrees and

like

the

i n i t s e n t i r e a p p r o a c h to s u c h m a t t e r s .

because i t i m p l i e s
done my

his

From the

involves understanding ideas

f o r one

c o n c e r n t h a t l e d Weber t o

c a u s a l adequacys

a s a s s e r t i o n s about t h e

different

the

compromise.

Such a view r a i s e s a g a i n the

s h o u l d be

i s concerned w i t h

was

evidence

r i g h t about what i t

r i g h t about i t s l o n g e r term

implications,

146.

w h i c h a f t e r a l l i s h i s main i n t e r e s t .
the b e l i e f

What he must a v o i d i s

t h a t he i s d i s c o v e r i n g a b s o l u t e

independently

of h i s d i s c o v e r y .

r e a l i t y which

exists

He must t h i n k a l w a y s i n t e r m s

of what might be a s w e l l a s what i s , and t h i s i n v o l v e s a m a j o r

r e o r i e n t a t i o n from c o g n i t i o n t o c o g n i t i o n p l u s e v a l u a t i o n i n
h i s a t t i t u d e to d i s c o v e r y .

He must a l s o be aware t h a t i t h a s

f o r c e n t u r i e s been the preoccupation

o f some members o f s o c i e t y -

artists,

politicians,

t h e c o u r t s , f o r example - t o t a k e an

interest

i n f i n d i n g o u t i n d e t a i l and i n g e n e r a l what

takes

p l a c e and why, and n o t p r e s u p p o s e t h a t by c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a

scientist
By

he c a n a u t o m a t i c a l l y do d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y b e t t e r .

accumulating

are

social

him

illusions

and p r a c t i s i n g t e c h n i q u e s

skills

- which u l t i m a t e l y

- he may be a b l e t o , b u t t h e s e

should not give

about t h e a d v e n t o f a Newton o r a n E i n s t e i n .

c a n be s u r e t h a t c e r t a i n s o c i a l e v e n t s
a g r e a t many d i f f e r e n t k i n d s

He

t o o k p l a c e by b r i n g i n g

of evidence

to bear.

What he h a s

t o be wary o f i s a s s u m i n g t h a t t h i s g i v e s him t h e a n s w e r t o i t s
significance.
It
and

T h a t i s a m a t t e r I t a k e up i n t h e n e x t

now becomes c l e a r e r t h a t Weber's p u r s u i t o f v e r i f l a b i l i t y

accuracy

i n understanding rested i n f a c t

t i o n s a s t o what t h i s s h o u l d
c l a i m t o have a d e q u a t e l y
t o be t e s t e d l i k e

consist in.

a s c i e n t i f i c hypothesis

on m i s t a k e n assump-

He assumed t h a t a

understood an a s p e c t

f i c u l t i e s w i t h d e v i s i n g an e f f e c t i v e
fact

chapter,-

o f a c u l t u r e was

and t h a t t h e d i f -

t e s t were t e c h n i c a l .

The

t h a t t h e y were f u n d a m e n t a l pushed him i n t o h i s a t t e m p t a t

'causal v e r i f i c a t i o n ' .

What i s s u r p r i s i n g i n v i e w o f h i s

1 4 7 .

familiarity

w i t h the i d e a l i s t

tradition,

i s t h a t Weber

to

a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e grounds of t r u t h and

to

understanding

to

s t a t e m e n t s about t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d .

that natural

c e r t a i n t y i n regard

are c a t e g o r i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t

s c i e n c e has developed

and

t e c h n i q u e s of t e s t i n g .

The

and

t h e t r u t h o f the s t a t e m e n t

whether r e a l i t y corresponds

failed

from t h o s e i n r e g a r d

I t i s f o r the

latter

i t s s o p h i s t i c a t e d methodology

adequacy o f the c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n

i s verified

by e x p e r i m e n t ,

to h y p o t h e s i s .

to s e e

Whatever o b j e c t i o n s

one may

have t o the p o s i t i v i s t v i e w o f s c i e n c e a s a c o m p l e t e

account

o f the n a t u r e o f s c i e n c e , I t h i n k i t i s by now

t h a t t h e p r o g r e s s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n and

e l i m i n a t i o n of

by e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t i n g i s an i m p o r t a n t
proof.

which

attempts

hypotheses

p a r t o f i t s method o f

T h i s method assumes a c o r r e s p o n d a n c e

whereby t h e s c i e n t i s t

established

t h e o r y of

t o make a s t a t e m e n t

c o r r e c t l y e n c a p s u l a t e s i t and w h i c h he

about

R e a l i t y i s conceived as e s s e n t i a l l y

from t h e knower and

t h e knower's c o g n i t i v e a p p a r a t u s ;

c o u r s e r e a l i t y c a n o n l y be known by means o f t h a t

i n which

S u c h an e p i s t e m o l o g y
a c t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

separate

y e t of

apparatus

Hence t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

knowledge c o n s i s t s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
i d e a and r e a l i t y ,

reality

c o n f i r m s by s u c c e s s -

f u l manipulation.

( t h a t i s what knowing m e a n s ) .

truth

between

i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i s i o n i s the

aim.

i s however, o n l y p a r t l y r e l e v a n t
As I have shown, we

have to assume

t h a t i n some v e r y b a s i c and m i n i m a l

s e n s e our p e r c e p t u a l

apparatus

our p e r c e p t i o n s o f the

i s the same and

can at l e a s t

overlap.

thus that

I n t r y i n g to u n d e r s t a n d

to

t h e n , we

world

share

148.

the p o s i t i v i s t i c
reality

assumption that f o r a l l of us there i s a

'out t h e r e ' w h i c h i s v a r i o u s l y c o n c e i v e d o f and e x -

perienced.

But the p o i n t i n understanding i s not r e a l i t y ,

but the v a r i e t y o f c o n c e p t i o n s of i t
objective' r e a l i t y
to a l l men:

So a common u n s t r u c t u r e d

i s o n l y a s t a r t i n g p o i n t assumed a s common

we a l l i n h a b i t

the c o n f u s i o n about

t h e same w o r l d i n t h a t

sense.

Hence

t h e somehow more p e r f e c t knowledge o f s c i e n c e

and i t s s u p e r i o r i t y t o a l l o t h e r c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s o f r e a l i t y .
It

i s only to r e a l i t y p o s i t i v i s t i c a l l y

applieSo

conceived to which

this

R e a l i t y i n t h i s sense i s used only a s a s t a r t i n g point

and a t t i m e s a s a means o f v e r i f i c a t i o n i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
Understanding proper i s concerned w i t h g e t t i n g i n s i d e the
v a r i e t y of c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s , which while they r e l a t e
in a direct

and p r a g m a t i c f a s h i o n t o p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y

m a t t e r s a s t h e growing

examples,
plasticity

positivistic

a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out, the e s s e n t i a l

of p h y s i c a l constraints.
correspondence

degree

I n regard to t h i s a

theory of t r u t h i s simply l o g i c a l l y

i n a p p r o p r i a t e and must be r e p l a c e d by a h e r m e n u t i c
theory.

obvious

o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s makes them i n a s i g n i f i c a n t

independent

also

of physical r e a l i t y

r e l i g i o n , m e t a p h y s i c s a r e t h e most

b u t a s I have

i n such

o f f o o d and t h e b u i l d i n g o f h o u s e s ,

c e r t a i n l a r g e a r e a s which a r e independent
f a n t a s y , emotion,

a t times

coherence

We p r o c e e d n o t by v e r i f i c a t i o n a g a i n s t r e a l i t y b u t by

c o n f i r m a t i o n t h r o u g h a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f a way o f
s e e i n g the world, a Weltanschauung.
periment b u t communication

The method i s n o t e x -

and t h e r e s u l t

i s n o t p r o o f and

disproof i n a p o s i t i v i s t i c

sense, but ever g r e a t e r c o n f i r m a t i o n

a s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f one e l e m e n t
in relation
in fact

t o o t h e r s expands,,

Positivistic

to t e s t

i t - but i t has the appearance

c e r t a i n t y i n the d e l i b e r a t e n e s s of i t s l o g i c
T h i s i s not the case i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
i n an attempt

attempt
result

methods a r e n o t

e x h a u s t i v e - a h y p o t h e s i s i s o n l y a s good a s t h e n e x t

experiment

not

i n a culture

to manipulate

o f procedure,,

because

i t i s founded

p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y but i n an

t o communicate s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h o t h e r s
i s thus normally

stood which

The end

c o n v i c t i o n t h a t y o u have f u l l y

i s confirmed

cooperateo

of hard

by y o u r

Veriflability

ability

under=

t o communicate and

and a c c u r a c y and ' o b j e c t i v i t y ' a r e

2 0

t h e r e , b u t n o t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t Weber assumed
To

s a y that a coherence

t h e o r y o f t r u t h and a methodology

of c o n f i r m a t i o n are a p p r o p r i a t e to u n d e r s t a n d i n g
to s a y t h a t o n l y t h e y a r e a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t t h a t
c e n t r a l element,
view remains
must r e l a t e
relevant

I have a l r e a d y a l l o w e d

relevant

i n t h e terms

i n physical reality,,
principally

correspondence

i n s o f a r as f o r a l l t h e i r v a r i e t y

to p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y

except

they a r e i t s

that a

a t some p o i n t s

i n a s much a s a c t i o n s w i t h i n a c u l t u r e

telligible

i s n o t however

culture

I t i s further
although

of the culture a r e a l s o

unin-

events

What m a t t e r s when I g e t m a r r i e d i s

the a l t e r a t i o n i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s

b u t my p h y s i c a l p r e s e n c e

and i d e n t i t i e s ,

a t a ceremony i s e s s e n t i a l

t a k i n g p l a c e , and i s a means o f v e r i f y i n g

to t h i s

t h a t i t was done,

though o f c o u r s e o n l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a good knowledge

1 5 0 *

of what i s and i s n o t a m a r r i a g e ceremony ( a s opposed t o an

advertising

stunt

or a j o k e )

Understanding with i t s p e c u l i a r

t e c h n i q u e s i s a l w a y s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r the u s e o f e m p i r i c i s t
correspondence

t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h f u r t h e r b a c k i t up.

an e a r t h b o u n d c r e a t u r e ,

b u t one prone

to f l i g h t s

Man

is

o f fancy,,

C H A P T E R

F P U R.

EXPLANATION

As

implied

a t t h e end o f t h e l a s t

chapter,

understanding,

a l t h o u g h a n e c e s s a r y b a s i s f o r any s o c i o l o g i c a l account, i s i n
'scientific*

terms limited,,

I t i s dependent i n t h e l a s t

upon t y p i f i c a t i o n s o f one k i n d

o r a n o t h e r and a l t h o u g h some o f

t h e s e i n some c u l t u r e s may be f a i r l y
that
is

precise

and p u b l i c ,

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t w i l l be i n t e r e s t e d i n a r e n o t .

i tvery d i f f i c u l t

there

resort,

to s t a t e c r i t e r i a

many

Not o n l y

f o r t h e u s e o f some t e r m s ,

a r e t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s and c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s

which

may be s i g n i f i c a n t i n terms o f a c t o r s ' r e s p o n s e s t o them, and

w h i c h y e t have no name.
are

I n a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r example, women

presented to the public

with various

of them s i m p l e and r e c o g n i s a b l e

d i f f e r e n t images, some

- t h e mother, t h e h o s t e s s

some o f them much l e s s e a s i l y d e s c r i b a b l e ,

elicit

a c a l c u l a t e d response.

however much a p a r t

Further,

o f a common c u l t u r e

- but

though t h e y n o n e t h e l e s s

the actor's

own v i e w ,

t h i s may be, e v e n t u a l l y

becomes p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e s o c i o l o g i s t when he wants t o go

outside
it

i t by c o m p a r i n g i t w i t h a n o t h e r c u l t u r e

i n terms of t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

points

that

the vagueness of c r i t e r i a

and d e s c r i p t i o n s ,

and t h e f a c t t h a t

what t h e y s a y t h e y do, o r w i l l

1 5 1 .

o r by

evaluating

I t i s a t these

f o r using

actors'

the people often

terms

do n o t do

do, a r i s e s a s a d i f f i c u l t y .

1 5 2 o

As

I showed a t the

end

of C h a p t e r Two,

t h i s l e d Weber to

f o r m u l a t e the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i o n of c a u s a l
supplement and
that

a d e s c r i p t i o n of

stand

what was

general
and

c o n f i r m m e a n i n g f u l adequacy,,
the

g o i n g on,

s e n s e the

and

l i v e up
but

t h a t the

frame of r e f e r e n c e

which enable others

of r e f e r e n c e

a c t o r ' s w o r l d was

t o them.

many a c t o r s

The
and

recognised

e s s e n t i a l to

under-

a c t o r ' s views are

in a

i n t e r m s of w h i c h he
But

acts

this

frame

do

actors

or c o n s i s t e n t , nor

to r e l a t e t h e i r v a r i o u s

i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s w h i c h he
c h e c k was

to

s o c i o l o g i s t t r y i n g to u n d e r s t a n d n o t

o n l y w i t h s e l f - i n c o n s i s t e n c y but

at a c a u s a l

He

to p r e d i c t h i s a c t s .

i s r a r e l y extensive

adequacy

has

views i s faced

inter-personal

to a c c o u n t f o r .

and

one
not

intergroup

Weber's a t t e m p t

i n t e n d e d to v e r i f y w h i c h were t h e

be-

h a v i o u r a l l y e f f e c t i v e c o m p l e x e s o f meaning w h i c h i n v a r i a b l y l e d
to a c t i o n .
m o t i v e s and

He

wrote a s though t h e s e

as a r e s u l t ,

t r e a t e d as c o n t i n g e n t l y

were more or l e s s

conscious

ended i n c o n f u s i o n , b e c a u s e he
r e l a t e d what i s i n p r a c t i c e

thereby

conceptually

related"*".
2

Many p h i l o s o p h e r s
terminology:
etc.

have n o t e d the modal a s p e c t

desires, beliefs,

by

themselves but

r e l a t i o n between an a c t o r

or s t a t e of a f f a i r s .

One

something.

t h u s s p e c i f i e s the

mind and
is

that

Intention

action

i n t e n t i o n s , emotions,

These terms can never stand

d e n o t e a q u a l i t y of the

of

cannot i n t e n d ,

a s s e r t s one's a t t i t u d e t o i t .

one

decisions
always

and

an

must i n t e n d

s i t u a t i o n one
The

object
to

has

consequence of

t h e i r r e l a t i o n to a c t i o n i s a l w a y s c o n c e p t u a l ,

do
in
this

rather

l 5 3 o

than contingent.
a fact

My

wanting

an i c e cream o r a swim i s a p p a r e n t l y

that i s l o g i c a l l y related

the swim,

I do n o t

substituteo
belief,

The

desire,

he w i l l

having

want c h o c o l a t e , n o r w i l l

source

of t h i s

conceptual

a project,

t h i n k i n g about what he might do

do b e f o r e

he

does i t .

When he

the i c e cream
a w a l k do

as a

action l i e s i n

reflecting
and

about

so d e c i d i n g what

a c t s , he

puts

this

i n t o c o n c r e t e form and makes i t come t r u e , o r a t l e a s t

so i n s o f a r a s i t i s b a s e d

or

r e l a t i o n between

i n t e n t i o n , m o t i v e , r e a s o n and

the a c t o r ' s c a p a c i t y f o r f r a m i n g
the w o r l d ,

t o my

on a r e a l i s a b l e b e l i e f

he

about

project
does

reality.

Hence t h e r e i s a c o n c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n what i s i n t e n d e d
and b e l i e v e d and
and

t h e a c t i o n a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e same way,

same c o n c e p t s .
the a n s w e r we
We

t h e a c t i o n b e c a u s e b o t h t h e i n t e n t i o n and

do n o t

i n terms o f

T h i s i s f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e d by
g i v e t o q u e s t i o n s xirhy we

ways.

general laws

w i t h r e f e r e n c e s to b e l i e f s ,

r e a s o n s and

characterise

s e t i t i n a wider meaningful

to

make

the a c t i o n and

i t "self-explanatory".

were c a u s e d

t o do

i s to m i s s

t h a t i s s o u g h t , and
o f the s i t u a t i o n ,
its

To

motives

links

to demonstrate

but

which f u r t h e r
context

r e p l y i n terms o f what

the p o i n t .

conceptual

the

considering

act i n certain

r e p l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o c a u s e s and

belief

I t i s a rational

t o d e m o n s t r a t e one's

the c o h e r e n c e

account
view

o f the a c t w i t h

context.
The

d i f f i c u l t y with t h i s account,

w h i c h Weber became e n t a n g l e d ,
simply v e r b a l .

The

and

the d i f f i c u l t y

i s t h a t the matter

conceptual

we

i s more

r e l a t i o n s h i p between

in
than

belief,

r e a s o n and m o t i v e ,
the

and

c o n t e x t o f a debate

behaviour f i r s t
about

came t o p r o m i n e n c e i n

a t h e o r y o f the mind w h i c h

dominated A n g l o - S a x o n p h i l o s o p h y s i n c e D e s c a r t e s who
it,

and Hume, who

r e f i n e d it

A c c o r d i n g to t h i s

invented

v i e w , human

b e i n g s c a u s e d t h i n g s t o happen i n the w o r l d by a c t i n g ,
t h e i r a c t i o n s were t h e m s e l v e s c a u s e d by m e n t a l
or

" p a s s i o n s " , w h i c h were r e f e r r e d

as

emotions,

motives, b e l i e f s ,

t h e s e , the t h e o r y looked q u i t e p l a u s i b l e :
and e n s u i n g f l i g h t
is

The

w i t h p h y s i c a l ones,

and

g o i n g on i n t h e w o r l d .

the

g e t t i n g one,

and

o f the

s t a t e of a f f a i r s

i n producing a c t i o n of a c e r t a i n

c a u s e d , and

will,

i s that

t h a t i s t h e c a u s e o f my
that

infinite

lication

theory

s t a t e s on a
what

an i c e cream

the m e c h a n i c s

something,

and

Rather

than

i t characterises

which i s c a u s a l l y

effective

sorto

t h e r e a r e a number o f d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h a c a u s a l theory,,

A general d i f f i c u l t y

this

wanting

g o i n g and g e t t i n g i t

wanting

state

my

c a u s a l l y about

i s always wanting

But

classify

so t o t a l k e x c l u s i v e l y about

s a y i n g that wanting
as a mental

acts,

I n d o i n g so i t i g n o r e s the c o n c e p t u a l

talks

e v e n t s , t h a t l e a d t o my

or

f e a r f o r example,

advantage

r e l a t i o n between the s t a t e m e n t s about

and my

and

F o r some o f

t h a t i t e n a b l e s r e f e r e n c e t o be made t o m e n t a l

level
is

from a lion

states

t o by t h e words we

intentions etc

had

wanting

i s a psychological

a c t i o n , presumably

cause i s a l s o caused.

F o r the

i t too i s
determinist

r e g r e s s i s n o t f i n a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c , b u t i t s imp-

i s t o make n o n s e n s e

i n terms

i f my

o f the t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n o f

of which the account

s t o p s w i t h the w a n t i n g

free
0

l 5 5 o

If

I am c a u s e d t o want what I want, and so t o do what I do, I

can h a r d l y
is

a psychological

to a c t i o n ,
related,
one

be s a i d t o be f r e e ,

More i m p o r t a n t l y ,

state of a f f a i r s

i t becomes a n i n d u c t i v e

that i s contingently
matter that

and t h u s one cannot know a p r i o r i

f i n d s out by e x p e r i e n c e .

i f wanting

that

related

t h e two a r e
they a r e r e l a t e d

Y e t s u r e l y one knows t h a t one

w a n t s an i c e cream, one does n o t j u s t have vague f e e l i n g s and

s u d d e n l y f i n d s o n e s e l f b u y i n g one.
ignores

the very

aspects

The c a u s a l

theory i n e f f e c t

o f a c t i o n w h i c h make i t d i s t i n c t i v e .

Maclntyre puts i t as follows;

I f b e l i e f s and a c t i o n s s t a n d i n a c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
( a s t h a t i s u n d e r s t o o d by Hume) t h e n i t i s p u r e l y c o n t i n g e n t w h i c h b e l i e f s a r e r e l a t e d t o w h i c h actions
I f we a r e l o o k i n g f o r t h e c a u s e o f some a c t i o n i n t h e
r e a l m o f b e l i e f s , we c a n have no a p r i o r i
expectations
about where t o l o o k .
Any b e l i e f might be t h e c a u s e
o f any a c t i o n .
Suppose we s e e a man s p r a y i n g h i s
r o s e s w i t h i n s e c t i c i d e and i n t e r p r e t t h e s t a t e m e n t
He does i t b e c a u s e he b e l i e v e s t h a t g r e e n - f l y a r e
h a r m f u l t o r o s e s ' a s a n a s c r i p t i o n o f Humean c a u s a l i t y , .
Our j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r making t h e s t a t e m e n t c a n now
o n l y be t h a t we h a v e o b s e r v e d u n i f o r m c o r r e l a t i o n s
between t h e b e l i e f t h a t g r e e n - f l y a r e h a r m f u l and t h e
a c t i o n o f s p r a y i n g r o s e s , b u t we might i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s u n i f o r m i t y have found any o t h e r t o h o l d .
The a c t i o n o f s p r a y i n g r o s e s might e q u a l l y w e l l be
c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e b e l i e f t h a t s u n s p o t s c a u s e slumps,
o r w i t h t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e Pope i s a n t i - C h r i s t
I t
j u s t happens t o be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e b e l i e f t h a t
_
g r e e n f l y a r e harmful to r o s e s . '
D

N e i t h e r t h e o r y seems v e r y
treats actors

like

bodied s p i r i t S o

satisfactory.

The c a u s a l

zombies, the c o n c e p t u a l theory l i k e

theory

disem-

The d i f f i c u l t y o c c u r s b o t h a t t h e l e v e l o f

i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n , a s above, and i n c o l l e c t i v e action,,

On t h e

one

actions

hand one h a s t h e a c t o r s ' v i e w o f t h e w o r l d and t h e i r

1 5 6 ,

in it,

which a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y coherent;

the f a c t
always
nise

t h a t p e o p l e do n o t do what t h e y

accept

t h e i r reasons

on t h e o t h e r t h e r e i s
s a y , and n o r do we

f o r what t h e y do.

We have t o r e c o g -

t h a t though i d e a s g u i d e a c t i o n i n many c a s e s , t h e y do n o t

always

do s o ,

Actions are events

i n t h e mind, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

i n the world

as w e l l as ideas

C a u s a l and c o n c e p t u a l

relations

coexist,
4

Consider

Cohin's

a n a l y s i s of the g e n e s i s of m i l l e n a r i a n

r e l i g i o u s movements i n t h e m i d d l e a g e s .

The m i l l e n i u m

he

d e f i n e s a s a r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f i n t h e s a l v a t i o n o f an e l e c t and
the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h , o r a t l e a s t

t h e i r p a r t of i t ,

i n t o a n u t o p i a by means o f a s t r u g g l e and a f i n a l

cataclysm

w h i c h xtfill i n v o l v e t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e powers o f - e v i l and t h e

s u b s t i t u t i o n o f good, b e a u t y and an e a s e f u l l i f e
o f h o r r o r and o p p r e s s i o n .
occur,

i n the place

We may now a s k why s u c h

movements

and what a r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r

T h e s e may be l i s t e d

a s the e x i s t e n c e o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s

the p e o p l e , and i n p a r t i c u l a r o f myths c o n c e r n i n g

some s o r t

of n a t u r a l or s o c i a l

depression e t c , ) ,

occurrence.

catastrophe

salvation,

(famine,

the e x i s t e n c e a l s o of marginal

among

plague,

war,

and d i s s a t i s f i e d

e d u c a t e d men i n s m a l l numbers, who a c t a s l e a d e r s and o r g a n i s e

the b e l i e f

s y s t e m , and o f a group o f r e l a t i v e l y a b l e men t o a c t

as d i s c i p l e s ,

spread

t h e word and m o b i l i s e

the masses.

What we

may now t r y t o s a y i s t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s s e t o f c o n ditions i s sufficient

movement,

to cause

the g e n e r a l b e l i e f

t h e emergence o f a m i l l e n a r i a n

content

of which has been p r e v i o u s l y

1 5 7 .

described.

I n this

c a s e , however, we t o t a l l y i g n o r e t h e

p e r s o n a l p r o c e s s e s of emotional
w h i c h t h e movement g e r m i n a t e s
we g i v e a c a u s a l a c c o u n t ,
s e r i e s of a c t u a l

r e a c t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n by

and d e v e l o p s .

when what we do i s t o l o o k a t a

o c c u r r e n c e s and a t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s

l e d the a c t o r s to a c t as they did?

is

Can we s a y t h a t

which

What we a r e r e a l l y

"What i s i t f o r a m i l l e n a r i a n movement t o o c c u r ? "

cannot
since

d e s c r i b e c o n d i t i o n s a s though t h e y c a u s e d
t h i s c o u l d n o t happen w i t h o u t

of t h e a c t o r s i n d e v e l o p i n g

the a c t i v e

a collective

asking
We

t h e movement,

participation

consciousness.

What

we have i s a s e t o f o b j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e movement o n l y a r i s e s when t h e s e a r e r e c o g n i s e d ,

related

t o a c t o r s ' b e l i e f s and v a l u e s .

communicated and

T h i s i s not a c a u s a l

process a t a l l but a conscious, m o r a l - e v a l u a t i v e process of

developing

human a c t i o n .

The r e l a t i o n between e v e n t s and

a c t i o n s t h a t we a r e t r y i n g t o e l u c i d a t e i s n o t one o f c o n t i n g e n t
c a u s a l i t y but an i n t r i c a t e

development o f c o n c e p t u a l

i n r e f e r e n c e to r e a l i t y .

T h i s i s n o t to s a y t h a t i t i s not

relevant

relations

t o compare s i m i l a r movements w i t h s i m i l a r b e l i e f s and

c o n d i t i o n s , b u t beware o f t r e a t i n g them a s though t h e y were

identical

causes.

Here we have a n i m p o r t a n t

shift

from t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w p o i n t w h i c h we a r e t r y i n g t o

of p e r s p e c t i v e
understand

to a more g e n e r a l i s e d o b s e r v e r ' s v i e w w h i c h i s t r y i n g t o g i v e
a coherent

account

o f s e v e r a l movements.

Here t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s

i n t h e i d e a s o f t h e a c t o r s must be c a r e f u l l y t r a c e d .
i d e a s and b e l i e f s a r e n o t j u s t

These

of the c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n s of a c t i o n

1 5 8 ,

but

the

grounds o f i t .

not

the

causal

What we

e f f e c t s of

are

i n f a c t t a l k i n g about i s

conditions

upon o b j e c t s

but

the

res-

ponse of i n d i v i d u a l s i n i n t e r a c t i o n to t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
and

suggesting that

lead
way

them to

see

given c e r t a i n e x i s t i n g b e l i e f s ,

t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s and

this

will

r e s p o n d to i t i n a d e f i n i t e

The

dilemma t h e r e f o r e

people t h i n k
actionso

and

On

d e s i r e s and
conditions
rational

do

the

r e a p p e a r s o f w h e t h e r to d e s c r i b e

or w h e t h e r to l o o k f o r the

one

hand we

have a v o c a b u l a r y o f

motives explaining
and

effects,

The

action;
one

leads

c o n s c i o u s v i e w of a c t i o n ,

conscious mediation altogether^

Concept of Mind

that

this

causes of

the

their

reasons,

on

the

o t h e r of

us

to an o p t i m i s t i c a l l y

o t h e r seems to

This

what

causes,

exclude

l e d R y l e to argue i n

d i c h o t o m y was

f a l s e and

the

b a s e d on

c a t e g o r y m i s t a k e w h i c h assumed t h a t minds were d i f f e r e n t from,

though o f

the

same c l a s s o f o b j e c t s

a s e v e n t s i n the

world, l i k e

f o r example a s s u m i n g t h a t

building

the

and

as

so on

are,

which t r i e d
is

the

to a s s i m i l a t e

the

causal

s i d e of

the

Ryle i s quite

correct

to p o i n t

different
saw
it

the

a u n i v e r s i t y was

colleges, administrative
R y l e however, was

buildings,

attacking

out

I n that
that

libraries

causes,

that

this i s illegitimate,

t a l k of minds i s o f

l o g i c a l n a t u r e from t a l k o f e v e n t s

d i c h o t o m y mind/body a s p a r t

another

a p a r t i c u l a r theory

mind t o e v e n t s and

dilemma,

physical

of t h i s

t e n d e d to i m p l y t h a t minds were some k i n d

However R y l e

causal

theory,

of e t h e r e a l

h a v i n g i t s o r i g i n s i n D e s c a r t e s ' p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the

since

body,
soul,

159.

which survived
led

the body

I n a t t a c k i n g t h i s dichotomy Ryle was

t o t h e v i e w , as I suggested i n t h e l a s t Chapter, t h a t

talk

o f mind was r e a l l y t a l k o f b e h a v i o u r , and hence was l e d t o desc r i b e human q u a l i t i e s such as v a n i t y , as d i s p o s i t i o n s t o behave

i n a c e r t a i n way under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , much as g l a s s ,
b e i n g b r i t t l e , has a d i s p o s i t i o n t o b r e a k i f s t r u c k
An i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t y
to

characterise

w i t h t h i s view i s t h a t i t i s v e r y

difficult

human q u a l i t i e s as p r e c i s e l y as t h e q u a l i t i e s

o f n a t u r a l objects,,
a l s o vague

sharply

Not o n l y a r e t h e y more complex, t h e y a r e

We can r e c o g n i s e v a n i t y o r k i n d n e s s , b u t a

precise

d e f i n i t i o n d e f e a t s us because t h e y a r e c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n s o f
5

actor's

responses t o s i t u a t i o n s .

As Danto

points

out, t h e y

have a c r e a t i v e element w h i c h sees and d e v e l o p s o p p o r t u n i t i e s

And

t h e c r u c i a l element o b s c u r i n g t h e i r e x e g e s i s i s t h a t t h e

response i s m e d i a t e d by t h e a c t o r
There i s alxirays t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t human i n v e n t i v e ness w i l l c o n t r i v e a n o v e l i n s t a n c e w h i c h s o c i e t y can
r e c o g n i z e a f t e r w a r d s as b e l o n g i n g t o t h e c l a s s ( o f
e v e n t s d e s i g n a t e d i n a c a u s a l 'law' o f b e h a v i o u r ) ,
b u t w h i c h one w o u l d n o t have a n t i c i p a t e d , even t h o u g h
i n a g e n e r a l way, we m i g h t have p r e d i c t e d t h e g e n e r a l
d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t t h i s i n s t a n c e f a l l s under.
Ina
comparable way, even knowing t h a t a man has a d i s p o s i t i o n t o do k i n d t h i n g s , and knowing t h a t a g i v e n occ a s i o n i s one on w h i c h he can be e x p e c t e d t o do somet h i n g k i n d , i t i s n o t always a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o say
what p r e c i s e k i n d o f t h i n g he w i l l do.
To be k i n d
i s t o be c r e a t i v e i n b e n i g n i t y , t o be c o n s i d e r a t e , t o
s u r p r i s e p e o p l e by t h e s i n g u l a r a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f
one's gestures'
0

T h i s r e p r e s e n t s an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e term
'disposition' applied
In

t o physical

objects

and t o human b e i n g s

t h e l a t t e r case i t o n l y r e f e r s t o l a w - l i k e b e h a v i o u r

falling

i6o

w i t h i n general evaluative
elaboration

categories subject t o constant

i n use,

Ryle argues p e r s u a s i v e l y t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t e r m
v a i n ' depends upon p u b l i c assessment o f a man's b e h a v i o u r a c c o r d
i n g t o common c u l t u r a l c r i t e r i a , and i t i s t r u e t h a t n o r m a l l y
t h i s i s t h e case, and t h a t we s h o u l d be s c e p t i c a l o f someone who
s a i d he was n o t k i n d o r v a i n when he a c t e d as t h o u g h he was.
But

t h e r e a s o n f o r o u r s c e p t i c i s m i s t h a t we assume him t o be

aware o f and a c t i n terms o f t h e common c u l t u r e .

The t r u t h

i s t h a t we assume h i m t o have a c e r t a i n k i n d o f a t t i t u d e t o t h e
s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h we see h i m a c t i n g and c h a r a c t e r i s e

h i s action

We o n l y withdraw^ t h e a t t r i b u t i o n e i t h e r i n t h e l i g h t o f l a t e r
actions

- i n w h i c h case we may c l a i m

t h a t he has changed - o r

i f i t becomes c l e a r t h a t f o r example i t was n o t v a n i t y b u t

lack

o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , o r t h a t i t was n o t k i n d n e s s b u t s e l f - i n t e r e s t
i n currying favour.

A l t h o u g h subsequent b e h a v i o u r i s o f t e n o u r

g u i d e h e r e , i t may n o t be.

I may d i s c o v e r h i s l a c k o f con-

f i d e n c e b y d i s c u s s i n g h i s s t a t e o f mind w i t h him a f t e r w a r d s .
We w o u l d t h e n t e n d t o say t h a t he was n o t v a i n b u t t h a t perhaps
he a c t e d " v a i n l y "
The p o i n t

s i n c e t h a t was t h e s o c i a l impact o f h i s a c t i o n .

t o be made t h e n , i s n o t t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t p u b l i c

c r i t e r i a f o r t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f a c t i o n t e r m s , and t h a t a t t i m e s
we a r e r e l u c t a n t t o w i t h d r a w an a t t r i b u t i o n s i m p l y on t h e b a s i s
o f e v i d e n c e o f a t t i t u d e s , b u t t h a t a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s a r e
a l s o o f i m p o r t a n c e , and t h e y a r e o f much more o b v i o u s i m p o r t a n c e
when we d i s c u s s c e n t r a l terms l i k e r e a s o n , i n t e n t i o n and d e s i r e .

161.

I n e x o r c i s i n g t h e g h o s t i n t h e machine, Ryle i s i n danger o f

p u r g i n g t o o much.

I f he d i s p o s e s o f t h e m e n t a l element i n t h e

minds he reduces them t o a mere d i f f e r e n c e o f c a t e g o r y

vocabularies.

i n the

The r o o t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t i n a c t i o n

mind and body c o e x i s t and a r e u n i t e d :

consciousness i s t r a n s -

l a t e d i n t o a c t i o n and a c t i o n i n v o l v e s e v e n t s i n t h e w o r l d .

We

n o t o n l y t h i n k about t h e w o r l d , f o r m v i e w s o f i t and t a k e up
attitudes to i t ,

we a l s o change i t by a c t i n g on i t .

Each v i e w

i s d i f f e r e n t t o some e x t e n t , and so may l e a d t o r e c o g n i s a b l y

d i f f e r e n t actions, d i f f e r e n t e s p e c i a l l y f o r the actor himself,
who knows what k i n d and c h a r a c t e r o f a c t t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d t o b
For

t h e o u t s i d e r , however, t h i s i s , as t h e l a s t

showed, l e s s easy t o p e r c e i v e .

chapter

I t i s n e v e r p o s s i b l e t o know

the f i n a l nuances o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t e s t a b l i s h t h e meaning o f

s i t u a t i o n and a c t f o r t h e a c t o r , b u t one can know about i t i n
a more o r l e s s d e t a i l e d way on t h e b a s i s o f e x i s t i n g and cons t a n t l y c r e a t e d common u n d e r s t a n d i n g s .

The f a r t h e r one i s

removed from t h e a c t o r , however, t h e l e s s easy i s such an under

s t a n d i n g and t h e more one has t o r e l y on t h e b e h a v i o u r one sees
r a t h e r t h a n t h e a c t o r one knows.

To some degree, and t o an

e x t e n t i n c r e a s i n g w i t h l a c k o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h them, o t h e r s '
a c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e e v e n t s about w h i c h one g e n e r a l i s e s ,

though

w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y assuming t h a t t h e a c t s a r e n o t c o n s c i o u s l y
undertaken.

I n t h e course o f t h i s , t h e a c t s a r e n a t u r a l l y

not described

i n j u s t t h e way t h e i r a u t h o r s u n d e r s t o o d them.

They a r e v a r i o u s l y r e d e s c r i b e d

t o s u i t t h e needs o f those who

162.

observe them.

What i s t a k i n g p l a c e now i s t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f

d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b l e ways o f t h o u g h t ,

o f which the given act

m i g h t have been t h e outcome.

I n doing

t h i s , however, we s h o u l d n o t be overgenerous t o

the a c t o r and a l l o w him c o n s t a n t

appraisal of the world.

perfect r a t i o n a l i t y i nhis

We a r e o f t e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m i s t a k e s ,

i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s and u n i n t e n d e d consequences i n a c t i o n s .

These

cannot be subsumed i n t o t h e l o g i c o f t h e a c t o r ' s own a c c o u n t ,

though we a l l make d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t s

a t r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f our

p a s t a c t s when damning evidence comes t o l i g h t .

When these

c h i n k s appear i n t h e l o g i c o f t h e a c t s as seen by t h e a c t o r ,
we b e g i n

t o recognise

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s e e i n g a c t s as events

as w e l l as p r o j e c t s i n t h e minds o f a c t o r s .
claim t h a t conceptual

We may

reasonably

r e l a t i o n s may h o l d between i d e a s , o r des-

c r i p t i o n s , o r s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h may r e f e r t o a c t i o n s o r t o a c t o r s '
v i e w s , b u t we cannot c l a i m t h a t such r e l a t i o n s h o l d between
events,

o r between a c t i o n s i n s o f a r as these a r e e v e n t s ,

or

between p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s , and these s t a t e s and e v e n t s .

The

c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f an event as an a c t does n o t deny i t s s t a t u s

as e v e n t .

For t h e s o c i o l o g i s t t h i s i s o n l y a s t a r t i n g p o i n t .

He e x p l o r e s

t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and o f h i s a c t s ,

b u t goes on t o s e t t h i s i n a w i d e r c o n t e x t w h i c h may p a r t l y o r
wholly redescribe

b o t h a c t s and s i t u a t i o n .

The s o c i o l o g i s t i s

n o t o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n what t h e a c t o r d i d , b u t i n what happened

whether anyone n o t i c e d o r n o t , and i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t h e l o n g
term i m p l i c a t i o n s o f what happened.

The q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e

163

r e l a t i o n s between t h e e v e n t s he d i s c u s s e s can be c a l l e d , on
c e r t a i n d e s c r i p t i o n s , conceptual

o r c o n t i n g e n t must be i n i t i a l l y

open, and can o n l y be s e t t l e d i n t h e l i g h t o f what i s d i s c o v e r e d ,

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d as t h e a c t o r s see i t and o f a c t s
as t h e y a r e p e r f o r m e d i s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n an account o f
social relations
recognise

When we go beyond t h i s p o i n t we come t o

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b o t h t h e m e n t a l and t h e event a s p e c t s

of the a c t i o n

N e i t h e r can be i g n o r e d ,

What becomes p r o b -

l e m a t i c i s t h e r e l a t i o n o f any new d e s c r i p t i o n t o them.

It
for

seems t h a t a c t i o n s cannot be c o n s t r u e d

i f we do, we t h e r e b y

j u s t as e v e n t s ,

i g n o r e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e agents

and c o n s i d e r a t i o n can o n l y g i v e them an a r b i t r a r y meaning.

But

nor can t h e y be seen as t h e a c t o r p e r f o r m e d them, u n l e s s we a r e

w i l l i n g t o s t o p a t a n a i v e l y e x p e r i e n t i a l account o f a c t i o n .
Sociology

can o n l y ever have any r e a l v a l u e

i f i t can go beyond

t h i s p o i n t and q u e s t i o n t h e a c t o r ' s views and l o o k a t u n i n t e n d e d

consequences.
consider

I n order t o t r y t o resolve t h i s question I w i l l

Durkheim's " S u i c i d e " , w h i c h has o f t e n been t a k e n as an

example o f a p u r e l y c a u s a l a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n s and
attacked f o r i t s f a i l u r e t o explore the actor's p o i n t s of view^,
N o n e t h e l e s s t h e book has a l s o been a c c e p t e d as a c l a s s i c even
by many who have doubts about t h e p r o p r i e t y o f c a u s a l

analysis.

Durkheim was much more aware o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y t h a n has

sometimes been a l l o w e d .

He c e r t a i n l y d i d have a b i a s i n t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f c a u s a l a n a l y s i s b u t he was c o n s t a n t l y t r y i n g t o
j u s t i f y t h i s by p o i n t i n g t o t h e inadequacy o f t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w

164,

as a b a s i s f o r e x p l a n a t i o n .
course on a p p a r e n t l y
some e m o t i o n a l

I n t h e case o f s u i c i d e he i s o f

s t r o n g ground, s i n c e i t presumably r e q u i r e s

i n t e n s i t y t o take one's own l i f e ,

and w h i l e

there

may be reasons f o r d o i n g so, r e a s o n s , we may s u r m i s e , a r e p r o b a b l y n o t enough,

D e s p a i r , w i t h i t s abandonment o f r e a s o n , i s

the s t a t e o f mind c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d
l a r g e n o n - r a t i o n a l element s u p p o r t s

with suicide.

This

Durkheim's l a c k o f f a i t h i n

the a c t o r ' s v i e w s - even supposing t h e y can be o b t a i n e d , f o r he

i s t a l k i n g o f a c t u a l suicides, n o t attempts.

These d o u b t s , and

the c o n c l u s i o n t h e y f o r c e him t o a r e expressed e a r l y i n t h e book,

Our f i r s t t a s k t h e n must be t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r d e r
o f f a c t s t o be s t u d i e d under t h e name o f s u i c i d e s .
A c c o r d i n g l y , we must i n q u i r e w h e t h e r , among t h e
d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f d e a t h , some have common
q u a l i t i e s o b j e c t i v e enough t o be r e c o g n i s a b l e by
a l l h o n e s t o b s e r v e r s , s p e c i f i c enough n o t t o be
f o u n d elsewhere and a l s o s u f f i c i e n t l y k i n t o those
commonly c a l l e d s u i c i d e s f o r us t o r e t a i n t h e same
term w i t h o u t b r e a k i n g w i t h common usage,
S h a l l s u i c i d e be c o n s i d e r e d t o e x i s t o n l y i f t h e a c t
r e s u l t i n g i n d e a t h was p e r f o r m e d by t h e v i c t i m t o
achieve t h i s r e s u l t ?
S h a l l o n l y he be t h o u g h t t o
t r u l y s l a y h i m s e l f who has wished t o do so, and s u i c i d e be i n t e n t i o n a l s e l f - h o m i c i d e ?
I n the f i r s t
p l a c e t h i s w o u l d d e f i n e s u i c i d e by a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
w h i c h , w h a t e v e r i t s i n t e r e s t and s i g n i f i c a n c e , would
at l e a s t s u f f e r from n o t being e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e ,
s i n c e i t i s n o t e a s i l y observedo
How d i s c o v e r t h e
agent's m o t i v e and whether he d e s i r e d d e a t h i t s e l f
when he formed h i s r e s o l v e , o r had some o t h e r purpose?
I n t e n t i s t o o i n t i m a t e a t h i n g t o be more t h a n
a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d by a n o t h e r .
I t even e s capes s e l f - o b s e r v a t i o n .
How o f t e n We m i s t a k e t h e
t r u e reason f o r our a c t s !
We c o n s t a n t l y e x p l a i n
a c t s due t o p e t t y f e e l i n g s o r b l i n d r o u t i n e by generous
passions o r l o f t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . '
p, 42-3,

165.

Durkheim r e t u r n s t o t h e problem a t t h e end o f t h e book.

How

on t h e one hand t o g e t an adequate p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f

s u i c i d e w i t h o u t i n c l u d i n g a c c i d e n t s and how
be sure the s u i c i d e was meant,

on the o t h e r t o

For a l l t h e s c o r n he

pours

on i n t e n t i o n he i s compelled i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s t o a d m i t t h e
a c t o r ' s v i e w by t h e back door i n the f o r m o f - 'We may
conclusively;

say t h e n

the t e r m s u i c i d e i s a p p l i e d t o a l l cases o f d e a t h

r e s u l t i n g d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y from a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e act
of

t h e v i c t i m h i m s e l f , w h i c h he knows w i l l

produce

An a t t e m p t i s an a c t t h u s d e f i n e d b u t f a l l i n g
death'o

p.43

D's

italics

this

result

short of actual

S u i c i d e must t h e n be

conscious,

w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s t h e same problem i n k i n d though n o t i n degree

of

a s s e s s i n g the a c t o r ' s m e n t a l s t a t e , as t h a t o f a s s e s s i n g

motiveso

T h i s l a t t e r Durkheim c o n t i n u e s t o r i d i c u l e s

The c i r c u m s t a n c e s are a l m o s t i n f i n i t e i n number w h i c h

are supposed t o cause s u i c i d e because t h e y r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y accompany i t .
One man k i l l s h i m s e l f i n t h e
midst of a f f l u e n c e , another i n the l a p of p o v e r t y ;
one was unhappy i n h i s home, and a n o t h e r had j u s t
ended by d i v o r c e a m a r r i a g e w h i c h was making him unhappy.
I n one case a s o l d i e r ends h i s l i f e a f t e r
h a v i n g been p u n i s h e d f o r an o f f e n c e he d i d n o t commit;
i n a n o t h e r , a c r i m i n a l whose c r i m e has remained unpunished k i l l s h i m s e l f . '
p. 287-8.
All
for

these s i t u a t i o n s c o u l d be a r e a s o n and s u p p l y a m o t i v e

s u i c i d e , y e t o f course t h e y are c o n t r a d i c t o r y and

varied

and Durkheim i s l o o k i n g f o r one o r a few c e r t a i n causes.

is

I t

i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e f o r m o f h i s argument i n t h e l a s t

passage.

He

suggests t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s cannot be

causes,

166,

c i r c u m s t a n c e s j i t h a t i s , d e f i n e d by an observer

They do n o t

i n v a r i a b l y l e a d t o s u i c i d e because t h e y have d i f f e r e n t
n i f i c a n c e f o r d i f f e r e n t people,,

Here Durkheim

sig-

i s using actor's

meanings as a s t i c k t o b e a t c a u s a l i t y , d e f i n e d q u i t e unexcept i o n a b l y here as t h e c o n t i n g e n t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l env i r o n m e n t on b e h a v i o u r ,

Yet f o r most o f h i s book he argues

c o n s t a n t l y i n terms o f g e n e r a l s o c i a l f a c t o r s w h i c h cause
s u i c i d e and concludes t h a t

'At any g i v e n moment t h e m o r a l con-

s t i t u t i o n of society establishes the contingent of voluntary

deaths.

There i s t h e r e f o r e , f o r each people a c o l l e c t i v e

force

o f a d e f i n i t e amount o f energy, i m p e l l i n g men t o s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n ,

p, 299o

The t e r m i n o l o g y here i s t h a t o f Newtonian

and t h e language p u r e l y c a u s a l ,

mechanics

The i n d i v i d u a l s v i e w t h u s

r e a l l y counts f o r n o t h i n g , i s a mere g l o s s w h i c h serves t o cover

t h e h i d d e n power o f x^ider s o c i a l f a c t o r s .
cannot have i t b o t h wayss

S u r e l y Durkheim

e i t h e r suicides are driven t o t h e i r

d e a t h s by some c a u s a l f a c t o r o r t h e y commit s u i c i d e because t h e y

e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t as i n t o l e r a b l e .
they are o b j e c t s , i n the other agents.

I n t h e one case

He d e f i n e d

suicide

i n i t i a l l y as a c o n s c i o u s a c t , w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t t h e y a r e a g e n t s .
He went on t o d e c r y an a n a l y s i s i n terms o f m o t i v e s as i m p o s s i b l e
and m i s l e a d i n g .

How t h e n does he e x p l a i n s u i c i d e ?

When he b e g i n s t o come t o g r i p s w i t h t h i s , i t soon appears

t h a t he i s h o p e l e s s l y c o n f u s e d as t o w h i c h v i e w he i s t a k i n g .
He b e g i n s t o d i s c u s s t h e causes o f s u i c i d e and how t o r e a c h them
and once a g a i n d i s m i s s e s m o t i v e s , b u t n o t i c e how he does so.

167.

The l e g a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s o f f a c t always accompanying

suicide include the motive ( f a m i l y t r o u b l e , p h y s i c a l
or o t h e r p a i n , remorse, drunkenness, e t c . ) w h i c h seems
to have been t h e d e t e r m i n i n g cause, and i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l r e p o r t s o f almost a l l c o u n t r i e s i s f o u n d a
s p e c i a l t a b l e c o n t a i n i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f these i n q u i r i e s
under t h e t i t l e s
presumptive motives o f s u i c i d e s .
1

p. 148.
It

i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t he c o n t i n u e s t o use t h e t e r m

'motive

r a t h e r t h a n ' r e a s o n , f o r t h i s can r e f e r e i t h e r t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s as seen by an o b s e r v e r , o r t o them as e x p e r i e n c e d by

the

actor.

Now i f we d e s c r i b e them as o u t s i d e r s ,

their

r e l a t i o n w i t h s u i c i d e s w i l l be c a u s a l and c o n t i n g e n t , b u t i t
i s u n l i k e l y t o be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h any c e r t a i n t y , s i n c e as
Durkheim showed, ( s e e above) t h e 'same' c i r c u m s t a n c e s may o r
may n o t r e s u l t i n s u i c i d e .

Since s u i c i d e i s a c o n s c i o u s a c t ,

we must admit t h e c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e agent.

To do

t h i s however would g i v e us t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e a t h and would

e s t a b l i s h a m e a n i n g f u l and c o n c e p t u a l l i n k between t h e s i t u a t i o n
and t h e d e a t h by d e s c r i b i n g how i t was e x p e r i e n c e d as i n t o l e r a b l e ,
w i t h no f o r e s e e a b l e improvement o r way o u t .

This d e s c r i p t i o n ,

i f g i v e n by t h e a c t o r , would be i n p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l terms
and t h u s c o n s t i t u t e t h e p r o b l e m a t i c v a r i e d m o t i v e t h a t Durkheim
wants t o a v o i d .

What Durkheim c l a i m s he i s g o i n g t o do i s t o

look a t the circumstances, e x t e r n a l l y p e r c e i v e d , which are

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h s u i c i d e , and t o do t h i s he examines
of

different sorts to establish a firm relationship.

statistics
I n the

l a s t a n a l y s i s i t l o o k s as though he i s d i t c h i n g t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w
as u n r e l i a b l e and j u s t l o o k i n g a t c o n d i t i o n s and e v e n t s .

1 6 8

' D i s r e g a r d i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l as such, h i s m o t i v e s
and h i s i d e a s , we s h a l l seek d i r e c t l y t h e s t a t e s
of t h e v a r i o u s s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( r e l i g i o u s
c o n f e s s i o n s , f a m i l y , p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y , occupat i o n a l groups e t c . ) , i n terms o f w h i c h t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n s u i c i d e occur,'
p,

1 5 1 o

I n b u i l d i n g up h i s a n a l y s i s o f e g o i s t i c s u i c i d e , t h e f i r s t
t y p e , Durkheim i n i t i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e s a d i f f e r e n c e i n r a t e s
ing

to r e l i g i o n

T h i s he proves s t a t i s t i c a l l y

l i s h e d i t he goes on t o e x p l a i n i t as f o l l o w s

Having

accordestab-

We t h u s r e a c h o f f i r s t c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t t h e p r o c l i v i t y
of P r o t e s t a n t i s m f o r s u i c i d e must r e l a t e t o t h e s p i r i t
of f r e e e n q u i r y t h a t animates t h i s r e l i g i o n
L e t us
understand t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c o r r e c t l y ,
Free e n q u i r y
i t s e l f i s o n l y t h e e f f e c t o f a n o t h e r cause,
When i t
appears, when men, a f t e r h a v i n g l o n g r e c e i v e d t h e i r
r e a d y made f a i t h from t r a d i t i o n , c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o
shape i t f o r t h e m s e l v e s , t h i s i s n o t because o f t h e
i n t r i n s i c d e s i r a b i l i t y of free enquiry, f o r the l a t t e r
i n v o l v e s as much sorrow as h a p p i n e s s .
But i t i s
because men h e n c e f o r t h need t h i s l i b e r t y .
This very
need can have o n l y one cause: t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t r a d i t i o n a l
beliefs.
I f t h e y s t i l l a s s e r t e d themselves w i t h e q u a l
energy, i t would n e v e r o c c u r t o men t o c r i t i c i s e them.
I f t h e y s t i l l had t h e same a u t h o r i t y , men would n o t
demand t h e r i g h t t o v e r i f y t h i s a u t h o r i t y .
Reflect i o n d e v e l o p s o n l y i f i t s development becomes i m p e r a t i v e , t h a t i s , i f c e r t a i n i d e a s and i n s t i n c t i v e s e n t i ments w h i c h have h i t h e r t o a d e q u a t e l y g u i d e d conduct
are found t o have l o s t t h e i r e f f i c a c y .
Then r e f l e c t i o n i n t e r v e n e s t o f i l l t h e gap t h a t has appeared, b u t
w h i c h i t has n o t c r e a t e d .
J u s t as r e f l e c t i o n d i s a p p e a r s
to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h o u g h t and a c t i o n take t h e f o r m o f
a u t o m a t i c h a b i t s , i t awakes o n l y when a c c e p t e d h a b i t s
become d i s o r g a n i s e d .
I t asserts i t s r i g h t s against
p u b l i c o p i n i o n o n l y when t h e l a t t e r l o s e s s t r e n g t h ,
t h a t i s , when i t i s no l o n g e r p r e v a l e n t t o t h e same
extent.
I f these a s s e r t i o n s o c c u r n o t m e r e l y o c c a s i o n a l l y , and as p a s s i n g c r i s e s , b u t become c h r o n i c ; i f
i n d i v i d u a l consciences keep r e a f f i r m i n g t h e i r autonomy,
i t i s because t h e y a r e c o n s t a n t l y s u b j e c t t o c o n f l i c t i n g
i m p u l s e s , because a new o p i n i o n has n o t been formed t o
r e p l a c e t h e one no l o n g e r e x i s t i n g .
I f a new system
of b e l i e f s were c o n s t i t u t e d w h i c h seemed as i n d i s p u t a b l e
0

169.

t o everyone as the o l d , no one would t h i n k o f

d i s c u s s i n g i t any l o n g e r .
I t s d i s c u s s i o n would
no l o n g e r even be p e r m i t t e d ; f o r i d e a s shared by
an e n t i r e s o c i e t y draw from t h i s consensus on
a u t h o r i t y w h i c h makes them s a c r o s a n c t and r a i s e s
them above d i s p u t e .
For them t o have become
more t o l e r a n t t h e y must f i r s t have become the
o b j e c t o f l e s s g e n e r a l and complete assent and
been weakened by p r e l i m i n a r y c o n t r o v e r s y .
Thus, i f i t i s c o r r e c t t o say t h a t f r e e i n q u i r y
once p r o c l a i m e d , m u l t i p l i e s schisms, i t must be
added t h a t i t presupposes them and d e r i v e s from
them, f o r i t i s c l a i m e d and i n s t i t u t e d as a p r i n c i p l e o n l y i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t l a t e n t or h a l f d e c l a r e d schisms t o d e v e l o p more f r e e l y .
So i f
P r o t e s t a n t i s m concedes a g r e a t e r freedom t o i n d i v i d u a l t h o u g h t t h a n C a t h o l i c i s m , i t i s because
i t has f e w e r common b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s .
Now,
a r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y cannot e x i s t w i t h o u t a c o l l e c t i v e credo and the more e x t e n s i v e the credo the
more u n i f i e d and s t r o n g i s the s o c i e t y .
For i t
does n o t u n i t e men by an exchange and r e c i p r o c i t y
o f s e r v i c e s , a t e m p o r a l bond o f u n i o n w h i c h p e r m i t s
and even presupposes d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t w h i c h a
r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y cannot f o r m .
I t s o c i a l i s e s men
o n l y by a t t a c h i n g them c o m p l e t e l y t o an i d e n t i c a l
body o f d o c t r i n e and s o c i a l i z e s them i n p r o p o r t i o n
as t h i s body o f d o c t r i n e i s e x t e n s i v e and f i r m .
The more numerous the manners o f a c t i o n and t h o u g h t
o f a r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r a r e , w h i c h are a c c o r d i n g l y
removed from f r e e i n q u i r y , the more the i d e a o f God
p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n a l l d e t a i l s o f e x i s t e n c e , and
makes i n d i v i d u a l w i l l s converge t o one i d e n t i c a l g o a l .
I n v e r s e l y , the g r e a t e r c o n c e s s i o n s a c o n f e s s i o n a l
group makes t o i n d i v i d u a l judgment, the l e s s i t
dominates l i v e s , the l e s s i t s c o h e s i o n and v i t a l i t y .
We t h u s r e a c h the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the s u p e r i o r i t y
of Protestantism w i t h respect to suicide r e s u l t s
from i t s b e i n g a l e s s s t r o n g l y i n t e g r a t e d c h u r c h
t h a n the C a t h o l i c c h u r c h . '
pp.

158-9.

What i s the s t a t u s o f t h i s argument?

abou

I s Durkheim

talking

the c a u s a l i n f l u e n c e o f r e l i g i o n upon s u i c i d e o r about i t s

meaning t o the s u i c i d e r i s k ?
causality i n his terminology,

He

s t i l l p r e s e r v e s the veneer o f

speaking of ' e f f e c t ' ,

'cause'

and

170,

' i m p e r a t i v e ' , but

two

i n f a c t he

i s d i s c u s s i n g the

consequences o f

r e l i g i o n s f o r the q u a l i t y o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s he

social integration.
e x p e r i e n c e s o f any
s a i d t o be

He

c e r t a i n l y i s not

t a l k i n g about

i n d i v i d u a l , but n e i t h e r

d i s c u s s i n g causes,

His

calls

can

he

argument i s

the

properly
essentially

t h a t a r e l i g i o n w h i c h dominates a l l a s p e c t s o f the l i f e
f a i t h f u l t h r o u g h an e x t e n s i v e c l e r g y
tioned

doctrine

and

o f the

i n society

and

the

unques-

leads to a f a i t h i n

established social relationships

o f t h e i r n a t u r e and
t o see

e l a b o r a t e and

of

mass p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r i t u a l g i v e s r e l i g i o n

a pervasive significance
stability

and

be

permanence.

I t a l s o l e a d s t o the

h i m s e l f as p a r t o f a c o n t i n u o u s s t a b l e

i s o l a t e d atom whose own

and

view of things

an

approval

individual

o r d e r , not

as

i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f many s i t u a t i o n s and

social

i n d i s c u s s i n g the g e n e r a l i m p a c t o f r e l i g i o n , i d e o l o g y
T h i s becomes c l e a r e r

c l u s i o n s on e g o i s t i c

an

i s a l l that matters,

Durkheim i s s a y i n g something about a s p e c t s o r q u a l i t i e s o f

organisation.

the

when he

the

relations
and

s e t s out h i s

con-

suicide.

'So we r e a c h the g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n :
suicide varies
i n v e r s e l y w i t h the degree o f i n t e g r a t i o n o f the s o c i a l
groups o f w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l forms a p a r t .
But s o c i e t y cannot d i s i n t e g r a t e w i t h o u t the i n d i v i d u a l
simultaneously detaching himself from s o c i a l l i f e ,
w i t h o u t h i s own g o a l s becoming p r e p o n d e r a n t over those
o f the community, i n a word xvithout h i s p e r s o n a l i t y
t e n d i n g t o surmount the c o l l e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y .
The
more weakened the groups t o w h i c h he b e l o n g s , the l e s s
he depends on them, the more he depends o n l y on h i m s e l f
and r e c o g n i s e s no o t h e r r u l e s o f conduct t h a n what are
founded on h i s p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s .
I f we agree t o c a l l
t h i s s t a t e egoism, i n w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l ego a s s e r t s
i t s e l f t o excess i n the f a c e o f the s o c i a l ego, and a t

1 7 1 e

i t s expense, we may c a l l e g o i s t i c t h e s p e c i a l t y p e
o f s u i c i d e s p r i n g i n g from e x c e s s i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s m . . .
Excessive i n d i v i d u a l i s m n o t o n l y r e s u l t s i n f a v o r i n g t h e a c t i o n o f s u i c i d o g e n i c causes, b u t i t i s
i t s e l f such a cause.
I t n o t o n l y f r e e s man's
i n c l i n a t i o n t o do away w i t h h i m s e l f from a p r o t e c t i v e obstacle, but creates t h i s i n c l i n a t i o n out
o f whole c l o t h and thus g i v e s b i r t h t o a s p e c i a l
s u i c i d e w h i c h bears i t s mark,
T h i s must be
c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d f o r t h i s i s what c o n s t i t u t e s
the s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e type o f s u i c i d e j u s t
d i s t i n g u i s h e d and j u s t i f i e s t h e name we have g i v e n
it.
What i s t h e r e t h e n i n i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t explains this result?
I t has been sometimes s a i d t h a t because o f h i s psyc h o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , man cannot l i v e w i t h o u t
a t t a c h m e n t t o some o b j e c t w h i c h t r a n s c e n d s and
s u r v i v e s him, and t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s n e c e s s i t y
i s a need we must have n o t t o p e r i s h e n t i r e l y .
L i f e i s s a i d t o be i n t o l e r a b l e u n l e s s some r e a s o n
f o r e x i s t i n g i s i n v o l v e d , some purpose j u s t i f y i n g
life's trials.
The i n d i v i d u a l alone i s n o t a
s u f f i c i e n t end f o r h i s a c t i v i t y .
He i s t o o l i t t l e .
He i s n o t o n l y hemmed i n s p a t i a l l y ;
he i s a l s o
s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d temporally.
When, t h e r e f o r e , we
have no o t h e r o b j e c t t h a n o u r s e l v e s we cannot a v o i d
the t h o u g h t t h a t o u r e f f o r t s w i l l f i n a l l y end i n
n o t h i n g n e s s , s i n c e we o u r s e l v e s d i s a p p e a r .
But
a n n i h i l a t i o n t e r r i f i e s us.
Under these c o n d i t i o n s
one would l o s e courage t o l i v e , t h a t i s , t o a c t and
s t r u g g l e , since n o t h i n g w i l l remain o f our e x e r t i o n s .
The s t a t e o f egoism, i n o t h e r words, i s supposed t o
be c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o human n a t u r e and, c o n s e q u e n t l y ,
t o o u n c e r t a i n t o have chances o f permanence.'
pp.

2 0 9 - 2 1 0 .

Here Durkheim c l i n c h e s h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f a s e t o f s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s by i n t e r p r e t i n g them a l l as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s

o f t h e same f u n d a m e n t a l problem o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e
individual i n to society.

I n t h i s case he c l a i m s t h a t t h e

e x p l a n a t i o n i s l a c k o f i n t e g r a t i o n and t h e l a c k o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l because o f i t ,

and t h a t t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n

172.

the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s , o f domestic s i t u a t i o n s
and

of national p o l i t i c a l situations.

say

a n y t h i n g about t h e m o t i v e s f o r s u i c i d e

ceives i t ,

b u t that there

He does n o t t h e r e f o r e
as any v i c t i m con-

are elements i n each case w h i c h ,

though d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h p a r t i c u l a r m a t t e r s o f p e r s o n a l
circumstances, are also aspects o f t h i s c o n t i n u i n g

struggle of

the i n d i v i d u a l t o be f r e e o f t h e c o n s t r i c t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l
o r d e r , b u t n o t t o be so f r e e as t o be i s o l a t e d .
t a l k i n g about t h e a c t o r s

He i s n o t

i n t h e i r own t e r m s , b u t t a k e s these

terms and shows how t h e y a r e p a r t o f a more g e n e r a l p r o b l e m .

He does n o t j u s t t a l k o f e x t e r n a l
d i t i o n s , b u t o f how a c t o r s

circumstances, o b j e c t i v e

con-

e x p e r i e n c e these c o n d i t i o n s and

c l a i m s t h a t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i s c r u c i a l l y a f f e c t e d by c e r t a i n
q u a l i t i e s i n t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s xvhich t h e y have, w h i c h
l e a d some o f them a t c e r t a i n t i m e s t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e s i t u a t i o n
as i n t o l e r a b l e .
of d i f f e r e n c e s

He i s always o f course s p e a k i n g o f r a t e s and

i n rates.

Only l a t e r does he come on t o t r y t o

r e l a t e t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s who a c t u a l l y d i e t o t h e b r o a d
social patterns

t h a t he o u t l i n e s h e r e .

He i s t h e r e f o r e

c r i b i n g s o c i a l f a c t o r s which are s u p r a - i n d i v i d u a l
his protestations

des-

but despite

about s o c i a l f a c t s as s u i g e n e r i s ,

i s very

much concerned w i t h how these c o n s t i t u t e an element o f i n d i v i d u a l

experience.

His c o n t r i b u t i o n then, i s not only t o explain

differences

i n r a t e s between t i m e s , n a t i o n s and groups i n a

c a u s a l sense, b u t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n
as e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u i c i d e

t h a t l e d him t o f e e l i t

173 o

was

intolerable.

T h i s becomes even more e x p l i c i t when he

goes

on t o a l t r u i s t i c s u i c i d e , w h i c h he l o c a t e s p r i n c i p a l l y i n the
army i n the modern i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e .
'The f i r s t q u a l i t y o f a s o l d i e r i s a s o r t o f i m p e r s o n a l i t y n o t t o be f o u n d anywhere i n c i v i l i a n l i f e
to the same degree.
He must be t r a i n e d t o s e t
l i t t l e v a l u e upon h i m s e l f , s i n c e he must be p r e p a r e d t o s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f upon b e i n g o r d e r e d t o
do so.
Even a s i d e f r o m such e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n peace t i m e and i n the r e g u l a r e x e r c i s e
o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n , d i s c i p l i n e r e q u i r e s him t o obey
w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n and sometimes even w i t h o u t understanding.
For t h i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l a b n e g a t i o n
hardly consistent with individualism i s required.
He must have b u t a weak t i e b i n d i n g him t o h i s
i n d i v i d u a l i t y , t o obey e x t e r n a l i m p u l s i o n so
docilely.
I n short, a soldier's p r i n c i p l e of
a c t i o n i s external to himself;
w h i c h i s the q u a l i t y
o f the s t a t e o f a l t r u i s m .
p. 234.
A l t r u i s m i s the o p p o s i t e

o f egoism = the i n d i v i d u a l i s

o v e r - i n t e g r a t e d i n t o s o c i e t y and

thus over ready t o k i l l

s e l f at society's disapproval.

He

his
it

s e l f - r e s p e c t i s the r e s p e c t

him-

cannot b e a r l o s s o f f a c e :

of others.

Durkheim makes

c l e a r t h a t the s o l d i e r i s t r a i n e d t o deny h i m s e l f and

the group f i r s t ,

and

t o put

i t i s c l e a r t h a t by t h i s he means n o t

i n s t r u m e n t a l c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g b u t an e m o t i o n a l

an

internalisation

w h i c h i m p o r t a n t l y a f f e c t s the q u a l i t y o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e and

the

s i g n i f i c a n c e t o him

The

of c e r t a i n kinds of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s .

o f f i c e r suicide before

o r a f t e r c o u r t m a r t i a l w i l l account f o r

t h i s i n terms o f h i s i n a b i l i t y t o l i v e w i t h h i m s e l f and
brother o f f i c e r s a f t e r blemishing

his

the honour o f the r e g i m e n t

Durkheim i s a b l e t o show t h a t the g e n e r a l meaning o f t h i s response

174.

and

experience i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d

group o f w h i c h t h e army i s an example.

social

He d e a l s v e r y much w i t h

the meaning o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t o t h e a c t o r s , n o t j u s t w i t h t h e
conditions', but extrapolates
points t o t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y with
1

Durkheim s greatest

a s p e c t s o f t h i s meaning and
others,

t r i u m p h however, was i n h i s account o f

anomic s u i c i d e , where he s e i z e d upon one o f t h e m a j o r d i s t i n guishing

features

o f t h e modern i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e and e x p l o r e d

i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s t o d e a l i n i t i a l l y w i t h t h e r a s h o f businessmen
who committed s u i c i d e
but also

a f t e r an economic o r f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s ,

to explain differences

i n the rates of suicide

r i c h and p o o r , and town and c o u n t r y .

acute d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l
society

between

He i s a b l e t o use an

characteristics of -industrial

t o account f o r t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s

o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n such a s o c i e t y and t h e i r response t o s i t u a t i o n s

and

relations i ni t .

The g e n e r a l i s used t o e x p l a i n t h e p a r -

t i c u l a r , t h o u g h n o t o f course t o f u l l y e x p l a i n i n d i v i d u a l cases,
'For a whole c e n t u r y , economic p r o g r e s s has m a i n l y
consisted i n f r e e i n g i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s from a l l
regulation.
U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , i t was t h e f u n c t i o n o f a whole system o f m o r a l f o r c e s t o e x e r t
this discipline.
F i r s t , the influence of r e l i g i o n
was f e l t a l i k e by w o r k e r s and m a s t e r s , t h e poor and
the r i c h .
I t c o n s o l e d t h e f o r m e r and b r o u g h t them
c o n t e n t m e n t w i t h t h e i r l o t by i n f o r m i n g them o f t h e
p r o v i d e n t i a l nature o f the s o c i a l order, that the
share o f each c l a s s was a s s i g n e d by God h i m s e l f and
by h o l d i n g o u t t h e hope f o r j u s t compensation i n a
w o r l d t o come i n r e t u r n f o r t h e i n e q u a l i t i e s o f t h i s
world.
I t governed t h e l a t t e r , r e c a l l i n g t h a t
w o r l d l y i n t e r e s t s a r e n o t man's e n t i r e l o t , t h a t t h e y
must be s u b o r d i n a t e t o o t h e r and h i g h e r i n t e r e s t s , and
t h a t t h e y s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be pursued w i t h o u t r u l e
or measure.
Temporal power, i n t u r n , r e s t r a i n e d t h e

1 7 5 .

scope o f e c o n o m i c f u n c t i o n s b y i t s s u p r e m a c y o v e r
them a n d b y t h e r e l a t i v e l y s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e i t
a s s i g n e d them.
F i n a l l y , w i t h i n the business
world proper, the o c c u p a t i o n a l groups, by r e g u l a t i n g s a l a r i e s , t h e p r i c e o f p r o d u c t s and p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f , i n d i r e c t l y f i x e d t h e average l e v e l
o f income on w h i c h needs a r e p a r t i a l l y based b y
the v e r y f o r c e o f circumstances.
H o w e v e r , we
do n o t mean t o p r o p o s e t h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n as a
model.
C l e a r l y i t w o u l d be i n a d e q u a t e t o e x i s t =
i n g s o c i e t i e s w i t h o u t g r e a t changes.
What we
stress i s i t s existence, the fact of i t s useful
i n f l u e n c e , a n d t h a t n o t h i n g t o d a y h a s come t o
take i t s place.
A c t u a l l y , r e l i g i o n has l o s t most o f i t s power.
And g o v e r n m e n t , i n s t e a d o f r e g u l a t i n g e c o n o m i c
l i f e , h a s become i t s t o o l a n d s e r v a n t .
The m o s t
o p p o s i t e s c h o o l s , o r t h o d o x economists and extreme
s o c i a l i s t s , u n i t e t o reduce t h e government t o t h e
r o l e o f more o r l e s s p a s s i v e i n t e r m e d i a r y among
the v a r i o u s s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s .
The f o r m e r w i s h
t o make i t s i m p l y t h e g u a r d i a n o f i n d i v i d u a l
c o n t r a c t s , the l a t t e r leave i t the task o f doing
the c o l l e c t i v e bookkeeping, t h a t i s o f r e c o r d i n g
t h e demands o f c o n s u m e r s , t r a n s m i t t i n g them t o
p r o d u c e r s , i n v e n t o r y i n g t h e t o t a l r e s o u r c e and
d i s t r i b u t i n g i t according t o a f i x e d formula.
But b o t h r e f u s e i t any power t o s u b o r d i n a t e o t h e r
s o c i a l aims.
On b o t h s i d e s , n a t i o n s a r e d e c l a r e d
t o have a s i n g l e o r c h i e f p u r p o s e o f a c h i e v i n g
i n d u s t r i a l p r o s p e r i t y ; such i s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f
t h e dogma o f e c o n o m i c m a t e r i a l i s m , t h e b a s i s o f
b o t h a p p a r e n t l y opposed systems.
And as t h e s e
t h e o r i e s merely express t h e s t a t e o f o p i n i o n ,
i n d u s t r y , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g s t i l l r e g a r d e d as a
means t o a n e n d t r a n s c e n d i n g i t s e l f , h a s become
t h e supreme e n d o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s o c i e t i e s a l i k e
T h e r e u p o n t h e a p p e t i t e s t h u s e x c i t e d h a v e become
f r e e d o f any l i m i t i n g a u t h o r i t y .
By s a n c t i f y i n g
t h e m , so t o s p e a k , t h i s a p o t h e o s i s o f x v e l l - b e i n g
has p l a c e d t h e m above a l l human l a w .
Their rest r a i n t seems l i k e a s o r t o f s a c r i l e g e .
For t h i s
r e a s o n , even t h e p u r e l y u t i l i t a r i a n r e g u l a t i o n o f
them e x e r c i s e d b y t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d i t s e l f
t h r o u g h t h e medium o f o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s h a s b e e n
unable t o p e r s i s t .
Ultimately, this liberation
o f d e s i r e s h a s been made w o r s e b y t h e v e r y d e v e l o p
ment o f i n d u s t r y and t h e a l m o s t i n f i n i t e e x t e n s i o n
of t h e market.
So l o n g as t h e p r o d u c e r c o u l d g a i
h i s p r o f i t s o n l y i n h i s immediate neighbourhood,

1 7 6 o

t h e r e s t r i c t e d amount o f p o s s i b l e g a i n c o u l d n o t
much o v e r e x c i t e a m b i t i o n .
Now t h a t he may assume
t o h a v e a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e w o r l d as h i s c u s t o m e r ,
how c o u l d p a s s i o n s a c c e p t t h e i r f o r m e r c o n f i n e m e n t
i n the face of such l i m i t l e s s
prospects?
Such i s t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e x c i t e m e n t
predominating
i n t h i s p a r t o f s o c i e t y , and w h i c h has t h e n c e
extended to the other p a r t s .
There, the s t a t e
o f c r i s i s and anomy i s c o n s t a n t a n d , so t o s p e a k ,
normal,
From t o p t o b o t t o m o f t h e l a d d e r , g r e e d
i s a r o u s e d w i t h o u t k n o w i n g where t o f i n d u l t i m a t e
foothold.
N o t h i n g can calm i t , s i n c e i t s g o a l i s
f a r beyond a l l i t can a t t a i n , ,
R e a l i t y seems v a l u e l e s s by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e dreams o f f e v e r e d i m a g i n a tions;
r e a l i t y i s t h e r e f o r e a b a n d o n e d , b u t so t o o
i s p o s s i b i l i t y a b a n d o n e d when i t i n t u r n becomes
reality.
A t h i r s t arises for novelties, unfamiliar
p l e a s u r e s , nameless s e n s a t i o n s , a l l of which lose
t h e i r s a v o r once known,,
H e n c e f o r t h one has no
s t r e n g t h t o endure the l e a s t r e v e r s e
The w h o l e
f e v e r s u b s i d e s and t h e s t e r i l i t y o f a l l t h e t u m u l t
i s a p p a r e n t , and i t i s s e e n t h a t a l l t h e s e new sen=
s a t i o n s i n t h e i r i n f i n i t e q u a n t i t y cannot form a
s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n o f h a p p i n e s s t o s u p p o r t one d u r i n g
days o f t r i a l .
The w i s e man k n o w i n g how t o e n j o y
achieved r e s u l t s without having c o n s t a n t l y t o replace
them w i t h o t h e r s , f i n d s i n them an a t t a c h m e n t t o l i f e
i n the hour of d i f f i c u l t y .
B u t t h e man who
has
a l w a y s p i n n e d a l l h i s h o p e s on t h e f u t u r e and l i v e d
w i t h h i s e y e s f i x e d u p o n i t , has n o t h i n g i n t h e p a s t
as a c o m f o r t a g a i n s t t h e p r e s e n t ' s a f f l i c t i o n s , f o r
t h e p a s t was n o t h i n g t o h i m b u t a s e r i e s o f h a s t i l y
experienced stages.
What b l i n d e d h i m t o h i m s e l f was
h i s e x p e c t a t i o n a l w a y s t o f i n d f u r t h e r on t h e h a p p i n e s s
he h a d so f a r m i s s e d .
Now he i s s t o p p e d i n h i s t r a c k s
f r o m now on n o t h i n g r e m a i n s b e h i n d o r a h e a d o f h i m t o
f i x h i s gaze upon.
Weariness alone, moreover, i s
e n o u g h t o b r i n g d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , f o r he c a n n o t i n
t h e end e s c a p e t h e f u t i l i t y o f an e n d l e s s p u r s u i t .
0

We may e v e n w o n d e r i f t h i s m o r a l s t a t e i s n o t p r i n c i p =
a l l y w h a t makes e c o n o m i c c a t a s t r o p h i e s o f o u r day so
f e r t i l e i n suicides.'
"
pp.

Durkheim uses t h i s
dustrial

m a t e r i a l i s m as

2 5 ^ - 6 .

d e s c r i p t i o n of the development o f i n
a dominant goal

and

a principle

upon

1 7 7 ,

which s o c i e t y i s ordered t o account b o t h f o r business

suicides,

where t h e v i c t i m ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e p e r v a d e d b y t h e q u a l i t i e s
he
the

describes,

and f o r a s p e c t s o f o t h e r

suicides.

He

extends

c o n c e p t o f anomy t o a c c o u n t f o r d o m e s t i c s u i c i d e s

He s p e a k s t o t h e c o n d i t i o n o f man i n i n d u s t r i a l
most g e n e r a l t e r m s and y e t uses t h i s
individual

of acts.

way t h a t c o u l d

Here t h e r e

also.

society

i n the

t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e most

i s very

be c o n s t r u e d as c a u s a l ,

much l e s s

talk, i n a

I ti s a question

rather

o f i d e a s a n d v a l u e s i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d how t h e s e a f f e c t
how men, s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and s i t u a t i o n s a r e p e r c e i v e d

and

responded t o ,
Durkheim r e t u r n s

t o c a u s a l l a n g u a g e a t t h e end o f h i s b o o k

when he s p e a k s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s i n s u i c i d e .
He i s q u i t e u n a b l e t o do w h a t p e r h a p s he m i g h t h a v e done i n t h e
first

place,

namely t o work f r o m i n d i v i d u a l cases up t o g e n e r a l

s o c i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o r elements o f meaning.
f r o m t h e s t a r t has been t o l o o k
and

His technique

a t observed d i f f e r e n c e s

t o assume t h a t t h e s e were n o t a c c i d e n t a l .

pages e a r l y i n t h e book a r g u i n g
the d i f f e r e n c e s
spends s e v e r a l
climate

that this

i n rates

He s p e n d s some

c a n n o t be so b e c a u s e

a r e t o o c o n s t a n t and s y s t e m a t i c .

He

also

chapters r u l i n g out external m a t e r i a l f a c t o r s o f

a n d g e o g r a p h y as c a u s e s .

He t r i e s ,

as I showed

earlier,

t o a c c o u n t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h he p r o v e s a r e s o c i a l i n c a u s a l
t e r m s , b u t as became a p p a r e n t , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

of the c o r r e l a t i o n

i s n o t i n terms o f a causal l a w , b u t i n terms o f t h e r e c o g n i t i o n

t h a t groups o f people experience t h e s o c i a l world

i n similar

1 7 8 .

ways and

so r e s p o n d

societies

that

are

Durkheim devotes
as g e n e r a l

factors'

similar

c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and

When he

rather

i n certain respects, respects

than

as

practiceo

invariant

He

causal

'social

has

currents'

talked

situations
pains

as

t h e n , he

though

be

been premised

accounted

c a u s a l and

out that

permanent

t h e r a t e s and

f o r by

f a c t s he
It

has

b e e n d i s c u s s i n g and

establishing

And

he

has

that

and

perception of t h e i r

evidence

as, b e i n g dead, t h e y cannot

D u r k h e i m done so h o w e v e r , he
f r o n t e d w i t h the non-causal
d o i n g , o r t h o u g h t he

was

been a t

societies

change,
experiences

t h e p r o b l e m s and
this

produces

led to their
a very

doing,

some

social
suicide.

difficult
o f mind

o f many s u i c i d e s , p a r be

interviewed.

Had

w o u l d have been i n c r e a s i n g l y
nature

not

t o show t h a t

about the s t a t e

circumstances

to

Durkheim thus

the

are c u l t u r a l ,

as D u r k h e i m c o m p l a i n s ,

tedious task to collect

h i s meaning-

f a c t s about the w o r l d ,

the extent t h a t

appear t o have r e c o g n i s e d

and

was

was

amount o f d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e

w o u l d a d m i t t e d l y be,

ticularly

i s confronted

k i n d s o f s u i c i d e s change, because the

only a l i m i t e d

individual

s i m i l a r responses

o f t h e members o f t h e s o c i e t i e s c h a n g e

individuals

he

the reasons f o r t h i s
To

upon the assumption

p e r c e i v e d i n a s i m i l a r way,,

to p o i n t

which

individual

t e r m i n o l o g y and

l a w s b a s e d on o b j e c t i v e

b u t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n has
r e g u l a r i t i e s may

elements o f

comes t o d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h

w i t h the c o n t r a d i c t i o n of h i s causal
ful

in

the b u l k of h i s a n a l y s i s t o d e s c r i b i n g , b o t h

social

situations,,

t o i t i n s i m i l a r ways, because t h e y l i v e

of the p r o g r e s s i o n .
the k i n d

of causal

conDurkheim

check

on

1 7 9 .

w h i c h were t h e ' i d e a s *
actions

about

certain

t h a t Weber a d v o c a t e d , a n d he i s l e d i n t o t h e same d i l e m m a ,

t h o u g h he i s l e s s
him

effective i nbringing

aware o f i t

He u s e s s t a t i s t i c s

w i t h problems, b u t the e s t a b l i s h i n g

to furnish

of relationships

between

them i s e x p l a i n e d n o t i n t e r m s o f a g e n e r a l l a w a n d a c a u s a l
t h e o r y a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n s t o be t h e case a n d h o l d s f o r a l l t i m e ,
but

i n terms o f t h e a c t o r ' s i d e a s and e x p e r i e n c e s , and a con-

c e p t u a l p r o g r e s s i o n w h i c h o n l y h o l d s f o r as l o n g as t h e a c t o r s
c o n t i n u e t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e w o r l d i n t h a t way.
postulate
action
The

a r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a t e r i a l

only by d e s c r i b i n g

relationship

Durkheim c l i n g s

He i s a b l e t o

conditions

how t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s

and s u i c i d a l

are experienced.

i s one o f m e a n i n g , n o t c a u s e .

But because

t o t h e c a u s a l i d e o l o g y we f i n d h i m a t t h e e n d

o f h i s book r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l elements i n

suicides

as e x t e r n a l

unfortunate victims
factors, rather

reified
to k i l l

e n t i t i e s that
themselves.

than b e i n g concerned w i t h

somehow c o m p e l t h e
Conveniently,

t h e i n d i v i d u a l ex-

p e r i e n c e o f t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s and s o c i a l f a c t o r s
has

portrayed, are reduced t o a s o r t

individual

of neurosis

Durkheim

quotient.

'The r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s i n t h e o r i g i n o f
s u i c i d e c a n now be more p r e c i s e l y p u t .
I f , i na
g i v e n m o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e same
r e l i g i o u s f a i t h o r i n t h e same b o d y o f t r o o p s o r
i n t h e same o c c u p a t i o n , c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s a r e
a f f e c t e d and c e r t a i n o t h e r s n o t , t h i s i s u n d o u b t e d l y ,
i n g r e a t p a r t , because t h e f o r m e r s ^ m e n t a l c o n s t i t u t i o n
as e l a b o r a t e d b y n a t u r e a n d e v e n t s , o f f e r s l e s s
resistance t o the suicidogenetic
current.
But
t h o u g h t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s may s h a r e i n d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n s i n whom t h i s c u r r e n t b e comes e m b o d i e d , n e i t h e r t h e s p e c i a l q u a l i t i e s n o r
the i n t e n s i t y o f t h e c u r r e n t depend on t h e s e

180.

conditions,
A g i v e n number o f s u i c i d e s i s n o t
f o u n d a n n u a l l y i n a s o c i a l group j u s t because
i t c o n t a i n s a g i v e n number o f n e u r o p a t h i c p e r s o n s .
N e u r o p a t h i c c o n d i t i o n s o n l y cause the s u i c i d e s t o
succumb w i t h g r e a t e r r e a d i n e s s t o t h e c u r r e n t .
Whence comes t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
c l i n i c i a n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w and t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s .
The f o r m e r c o n f r o n t s e x c l u s i v e l y p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s ,
i s o l a t e d f r o m one a n o t h e r .
He e s t a b l i s h e s , v e r y
o f t e n , t h a t t h e v i c t i m was e i t h e r n e r v o u s o r an
a l c o h o l i c , and e x p l a i n s t h e a c t b y one o r t h e
other of these psychopathic s t a t e s .
I n a sense
he i s r i g h t |
f o r i f t h i s person rather than h i s
neighbors committed s u i c i d e , i t i s f r e q u e n t l y f o r
t h i s reason.
B u t i n a g e n e r a l sense t h i s m o t i v e
does n o t cause p e o p l e t o k i l l t h e m s e l v e s , n o r
e s p e c i a l l y , c a u s e a d e f i n i t e number t o k i l l t h e m s e l v e s i n each s o c i e t y i n a d e f i n i t e p e r i o d o f t i m e
The p r o d u c t i v e cause o f t h e phenomenon n a t u r a l l y
escapes the o b s e r v e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s o n l y ;
for i t
l i e s o u t s i d e individuals
8

pp.
It

does n o t

i n fact

means, t h o u g h h i s
to the

Durkheim's

3 2 3 - ^ .

l i e 'outside'

the

causal ideology, i s that

the

the

analysis

of p a r t i c u l a r

not

c a s e s , and

case w o u l d r e q u i r e
say

f r o m w h a t he

significant

i n situations

the
One

An

one

be

the

adherence

f a c t o r s he
c a n n o t be

gives

each

A l l one

can

d e s c r i b e s were
sure o f

their

concerned w i t h

Division

is

explanation of

suicide

of Labour =

sure what r o l e t h e y p l a y i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r

i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the

meaning

easily visible

e x p l a n a t i o n he

t h a t were n o t

D u r k h e i m e x p l o r e s t h i s avenue i n The
can

not

much more d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e .

i n c e r t a i n cases.

significance

are

concedes t h a t a f u l l

shows i s t h a t

his

cases.

Durkheim thus recognises t h a t

of rates

What D u r k h e i m

c r u c i a l complexes of

though operative i n i n d i v i d u a l suicides,

in

italics,,

individual.

e x p r e s s i o n o f i t i s c l o u d e d by

nor
factors

i n d i v i d u a l cases i s n e c e s s a r y however,

1 8 1 .

not

only to refine

and m o d i f y t h e g e n e r a l i t y o f Durkheim's

account, b u t t o v e r i f y

i ndetail

that

t h e f a c t o r s he d e s c r i b e s

were o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
A danger which Durkheim c a r e f u l l y a v o i d s , b u t which
b e s e t t i n g problem

of social

over-determination.
w h a t m i g h t be c a l l e d

scientific

explanation, i s that of

I t appears i n i t s most s t a r t l i n g
the l i b e r a l

paradox,

to

trial

he

came f r o m a p o o r home, h a d l i t t l e

f o r b u r g l a r y and i n h i s d e f e n c e

h i s counsel

says

had

a n d g e n e r a l l y t h a t he i s p o o r ,

a chance.

pity

This i s calculated

i g n o r a n t and never

to soften the jury

o n t h e man, e v e n t h o u g h he c o m m i t t e d

man's b a c k g r o u n d

siblings,

h i m , t h a t he i s

t o take

the offence.

h a r d e r form however i t p o s t u l a t e s c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
the

that

e d u c a t i o n , had l o w p a i d

j u s t b e f o r e t h e b u r g l a r y h i s w i f e had l e f t

an a l c o h o l i c

form i n

A man i s b r o u g h t

j o b s o r was u n e m p l o y e d , h a d d i v o r c e d p a r e n t s a n d many
that

isa

and c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s

In i t s
between

and t h e b u r g l a r y ,

s u c h t h a t he l i t e r a l l y n e v e r h a d a c h a n c e , b e i n g c o m p e l l e d b y
these

c a u s e s t o a c t as he d i d .

l/hat t h i s k i n d o f s t o r y

on i s a c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s mentioned
of

and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p

m i n d w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , p r i s o n was s e e n as l i t t l e

denied reasonable

merit.
links

opportunities

Such an a c c o u n t
explicit,

presented

ofthe

to a state

home, a n d s t e a l i n g was n o t s e e n as r e a l l y w r o n g s i n c e
had

relies

worse

than

society

f o r success b y e f f o r t and

h o w e v e r r a r e l y makes t h e s e

because i f i t d i d , evidence

t h a t i n d e e d t h e man d i d e x p e r i e n c e

would

presumed

h a v e t o be

t h e \tforld i n t h i s

182.

way,

and

such evidence i s hard

to prove,

I t i s the business

s o c i o l o g i s t s t o t r y t o o b t a i n i t , f o r i f t h e y do
in

danger o f p o s t u l a t i n g a s e r i e s o f e x p l a n a t i o n s

haviour

w h i c h can

Durkheim n o t e d ,

be

turned

constitute
limits

used t o get

point.

r e l i g i o n as
divorce

He

as

Durkheim's

'social currents'

situations

Not

which

o n l y are

there

r a t e as

is

of i t s e l f

explains

t h e Swiss s u i c i d e r a t e by

a n o m i c ( p . 26o),

by

objectionable

m u l t i p l y at the

= we

never claims

are

the a c t o r s

t o whom we

showed, b e i n g

attribute

give
i t .

As

analysis impossible,

but

confirm

While Durkheim's Suicide

group of such techniques,

t h e r e a r e many s t e p s

the

techniques

several

the

birds

explanations
We

must

significant

the previous
and

cases

having

adequacy.

r e a l l y was

sure i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t

our views.

and

that

familiar with

expense o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

and

Over-determination

i t o n l y becomes d u b i o u s when t h e

s u r e t h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n we

language

though of course i n b o t h

i s e i t h e r anomic o r e g o i s t i c .

stone;

over.

language, r e l i g i o n

many g o o d r e a s o n s f o r a s i n g l e a c t i o n , o f k i l l i n g
w i t h one

come

i s i n danger of o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n a t l e a s t a t

i s d e a l i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a t e s and
figure

rapidly

same phenomenon t w i c e

e g o i s t i c ( p . 1 5 ^ - ) and

entire

be

be-

t h a t to account,

a t s u c h e l e m e n t s , b u t we

the p o i n t o f e x p l a i n i n g the

not

are

t o s u c h a m a c r o a p p r o a c h i n t e r m s o f t h e number o f f a c t o r s

Durkheim h i m s e l f

he

and

to i s o l a t e

elements of s u i c i d a l

w h i c h can be

one

t h i s way

they

of his

f o r quite contradictory actions.

s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m was

to

not

of

chapter

i n the

last

we

take

can

to

represents

o f case s t u d y

to
one

and

1 8 3 o

participant

observation constitute

an i m p o r t a n t and n e c e s s a r y

check on t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t a r i s e

f r o m them

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f S u i c i d e i s n o t t h e n t o be t a k e n as a n
a t t e m p t t o show t h a t D u r k h e i m
but rather that
the p r a c t i c a l

t h e language

o f h i s methodology

concern o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,

t o come down h a r d o n e i t h e r

wanted

an i n d i v i d u a l

i s b e l i e d by
I h a v e no w i s h

side o f t h e cause-reason

c l a i m t h a t i n human a f f a i r s ,
Durkheim

was m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y i n e r r o r ,

t h e r e a r e no c a u s e s

o r t h a t , as

t o s a y , t h a t r e a s o n s a r e insignificant

or by references t o other a c t o r s '

them t o a c t , w h i c h f o r h i m a r e r e l a t i v e l y

objective

The d i f f i c u l t y

in

causally i s f i r s t

t r e a t i n g t h e a c t o r ' s reasons

a c t o r may be w r o n g i n h i s b e l i e f
the natural

about

either

reasons which

c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s own a c t i o n ,

like

What

c i t e s as a r e a s o n i s o r i n c l u d e s h i s v i e w o f t h e

c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h he a c t s
directly,

debate and

lead

quasi-causal

f o rthe sociologist
of a l l that the

the s i t u a t i o n .

The

actor,

s c i e n t i s t , uses a s e t o f concepts t o r e f e r t o

t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t e r m s o f w h i c h one t h i n g f o l l o w s f r o m a n o t h e r ,
'"A i s t h e c a u s e o f B" means t h a t w h e r e v e r
it

i s followed

( o r a t t e n d e d ) b y B,

o f A may n o t be f e a s i b l e

more t h e a c t u a l

(ideal) limit

Since a p r e c i s e

( o r discoverable) a less

f o r m u l a t i o n would use something l i k e

The

and whenever A o c c u r s ,
repetition

stringent

a mathematical l i m i t

process:

c o n d i t i o n A"*" a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e c o n c e i v e d

A, t h e more t h e a c t u a l e f f e c t B"*" w i l l

approximate

7
the i d e a l
1

e f f e c t B'

The r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o b s e r v e d

events

i s contingent

c o n j u n c t i o n , b u t they are c l a s s i f i e d by

and B

1 8 4

the concepts A and B between w h i c h t h e r e i s c l a i m e d

causal

connection

as A
are

law.

Insofar

and B
thus

events

e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f a general

t o be a

are events

c l a s s i f i e d b y t h e concepts A and B

conceptually related,

since

t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f these

i s s e e n as a n i n s t a n c e o f A c a u s i n g

part of a general

theory of i n t e r r e l a t e d

s i f i c a t i o n o f events

as i n s t a n c e s

articulation with theoretical

they

B which i n t u r n i s

concepts.

of general

The c l a s -

laws and t h e i r

e x p l a n a t i o n s goes some way t o

explain the p e c u l i a r "necessity" o f causal r e l a t i o n s ;

are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d b u t c l a s s i f i e d

according

events
t o concepts

which are p a r t o f a theory i n which t h e concepts are l o g i c a l l y

l i n k e d , a n d so t h e e v e n t s

appear t o be.

scientist,

a n d e v e n more l i k e l y

suggesting

a constant

classifying

is

t h e a c t o r may be w r o n g

c o n j u n c t i o n between two events

t h e events

i n s t a n c e o f A.

as he d o e s .

The s i g n i f i c a n t

t h a t i f he b e l i e v e s t h a t

ori n

- A"*" may n o t r e a l l y be a n

i t i s a n i n s t a n c e , he may a c t a s
t o understand

s i n c e i t may be h i s r e a s o n f o r a c t i n g .
a r e more m a l l e a b l e

in

t h i n g about t h e a c t o r however,

t h o u g h i t w e r e , and i t i s i m p o r t a n t

relations

Now o f c o u r s e t h e

this

belief,

F u r t h e r , because

than n a t u r a l events

social

he may b y a c t i n g

make i t t h e case t h a t A"*" i s a n i n s t a n c e o f A a n d t h a t A c a u s e s

B - he may b y a c t i n g i n a c e r t a i n way i n d u c e
in

accordance w i t h h i s d e f i n i t i o n .

analysis which ignores

of the a c t o r ' s ideas

others t o respond

A straightforward

causal

the complexities inherent i n the mediation

i n a c t i o n i n favour o f 'basic' f a c t o r s

'cause' h i m t o a c t i s t h e r e f o r e m i s l e a d i n g .

which

1 8 5 .

The s e c o n d d i f f i c u l t y
is

t h a t as A r o n p u t s

i t 'Every c a u s a l

or adequate, i s p a r t i a l
c u t t i n g up o f r e a l i t y
g
totalities.'

w i t h the causal

i t r e s u l t s from the

f r a g m e n t s , i t does n o t a p p l y t o

The c o n c e p t s i n t e r m s w h i c h we a n a l y s e

c a u s a l l y thus

a c t i o n on t h e b a s i s

of i t ,

we u n d e r t a k e a n a n a l y s i s .
sociologist's

b u t also

rejecting

unimportant
and

content

success-

t h e purposes f o r which

different

from

those o f

i s a problem i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two.
ignores, being

a n d so e n a b l e s

The p u r p o s e s a n d s c o p e o f t h e

analysis are often very

t h e a c t o r , and hence t h e r e

and

reality

r e f l e c t n o t o n l y t h e demands o f t h a t r e a l i t y f o r

a c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n t h a t does i t j u s t i c e
ful

of action

r e l a t i o n , whether a c c i d e n t a l

and a n a l y t i c ;

into

analysis

I ti s this

t h a t Durkheim

largely

t o assume a common d e f i n i t i o n o f s u i c i d e

t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w s o f t h e s u i c i d e s i t u a t i o n s as

compared w i t h t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s .

the actor's views are fused

currents i n a given

The s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

i n h i s a c c o u n t , where s o c i a l

s o c i e t y are elements o f i n d i v i d u a l

suicide

experiences.
Analysis

i n t e r m s o f cause and r e a s o n f u r t h e r

i n s o f a r a s a c t o r s do f r e q u e n t l y a c t on t h e b a s i s
otherwise

ascertainable

o f s t a t e d and

r e a s o n s , a n d so r e a s o n s a n d a c t i o n s

appear c o n s t a n t l y c o n j o i n e d .

Taken t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l a s t two

paragraphs, i t i s t h e r e f o r e apparent t h a t although

difference
result
and

overlap

there i s a

i n t h e language o f causes and reasons s u f f i c i e n t t o

i n a gestalt shift

although

i n t h e move f r o m

there are important

one t o t h e o t h e r ,

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e way t h e t w o

186.

kinds of account operate

w h i c h c a n n o t be

i g n o r e d , t h e r e are

also

marked s i m i l a r i t i e s .

I n everyday i n t e r a c t i o n f o r example,

we

tend to s l i d e

to the o t h e r , not

such

t e r m s as
factors

from

one

' c a u s e ' and

'compelling'

our a t t i t u d e

t o and

'motive'

we

c r e d i t w i t h reasons, those

of the r e g u l a r i t y

but also i n

of others i n action.

c o m p r e h e n d i n a common c u l t u r a l

to f u l l y

we

of

'objective'

t o reasons f o r i t ,

understanding

i n t e r a c t w i t h and

without being able

to refer both to

a c t i o n and

we

o n l y i n o u r use

Those

context

observe at a d i s t a n c e

understand

o f such b e h a v i o u r

t h e m , we

refer

as d e f i n e d b y

'behaving'
t o i n terms

ourselves:

the procedure of the c o u r t s i n c o n v i c t i n g people of crimes

the subsequent c o m p i l a t i o n o f c r i m i n a l

statistics

are

and

con-

9
tinuing exercise
It

of t h i s p r a c t i c e .

appears then, t h a t

r e s u l t s , but

that

causal

causal

l a n g u a g e i s on

to the e x p l a n a t i o n of s o c i a l
tive

quality,

and

techniques

operates

action,

may

the whole i n a p p r o p r i a t e

since

i t denies

f o r c e s and

m e d i a t e d r e s p o n s e t o s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h makes us

it

denies

seeing

The

c a u s a l m o d e l a l s o has

this mediation

and

taken place w i l l

i t s distinc-

so i g n o r e s
call

Any

o f no

analysis of

c h a r a c t e r and

ment t o t h e a g e n t .

We

longer
behaviour

i n e v i t a b l y have a c e r t a i n t y

rigidity

a d e f i n i t e meaning at the time o f

do n o t

see

the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

the

because

because, a l t h o u g h a c t i o n , i t i s a l s o a s e r i e s o f events
definite

an

behaviour

the consequence,

i t s significance,

t h e a c t o r s as f r e e a g e n t s .

t h a t has

important

on a m o d e l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l as

o b j e c t p r o p e l l e d by v a r i o u s c a u s a l

'action'.

yield

with a
enact-

f o r the

1 8 7 .

actor
Yet

as he d i d b e f o r e he a c t e d , we c o n c e n t r a t e

i t i s t h e f a c t t h a t human b e i n g s

are able

o n w h a t he d i d .

t o imagine

s i t u a t i o n s and consequences i n v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t ways, t o

remember a n d f o r e s e e ,
and t o c o n s t r u c t

that

alternatives

a fact characteristic
Actions past
If

those

among w h i c h t o c h o o s e .

o f every

a r e memories

we a d o p t a c a u s a l

t o be l i k e

e n a b l e s them t o c a l c u l a t e ,

action

past

so t h a t

action.

present

p a s t , whereas t h e i r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

and f u t u r e

feature i s

they are contrasted w i t h the

t h e q u e s t i o n may be a s k e d , Do I w a n t t o b e h a v e i n

t h e same way a g a i n
Obviously

f o r future

'compel' a c t i o n s

t h e i r openness and t h e f a c t t h a t

This i s

s i t u a t i o n as i t i s e v a l u a t e d .

and c o n d i t i o n s

v i e w we

t o innovate

o r c a n I do b e t t e r b y d o i n g d i f f e r e n t l y ?

i n many e a s e s t h e r e s p o n s e i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y

t h e same,

a n d t h e r e a r e enormous a r e a s o f r e g u l a r i t y i n s o c i a l l i f e
make i t s o c i a l l y p r e d i c t a b l e .
followed

which prevent

innovation.

simple

But these

There a r e a l s o r u l e s
c a l c u l a t i o n and

very rules

which

t o be

untrammelled

are subject t o constant r e 1

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as t h e y a r e r e - a p p l i e d " " ^ .
This

ongoing developmental

aspect

a severe l i m i t a t i o n on p r e d i c t i o n .

of social relations

Any p r e d i c t i o n we may make

i s b a s e d on t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t p e o p l e r e a c t
of

of

to a certain

s i t u a t i o n i n s i m i l a r ways on d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s

has a c o n s t a n t

m e a n i n g f o r them.

course i n any c a u s a l

they w i l l
with

react

analysis,

kind

- that i t

I n everyday l i f e ,

though n o t

we may go o n t o s u g g e s t how

t o o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s , assuming t h a t

t h e same g e n e r a l

implies

frame o f r e f e r e n c e , t h a t

t h e y do so

they thus

perceive

188.

w h a t we do a n d t h a t t h e y
of basis

act rationally

set o f c u l t u r a l

meanings, goals

of labour,

of the basic

concepts

exchange and c o n s u m p t i o n i n

t e r m s i s common t o n e a r l y a l l t h e members who h a v e b e e n

are i n c r e a s i n g l y induced t o a c t r a t i o n a l l y

segmented economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
not

and s t a b l e

a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h now

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g

production, wealth,

kind

The e c o n o m i c

s t a t e i s a complex b u t r i g i d

a w o r l d wide coverage.

and

I t i s on t h i s

t h a t e c o n o m i c s h a s made i t s s u c c e s s .

system o f an i n d u s t r i a l

general

act rationally

i n simple

To t h e e x t e n t

b u t o n some o t h e r b a s i s ,

material,

that they

do

the economist's

p r e d i c t i o n s become more c o m p l e x a n d e v e n t u a l l y b r e a k down i n

confusion.

On t h e w h o l e , a t l e a s t a t a macro l e v e l ,

appear t o f o l l o w t h e b a s i c
more o b v i o u s l y

close

predictability

i n the world

rules.

people

M i c r o - e c o n o m i c s h a s a much

r e l a t i o n s h i p with sociology.

Such a h i g h

o f f a s h i o n , by c o n t r a s t , i s unthink-

a b l e , b e c a u s e f a s h i o n c h a n g e s d e p e n d u l t i m a t e l y on a s e t o f
designers

and a p u b l i c r e a c t i o n t o t h e i r p r o d u c t s ,

which w i l l

be a c c e p t e d a n d mass p r o d u c e d .

a c c e p t e d a r e t h e ones t h a t a r e p e r c e i v e d
ie. t h e r e
are
as

o n l y some o f

The ones t h a t a r e
as a p p r o p r i a t e l y new,

i s a n o r m o f change a n d i n n o v a t i o n .

Naturally there

power and economic p r e s s u r e a s p e c t s and p r o p o g a n d a

t h e s l o w advent o f t h e m i d i and i t s t a k e o v e r

shows.

I n this

pushed i n t o

and w h o l e s a l e r s

stocking exclusively i n midis

p u b l i c had l i t t l e
that

case r e t a i l e r s

a different

choice

But t h i s

s e t o f values

aspects,

from

the mini

were

finally

so t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t

o f course i s o n l y

t o say

and i n t e r e s t s were a t w o r k

than

1 8 9

those a e s t h e t i c
on t h i s

ones o f f a s h i o n .

Winch has an a p t

quotation

pointo

I t may h e l p h e r e t o r e c a l l Humphrey L y t t l e t o n ' s

r e j o i n d e r t o someone who a s k e d h i m w h e r e J a z z was
goings
" I f I knew w h e r e J a z z was g o i n g I ' d be
there already,"
M a u r i c e C r a n s t o n makes e s s e n t i a l l y
notices
the

that

to predict

or making t h e i n v e n t i o n
oneself,

else w i l l

could not predict

happen b e f o r e
It

would involve

oneself.

w r i t i n g t h e poem

And i f one h a s a l r e a d y

then i t i s impossible

make u p t h a t

when he

the w r i t i n g o f a piece o f poetry or

m a k i n g o f a new i n v e n t i o n

this

t h e same p o i n t

to predict

poem o r d i s c o v e r t h a t

that

someone

invention,

i t happened,"

piece

an i m p o s s i b l e
empirical
is

that

of

social

of logic

(Freedom, p,

chopping.

task of a p r i o r i

possibility

the central
life

"He

i t b e c a u s e he c o u l d n o t s a y i t was g o i n g t o
166),

w o u l d be a m i s t a k e , t h o u g h t e m p t i n g , t o r e g a r d

a trivial

done

t h i s as

One a p p e a r s t o be

l e g i s l a t i o n against a

attempting

purely

What i n f a c t one i s s h o w i n g h o w e v e r ,

concepts which belong t o our understanding

are incompatible w i t h

concepts c e n t r a l

to the

1 2

actxvity

of scxentific

By s c i e n t i f i c
the

prediction,

p r e d i c t i o n W i n c h means c a u s a l p r e d i c t i o n

b a s i s o f an e s t a b l i s h e d

terms o f a g e n e r a l law.
least:

(l)

correlation of facts
Prediction

how t h e s e

polating

changes a r e l i k e l y

how p e o p l e ' s i d e a s w i l l

i n i t ;

on

explained i n

i n sociology involves

f i n d i n g w h a t p e o p l e t h i n k now;

s i t u a t i o n and t h e changes o c c u r r i n g
and

( 2 )looking

at

at their

( 3 ) f i n d i n g o u t when

t o be p e r c e i v e d ;

( 4 ) extra-

change, w h i c h i n v o l v e s

(a) a

190

straightforward logical
c h a n g e d c o n t e x t , and
conceptso
of

c o n s c i o u s and
irrational

fresh

e x i s t i n g ideas to

( i i ) w h i c h changes i n t h e i r

rational

of

t h e assessment o f ( i ) the i m p o r t a n c e

ideas w i l l

and w h i c h u n c o n s c i o u s

and

individuals
bo

perhaps

o r n o n - r a t i o n a l , and hence t h e assessment o f t h e

'weights'

o f t h e i d e a s i n practice

p r e d i c t b y l o o k i n g a t c o n d i t i o n s and
be

o f them i n a

( b ) p o s s i b l y the development

t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n , and

a n d g r o u p s , and

various

c o n c e p t u a l development

This involves

conditions,

c o n s t a n t , b u t t h i s means f a i l i n g

which are responses

movements e t c .

limitations

assuming

can t r y t o

that

to predict

ideas

those

t o changing c o n d i t i o n s = wars,

I t i s notable that

almost t o t a l l y

You

to predict h i s t o r i c a l

social

will

events

political

s c i e n c e has

failed

e v e n t s o f "this k i n d .

on p r e d i c t i o n i n s o c i o l o g y a r e s e t b y t h e c o n t i n u e d

dominance o f a s e t o f meanings i n t h e minds o f t h e p e o p l e

are

concerned

not

respond

The

world

with.

to situations

as we

see

of c u l t u r a l

on i d e a s a b o u t p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y

and

the natural

not

live

them o r

c o n s i s t s n o t o n l y o f ideas about

but

- that

'as t h e y r e a l l y
social

to

survive

o f o t h e r human b e i n g s

Even h e r e t h o u g h ,

i n a w o r l d o f f a n t a s y and b e c a u s e we

when p u t i n t o

i t i s natural

f o r us

on

people's

B e c a u s e we

do

are i n constant

the consequences i n m a t e r i a l r e a l i t y
action,

are .

relationships

traditions

i n t h e i r p h y s i c a l environment d i f f e r .

contact with

do

environment w h i c h are l e s s h e a v i l y dependent

o f view or a set of ideas.

interests

we

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y o f c o u r s e t h a t we

w h i c h d e p e n d on t h e m a i n t e n a n c e

a point

The

o f our ideas

to claim

that

there

1 9 1 .

is

some o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y t o w h i c h we may a l l respond, though i n

d i f f e r e n t ways, and t h a t t h i s may c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i s f o r an

a n a l y s i s , w h i c h c o u l d t h e n o f course be c a u s a l , even i f a t t h e
p r i c e o f i g n o r i n g conscious mediation
haviour.

and o n l y l o o k i n g a t b e -

We can o n l y c l a i m t o go a s h o r t d i s t a n c e i n t h i s

d i r e c t i o n however, and i t i s always a m a t t e r

far

f o r d i s c o v e r y how

s i t u a t i o n s a r e seen b y d i f f e r e n t groups i n t h e same way and

how f o r t h e i r responses a r e s i m i l a r .
Durkheim
at

showed t h a t response t o a s i t u a t i o n may n o t be

a h i g h l y conscious l e v e l .

Aspects o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f man

i n t h e modern i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e may be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r s u i c i d e s
w i t h o u t t h e a c t o r g i v i n g them as t h e r e a s o n f o r h i s s u i c i d e .
But Durkheim was n o t i n f a c t d i s c o v e r i n g u n d e r l y i n g

'natural'

or ' c a u s a l ' permanent f e a t u r e s about s o c i e t i e s , b u t u n d e r l y i n g

s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t i e s he
was

looking at.

When he t r i e d t o g e n e r a l i s e t o a l l s o c i e t i e s

n o t o n l y i s he on dangerous

ground, b u t t h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s

themselves a r e much l e s s r i c h and more l i m i t e d .

When we

p r e d i c t i n s o c i o l o g y , we may t h e r e f o r e be d o i n g t h r e e

different

k i n d s o f t h i n g s , none o f them i d e n t i c a l w i t h n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c
prediction.
(i)

We may conclude t h a t t h i n g s w i l l

continue

as t h e y

a r e , t h a t p e o p l e ' s i d e a s w i l l r e m a i n t h e same because

the s i t u a t i o n i s s t a b l e o r because t h e i d e a s a r e h i g h l y
valued.

1 9 2 .

(ii)

We

may

p r e d i c t developments i n v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s ,

w h i c h as Winch p o i n t s out w i l l be v e r y d i f f i c u l t

except

i n a g e n e r a l sense - we m i g h t be a b l e t o i n d i c a t e the
n e x t move, g i v e n t h e l o g i c o f the p r e s e n t

situation,

as i t i s u n d e r s t o o d by the a c t o r s .
(iii)

We may

p r e d i c t by p e r s u a s i o n , p o i n t i n g out t h e

u n i n t e n d e d and/or u n n o t i c e d aspects
s i t u a t i o n and

o f the c u r r e n t

s u g g e s t i n g changes i n the d i r e c t i o n o f

c o n s i s t a n c y and

c o n f o r m i t y w i t h a c t o r s more h i g h l y

v a l u e d ends w h i c h are a t p r e s e n t b e i n g compromised.

Even though we may
t h e n , we

use

the techniques o f causal a n a l y s i s

s h o u l d remember t h a t we are o n l y l o o k i n g a t those

s i t u a t i o n s where a c t i o n s w h i c h we observe d i d r e s u l t .
t h e n go on t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e

We

must

o f the meanings t h a t

l e a d t o these a c t i o n s i n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s where t h e y are r e l e v a n t

b u t do n o t l e a d t o a c t i o n o r t o t h e same k i n d o f a c t i o n .

Most

i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n we g i v e o f t h e observed r e l a t i o n s h i p between two s t a t i s t i c s i s n o t a c a u s a l one b u t a

one,

We

meaningful

do n o t e x p l a i n by r e f e r e n c e t o some g e n e r a l law b u t

by r e f e r e n c e t o the p e r c e i v e d f e a t u r e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h
the

a c t o r s were i n v o l v e d and the course

For people

o f t h e i r response t o i t .

are n o t caused t o a c t by i m p e r s o n a l i n e v i t a b l e f o r c e s

b u t l e d , c a j o l e d , t a u g h t , persuaded, f o r c e d and so on.

Ina l l

cases i t i s n o t the n a t u r e o f the s i t u a t i o n b u t the n a t u r e o f

the

perception of that sitxiation that i s important;

i s not causal but mediated.

T h i s m e d i a t i o n may

the response

n o t be

directly

1 9 3 c

i n t h e terms we use - Durkheim's s u i c i d e s d i d n o t c l a i m t o be

s u f f e r i n g from anomy - b u t t h e terms we use must r e f e r n o t t o
the

s i t u a t i o n as we see i t o r o n l y as we see i t and e s p e c i a l l y

n o t as we c l a i m i t ' o b j e c t i v e l y ' t o b e , b u t t o t h e s i t u a t i o n
as t h e a c t o r sees i t .

An example o f a b l a t a n t f a i l u r e t o do

t h i s w i l l perhaps make t h i n g s clearer

Davenport d i s c u s s e s

t h e f i s h i n g p r a c t i c e s o f a Jamaican

1 3

village

He d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e s i z e o f t h e catches and

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p a t t e r n s o f f i s h i n g i n v i e w o f t h e hazards
of

t i d e s , c u r r e n t s , w i n d s , r o c k s and c r a f t c o i n c i d e w i t h an

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n terms o f game t h e o r y .
men a p p a r e n t l y a r r a n g e

The f i s h e r =

t h e i r work t o o b t a i n maximum p a y o f f w i t h

minimum r i s k s , i n v o l v i n g f a i r l y complex c a l c u l a t i o n s ,

Now we

may suppose Jamaicans t o be r a t i o n a l enough, and p r e t t y

careful

where l i v e s and l i v e l i h o o d a r e concerned, b u t t h e y c l e a r l y had

no f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h game t h e o r y as t a u g h t on U.S. campuses,
And Davenport g i v e s us no i n d i c a t i o n as t o whether t h i s i s more
than a coincidence,

A l l he says i s , ' I f we can assume t h a t

human c u l t u r e , o r some o f i t a t l e a s t , i s a s e t o f p a t t e r n e d
s o l u t i o n s which has a c c r e t e d t h r o u g h t r i a l and e r r o r ,

then

such a n o n - p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f problem s o l v i n g s h o u l d have

some r e l e v a n c e t o t h e s t u d y o f c u l t u r e , '

p,3o

I t may i n d e e d

be t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n o f f i s h i n g , now t r a d i t i o n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d ,
has grown up and been accepted because i t g i v e s maximum p a y o f f ,
b u t Davenport g i v e s us no evidence

whatsoever beyond t h e be=

h a v i o u r concerned as t o whether t h i s i s c u l t u r a l a c c r e t i o n ,

coincidence,

or c a l c u l a t i o n .

I t t h u s c o n s t i t u t e s no e x p l a n a t i o n ,

m e r e l y an i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l .

Only when we know why t h e

Jamaicans f i s h as t h e y do and how t h e p r a c t i c e grew up s h a l l we

get t h a t ,

Davenport l e a v e s us w i t h t h e crude a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

f u n d a m e n t a l l y t h e r e i s o n l y one r e a l i t y and everyone r e a c t s t o

it

i n d i f f e r e n t ways, b u t t h e r e i s o n l y one r a t i o n a l way.

This r a i s e s the general question o f the r e l a t i o n of the

s o c i o l o g i s t ' s v i e w s t o those o f t h e a c t o r s when he g i v e s an

explanation,

I stressed i n the l a s t chapter

from u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h a t the s h i f t

what i s g o i n g on i n a c t o r s ' terms t o e x p l a i n -

i n g i t i n t h e o r e t i c a l terms i s an i m p o r t a n t one, and t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s an e s s e n t i a l p r e l i m i n a r y .

I t s h o u l d now be c l e a r

t h a t the reason f o r i t s importance i s t h a t i t i s c o n s t i t u t i v e

o f what i s t o be e x p l a i n e d .

The s o c i o l o g i s t ' s v i e w may w e l l

want t o i n c l u d e f e a t u r e s o f t h e w o r l d and s o c i a l l i f e
i g n o r e o r see d i f f e r e n t l y .
t h a t they s t i l l

that actors

What t h e s o c i o l o g i s t has t o show i s

respond t o these a s p e c t s ,

w h i c h he t h i n k s i m -

p o r t a n t , and t o show what t h e consequences o f i g n o r i n g them a r e .

His v i e w p o i n t and h i s t h e o r y may t h u s i n i t i a l l y be m a r k e d l y
d i f f e r e n t from t h e a c t o r ' s , b u t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n l i e s i n r e l a t i n g
the two, and t h i s i s why i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o be sure o f t h e i r
distinctness.

He has t o show how t h e a c t o r s p e r c e i v e

and respond

t o t h e problems t h a t he t h i n k s f u n d a m e n t a l , and t h e e x t e n t t o
which they

' a v o i d ' o r c o n f r o n t them.

U n t i l he does t h i s he has

o n l y a p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n and i s i n danger o f s u g g e s t i n g

that

the a c t o r s t o o a r e c o n s c i o u s l y r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e problems he i s

concerned w i t h .

F o r example, we m i g h t

say t h a t a l l s o c i e t i e s

have t o produce t h e means o f s u b s i s t e n c e

and l o o k a t t h e v a r i o u s

ways t h e y s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m , b u t t h i s does n o t i m p l y t h a t
recognise

any such p r o b l e m ,

may be v e r y l i t t l e
the c l i m a t e b e n i g n .

Indeed

they

f o r certain societies i t

problem i f f o o d i s n a t u r a l l y p l e n t i f u l and
What t h e s o c i o l o g i s t i s i n t e r e s t e d i n a r e

the consequences o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f s o l u t i o n t o t h i s s o r t
o f g e n e r a l problem and t h i s i n v o l v e s r e l a t i n g a c t u a l
and p r a c t i c e s t o t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n i n d e t a i l .
therefore

the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

beliefs

I n a l l cases

t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n has t o be shown

t o be i m p o r t a n t and r e l e v a n t i n terms o f what t h e a c t o r s t h i n k

and do.

I t cannot be argued t o be i m p o r t a n t because t h a t i s

' j u s t how t h i n g s a r e i n t h e w o r l d ' , n o t because t h e w o r l d i s o f

no s i g n i f i c a n c e

i n the l i f e

b e i n g s have an i n f i n i t e

o f s o c i e t i e s , b u t because human

c a p a c i t y f o r i g n o r i n g aspects

and one n e v e r knows w h i c h aspect u n t i l

C e r t a i n l y i t i s arguable

that basic

of i t ,

one goes and f i n d s

out.

'human needs* f o r example,

are everywhere s i g n i f i c a n t and no doubt t h i s c o u l d f o r m a b a s i s

for

e x t e n s i v e comparison and g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , b u t t h e r e a r e s t i l l

human b e i n g s

o c c a s i o n a l l y perverse

a methodological

enough t o i g n o r e them.

As

p r i n c i p l e i t i s always p o t e n t i a l l y m i s l e a d i n g

t o c l a i m t h a t such o r any f a c t o r s can n e c e s s a r i l y be t a k e n as

b e d r o c k on w h i c h t o b u i l d .

I t i s always a m a t t e r f o r i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n whether t h e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e l i v e s o f those one i s

i n t e r e s t e d i n and t h e c r u c i a l m a t t e r i s i n what way t h e y a r e
experienced

as s i g n i f i c a n t .

1 9 6 .

When e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s account o f 'what happened', t h e

s o c i o l o g i s t r e d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t s t h a t he must i n i t i a l l y understand.

A c t o r s t o o , and s o c i o l o g i s t s as a c t o r s ,

indulge

i n the retrospective

constantly

redescription of t h e i r acts to put

them i n a b e t t e r l i g h t o r t o show up u n r e c o g n i s e d consequences to p o i n t out t h a t i n doing A they also

descriptions

are p o s s i b l e

a c h i e v e B.

These r e =

because a c t s , though o r i g i n a t i n g i n

a p r o j e c t o f some s o r t a r e events i n t h e w o r l d ,
may be v a r i o u s l y p e r c e i v e d and c h a r a c t e r i s e d

and as events
1

- one s i n t e n t i o n

i n a c t i n g may n o t always be communicated t o o t h e r s .

and s o c i o l o g i s t t h e n g i v e

Both

actor

t h e a c t new meaning, and we may, i n

d o i n g so t a k e up a d i f f e r e n t e v a l u a t i v e

position i n relation

t o t h e a c t and t h e account o f i t f r o m t h a t t a k e n by t h e agent.

The s o c i o l o g i s t i s no d i f f e r e n t when he does t h i s t h a n t h e a c t o r
himself

or h i s f r i e n d s .

The d i f f e r e n c e

l i e s i n the i n t e r e s t s

and t h e o r e t i c a l background w i t h w h i c h t h e r e d e s c r i p t i o n i s made

and t h e scope o f t h e e x p l a n a t o r y c o n t e x t i n t o w h i c h i t i s t h e r e b y
put.

I n e i t h e r case however, such a r e d e s c r i p t i o n has t o t a k e

account n o t j u s t o f t h e a c t as e v e n t , b u t a l s o as p u b l i c l y
defined,

and p r e f e r a b l y

understood i t .

as t h e agent i n t e n d e d i t s meaning and

The r e d e s c r i p t i o n must t h u s comprehend t h e

o r i g i n a l version w i t h i n
In redescribing

it.

i t i n t h i s way t h e o r i g i n a l p o i n t o f v i e w

f r o m w h i c h t h e a c t was done i s t h e r e b y r e c o g n i s e d , b u t i t i s
incorporated

i n t o a new and t o some e x t e n t

d i f f e r e n t and l a r g e r

v i e w w h i c h overcomes t h e problems o f s o l i p t i s t i c r e l a t i v i s m

1 9 7 .

i n h e r e n t i n s t o p p i n g a t t h e stage o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a c t o r ' s i n t ention

i n actingo

The a c t o r ' s p a r t i c u l a r views and i n t e n t i o n s

i n a c t i n g are thus n o t i r r e l e v a n t t o b u t included

planation.

i n t h e ex-

The problem o f r e l a t i v i s m because o f w h i c h Weber

i n t r o d u c e s h i s c r i t e r i a o f c a u s a l and m e a n i n g f u l adequacy, i s
t h u s a v o i d e d and comparisons a r e p o s s i b l e .

Durkheim f o r example,

was a b l e t o show how t h e same s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s ,

material

conditions

that i s not only

b u t p e r c e p t i o n s o f these m a t e r i a l

conditions,

o p e r a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i a l i s e d s o c i e t i e s and l e d t o c e r t a i n
kinds of action.

He c o u l d t h e n c o n t r a s t

i n p r e - i n d u s t r i a l societies,,
not

t h i s set-up w i t h

He was a b l e t o make

that

generalisations

on t h e b a s i s o f permanent c a u s a l f a c t o r s , b u t on t h e b a s i s

of r e l a t i v e l y stable

s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s t o s i t u a t i o n s , the genesis

and

l i k e l y development o f w h i c h he was a l s o a b l e t o comment on.

The

e x p l a n a t i o n s he gave were t h e r e f o r e

meaningful, that i s not

a c t u a l l y i n terms o f anyone's m o t i v e s and reasons because he

was n o t t a l k i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l a c t s , b u t i n t h e same language,
e s t a b l i s h i n g how a s p e c t s o f t h e meaning i n terms o f w h i c h
s i t u a t i o n s were e x p e r i e n c e d a t a g e n e r a l l e v e l , l e d t o c e r t a i n
k i n d s o f g e n e r a l response t o some p e r s o n a l problem s i t u a t i o n s
(suicides).
two

Rather than e x p l a i n i n g

causal physical

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

f a c t o r s by r e f e r e n c e t o a l a w - w h i c h i n -

c i d e n t a l l y o f course makes t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n c e p t u a l i n t h e
l o n g term i f confirmed, f a c t o r s a t f i r s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a
phenomenon e v e n t u a l l y

becoming p a r t o f i t s d e f i n i t i o n - he shows

how s i t u a t i o n s i n v e s t e d

w i t h c e r t a i n meanings l e a d

to a certain

1 9 8 .

k i n d o f response,,

To c a l l t h i s l i n k

"conceptual

i s t o overdo

i t s e x p l i c i t c o n s c i o u s r a t i o n a l i t y , b u t i t becomes c o n c e p t u a l
r a t h e r t h a n the more hazy ' m e a n i n g f u l ' as i t i s b r o u g h t t o f u l l
consciousness o
The

q u e s t i o n o f r e l a t i v i s m t h a t l e d me

t o embark on

these

l a s t two c h a p t e r s i s t h e r e f o r e a t once a permanent problem

one t h a t can be c o n s t a n t l y overcome.
to claim that

'The

and

I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r Ryle

s c i e n c e s grow because the u n d e r g r a d u a t e

can

w i t h s u i t a b l e s c h o o l i n g be t r a i n e d t o s t a r t where E u c l i d , Harvey
14
and Newton l e f t o f f , '
We can assume a constancy about n a t u r a l
1 5

phenomena t h a t we

cannot

about s o c i a l .

In 19^3

i t was

possibl

f o r a r e s e a r c h e r i n t o h e r o i n a d d i c t i o n i n Great B r i t a i n t o c l a i m
t h a t i t was
In 1 9 7 1

a problem

t h i s was

l a r g e l y confined to middle class d o c t o r s

b l a t a n t l y no l o n g e r t r u e .

T h i s l e d Weber t o

c l a i m t h a t t h e r e are some s c i e n c e s t o w h i c h e t e r n a l y o u t h i s
1 6

g i v e n , the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s b e i n g among them

Durkheim's

method f o r overcoming t h i s d i s p a r i t y o f t i m e s and p l a c e s i n

r e g a r d t o 'the f a c t s ' was

t o s e a r c h f o r the more d u r a b l e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s o c i e t y and i t was
l a y them b a r e , and show how
were d u r a b l e .

He

social

h i s p e c u l i a r genius t o

t h e y were i m p o r t a n t and why

they

e x t r a p o l a t e d from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

c u l t u r e s o f t h e s o c i e t i e s he s t u d i e d , g e n e r a l elements

which

formed a b a s i s f o r comparison and g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , and showed

t h e y i n f o r m e d p a r t i c u l a r c o n c r e t e a c t i o n s i n the s o c i e t y .
d o i n g so he touches

how
In

on, though n o t v e r y e x p l i c i t l y i n S u i c i d e -

h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f anomy p r o b a b l y comes c l o s e s t - problems o f the

1 9 9 .

human c o n d i t i o n , o f assumptions about t h e n a t u r e o f men and o f

s o c i e t y , xv\hich c o n s t i t u t e t h e most g e n e r a l problems o f s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y and t h e b a s i c assumptions o f any a t t e m p t a t
explanation.
the

I n o r d e r f o r these t o f e a t u r e i n h i s account

s o c i o l o g i s t must show how t h e y t o o a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e

same sense i n t o t h e a c t o r ' s responses t o h i s environment and

t h u s how these responses can be seen i n t h i s l i g h t

Once

a g a i n t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c o n c r e t e a c t i o n s must be made c l e a r

I n t h i s case, t h e v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s b e i n g , many o f them, now

w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e e f f o r t s o f p o l i t i c a l and
s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h e r s i n t h e p a s t , t h e r e appears t o be some b a s i s
on w h i c h t o d e v e l o p t h e o r y .
Two, however,

the argument

As I have a l r e a d y shown i n Chapter

still

c o n t i n u e s f i e r c e l y around w h i c h

a l t e r n a t i v e s t o o p t f o r , and t h i s argument i s a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y
a m o r a l one<,
in

The a l t e r n a t i v e s do n o t c o n t i n u e t o be debated

t h e l i g h t o f t h e same s o c i a l phenomena, and t h i s may l e a d

t o t h e r i s e o f new c h o i c e s among t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s , new arguments

as t o t h e i r v a r i o u s m e r i t s and p o s s i b l y t h e development
o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l problems.

of s t i l l

R e l a t i v i s m t h u s remains a c o n s t a n t

d i f f i c u l t y , though as I s a i d e a r l i e r , one t h a t can be d i s p e n s e d

w i t h by s e t t l i n g f o r one s e t o f assumptions f i r m l y .
speaking though, d i f f e r e n t
the

r e s e a r c h e s make d i f f e r e n t

debate c o n t i n u e s as does t h e r e l a t i v e

Practically
c h o i c e s and

status of the r e s u l t s

o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h t o each o t h e r .
I t would appear t h e n , t h a t Weber's a t t e m p t a t c a u s a l a n a l y s i s
and v e r i f i c a t i o n was m i s c o n c e i v e d .

The t e c h n i q u e may be u s e f u l

2 0 0 o

i n d e t e c t i n g r e g u l a r i t i e s i n response t o s i t u a t i o n s s i m i l a r l y
e x p e r i e n c e d , b u t as a p h i l o s o p h y o f e x p l a n a t i o n

i t w i l l not do

The v e r i f i c a t i o n must be o f t h e t e c h n i q u e , o f whether

there

r e a l l y i s a s i m i l a r i t y o f response o r a chance i n c i d e n c e and

o f what t h i s means a t an i n d i v i d u a l and group l e v e l ,
was m i s l e d i n t o t h i n k i n g he c o u l d somehow show w i t h

Weber
greater

c e r t a i n t y what were the i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s

by c a u s a l analysis,,
theory,

L i k e Durkheim h i s p r a c t i c e b e l i e d h i s

as t h e Appendix shows,

F o r what i s n e c e s s a r y i s n o t

the i s o l a t i o n o f c a u s a l f a c t o r s and t h e a t t e m p t t o s e t up
g e n e r a l laws b u t t h e u n r a v e l l i n g o f s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s and
c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and t h e d i s c o v e r y o f f a c t o r s and problems
of s o c i e t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s from those o f every
day common sense b e h a v i o u r

I n most s o c i e t i e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n t h e modern i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e , a c t o r s
a l s o f r o m t i m e t o t i m e engage

and groups o f a c t o r s a r e

i n t h i s f o r m o f t h e o r i s i n g and

d e l v i n g below t h e s u r f a c e o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y , b u t u s u a l l y i n a
speculative

way

The s o c i o l o g i s t ' s j o b i s t o do t h i s

also,

and t h i s i s why i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o be c l e a r about what a r e h i s

views and what t h e a c t o r s .

N a t u r a l l y he w i l l draw on what he

has l e a r n e d i n h i s own s o c i e t y i n s t u d y i n g
t h e o r i e s w i l l be t h e t h e o r i e s

t h a t s o c i e t y and h i s

o f i t s members t o a l a r g e

However t h e element o f s p e c u l a t i o n

degree.

must be reduced and he must

c o n c e n t r a t e on showing how h i s t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s r e l a t e
to

t h e everyday p r a c t i c e o f those he s t u d i e s .

I f we a r e t o do

j u s t i c e t o t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f human a c t i o n , i t seems t h a t

2 0 1 .

the methodology o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e has t o be q u i t e m a r k e d l y

m o d i f i e d f r o m t h a t o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , and t h a t i n terms o f
the l o g i c a l s i m p l i c i t y and n e a t n e s s , t h e scope, p r e c i s i o n and
c u l m u l a t i v i t y of that are the hallmark o f a n a t u r a l

science,

s o c i a l s c i e n c e w i l l r e m a i n s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d o r more p o s i t i v e l y
'eternally youthful'.

Part o f t h i s y o u t h f u l n e s s i s i t s ever

changing i n t e r e s t s and t h e o r i e s
and

U t o p i a n debate.

Chapter Seven.

and i t s i n v o l v e m e n t i n m o r a l

I w i l l return to t h i s l a t t e r feature i n

A t p r e s e n t I want t o t a k e up t h e i m p l i c a t i o n

o f what I have s a i d a t t h e l e v e l o f p r a c t i c a l r e s e a r c h , and

c o n s i d e r t h e p r i n c i p a l e x p l a n a t o r y concept i n s o c i o l o g y ,
s t r u c t u r e i n the l i g h t of t h i s .

I n d o i n g so I s h a l l echo what

I have s a i d a l r e a d y , b u t some d i s t i n c t p o i n t s

of interest w i l l

a l s o emerge, i n p a r t i c u l a r what t o do about t h e s t a t u s

i n d i v i d u a l i n d i s c i p l i n e s which i f they claim
must s u r e l y g e n e r a l i s e .

social

of the

t o be s c i e n c e ,

Once a g a i n t h e problems o f t h e v a r i -

a b i l i t y and u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a r i s e , and o f
the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s o c i o l o g i s t t o those he
and
ific

investiages,

once a g a i n compromises have t o be made by a ' n a t u r a l

scient

* v i e w o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e , though i n t h i s case t h e com-

p r o m i s i n g t u r n s o u t t o be by no means a l l on t h i s

side.

C H A P T E R

F I V E

WHAT I S SOCIAL STRUCTURE?

The n o t i o n

o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e has f o r a l o n g t i m e been t h e

basic t o o l o f the s o c i o l o g i s t i n explaining

It

constitutes

society

t o itself

the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s view o f the agglomeration o f

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h make up t h e s o c i e t y , and i n d o i n g
so draws t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r

degree, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o r e t i c a l

p r e d i l e c t i o n , upon t h e views o f t h e s e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and o f

the s o c i e t y

as a whole w h i c h a r e h e l d by t h e a c t o r s

The p r e c i s e e x t e n t t o w h i c h i t r e f l e c t s a c t o r s '
l o g i s t s ' i n t e r e s t s has always been p r o b l e m a t i c .
it

cannot j u s t r e f l e c t a c t o r s '

concerned,

views o r s o c i o On t h e one hand

v i e w s because these a r e i n c o n =

s i s t e n t between i n d i v i d u a l s , and e s p e c i a l l y between groups and

social categories;

on t h e o t h e r hand i t cannot be e n t i r e l y a

sociological construct

f o r i f i t were i t would be i m p o s s i b l e f o r

the s o c i o l o g i s t t o say w h i c h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s he was t a l k i n g

about*

I n e v i t a b l y i t consists

i n f u d g i n g the a c t o r ' s views

t o g e t h e r t o make them c o n s i s t e n t ,

o f t e n w i t h the help o f general

i d e a s t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g i s t t h i n k s i m p o r t a n t t o s o c i e t i e s o f any
k i n d , and i n so d o i n g , p o i n t i n g t o a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l
w h i c h h a b i t u a l l y escape t h e n o t i c e

o f a c t o r s , b u t w h i c h nonethe=

less c o n s t i t u t e important s o c i a l conditions

The e x p l a n a t o r y f o r c e

relations

for their

actions.

o f t h e concept o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

2 0 2

derives

2 0 3 .

from i t s attempt t o c o n s t r u c t

a t o t a l p i c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y and

i n so d o i n g t o p i c k o u t a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e
important but ignored.
then:
But

The s o c i o l o g i s t says t o t h e a c t o r s

'You t h i n k you a r e d o i n g X - t h a t i s what you c a l l i t .

X, t o g e t h e r w i t h Y and Z make u p O ^ , and l o o k a t t h e i m -

p l i c a t i o n s o f ^ n o t o n l y f o r X, Y and Z b u t f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e
alphabet'.

This explaining

of society

t o i t s e l f takes place

b o t h i n terms o f p o i n t i n g o u t what i s done = what a c t i o n s

con-

s t i t u t e ^ - and how t h i s i s concealed by t h e concepts b e l i e f s

and v a l u e s t h a t a r e used as t h e v o c a b u l a r i e s o f a c t i o n = why
i s experienced n o t a s ^ but s e v e r a l l y

as X, Y and Z.

This i s only the p o s i t i v e , r e v e l a t o r y

a r t however.

side o f the s o c i o l o g i c a l

L i k e a l l a r t s , i t i s based upon t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n

of u n d e r s t a n d i n g those upon whom i t i s p r a c t i s e d ,

noticed,

the s o c i o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n which i s c a l l e d

structure

i s a deviation

from t h i s understanding.

u n c l e a r i s t h e adequacy o f t h i s d e v i a t i o n ,
it

social

What i s

t h e process by w h i c h

i s a c h i e v e d and i t s e x a c t r e l a t i o n t o what a c t o r s t h i n k i s

happening i n s o c i e t y
are.

and t o what t h e s o c i o l o g i s t s '

predilections

To t a c k l e a l l t h e many and complex e f f o r t s by s o c i o l o g i s t s

to specify
here.

an answer t o these q u e s t i o n s i s o f course i m p o s s i b l e

What I hope t o do i s t o l o o k a t one p a r t i c u l a r d e v e l o p -

ment i n t h e c o n t i n u i n g
not

and as a l r e a d y

debate on t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l

structure,

o n l y t o c o n s i d e r t h i s problem i n i t s own r i g h t b u t t o i l l u s -

t r a t e and expand t h e concerns o f t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s

2 0 4 ,

The development
r e a c t i o n i n the
actions

w i t h w h i c h I s h a l l be concerned i s t h e

1 9 6 0 * s

by p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s and s y m b o l i c i n t e r -

t o the functionalism of the

I n particular I

1 9 5 0 ' s .

s h a l l f o c u s on t h e f i e l d i n w h i c h t h e debate has c o n c e n t r a t e d ,
t h a t o f d e v i a n c e , and so make no a t t e m p t t o cover t h e f u l l
l i t e r a t u r e i n the subject*

The debate has been s h a r p e s t i n

the d i s c u s s i o n o f deviance because t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e

d e v i a n t a c t r a i s e s a problem f o r t h e consensus
functionalism.

Parsons, f o r example,

assumptions o f

a s s e r t s 'There i s no such
1

t h i n g as a c t i o n except as e f f o r t t o conform t o norms ^.

Because

o f t h e s e assumptions and those o f e q u i l i b r i u m and system, f u n c tionalism postulated

a v i e w o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e as an i n t e g r a t e d

system o f s o c i a l r o l e s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l i s a t i o n , i n
terms o f w h i c h d e v i a t i o n was an anomaly.

Merton's a t t e m p t t o

account f o r deviance w i t h i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t model and subsequent s u b c u l t u r a l t h e o r i s t s ' e f f o r t s t o d e a l w i t h t h e more

b l a t a n t shortcomings o f t h i s , s t i l l

i n s i s t e d on t h e o v e r -

s o c i a l i s e d v i e w o f man, and c o n s e q u e n t l y were a b l e t o p o s i t

m e c h a n i s t i c systems o f a c t i o n i n w h i c h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e d e t e r m i n e d
a c t i o n i n an a p p a r e n t l y i n e v i t a b l e and u l t i m a t e l y c a u s a l way.
The

s h i f t from c l a i m i n g

t h a t a c t i o n s were p r e d i c t a b l e

basis of understanding actors' motivation v i a r o l e

on t h e

structures

t o c l a i m i n g t h a t these s t r u c t u r e s d e t e r m i n e d t h e i r a c t i o n s was
made p o s s i b l e by t h e b l u r r i n g o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e
a c t o r s ' and t h e s o c i o l o g i s t s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e s and t h e i r
d i f f e r e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n i f i e d concept o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

2 0 5 o

I f t h e l a t t e r was seen as a s o c i o l o g i s t ' s c o n s t r u c t

based on

observed o b j e c t i v e r e g u l a r i t i e s i t c o u l d be argued t o be o f
c a u s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e r a t h e r t h a n a s h o r t hand d e s c r i p t i o n o f
h a b i t u a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s t a n d a r d i s e d sources o f b e l i e f s and

motivations.

The r e a c t i o n t o t h i s v i e w was t h e r e f o r e
r e j e c t i o n o f many o f i t s a s s u m p t i o n s .

simultaneous

The o v e r s o c i a l i s e d

o f man was q u e s t i o n e d and t h e d e t e r m i n i s m o f s o c i a l

rejected.

structure

The assumptions o f system and e q u i l i b r i u m were

doubted and r a i s e d as e m p i r i c a l problems r a t h e r t h a n

as t h e o r e t i c a l f i a t .

t o t h e a c t o r and h i s e x i s t e n t i a l

dilemmas - how f a r was he f r e e ?

who c o n s t r a i n e d

postulated

A t t e n t i o n s h i f t e d from t h e s o c i a l f a b r i c

seen i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f a c t o r s

him? - Why?

- t o xvhat d i d he respond? -

I n t h e course o f t h i s

outburst,

q u e s t i o n s w h i c h had been b u r i e d b y f u n c t i o n a l i s m were

as d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c .
the a c t o r ?

t o understand

How were norms and b e l i e f s a p p l i e d

and e f f e c t i v e

s o c i o l o g i s t and t h e a c t o r ?

What i s t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e
What k i n d o f assumptions does t h e

s o c i o l o g i s t have t o make when s t u d y i n g

their
It

revived

How f a r c o u l d he c l a i m

in real social interaction?

are

view

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and what

implications?

i s a p p a r e n t t h a t these a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t have con-

cerned me i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s .

The r e a s o n t h a t I want

t o e x p l o r e them i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e debate on
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s n o t o n l y by way o f i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e
p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f what I have been s a y i n g , b u t a l s o

2 0 6

because t h e c o u n t e r - v i e w t o f u n c t i o n a l i s m w h i c h has emerged has

shortcomings

which d r a m a t i c a l l y r e f l e c t the d i f f i c u l t i e s

I have d e a l t w i t h

which

T h i s v i e w proposes a c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon

i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e f r o m w h i c h

little

s h o u l d be a b s t r a c t e d and s e l e c t e d , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s o u t o f w h i c h
a more g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and u l t i m a t e l y o f
s o c i e t y s h o u l d be b u i l t

The problem becomes i n McHugh's words

'Granted t h e p r e - e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i e t y as an a b s t r a c t i o n .

But

how does t h i s a b s t r a c t i o n e n t e r i n t o t h e d a i l y l i v e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s whose d e f i n i t i o n s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g made and r e =

2

made?

T h i s a t t i t u d e i s i n a c c o r d w i t h my c o n c l u s i o n i n t h e

preceding chapter

But i t t u r n s o u t t h a t i f systems t h e o r y

a b s t r a c t e d so much from man as t o l e a v e him s o u l l e s s , phenomena

o l o g y i n c l u d e s so much as t o make h i m i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e .

In

o r d e r t o make sense o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e t h e i n d i v i d u a l has t o

a b s t r a c t , s e l e c t and c o n c e p t u a l i s e , and i n o r d e r t o make sense
o f many i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e s o c i o l o g i s t has t o go a stage

further,

y e t w i t h t h e c e r t a i n knowledge t h a t i n so d o i n g he i s l e a v i n g
t h i n g s o u t t h a t he can never be sure a r e n o t i m p o r t a n t
again then the inadequacies

o f a causal n a t u r a l

approach a r e exposed and a s u b s t i t u t e developed

Once

scientific
which t r i e s t o

do more j u s t i c e t o human a c t i o n on i t s own t e r m s .

I n t h i s case

however, t h e r e l a t i v i s m i n h e r e n t i n such a move becomes extreme

because o f t h e f o r c e s on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e s i n g l e

interaction

s i t u a t i o n , whose p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s a r e e x p l o r e d adnausearn w i t h
the i n e v i t a b l e l i m i t a t i o n t h a t e i t h e r one assumes o t h e r people

207

and s i t u a t i o n s a r e t h e same, w h i c h g i v e n t h e d e t a i l now a t one's

d i s p o s a l i s a b s u r d , o r e l s e one i s s t u c k i n r e l a t i v i s t i c

isolation

w i t h an account o f a few people and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n .

r e t u r n t o n o t i o n o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e which p o i n t s t o s i m i l a r i t i e s
and c o n s t r a i n t s i s e s s e n t i a l , though t h i s can no l o n g e r be o f
the

t r a d i t i o n a l m e c h a n i c a l k i n d , whereas i n Durkheim's account

of

i t , what t h e s o c i o l o g i s t sees c o u n t s f o r e v e r y t h i n g j and what

the

actor thinks f o r nothings

The n a t u r e o f t h i s

compromise

w h i c h envisages s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e as t h e sense t h e s o c i o l o g i s t
makes o f a c t o r s ' e x p e r i e n c e r a i s e s once a g a i n t h e r e l a t i o n between
the

two s e t s o f v i e w s , and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s e n t a i l e d by t h e

s o c i o l o g i s t ' s p a r t i c u l a r purposes. Once a g a i n , r e l a t i v i s m

out

manoeuvred

o f t h e back door by compromise , i n s t a n t l y reappears a t t h e

fronto

The problem o f on what b a s i s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t makes

sense o f what he f i n d s , what assumptions he makes i n c o n s t r u c t i n g

his

g e n e r a l model and o f i t s r e l a t i o n t o what t h e a c t o r s

t h u s emerges as a c r u c i a l dilemma
t h i s i n p r e v i o u s pages;

think

I have a l r e a d y d e a l t w i t h

i n t h e course o f t h i s c h a p t e r I s h a l l

say a good d e a l more about i t , a l b e i t n o t always v e r y d i r e c t l y , ,

Such i s my strategy,,

My t a c t i c w i l l be t o t a k e a s e r i e s

o f w r i t e r s and t h e i r works one by one t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r

tive contributionso

I shall f i r s t

take three

distinc-

functionalist,

N a d e l , M e r t o n and Cohen, c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t
account o f d e v i a n c e b u t i n c l u d i n g t h e g e n e r a l v i e w o f what
structure consists i n ,

I will

social

t r y t o show what I t h i n k i t s

s h o r t c o m i n g s were and how t h e y were p e r n i c i o u s

I then t u r n

208,

t o a number o f p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s / i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
w r i t e r s on d e v i a n c e , t o see how

t h e a t t a c k was

launched

and

s u s t a i n e d b u t a l s o t o p o i n t out the l i m i t a t i o n s f o r s o c i o l o g y
i n so opposed a view,,

F i n a l l y I w i l l make some comments as

t o p o s s i b l e developments

S.F, Nadel - The

Theory o f S o c i a l Structure

T h i s i s an i n t e r e s t i n g book, and

a good d e a l more s e n s i t i v e

t o the problems i n v o l v e d t h a n the a u t h o r ' s

m a t i c a l f o r m a l i s a t i o n would i m p l y .

concern w i t h mathe-

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n view

o f t h i s , t o n o t i c e two f a c t s about i t .

I t was

published

19579 the same y e a r as Merton's S o c i a l Theory and

(revdo edn )<>

Social Structure

Parson's S o c i a l System and Towards a G e n e r a l

Theory o f A c t i o n had

appeared e a r l i e r i n the decade, whereas

Goffman d i d n o t f i n i s h h i s PhDo T h e s i s u n t i l 1953 and

w i t h G a r f i n k e l was
by 1957

The

day

j u s t beginning

had

along

t o produce s i g n i f i c a n t

second n o t e w o r t h y f a c t i s t h a t Nadel was

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t who
As

in

articles
an

spent some y e a r s i n the f i e l d i n A f r i c a , ,

such, he had been t r a i n e d t o n o t i c e the d e t a i l o f r e a l

i n t e r a c t i o n and n o t t o s p e c u l a t e

book t h u s r e p r e s e n t s

every-

on a g r a n d i o s e s c a l e ,

The

the coming t o g e t h e r o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

concern w i t h c u l t u r e , i d e a s , and r e a l i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n ,
and

the s o c i o l o g i c a l concern w i t h a b s t r a c t s y s t e r a a t i s a t i o n ,

Nadel r e c o g n i s e s

t h i s e a r l y i n the book i n r e m a r k i n g t h a t ' S o c i a l

s t r u c t u r e ' i s s t i l l a problematic
l o n g been a c c e p t e d i n sociology,.

term i n a n t h r o p o l o g y

but

has

A l t h o u g h the book t a k e s

the

209.

plunge i n t o a b s t r a c t i o n and s y s t e m a t i s a t i o n , Nadel r e t u r n s t o

t h i s concern a t t h e end, as I w i l l p o i n t out
While r e c o g n i s i n g

the v a r i e t y o f formulations

o f the

concept ' s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ' , Nadel i s e v i d e n t l y concerned t o see

what can be done w i t h i t ,

and so r e g a r d s i t as f u n d a m e n t a l l y

u n p r o b l e m a t i c most o f t h e t i m e

collection of varied notions,

t h e common elements o f a b s t r a c t i o n ,

system, s t a b l e and d e f i n e d
to construct
which i m p l i e s
results.

He q u i c k l y a b s t r a c t s

from t h e

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n , and t h u s t h e a b i l i t y

a whole independent o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s ,
the t r a n s p o s a b i l i t y , i e
0

generalisability, of

He d e f i n e s s o c i e t y - a l b e i t n o t r e a l l y a c l e a r e n t i t y -

i n accordance w i t h t h i s v i e w
' o o o o
S o c i e t i e s a r e made up o f p e o p l e | s o c i e t i e s have
b o u n d a r i e s , people e i t h e r b e l o n g i n g t o them o r n o t ;
and people b e l o n g t o a s o c i e t y i n v i r t u e o f r u l e s
under w h i c h t h e y s t a n d and w h i c h impose on them
r e g u l a r d e t e r m i n a t e ways o f a c t i n g towards and i n
r e g a r d t o one a n o t h e r ,
1

Po8
We may n o t e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t t h i s i s a consensus d e f i n i t i o n , as
may be e x p e c t e d , and a l s o t h a t t h e r u l e s a r e seen n o t o n l y as
consensus b u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y as c o n s t r a i n t i n a D u r k h e i m i a n
manner.

The n o t i o n i s t h e c l a s s i c f u n c t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f s o c i e t y

as o r d e r e d by a b a s i c consensus w h i c h ensures c o n f o r m i t y and

regular patterns
The

of action.

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e occur a c c o r d i n g t o

r u l e s , t h e n , and these d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a t i o n s and t h e k i n d o f

people who may be i n v o l v e d ?
roles, p

11.

relationships exist i n virtue of

210.

We a r r i v e a t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y t h r o u g h
a b s t r a c t i n g f r o m t h e c o n c r e t e p o p u l a t i o n and i t s
b e h a v i o u r t h e p a t t e r n o r n e t w o r k ( o r "system') o f
r e l a t i o n s o b t a i n i n g "between a c t o r s i n t h e i r capa c i t y o f p l a y i n g r o l e s r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r " '
0

p
Evidently
xng

12 ( t h e quote i s f r o m Parson's Essays)

we need an adequate t h e o r y o f roles,, and i n t h e f o l l o w 3

c h a p t e r Nadel t r i e s t o s u p p l y it
He n o t e s t h a t t h e concept o f r o l e i s one borrowed f r o m t h e

r e a l s o c i a l w o r l d and r e f i n e d by s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s - i t i s n o t
an i n v e n t i o n ,

I t s c r u c i a l f u n c t i o n i s the separation o f the

s o c i a l from the t o t a l i t y o f aspects o f i n t e r a c t i o n , since the

s o c i o l o g i s t must a v o i d t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y
clearly affect actual

interactions

which

The concept o f r o l e seems

t o s u p p l y him w i t h the v e r y i n s t r u m e n t r e q u i r e d
only t o the p u b l i c , learned, external

since- i t r e f e r s

a s p e c t s and i g n o r e s i n -

d i v i d u a l i d i o s y n c r a s i e s i n performance
The concept needed t o b r i d g e t h e gap between s o c i e t y
and t h e i n d i v i d u a l must t h e r e f o r e r e f e r n o t t o t h e
c o n c r e t e unique human b e i n g s l i v i n g and a c t i n g a t
any p o i n t o f t i m e , b u t t o i n d i v i d u a l s seen as b u n d l e s
of q u a l i t i e s ;
t h e q u a l i t i e s a r e those d e m o n s t r a t e d
i n and r e q u i r e d by t h e v a r i o u s t a s k s , r e l a t i o n s e t c . ,
t h a t i s b y t h e g i v e n , s p e c i f i e d ' c o n s t a n c i e s o f beh a v i o u r ' i n accordance \ \ i t h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s must
act;
w h i l e t h e 'bundle' c o r r e s p o n d s t o a c l a s s o r
t y p e concept i n c l u d i n g any and a l l i n d i v i d u a l s exh i b i t i n g t h e c a p a c i t i e s i n question,,
We can e x p r e s s
more s h a r p l y t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e a c t o r as a g a i n s t
the c o n s t a n c y o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n expected o f h i m b y
d e s c r i b i n g t h e l a t t e r as a p a r t t o be p l a y e d .
Which
i s p r e c i s e l y what t h e concept o f r o l e i s d e s i g n e d t o d o ,
r

21

H a v i n g i s o l a t e d t h e k i n d o f t h i n g we a r e i n t e r e s t e d
n e x t stage i n t h e a n a l y s i s i s t h e f i t t i n g

i n , the

together of a l l the

211,

pieces

( r o l e s and r e l a t i o n s ) i n t o an o r d e r w h i c h we may c a l l

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and i n t h e p r o c e s s ,

p r u n i n g o f f those

aspects

w h i c h a r e p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e s i t u a t i o n we d i s c o v e r i n an e f f o r t
t o expose t h e s k e l e t o n o f e s s e n t i a l s .

T h i s w i l l have t h e

f u r t h e r advantage, b e s i d e s l a y i n g bare t h e b a s i s o f t h e s o c i e t y ,
of a l l o w i n g

f o r the generalisation

o f t h e r e s u l t s and by com-

parison w i t h other s o c i e t i e s , the establishment

o f laws,

In presenting a social structure without reducing

the q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e component r e l a t i o n s
we s h o u l d f a i l i n two r e s p e c t s ;
n o t o n l y would i t
be i m p o s s i b l e t o combine them s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n a
s i n g l e o r d e r , b u t i t would a l s o be f u t i l e t o t r y
and t r a n s p o s e t h a t o r d e r . '
p, 106.
There are t h r e e l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c t i o n :
instances o f r o l e behaviour

ignore the v a r i e t y o f

t o get a t the constant

relationships

i g n o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e r f o r m i n g them t o g e t a t t h e r o l e s
selves;

them-

and i g n o r e t h e q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f r u l e s and

r e l a t i o n s and c o n c e n t r a t e

on t h e i r s y s t e m a t i c

nature,

'Our aim i n moving t o t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n i s t o f i n d c r i t e r i a whereby we can demonstrate

the p o s i t i o n a l p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d by a c o l l e c t i o n o f
people e n a c t i n g t h e i r v a r i o u s r o l e s r e l a t e d t o one
another.
O b v i o u s l y , we s h a l l t r y t o make t h i s
p i c t u r e as comprehensive as p o s s i b l e and t o g e t as
near as we can t o an o v e r a l l arrangement o r o r d e r , '
p, 109.
I am tempted t o c l a i m a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t Nadel b e l i e v e s t h a t any
degree o f a b s t r a c t i o n

i s p e r m i s s i b l e t o demonstrate o r d e r , b u t

he remarks t h a t t h e r i g o u r o f t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n i s
d e c i d e d by e x p e d i e n c y - what a l l o w s one t o t r a n s p o s e
something t o be t r a n s p o s e d .

b u t leaves

212.

I n a l l o w i n g t h i s Nadel r e f l e c t s h i s background as
anthropologist:

he r e c o g n i s e s

t h a t the r e l a t i o n s we

an

are

talking

about can i n the l a s t a n a l y s i s o n l y be made sense o f i n terms

o f the c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f them.
we are l e f t w i t h nothing,,

I f we

a b s t r a c t these away

I n the l a s t c h a p t e r

the e x t e n t t o w h i c h he b a u l k s

o f the book,

a t the r e s u l t s o f h i s own

en-

t h u s i a s m becomes more e v i d e n t .
'But what makes s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s r e a l l y i n f o r m a t i o n ,
i t seems t o me, i s n o t the f i n a l p o s i t i o n a l p i c t u r e
a t a l l , b u t the s t e p s t h a t l e a d t o i t .
Our g a i n
l i e s i n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the a p p r o p r i a t e a n a l y t i c a l
methods, n o t i n g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r , s c h e m a t i c a l l y ,
the r e s u l t s , f o r i t i s i n the course o f t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t we achieve a p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t i n t o t h e
w o r k i n g o f society,,
Every s t e p i n the many a b s t r a c t i o n s and comparisons we have t o make r e v e a l s c r u c i a l
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e s - between i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e i r r o l e s ,
between r o l e s and the r e s t o f s o c i e t y , and between
groups b u i l t out o f r o l e s .
Above a l l , i n p r o g r e s s i v e l y d i s c o u n t i n g the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l
s i t u a t i o n s ( w h i c h i s the essence o f a b s t r a c t i o n ) we
p r e p a r e the way f o r the d i s c o v e r y o f g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e g u l a r i t i e s , and hence o f t h e l a w f u l ness - such l a w f u l n e s s as o b t a i n s = i n the r e a l m o f
social existence.'
p. 15^o
What the s t u d e n t s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e r e a l l y do i s
d e s c r i b e , s t i l l i n h e a v i l y q u a l i t a t i v e terms, types
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and g r o u p s , t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s
t h r o u g h a c t i v i t i e s and r e c r u i t m e n t , the b e l i e v e d - i n
v a l u e s and norms o f t h e p e o p l e , and t h e o b t a i n i n g
s a n c t i o n i n g mechanisms; nor do t h e y e x c l u d e t h e
p s y c h o l o g i c a l concomitants of r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( ' l o y a l t i e s ' ,
' s e n t i m e n t s ' and o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n s ) .
I n no sense
do these s t u d i e s bear out the c l a i m o f the ' s t r u c t u r a l i s t ' school t h a t they f o l l o w r i g o r o u s procedures
and aim a t h i g h - l e v e l a b s t r a c t i o n s . '
P o

155

213*

Nadel has, as i t were, approached n a t u r a l s c i e n c e w i t h a

h i g h h e a r t , o n l y t o remember as he f i n a l l y
of

t h e a w f u l machine,

s t o o d i n t h e embrace

t h a t what he had b r o u g h t w i t h him were

human b e i n g s , n o t objects

And he q u a i l s .

Not o n l y does he

recognise t h a t t h e a c t o r s ' ideas are e s s e n t i a l t o t a l k i n g

the

r e l a t i o n s i n an i n t e l l i g i b l e

about

way, b u t a l s o t h a t t h i s has

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t r a n s p o s i b i l i t y o r l a w f u l n e s s - 'such l a w f u l n e s s
as o b t a i n s ' .

I f t h e whole e n c a p s u l a t i n g s t r u c t u r e i s s t i l l

dependent on t h e i d e a s used t o d e f i n e i t s p a r t s and t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s , a l b e i t pruned

o f extraneous

inter-

e l e m e n t s , how can one

g e n e r a l i s e except t o s t r u c t u r e s based on t h e same s e t o f d e f i n i tions?

I f we l o o k back, t h e i d e a s t h a t l e a d up t o t h i s w i t h d r a w a l
can be seen t o be w r i t t e n i n f r o m t h e v e r y f i r s t , i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c i e t y i n terms o f a c o n s t r a i n i n g and a l l p e r v a s i v e
consensus and t h e c a r e f u l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e r o l e s as l i n k e d s e t s
of

s c r i p t s f r o m t h e a c t o r s who p e r f o r m them, I t i s n o t a b l e

t h a t Nadel has v e r y l i t t l e

t o say about power and i t s i n f l u e n c e

s

on t h e p l a y i n g o f those r o l e s s

h i s assumption

i s that

operates a c c o r d i n g t o the r u l e s , which, i n i t i a l l y

society

prescriptive

and m o r a l , come t o be seen t h r o u g h a b s t r a c t i o n as d e s c r i p t i v e

and d e t e r m i n i s t i c .

By emphasising

t h e s y s t e m a t i c a s p e c t s and

s t a b i l i t y o f a s e t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s d e f i n e d as d i s t i n c t
the

i n d i v i d u a l s who o p e r a t e them, Nadel p r o g r e s s i v e l y f a l l s

from
prey

to the s c i e n t i s t i c i d e o l o g y which then p r i n c i p a l l y manifested

i t s e l f i n systems t h e o r y ( i t now does so i n t h e m a t h e m a t i s a t i o n

214.

of

empirical research).

d i v i d u a l s who

R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d as i n -

a c t and t h i n k t h e ' a c t o r s ' become pawns m a n i p u l a t e d

by t h e system i n w h i c h t h e y are e n t w i n e d .
Dennis Wrong p o i n t e d out t h e o r i g i n s and s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e
h

f u n c t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f man

i n a now w e l l - k n o w n paper .

The

s o l u t i o n t o t h e Hobbesian problem o f o r d e r i s seen i n terms o f

consensus w h i c h i s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n o f norms
and/or by a s t r i v i n g f o r acceptance and s t a t u s w h i c h are n o r matively defined.
of

He p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s way o f c o n c e i v i n g

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f norms makes c o n f l i c t p r o b l e m a t i c

rather

t h a n o r d e r s i n c e norms become c o n s t i t u t i v e o f , n o t r e g u l a t o r y
of human n a t u r e .

Because s o c i e t y i s d e f i n e d i n terms o f n o r -

m a t i v e consensus

t h e r e i s no r e a s o n w i t h i n t h e model f o r r e s i s -

tence t o norms and p r e s c r i b e d b e h a v i o u r .

the

These i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

v i e w o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e as a n o r m a t i v e l y d e f i n e d

role

s t r u c t u r e were n e v e r made c l e a r , and Wrong remarks d r i l y

I do n o t see how, a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e o r y , s o c i o l o g i s t s can f a i l t o make assumptions about human
nature.
I f our assumptions are l e f t i m p l i c i t we
w i l l i n e v i t a b l y presuppose a v i e w o f man t h a t i s
t a i l o r - m a d e t o our s p e c i a l needs.*
In
far

t h e case o f f u n c t i o n a l i s m t h e s e assumptions remained so

i m p l i c i t t h a t t h e y were f u r t h e r extended and d i s t o r t e d t o

conform t o a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w o f s c i e n c e , and t o s o c i o l o g y as a
s c i e n c e i n these t e r m s .
of
the

Because as Nadel ramarks, t h e n o t i o n

r o l e i s common i n some sense t o b o t h a c t o r s and

sociologist,

elements t h a t go t o make up r o l e s t r u c t u r e can be seen n o t

o n l y as d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o t i v a t i o n and meaning o f t h e a c t o r s

215.

concerned b u t a l s o as o b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s i n s o c i e t y e x e r c i s i n g a
determinate

c a u s a l o b j e c t i v e i n f l u e n c e on b e h a v i o u r .

This view

becomes t h e more p l a u s i b l e as t h e r o l e s t r u c t u r e i s more a b s t r a c t

and i t s systemic

p r o p e r t i e s emphasised.

The move f r o m t h e

o v e r - s o c i a l i s e d concept o f man who had no m o t i v a t i o n o t h e r

than

what s o c i e t y gave him and t h e r e b y had o n l y i n a l i m i t e d sense

a mind and w i l l o f h i s own was t h u s made t h e more easy, b u t was
o n l y p o s s i b l e because o f t h e d u b i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e elements o f
social structure.

A t one moment t h e y were seen as what was

i n t e l l i g i b l e t o t h e a c t o r , a norm w h i c h was a r e a s o n f o r a c t i o n ,
and a t a n o t h e r as s y s t e m i c
t o a c t and m a i n t a i n e d

f a c t o r s w h i c h i m p e r s o n a l l y caused h i m

the equilibrium of society.

The s h i f t

f r o m a c t o r s t o s o c i o l o g i s t s ' concepts was c r u c i a l i n t h e s t e p

to t h i s form o f s c i e n t i s m ,
I n i t s f u l l - b l o w n form the s c i e n t i s t i c ideology c o n s i s t s
of

three elements.
Determinism:

t h e c l a i m t h a t every event has a cause, i . e .

i s c o n s t a n t l y b u t c o n t i n g e n t l y r e l a t e d t o some o t h e r
Positivisms

event.

the a s s e r t i o n t h a t there are f a c t s which are

r e c o g n i s a b l e , d e s c r i b a b l e and i s o l a b l e .

This i s normally

n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o s p e c i f y what t h e c o n j o i n e d
are f o r a l l i n s t a n c e s o f t h e same k i n d .

events

I t i s n o t neces-

s a r y o n l y i f i d e a s o r 'mental e v e n t s ' a r e c o n s t r u e d as
causes and accepted

as b e i n g i m p o s s i b l e t o p i n down com-

pletely.
Empiricism;

t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e r e a r e measurable and i s o l a b l e

2l6.

e x t e r n a l a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y w h i c h must be used as t h e
o n l y source o f d a t a f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
or n o t t h e laws p u r p o r t

o f laws.

t o be about such e x t e r n a l

t h e y must i n p r a c t i c e be about them, because o n l y

Whether
facts,
these

a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y a r e d i s c r e t e l y and o b j e c t i v e l y d i s c e r n i b l e
T h i s c l a i m tends t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h a t o f p o s i t i v i s m ,
because o f t h e l a t t e r ' s concern w i t h o b j e c t i v e

clarity.

Now we know f r o m t h e names o f these elements t h a t t h e y a r e

t o be a v o i d e d a t a l l c o s t s :
elements o f i t ,

however, what t h e y a s s e r t , o r

seems t o be e s s e n t i a l t o any s y s t e m a t i c o r

p u b l i c l y v e r i f i a b l e a t t e m p t t o e x p l i c a t e a s e t o f phenomena.
What seems t o be wrong w i t h s c i e n t i s m
t o be p r e c i s e

i s partly that i t t r i e s

about what i s i m p r e c i s e = human a c t i o n i n s o f a r as

the a c t o r a t t a c h e s meaning t o i t - and t o d e c r y i t s d i s t i n c t i v e ness by i m p l y i n g

a mind/body d u a l i s m , emphasising t h e l a t t e r a t

the expense o f t h e f o r m e r .

What i s wrong w i t h a b s t r a c t i n g t h e

c o n t e n t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t t h e 'basic
laws o f s t r u c t u r e ' i s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s a r e dependent upon t h e i r
d e f i n i t i o n i n terms o f t h e a c t o r s '

ideas.

I n order t o get

laws we have t o use an a b s e r v e r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w

w h i c h o f course a l l o w s us t r a n s p o s a b i l i t y ;
t h a t , as Nadel r e c o g n i s e d , we a r e l e f t w i t h

exclusively,

the d i f f i c u l t y i s
nothing.

There a r e a l s o v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n u s i n g t h e
s c i e n t i s t i c paradigm i n s o f a r as i t l e a d s , because o f i t s e x t e r n a l
observer's standpoint,
decisions.

to ignoring the significance of the actor's

One i s a t t e m p t i n g

t o look only a t the actor's

217.

b e h a v i o u r and. t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r y t o account f o r t h i s

without

r e c o g n i s i n g t h e f o r c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t he takes d e c i s i o n s t o
a c t on t h e b a s i s o f i d e a s .

The a c t o r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w cannot

be a c c e p t e d w h o l e h e a r t e d l y ,

because t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p \irith h i s

a c t s t h e n becomes c o n c e p t u a l ,
retrospective rationalisation.

and a l s o o f c o u r s e , s u b j e c t t o
H i s i d e a s can o n l y be used as

a source o f concepts i n terms o f w h i c h t o t r y t o conduct a c a u s a l

analysis.

The p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e a c t o r ' s d e c i s i o n t o a c t f o r

c e r t a i n reasons and t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h i s t o h i s subsequent a c t i o n

i s l o s t i n an a t t e m p t

to specify s u f f i c i e n t conditions f o r h i s

a c t i o n d e f i n e d i n p r i n c i p l e i n terms w h i c h he does n o t espouse,

even though t h e y may be borrowed from h i m .

Crucially, this

form o f a n a l y s i s b r e a k s down when t h e a c t o r has a new i d e a and

a c t s d i f f e r e n t l y on t h e b a s i s o f i t .

While i t m i g h t be a b l e

t o d e a l w i t h a f r e s h i d e a t h a t was a l o g i c a l outcome o f p r e v i o u s
ones, i t cannot d e a l w i t h i m a g i n a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e
a c t o r ' s v i e w o f h i s s i t u a t i o n and t h e r e b y h i s subsequent a c t i o n ,
i s a l t e r e d because o f an i m a g i n a t i v e l e a p from one
to

a f r e s h one.

conception

The c a u s a l account i s f o r c e d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w b u t o n l y does so i n r e c o g n i s i n g
i d e a s as c o n d i t i o n s o f a c t i o n i n c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s , and s e e i n g
as
i d e a s / i n any case t h e p r o d u c t

o f complex e x p e r i e n c e s .

The con-

v i n c e d d e t e r m i n i s t w i l l no doubt r e f u s e t o a c c e p t t h e c r i t i c a l
i m p o r t a n c e o f i m a g i n a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n and c l a i m t h a t i t t o o can
i n p r i n c i p l e be shown t o be a c a u s a l p r o d u c t .

But t h i s

implies

the e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o s i t i o n t h a t a knowledge o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s

218.

w h i c h c o n j o i n t o r e s u l t i n i m a g i n a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n would a l s o
l e a d t o t o t a l knowledge o f n o t o n l y a l l t h a t i s b u t a l l t h a t

will

be known and perhaps a l l t h a t can be known, s i n c e presumably i f

t h e c o n d i t i o n s can be s p e c i f i e d f o r one
s p e c i f i e d f o r many.
who,
was

occasion

t h e y can

be

e are i t seems, back t o Humphrey L y t t l e t o n

asked where j a z z was

going, r e p l i e d

g o i n g I w o u l d be t h e r e already'

' I f I knew where j a z z

We have t o admit t h a t a t

t i m e s , t h e a c t o r knows b e s t .
C l e a r l y t h e r e are b a s i c problems o f the p h i l o s o p h y o f mind
i n v o l v e d here on w h i c h I have commented i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s .
S u f f i c e i t t o say t h a t I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e two p o i n t s o f v i e w the s c i e n t i s t i c and t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c - can be seen as paradigms
I have t r i e d t o show t h a t Nadel embraced the f o r m e r , o n l y t o
r e a l i s e t h e immense c o m p l e x i t y o f h i s u n d e r t a k i n g and a l s o I
suspect,
men

the f a c t t h a t he t h e r e b y abandoned the l a t t e r , and

out'.

But i f t h e s c i e n t i s t i c paradigm i s d a u n t i n g

'left

and

i m p r a c t i c a l , t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c w h i c h seeks t o d e s c r i b e i n t e r a c t i o n
and

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s on the a c t o r ' s terms comes up

against

d i f f i c u l t i e s j u s t as g r e a t as i t d e v e l o p s beyond t h e v i e w o f
a few a c t o r s .

For we are f a c e d w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y have

d i f f e r e n t views, e s p e c i a l l y

i n a complex s o c i e t y , and t h a t none

o f them i s adequate t o e x p l a i n t h e w i d e r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s a t i s factorily.

At an i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l t h e same problem r e c u r s when

we want t o r e j e c t an a c t o r ' s reasons g i v e n f o r an a c t as

rationalisations.

At some p o i n t i n t h e s e a r c h f o r a g e n e r a l

d e s c r i p t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n we are f o r c e d t o q u e s t i o n the a c t o r ' s

219 o

framework and t a k e i t as d a t a t o be e x p l a i n e d and no l o n g e r as

i t s e l f explanatory.

Indeed

i t might be suggested t h a t

socio-

l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , as opposed t o r e p o r t a g e o r e t h n o g r a p h y , i s
o n l y p o s s i b l e i n s o f a r as t h e a c t o r ' s own accounts a r e shown t o
be f a l s e o r q u e s t i o n a b l e .
(i)

E x p l a n a t i o n thus takes t h e f o r m

Statement X i s f a l s e because o t h e r s o c i a l

either

arrange-

ments a r e p o s s i b l e - X i s i d e o l o g y .
( i i ) Statement X i s f a l s e because what i t i m p l i e s cannot
o b t a i n - X i s Utopian.
The g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m t h a t t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm has t o contend
w i t h then, i s the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the a c t o r ' s view which i s the
s t a r t i n g p o i n t , w i t h the observer's

w h i c h becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y

n e c e s s a r y t o make i t work as t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s
proceeds.

T h i s i s something t h e s c i e n t i s t i c paradigm i s u s u a l l y

a b l e t o a v o i d because i t i g n o r e s t h e importance

o f the actor's

v i e w i n e x p l a n a t i o n and sees i t o n l y as d a t a .

The s i t u a t i o n

i s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d f o r t h e n a t u r a l i s t s i n c e what a t f i r s t
was an advantage, an e x p l a n a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n o f events

using

the a c t o r ' s language o f r e a s o n s , d e c i s i o n s and a c t i o n , becomes

p r o b l e m a t i c as these v e r y processes a r e themselves s u b j e c t t o
explanation, u s u a l l y o f a quasi-causal k i n d .

The two f a i l t o

a r t i c u l a t e because ( a ) i t i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o see 'mental

events'

t h a t i s d e c i s i o n s and i n t e n t i o n s , as causes, f o r many r e a s o n s ,

b u t most o b v i o u s l y because i t i n v o l v e s one i n an i n f i n i t e

regress

what caused t h e i n t e n t i o n ? and ( b ) because i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t indeed i m p o s s i b l e - t o s p e c i f y what i d e a s mean i n a s o c i a l

220.

s i t u a t i o n w h i c h t h e y a r e used t o d e f i n e .

Garfinkel's

experiment

i n w h i c h he asked s u b j e c t 'Why?' c o n t i n u a l l y , when t h e y a s s e r t e d

he
something and/pretended t o f a i l

t o understand,

culminating i n

c o n f u s i o n , and t h e s i m i l a r one i n w h i c h he asked s u b j e c t s t o

w r i t e o u t what was " u n d e r s t o o d "

i n a d i a l o g u e w h i c h a l s o became

impossible a t l e n g t h , demonstrates c l e a r l y t h a t i t i s impossible

t o s p e c i f y i d e a s c o m p l e t e l y i n terms o f r e a l i t y o r o f a c t i o n t h e unexpressed elements o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g

i n interaction,

like

the n o n - c o n t r a c t u a l elements o f c o n t r a c t , a r e p o t e n t i a l l y i n f i n i t e and c a l l e d upon as t h e s i t u a t i o n demands.

The

s o c i o l o g i s t w o u l d appear t o be f a c e d t h e n w i t h an i n s o l -

uble d i f f i c u l t y .

He i s unable t o use t h e s c i e n t i s t i c paradigm

w i t h o u t c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g f o r c e d i n t o a r e l i a n c e on t h e e x p l a n a t o r y
power o f h i s s u b j e c t s because o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f h i s u n d e r t a k ing.

On t h e o t h e r hand t h e n a t u r a l i s t i s e q u a l l y s t y m i e d by

the i n a d e q u a c i e s

o f t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n s and t h e need t o expand

them f u r t h e r t h a n t h e y seem a b l e t o go.

I t w i l l be remembered

t h a t Weber s t r u g g l e d w i t h t h e same problem w i t h o u t ever a r r i v i n g

at a wholly s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n .
he was p r o b a b l y more confused

But as I have s a i d e a r l i e r ,

t h a n was n e c e s s a r y , and i n h i s

e m p i r i c a l work l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a p r a c t i c a l , i f n o t an
i d e a l , way o u t . ^

He began, t o r e c a p i t u l a t e b r i e f l y , w i t h s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s and t h e meanings a t t a c h e d t o them, aspects

o f which

are p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e r e l a t i o n and a s p e c t s p a r t o f a p u b l i c
culture.

T h i s a l l o w s one t o u n d e r s t a n d

b u t , as Nadel r e c o g n i s e d ,

the p a r t i c u l a r

the s p e c i f i c i t y of i t s content

relation
prevents

221.

one

expanding i t t o o t h e r l i n k e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

abstracts

Weber

therefore

i n terms o f t h e meaning d e f i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p and

seeks common a s p e c t s o f t h e meanings o f s e v e r a l

relationships

w h i c h a r e adequate o r can be developed t o become so, t o e x p l a i n

t h e i r common adherence.

T h i s u l t i m a t e l y enabled him as a r e s u l t

o f i n s i g h t i n t o i d e a s w h i c h were dominant o r c r u c i a l t o s e t s o f
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , t o a b s t r a c t and d e f i n e b a s i c s o c i o l o g i c a l
concepts f o r t h e s o c i e t i e s w h i c h he s t u d i e d .
concepts were always d e r i v e d
ceived apart
and

Thus h i s e x p l a n a t o r y

from h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r n o t con-

f r o m them, though t r a n s f o r m e d by c o n s t a n t comparison

e l a b o r a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n .

R a t h e r t h a n a p o s i t i v i s t i c he

t o o k an i d e a l i s t i c approach and d i d n o t c l a i m t o have an

o b s e r v e r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w except i n s o f a r as what he s a i d r e p r e s e n t e d
an a b s t r a c t i o n f r o m t h e a c t o r ' s
that pressure t o generalise

own v i e w s .

He t h u s r e c o g n i s e d

e x i s t e d on two s i d e s :

as a s o c i o -

l o g i s t he was a f t e r g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , and i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e

actor's

own v i e w s were i n a d e q u a t e i f s t r e t c h e d and so

t i o n t h r o u g h comparison was e s s e n t i a l .
ignore

generalisa-

I n d o i n g t h i s he had t o

a s p e c t s o f a c t i o n and i t s p a r t i c u l a r meaning, m o s t l y a t

Nadel's f i r s t

and second l e v e l s o f a b s t r a c t i o n .

does do v i o l e n c e

to the i n t e g r i t y of actors

Thus t h e account

as d e c i s i o n makers

i n r e a l i t y , s u b s t i t u t i n g an o v e r s i m p l i f i e d s i t u a t i o n and r e a c t i o n
to i t ,

b u t i t m a i n t a i n s b o t h t h e b a s i c elements o f human response

m e d i a t e d by d e c i s i o n s ,

and t h e core o f e s p e c i a l l y t h e p u b l i c l y

u n d e r s t o o d a s p e c t s o f t h e meaning o f t h e a c t i o n and s i t u a t i o n .
The

d i f f e r e n c e a t t h i s p o i n t betxireen t h i s approach and t h e

222.

s c i e n t i s t i c may o f course be l i m i t e d i n s o f a r as t h e l a t t e r as
the o b s e r v e r i s n o n e t h e l e s s d r a w i n g on h i s knox^ledge o f t h e
s o c i e t y as p a r t i c i p a n t i n t a k i n g up h i s p o s i t i o n i n many cases.
The i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s i n t h e approach t o e x p l a n a t i o n w h i c h
7
is implied.

Schutz r a d i c a l i s e d t h i s v i e w

of the p o t e n t i a l f o r

g e n e r a l i s a t i o n w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f meaning, i n
d i s c u s s i n g i t i n terms o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y p o t h e t i c a l a c t o r s ,
h o m u n c u l i o n l y capable o f p e r f o r m i n g

the acts f o r which they are

c r e a t e d , so e m p h a s i s i n g t h a t t h e r e s u l t must r e m a i n p o s s i b l e
p o t e n t i a l a c t i o n , n o t an a b s t r a c t l a w w h i c h i s a p p l i e d t o a c t i o n
and t o w h i c h i t somehow has g o t t o f i t .
I n s a y i n g t h i s about Weber's v i e w o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o h i s
s u b j e c t m a t t e r and h i s e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f e x p l a n a t i o n s

out of i t

r a t h e r t h a n c o n s t r u c t i n g them o u t s i d e o f i t and a p p l y i n g them

to i t ,

I am o f c o u r s e , by no means d e n y i n g t h a t i n a p p r o a c h i n g

h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r has a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f
v i e w and i n t e r e s t s i n terms o f w h i c h he d e f i n e s what h i s problem
concern i s t o be.

Weber r e c o g n i s e d t h i s as i n e v i t a b l e even

d e s p i t e t h e a t t e m p t t o frame t h e e x p l a n a t i o n i n t h e a c t o r ' s

terms.

T h i s i n i t i a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e problem s e r v e s t h e p r a c t i c a l
purpose o f r o u g h l y d e l i n e a t i n g t h e e n q u i r y and p o i n t i n g t o t h e
areas o f c o n c e r n .

Once a g a i n i t may w e l l d e r i v e f r o m t h e i n -

v e s t i g a t o r ' s i n v o l v e m e n t as p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e s o c i e t y i n q u e s t i o n
The l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n can be overcome, i f a t a l l ,
o n l y by comparison, w h i c h may mean, f o r example, t h a t o f t h e
c r i m i n a l ' s view w i t h t h a t o f the p o l i c e or the j u d i c i a r y or a t a

2 2 3 .

higher
is

level,

important

relations
must

conflict

at both

i n order

compare

interests

one's

with

comparison
tions

of

the assumptions

of

t h e famous

by

theory

data.

Weber

social

never

the

t o

perfect

treat

so

i n the actor's

or

meaningful?

is

not necessarily

l i c a t i o n s

data

then

just

mean

data

be

do

own

you

answer

conceptual

you

was

t o cope

i . e .refers

variant

data

before

forced
i n

reverse,
from

the
t o

d i d not

understanding
linger;

and

one

i s forced

The

two

w i t h

limitations

merge.

suggested,

'meaningful'

but meaningful

to the relevance

What

i s i t causal

I have

that

once

questions,

the

explanation

implication

are

so

view

that

both

assump-

a l l important

question,

provided

the

the

of the explanation

to this

l a t t e r

r e s t r i c t i o n

emergent

this

situational

this

have

assume

not explanation.

own

one's

presuppositions

I n practice

o f how

one

i s thus

and

so

social

also

the

understood

i s limited

important

f o r action,

problem

I f you

that

i s the status
The

that

the explanation

and

of

when

the former

your

Comparison

to define

of the observer's

supposition

i n doubt

not

gained

i t as

is

does

assume

i t could

aspects

kind,
The

theory.

cogently

and

p a r t i c u l a r l y

to mention

t o meet

used

conundrum:

pre-existing theory.

theoretical

inherent

not

because

explanation

again

egg

sets

I t i s because

important.
and

compare

explanation,

general

I f you

argued

science

require

of

are

has

an

d i f f i c u l t ,

to develop

then

must

of consensus.

framework

of a very

i t s l i m i t a t i o n s ,

the

up

that

p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

chicken

a t i t ,

one

conceptual

or vice-versa?

looking

is

to b u i l d

i s o f t e n more
are

w i t h

levels;

other

involved

theory

view

of

imp-

particular

2 2 4 .

ideas
i t

n o t t o other

does

but

n o t lead

keeps

limited
I

them

pages

of

thought

on

t o present

where

giving

away

making

o f my

kinds;

and

that

o f the actors

concerned

beings,

with

albeit

contrast

o f t h e framework

quite

fragmented

a number
about

w i l l

be

now

with

with

so, I

o f authors.

o f the

expand

hope

schools

that

c a n go

' s c i e n t i f i c '

discussion

o f which

considerably i n various

the d i f f e r e n t
so

a t some

over t h e

the contributions

shall

i n terms

theory

account

evident,

o f two more

these

and conclude
I n doing

o f Nadel's

argument

the accounts

shortcomingso

I discuss

on e x p l a n a t i o n

'naturalists',

side

o f certain

the implications

t o avoid

lines

and then

bounds

as d e c i s i o n

developed

t h e main

school

t o the explaining

there

i n order

following
that

b u t t o action

freedom,
have

length

ideas

o f the

o f the
l a t t e r s '

the r e l a t i v e l y

I have

presented

t i g h t
either

directions.

g
R,K. M e r t o n

'Social

Merton,

r i d i n g

wave

o f U.S.

post-war

have

referred

abstraction
his

v i s i o n

premises
cover

than

was
very

the crest

some

persons

conforming

sociology

desirable.
similar

social

and

was

s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t

one

the view

o f those
that

H i s argument

t o Nadel's
u t t e r l y

i n the society

rigorous

and h i s l o g i c ,

exert

t o engage

I f we

whom

i s spare

compelling.

structures

conduct.

Anomie'

o f the

espousing

are accepted,

how

certain

t o as

Structure

Nadel

systematic

and

schematic,

once t h e

'Our a i m i s t o

definite

pressure

i n non-conforming

can locate

groups

might

disupon
rather

peculiarly

2 2 5 .

subject
rates

t o such

pressures

o f deviant behaviour

responding

normally

themselves'

p.

response

i s a t best

note

t o a

i n the context

Like
one

Nadel
even

expect

t o find

i n these

groups

.... b e c a u s e

1 3 2 , Merton's

b y t h e human

exerted

should

t o the social

deceived

this

we

again

more

situation

emphasis.

i n which

One

high.

they are

they

should

f i n d

n o t be

a t t h e end o f t h e q u o t a t i o n .

stimulus from

an abstract

o f an a b s t r a c t e d system
we

f a i r l y

have

powerful

consensus

than

The

pressure

of social

d e f i n i t i o n

relations.

of

society,

Nadel's.

' I t i s i n f a c t o n l y because behaviour i s t y p i c a l l y

oriented towards the basic values o f the society
t h a t we m a y s p e a k o f a h u m a n a g g r e g a t e a s c o m p r i s ing a society.
Unless there i s a deposit o f values
shared by i n t e r a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s , there exist
social
r e l a t i o n s , i f t h e d i s o r d e r l y i n t e r a c t i o n s may be so
c a l l e d , b u t no s o c i e t y ' .
p.
On

this

view,

functional
Merton's
Dream,
able
and

twould

appear

that

necessity o f society.

argument

and given

i s t o take

as

t h e means-ends

the silent
The

one

only

those

treatment

Merton

retreatism

and he

sub-societies

outlines:

gives

qualifies

by

complete

are those

conformity,

i r r e f u t -

p o s s i b i l i t i e s
innovation,

His admittedly

"or social

i n

the American

inadequate

t h e l i e t o h i s consensus

this

i s a

element

values

y o u have

There

and r e b e l l i o n .

of the l a t t e r

society

The

that

majority

clinching

o f these

tool,

explanation o f a l l deviance.

ritualism,

of

l 4 l .

d e f i n i t i o n

groups"i . e .

i n h i s view.

process

o f deviance

production operates

as

follows:

2 2 6 .

C u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e may b e d e f i n e d a s t h e o r g a n i s e d
net o f normative values governing behaviour which
i s common t o members o f a d e s i g n a t e d s o c i e t y o r
group,
And b y s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s meant t h a t o r g a n i s e d s e t o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n w h i c h members o f
the s o c i e t y
o r group are variously
implicated,
A n o m i e i s t h e n c o n c e i v e d a s a b r e a k d o w n i nt h e
cultural structure occurring
p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e r e
i s acute d i s j u n c t i o n between t h e c u l t u r a l norms and
goals and t h e s o c i a l l y structured
capacities
o f members o f t h e group t o a c t i n accord w i t h
them.'
p.

l 6 2 o

'When t h e c u l t u r a l a n d t h e s o c i a l s t
tegrated , the f i r s t c a l l i n g for beha
which t h e second precludes there i s
the breakdown o f s o c i a l norms, towar
p.

Clearly,
and

i t i s a l l a matter

has very

they

constitute

individual
t o t a l l y
of

ideas

Merton's

academic

account,

status

l i e i s given

for

the social

reside
The

about

what

by

sociologists

i n existing
used

one t a k e s
One

of structure

that

on a r e

that

real

c o n f l i c t s

o f

social
them.

s i t u a t i o n

t o meet

value.

and

looks

policeman

Those
o f

socia

themselves

t o legitimate

and t h e Houses

i s inapplicable

t o give

patterns

Any

determinism

t h e power

i s liable

b u t n o t an u l t i m a t e
o f appeal

i s going

f o rt h i n k i n g

synoptically

and norms

structure.

o f course

of the monolithic

invented

t o i t when

i n the courts

notion

have

the system

t h e i r behaviour.

forgiven

inherent

an explorer

except

be

and t h e values

The

actors,

within

I may

and explain

contradictions

even

might

l 6 3 o

f o ri t b y

i n the fact

i s a myth

relations

or

they

o f disjunctions

t o do w i t h

the evidence

irrelevant

structure

and

l i t t l e

ructure are malinviour and a t t i t u d e s

a s t r a i n towards
d norinlessness,

e n t i t i e s

Parliament.

t o interaction,

just

2 2 7 .

because
i n

i t implies

practice

began

as

define

are

perfect

individuals

A.K.

Cohen

i s even

look

at

and

a t what
book

i s a

i t contains

an

deterministic

'rigorous'

than

subculture

n e g a t i v i s i t i c ' ,

p.

f o r ' I ' ,

before

that

necessarily

that

what

Cohen

the world,

not

observer's
He

between
there

goes

sees

view

on

natural

are

'facts

and
a

one

of

from

(pp.

^ 9

when

direct

outgrowth

of

same

5 0 )

social

way.

ex

sees
much

we

i ti s

r e a l i s i n g

to very

change

'What

of

he

emphasi

I n i t i a l l y
see

when

we

n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n ,

emphasis.

cathedra
that

One

style

one

has

to

i s not i n

this.

I t i s

clear

r e f l e c t

h i s own

view

the delinquents.
the

theory

important

o f Cohen's

i s going

that

'pressures'

to Merton

2 5 , Cohen's

'we'
say

of

status

happens

i s that

the term
to

to the

that

Merton,

i ti s part

bound

power

to claim

i n the

that

fact

the

more

thing;

of

to

another.

recognise

use

of

remaining

i n f l a t e d

What

used

importance

the analogy

i s one

which

cursory.

o f meanings

the

been

courses

Boys.

Cohen's
but

of

use

i s quite

however

store

has

To

to look

the delinquent

malicious
to

on

Delinquent

paradigm,

while

recognition

determined

operationalised.

even

common

explanans.

goes

predetermined

of negotiation,

situations

i s i n t e r e s t i n g

Merton's

he

r i g i d i t y ,

of a

being

i s a l lt h a t

I t

and

i n social

that

is

matter

situations

single

and

the recognition

differences
of

pattern,

He

opts

firmly

f o r

start.
t o make

an

s c i e n t i f i c
must

f i t ' ,

e x p l i c i t
methods

i . e . that

comparison

and

to claim

these

facts

that
are

2 2 8 .

objectively
not

by

many

the consultation

o f them

p r i s i n g
ture:

turn

t o f i n d
'What

produces
certain
but

discoverable

by

external

o f the actors,

o u t t o be

tabout

i n certain

o f that

the ideas

pressures.

a r e seen

However, he

p.

by

goes

behaviour

I t i s therefore

the structure

sectors

of

the fact

deterministically

d i s t i n c t i v e content?',

also

despite

actions.

him r e f e r r i n g

i s i

investigation

109

Cohen

Not
as

not

t o social

o f American

society

that

struc-

society

subculture
only

sur-

the

the response

that

of

behaviour
t o s t r u c t u r a l

on

'We b e l i e v e
t h a t i ti s necessary, i n o r d e r t o a r r i v e
at a s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n t o discover those
combinations
of personality
and s i t u a t i o n which y i e l d
the problems o f adjustment t o which t h e d e l i n q u e n t
s u b c u l t u r e i s an a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e , and t o show
how t h e s e p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d s i t u a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a t e d
by
the l i f e conditions
i n those sectors i n which
that
subculture
prevails'.
p.
Cohen's

expressly

problem

solving

i n

terms

to

believe

these

psychological

that

are real

he

people

he

o f h i s argument

because

ponses,

and c e r t a i n l y

and

ti n c l u d e s

account
Cohen

o f personal

i s genuinely

who

But

i s dealing

t h i s

have

real

habit

scope

deviance

i s

lead

and

t r y i n g

us

that
the

dur-

i t has,

situations

and

t o show

d i s t i n c t i v e

i s misleading.

with

might

Certainly

i n t h e expanded

i n d i s t i n c t i v e situations

problems.

Cohen,

an

about.

a l l action

o f h i s argument

t o situations

the determinist

i s t a l k i n g
l i e s

that

elaboration

responding

had kicked

a b i l i t y

people

assumption

and h i s c o n t r i v e d

of individuals

1 0 9 .

res-

how

experiences

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
not

hypothetical

that

2 2 9 .

(?ritualism),

should

revert

but

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e no

not

their

to

reasons

experiences

analysis

of

external

point

of

our

own

designed

s t r u c t u r e , an

explanation

Thus

i s contingent

of

the data

which

i t

i s assumed

rather

himself

to

the point

from

people
that
due
acts

This
you

argument

i s not

treat

them

to maintain
credit
into

action
I

generalised

rather
have

than

now

operates

w i l l

turn

the

to a

alternative

views

and

three

seen

by

examples

pointed

series

view

before

structure.

behaviour

given

paradigm
not

own

balance

are

w i t h

out

a t what

of authors

i n various

objects

the

this

but

any

details

Once

again

i ti s
almost

by

think

but i s

the

bent

scientistic

t o go

start

do

the

observer.

about

on

with

them

then

the

of

doing,

Only

who

our

the actors

integrating

of

of

generalise

must

o f how

v a l i d i t y

moved

t o be

i f you

some

'The

1 7 2 .

Cohen has

you

of h i s

discovered;

to him

that

respond

the v a l i d i t y

p.

i s

confessedly

i s set i n extreme

determined

reasonable

to their
a

as

the implications of

t o say

have

the accuracy

t o be

appear

which

just

result

i t sconsistency

of looking

we

They

words

to explain'.

they

and

'analysis'.

recognising

h i s previous

terms.

a t what

upon

i s there

careful

prevented
of

the data

What

takes

subculture

i tpurports

of

only

which

as

h i s closing

upon

question

than

Cohen

i s contingent

the delinquent

that

ciphers.

discussion,

the reasons.

by

analysis

of view.

explanation

despite

than

f o r them

of

more

i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c

f o r deviating but

description

only

t o an

you

to
and

and

say
give

t h e i r

explain

s c i e n t i s t i c

i t sshortcomings.
have

t r i e d

d i r e c t i o n s i n a

to

desire

explore
to

remedy

2 3 0 .

them.

As

themselves
with

others

he

I t

Mead,

as a m a j o r

call

himself

time

attacking

as

b u t he

such.

because
see,

The

i s adamant

this

a way

glance

Mead

drawn

phenomenological
source

by

attempts
that

about

him into

He

spends
he

the f e a s i b i l i t y

c r i t i c i s m

i s attacking

we

are s t i l l

to

behaviour.

n o t sure
He

whether

i n the long

has

great

regards
o f

been
should

deal
as

o f

simp-

behaviourism

are interested

chapter
are

the other

t r i e s

on him.

i n him

b u t a s we

shall

d i f f i c u l t i e s .
t o define

behaviourism

unsuccessful.

pp.
Mead

a l lthe

philosophy,

which

i n fact

i n the f i r s t

avoids

both

the i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s ,

behaviourism,

interactionists

t o o leads

i s wrong

f i r s t ,

and because

and s i g n i f i c a n t

'Social psychology
i s behaviouri
of s t a r t i n g o f fw i t h an o b s e r v e d
i t i s not behaviour!stic i n the
the
inner experience
of the indi
works from the outside t o the in
the
inside t o the outside.'

Here

take

extent

behaviourist.

Watsonian

t o say what

Society.

theoretical
social

d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r

o f h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,

His
in

with

theory

or lesser

and

manage
I w i l l

elaborate

a t f i r s t

who,

used

l i s t i c ,

Self

important

do

d e t a i l .

t o a greater

- Mind,

raise

so, b u t they

t h e most

i s curious

that

they

i n cogent

has

have

G.H. M e a d

show,

i n doing

scientism

because

run

I w i l l

s t i c i n t h e sense
a c t i v i t y . . . But
sense o f i g n o r i n g
vidual... I t simply
side instead of from

7 - 8 ,

bogey,

or n o t he

introspectionism,
i s arguing

t o enlighten us;

but

f o r r e d u c i b i l i

2 3 1 .

Mental behaviour i s n o t reducible t o non-mental

behaviour.
B u t m e n t a l b e h a v i o u r o r phenomena
can be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f n o n - m e n t a l
behaviour
o r phenomena, as a r i s i n g o u t o f , and as r e s u l t i n g
from complications i n the l a t t e r ' .
pp.

I t

i s i n the process

strengths
Mead
reference
a b i l i t y
i n

whereby

this

a n d h i s x\reaknesses

l i e .

distinguishes

t o consciousness,

t o use

development

Thus

he

deal

with

human

has

symbols
comes

that

great

i s achieved

animal

mind,

obscurity,

by

both

Mead's

reference t o the

I t i s when

or r e f l e c t i v e

observable

that

behaviour, not by

but i n d i r e c t l y

t o communicate.

that

r e l a t i v e l y

from

1 0 = 1 1 .

elements

this

awareness

i n terms

stage
emerges.

of which

t o

consciousness.

' T h a t i s t h e g e n e r a l m e c h a n i s m o f w h a t we t e r m " t h o u g h t " ,

f o r i n o r d e r t h a t t h o u g h t may e x i s t t h e r e m u s t be
symbols, vocal gestures g e n e r a l l y which arouse i n
the i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f t h e response w h i c h he i s
c a l l i n g o u t i n t h e other, and such t h a t from t h e
p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h a t response he i s a b l e t o d i r e c t
his l a t e r conduct.
I t involves not only
communicat i o n i n t h e sense i n w h i c h b i r d s and animals communicate
w i t h each o t h e r ( i . e . by r e a c t i n g t o each o t h e r ' s
gestures) but also arousal i n the individual himself o f
t h e response w h i c h he i s c a l l i n g o u t i n t h e o t h e r
individual, a taking of the role o f the other, a
t e n d e n c y t o a c t as he a c t s .
One p a r t i c i p a t e s i n
t h e same p r o c e s s t h e o t h e r p e r s o n i s c a r r y i n g o u t
and c o n t r o l s h i s a c t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o p a r t i c i p a tion.
I t i s that which c o n s t i t u t e s the meaning o f
a n o b j e c t , n a m e l y t h e common r e s p o n s e i n o n e ' s
self
as w e l l as i n t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h i c h becomes i n t u r n
a stimulus t o oneself.'
pp.
This

i s an

excellent

interaction,
mind,

i s much

expanded
less

exegesis
s l i g h t l y

t r u l y

73-k.

o f Parson's
t o show

i n o u r heads

double

that
than

that

contingency o f
age

i n our

o l d problem

interactions.

2 3 2 .

The

individual

and

t h e same.
Meaning

an

and t h e s o c i a l
I n a

l i t e r a l

i s l i k e w i s e no

objective r e a l i t y ,

are not merely

sense

longer

accessible

joined,

we

are other

problematic

but s t i l l

they

a r e one

people.
obscurity b u t

d i s t i n c t l y

human.

'Meaning i s a development o f something

objectively
t h e r e as a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c e r t a i n phases o f t h e
social acts
i ti s n o t a p h y s i c a l a d d i t i o n t o t h a t
act and i t i s n o t an "idea" as t r a d i t i o n a l l y
conceived.
A g e s t u r e b y one o r g a n i s m , t h e r e s u l t a n t
of the s o c i a l a c t i n which t h e gesture i s an e a r l y
phase, and t h e response o f t h e other organism t o
the gesture are t h e data i n a t r i p l e o r t h r e e - f o l d
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f gesture t o f i r s t organism, o f gesture
to second organism and o f gesture t o subsequent
phases o f t h e given s o c i a l a c t ;
and t h i s
three
fold r e l a t i o n constitutes the matrix within
which
meaning a r i s e s or which develops i n t o t h e f i e l d o f
meaning'.
p.
Mead
to
but

i s prepared

show how
from

tinguish
actor

t o go b a c k

meaning

concrete
this

derives

from

( o r organism)

meaning.

i n

the individual

between

more

n o t from

interaction.

view

of

into

Mead's

crude

remains
point

b u t only

7 6 .

He

primitive

the mysteries
i s however,

behaviourisms

entirely
i s that
exists

animal

o f t h e psyche

careful

the view

necessary

behaviour

t o the

t o

o f the
concept

ti s n o t i n a c c e s s i b l y

i n the (observable)

'Although e x t e r n a l objects are there independent o f

the experience
of the individual, nevertheless
they
possess c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s t o h i s experiencing o r h i s mind, which
they would n o t otherwise possess apart from
those
relations.
These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e i r meanings f o rhim or i n general, f o rus.
The
d i s t i n c t i o n
between p h y s i c a l objects o r p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y and t h e
mental or self-conscious experience
o f those
objects
or that r e a l i t y - the d i s t i n c t i o n between e x t e r n a l
and i n t e r n a l e x p e r i e n c e
- l i e s i n the fact that the
l a t t e r i s concerned w i t h o r c o n s t i t u t e d by meanings.'
p.

1 3 1 .

secreted

relations

them.

f.n.

dis-

2 3 3 .

So

f a rMead's

certainly

efforts

constructive.

have
We

been

might

tiveness

o f h i s notion

o f meaning

publicly

communicated,

as

idiosyncracies

o f meaning,

to

communicate.

i n

ideas

ment

come

ness
to

'take

i n

himself

i t .

actor

selves
as

exist

p.
on

but

d i f f i c u l t

much

how

changes

idea

turns

The

t o the

self

develop-

i s , a s may

be

referred

such

i n the other

which

words

I ti s this

such

notion

the l a t e r

into

of

drawn
o u r own

only

of a

others

the basis

since

our experience
as

out i n

empathy, t h e

can be

o f others,

and enter

calls f o r

t o the

i n r e a c t i o n as
line

recognise

t o call

belong

i n other

and f a s t

that

i . e .

when he

t o the a b i l i t y

into

interaction

t o above,

responsive-

insofar

o u r own
self

created

i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s

on.

i s a t this
appears.

socialised

important

h i s a b i l i t y

responses

l6h.

individual

from

wants

exist

w i t h

i n what i s

and p a r t i c u l a r l y

and the selves

of others

only

r e s t r i c -

the

hard

as

the

from

refers

'no

about

and

d i r e c t l y

I tinvolves

and enter

also'.

seized

argument

he

1 6 3 .

selves

and dependent

I t

have

arise.

o f the other'

Thus

o u r own

the selves

have

be

recognition of s i m i l a r i t i e s

experience
i n

t o another

p.

communication.
between

may

successful

consists

not deal

resulting

set of definite

the group',

e x p l i c i t

which

social,

consciousness

does

problems

t h e response

'Self

that

qualms

B u t i t i s when Mead

that

the role

ourselves
of

about.

e n t i r e l y

o f one

have

N o r a s y e t d o we

o f the self

expected,

this

r e l a t i v e l y

as

t o be

point

that

F o r he

the f i r s t

has b u i l t

incredible.

He

up

major
a

flaw

concept

i n Mead's
o f man

has emphasised

the

so

over-

s i m i l -

a r i t i e s
of

and interdependence

their

d i s t i n c t i v e l y

i n i t i a t i v e ,
personal
a

collection

into

the

r e l a t i o n
with

from

sense

o f freedom

* I '

Society

account

and choice

t o this

t o this,

quite

the

as

self

elements

acts

of

i n
himself

transcends

the

i t i s , and makes

nonsense

of i t s mystery

albeit
The

i n a

limited

' I 'Mead

admits,

and r e f l e c t s

upon

and i t s response
self

and expression

o f

f o ri n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

b u t i t i s the uniquely

which

men

providing

t h e psyche

essentials.

s e t the context

o f meanings,

reacts

which

minute,

'Me'

which

I f t h e 'Me' i s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l

i s t h e response
may

s p l i t s

thereby

though

shorn

given

o f seeing

the passive

the ' I '

machina

has

o f a

and t h e t a k i n g o f t h e role

a t the last

t o the socially

predictable.

work

He

i t back

therefore

represents

o f h i s analysis, necessary

responds

the

He

o f t h e 'We ;

deusex

a t t h e expense

the capacity f o r

i s i n danger

t o the elements

so much

a c t i o n on the basis

principle,

s t r i p p e d t o i t s bare

gives

he

interaction

and t h e a c t i v e

t o allow

form,

that

robots.

h i s behaviourism.

only

t h e 'Me' w h i c h

a v o l u n t a r i s t i c

bounds
of

o f socia.1

derived

other,

attribute

innovative

o f things

two p a r t s ,

entirely

human

individual

view

of individuals

i t ; i

i snot
of

habit,

i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

establish

individual

self,

i s e s s e n t i a l t o a c t i o n and t o an

framewhich

adequate

o fi t .

Mead's
therefore

attempt

f a i l s ,

of

the f i n a l

He

i s clearly

t o provide

and t h i s

section
unable,

f a i l u r e

o f t h e book
having

f u l l

account

of the

i s reflected
where

allowed

he

deals

h i s actors

individual

i n h i s treatment
w i t h

society.

i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

2 3 5 .

to

build

up

envisaged
on

t h e comprehensive

earlier

the basis

giving

context.

when

conceptual

which

trying

tools

implies

would

a break

theory

as

once

again

giving

basically

into

corrected

f i n a l

self,
into

with

basis

f u r t h e r

t o give
i

wider

an

informative

tf a r m o r e

because

he

has

concepts

f o rsocial

organisation,

sort,

he

motivation,

where

go

and t h e

I n practice

non-social

To

o f some

so f a r ,

no

are i n d i v i d u a l

the ' I ' ,

which,

i nthe

r e l a t i o n s h i p .

h i s analysis

fundamental

done

i s reduced

i n a

His concepts

social

be

He

operates

finds

society

proposed

enough.

he

so.

only

o f man

i s able

this

t o do

an analysis

mistake,

so I w i l l

reference

only

t o power.

a t t e n t i o n from

writers

have

shown,

point

s i m i l a r i t y

with

h i s attempt

actions.

on

the basis

diverts

but

he

could

of

turns
thereby

b u t

this

ti s c o h e r e n t , i s

functional.

Mead's

The

complex

h i s theory

of incorporating

drive

of

which

this

concept

i n society

elaboration

developed

be

t o b u i l d

with

mean

impossibility

is

o f man

of the structure

because

Although

i n t e r a c t i o n a l - meaning,

further

to

would

o f t h e way

of the basis

d i f f i c u l t

and

the task

examples

i n s t i t u t i o n a l
account

i n t h e book,

of the oversocialised

'Me, a n d t h e n
to

theory

t o be

and one w h i c h

mention
The

this

i t i s highly

a t social

about

that

he

based

avoidance

gives

of

b u t as

society
later

t o i n t e r a c t i o n .

Mead

i n ignoring

subsequently

t o t a l

i n any case,

relevant

analysis

obvious

i s a

o f account

problem

functionalism

I tbecame

i t here,

kind

remembered

has been

however,

i s n o th i s

the problems
on i n d i v i d u a l

the stumbling

block

of

power,

i n t e r t o any

view

2 3 6 ,

larger

than

individual
societal

which

led

could

was

n o t be

w i t h Mead's

reductionist

o f those

upon

Mead

f o r i t st h e o r e t i c a l
form

interaction
individual

Howard

t o be

merely

more

planation
ence

as

inferred

from

that

relevant

was

from

xirould

have

interactionism,

deal

w i t h next,
t o

drew
develop

upon i n t e r p e r s o n a l

e n t i r e l y

actually

as Meads

part

the

of society.

state very

shall

and thus

their

deal

their

explanations,
way

were

g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s and s t a t i c
level

t o be

also

given,

theory

i n regard

theory.

has

For a l l o f

made

b u t this

of decrying

much

w i t h are

e m p i r i c a l work.

the innovations

functionalist

fundamental

him

d i f f i c u l t i e s

t h e ones

deviance

stages,

facile

This

and i n t r y i n g

based

o f

al.

i n the conventional

assumptions,
at

w i t h

i n the early

Mertonian

not

et.

t o them.

o f the role

shall

t h e same

represented

i s practical

concerned

largely

to

be

of the

the product

Symbolic

explanation

against

aspects

and prevented

background

of the i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s

concern

mainly

them

cannot

S. B e c k e r ,

None
Their

up

as

response

representatives

of social

came

i f n o t i n name.

some

general

those

h i s analysis

with

as

behaviourism

which

him t o i n s p i r i t

the ' I ' ,

represented

influence b u t rather

conflicted
being

the individual

i n reaction

took

place

i t s consensus
analysis b u t

t o the kind

and e s p e c i a l l y t h e k i n d

o f exof evid-

t o i t .
9

Thus
f l i c t i n g

Erikson

attacks

anomie

o r u n r e a l i s a b l e demands

theory,
give

rise

which

claims

t o deviance,

that

con-

because

2 3 7 .

i t

does

social

n o t distinguish
control

conventional
i t

seeks

xtfhether

social

that

mobilised
moral

crusade

embodied

gently:
values,

puts

as p a r t

o f individuals

calculation
Conformity

during

Values

against

of this

kind

structured or patterned

In

t h e second

instance

as

c a n be

I f the

or

Sabbatarian

are only

lead

Merton

used

t o them

by

except

cogently

i n most

learned

the prelude

out (l)

acts

and ( 2 ) acts

I n the f i r s t
and c a r r i e d

or consideration o f

relations

structural
o f

s y m b o l i c a l l y and t r a n s -

childhood;

valuation.

b u t more

discussions

o r any purely

can be, i n Merton's

of

support

t o separate

are unreflective

o f consequences

i t .

entrepreneurs

temperance

i n Merton's

o f contingent

i n fact

are r i d i c u l e d

i n s o f a r as

and never

because

not before

o f moral

d i f f i c u l t i e s

embody v a l u e s

o f culture

whereas

account

o f deviation i s the f a i l u r e

products

actions

o f the salient

which

i t ? '

norms.

point

apparent

do

are power-backed.

t h e modern

f o ractions

attacks the

i n the deviant,

o f interaction

i s ineffective.

t h e same

a n d one

individuals
mitted

like

i n particular

'One

analysis

are

f a i l s ,

they

quality

analysis

they

t h e use o f

Becker"^

i n origin,

effective

i . e . as

the value

Lemert

of

are only

involve

'Why d o

t o Merton's

and Becker's

o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n

when

question

predisposing

basic

f o rthem,

which

do n o t .

i n the process

values

movements,
way

some

values

incomprehensible
shows

that

o r psychological

a r e made

general

those

f u n c t i o n a l i s t

t o locate

deviants
The

from

responses

between

which

instance
out without

alternatives.

sense,
values

t o action i s a

consequence
and

norms.

conscious

2 3 8 .

selective
sacred

process

i n which

or i n t e r n a l i s e d

tives.

The

overtly

similar

individual

action

the v a r i e t y

as

well

M e n

as v a l u e s

The
of

power

t h e norm

situation
the

norm

po\irer
is

considered,

power

o f meanings

depends

that

and

s k i l l

not a

f i x e d

constantly
changing

t o achieve
statute

develop

v a r i e t y

i t a n d t o whom

act

as d e v i a n t ,

i n a l l

i t and modify

i n what

n o t j u s t

while

and

the formal

defined

i t s scope

having
puts

as

The

o f

s u f f i c i e n t
i t ,

norm

which

i t i s used

i n a

depends

recognition

i s what

aspects

i n a

i n terms

application

i t s commission,

real

interactions

o f precedents

s i t u a t i o n .

be

become

operation

Erikson

Rule

may

mechanical.

i t s actual

As

alterna-

assumptions

factor

Once t h e

action

b u t an a c c r e t i o n

o f situations.

did

o f i t s

o f enforcement

this.

o f

o f human

s i t u a t i o n being

and t h e protagonists

range

i s questioned

i n that

b y many,

than

different.''*""'"

i s f a rfrom

i s c r u c i a l

agreed
on

as

rather

and deviation

t h e weakness

t h e outcome

be

upon

o f man

i s included

element

may

play

quite

abstraction

o f kinds

o f means,

o f conformity

b u t subjectively

Mertonian

evident.

'emphasis*

two r e s u l t a n t s

mechanical

and

the cost

on

who

o f the

i s s o c i a l l y

significant.
This
and

norms

analysis

i n t e r e s t
as p a r t
rather

They

are used

w i l l

be

view

of values,

used

n a t u r a l l y

leads

o f the s i t u a t i o n

than

pre-given

t o define
i n which
norms

t o a
and

consideration
therefore

e n t i t i e s which

situations;

objects

values
o f

'structure' i t .

the question
The

o f

s i t u a t i o n

and why.

and roles

i s put i n question

i s which

one

whole s t r u c t u r a l i s t
as

a t t e n t i o n

239

focuses

on

the i n t e r a c t i o n

i n p r o g r e s s , whose outcome i s s e e n

as p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e i t w i l l
the g i v e n f a c t s
definitions
therefore

be

the product not

o f s t r u c t u r e , b u t o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s and

which

take place i n the s i t u a t i o n .

concerned w i t h

the nature

do p e o p l e

crimes?"
and

Why

commit c r i m e s ? "
do

but

c e r t a i n people

ifirikson i s

of the screen

of d e v i a n t s , not the reasons f o r t h e i r

"why

so much o f

of

deviance,,

"why

are

He

selection
asks

certain acts

called

get sanctioned f o r t h e i r

w h a t h a p p e n s t o them as a r e s u l t ?

The

not

deviance

answer t o a l l t h e s e

q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e power r e s o u r c e s ( i n
the widest

sense) o f those

i n v o l v e d and

n a t u r a l l y gives r i s e

Leraert's d i s t i n c t i o n between p r i m a r y deviance

deviance,
his
he

where t h e a c t o r i s r e a c t i n g n o t

e a r l i e r motives
has

been d e f i n e d or l a b e l l e d

as a r e s u l t
as

f o r the f i r s t

of which

i t does i f he
He

has

sums t h e p o i n t up

as

secondary

to a continuation

offence, but to the f a c t

as

of
that

a d e v i a n t by groups i n s o c i e t y ,

h i s s i t u a t i o n may
a criminal

and

to

have s i g n i f i c a n t l y

changed,

record,

followss

' S o c i a l c o n t r o l m u s t be t a k e n as an i n d e p e n d e n t
variable
r a t h e r t h a n as a c o n s t a n t o r r e c i p r o c a l s o c i e t a l r e a c t i o n to devianceo
Thus c o n c e i v e d s o c i a l c o n t r o l
becomes a " c a u s e " r a t h e r t h a n a n e f f e c t o f t h e magn i t u d e and v a r i a b l e f o r m s o f d e v i a t i o n , '
12
The
societal

slant

o f t h e a r g u m e n t t h e n , i s away f r o m a

e x p l a n a t i o n of deviance

and

o f b e c o m i n g , o f an i d e n t i t y d e v e l o p e d
by

the i n d i v i d u a l

Interaction,

i n the course

p o w e r , and

general

a s u b s t i t u t i o n of the n o t i o n
and

i m p o s e d on o r

of a series of

the a c t o r ' s views

accepted

interactions

of the s i t u a t i o n

as

2k0.

they develop e x i s t e n t i a l l y
implies
of

are

the

a t t e n t i o n t o p e o p l e as

s o c i a l r o l e s , and

as

r e a l i n d i v i d u a l s , not

reacting

with

c o m p l e x i t i e s of w h i c h people are
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s s e e n as
o p e r a t i o n of

the

focus of a t t e n t i o n .

a l l the

capable.

problem, not

s t r u c t u r a l l y established

with the

i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s i s that

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d patterns
institutions
Structure
e v e r y so

- the

Becker c r i t i c i s e s
locate

a set

performances.

e a r l i e r r e s e a r c h on

and

s o r t , and

political

s e e n as

the

the

This

implie

what happens

made as

to

the

the

the
major

systems f o r

example.

grabbed
Thus

deviance f o r t r y i n g to
operating

and

contingencies include

structure

arena f o r

o f t h r e a d s w h i c h are

I n f a c t they operate s e q u e n t i a l l y

social

in

wider c o n t e x t appears i m p o r t a n t .

i t s causes, w h i c h are

The r e l e v a n t

and

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of

e d u c a t i o n a l and

o f t e n when t h e

an

o f p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n and

i s s e e n o n l y as

terms

subtleties

a s s u m p t i o n s are

b a s i c modus o p e r a n d i o f s o c i e t y ,

in

What g o e s on
as

a n e g l e c t o f g e n e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f any

This

do

not

"both the

changes i n the

simultaneously.

'cause' a t a l l .
objective

facts

p e r s p e c t i v e s and

of

desires

13
of

the

individual".

Becker o n l y discusses s t r u c t u r e

rudimentary fashion.
look at

situations

r e s p o n d i n g as
any

notion

embodiments.
will

r e j e c t i o n of c a u s a l i t y

i n w h i c h p e o p l e can

individuals

that

t h o u g h t h e y may

His

c e r t a i n l y be

emerge i n my

full

are

- and

to
and

away f r o m

caused by

social

structure,

c o n s t r a i n e d by

i t and

i t s human

significance

summing up

l e a d s him

seen r e f l e c t i n g

- Mead's ' I ' i n a c t i o n

t h e i r actions

The

be

in

of the

of

t h i s change o f

c r i t i q u e s of

emphasis

structuralism,

241

but t h e importance
o f what a c t u a l l y
p l a n a t i o n which

of the d i f f i c u l t y

o f g i v i n g b o t h an a c c o u n t

takes place i n i n t e r a c t i o n ,
goes beyond t h i s

and a g e n e r a l ex-

a c c o u n t s h o u l d be c l e a r ,

A.V. C i c o u r e l - The S o c i a l O r g a n i s a t i o n o f J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e .
Cicourel's i s a painstaking i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Erikson's
concern,
potential

t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f t h e screen
deviants are s i f t e d ,

ignored.

some b e i n g l a b e l l e d

which

and o t h e r s

S o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f d e l i n q u e n c y , he p o i n t s o u t ,

are u s u a l l y based on t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

delinquency

(cf.

own i d e a s o f l o w e r

Cohen), and on t h e o f f i c i a l

c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the lower class.

that

the s t a t i s t i c s

class

f i g u r e s and t h e i r

He s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f t h e d e l i n q u e n t ' s own u n i n t e r p r e t e d v i e w
the f a c t

through

o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , and

a r e a p r o d u c t n o t o f 'pure'

research

but o f the a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r i m i t i v e

t h e o r i e s o f delinquency by

the compilers, t h e agents o f s o c i a l

control, not only to explain

delinquency b u t t o select the delinquents.

in

t h e d i l e m m a o f demands f o r due p r o c e s s

effective

control.

The c o m b i n a t i o n

s u p e r i o r power and c r e d i b i l i t y
s i o n a l pressures
a desperate
like

The p o l i c e a r e c a u g h t
of legality

and f o r

o f d i s c r e t i o n over

i npublic,

arrest,

and c a r e e r and p r o f e s -

t o make c h a r g e s a n d make t h e m s t i c k ,

result i n

need f o r r e c i p e knowledge o f what d e l i n q u e n t s l o o k

a n d why t h e y a r e d e l i n q u e n t .

Thus r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e

s e i z e d upon t h a t

show c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n b r o k e n homes,

social

disorganisation,

a n t i - a u t h o r i t y a t t i t u d e s and d e l i n q u e n c y and a

r e v e r s e e n t a i l m e n t e x t r a p o l a t e d and used t o s e l e c t a c t u a l o r

242.

p o t e n t i a l d e l i n q u e n t s who c o n f o r m t o t h e s e

characteristics.

S i n c e t h e same n o t i o n s a r e a c c e p t e d b y t h e j u d i c i a r y , t h e d e s criptions

s t i c k and t h e charges a r e a c c e p t e d .

'Through d a y - t o - d a y e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e p o l i c e j u v e n i l e
c a s e s a r e f i l t e r e d so t h a t some c a s e s assume t y p i c a l
" d e l i n q u e n t " f e a t u r e s , t h a t i s c o m i n g f r o m b r o k e n homes,
e x h i b i t i n g "bad a t t i t u d e s " t o w a r d s a u t h o r i t y e t c , '
p
Cicourel

121

c a r e f u l l y traces the d i f f e r e n t experiences o f lower

c l a s s male n e g r o d e l i n q u e n t s and m i d d l e
t h a t whereas t h e f o r m e r g e t i n c a r c e r a t e d
and

mostly non-criminal

cultural

or p o l i t i c a l ,

c l a s s w h i t e s and shows
a f t e r a series

o f minor

o f f e n c e s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e no means,
to protect

t h e m s e l v e s , and because

fit

t h e s t e r e o t y p e s used by t h e s o c i a l

get

away w i t h much m o r e , t o l e r a n c e i s d i s p l a y e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e

and

i n some c a s e s p o l i t i c a l

They a l s o a v o i d c r i m i n a l
requisite
punitive

social

of a single
the

social

system, t h e l a t t e r

i n t e r v e n t i o n prevents

prosecution.

t r e a t m e n t because t h e y have f e w o f t h e

characteristics

sick label i s applied.

statistics

control

they

and t h e a l t e r n a t i v e and

less

The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e o f f i c i a l

and t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f d e l i n q u e n t s a r e t h u s b o t h
process centred i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l
control

situation of

agency.

'The d i f f i c u l t y w i t h s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e
f a m i l y , work g r o u p s and complex o r g a n i s a t i o n s i s
the p r e s u m p t i o n o f i d e a l i s e d r e g u l a r i t y and t h e
search f o r f e a t u r e s t o account f o rv a r i a t i o n s i n
the r e g u l a r i t i e s .
The c o n t r a s t i n g v i e w f o l l o w e d
i n t h i s book i s t o v i e w t h e assembly o f a p r o d u c t
(e.g. a s t a t i s t i c , a j u v e n i l e l a b e l l e d
"delinquent"),
r e c o g n i s e d b y s o c i e t a l members as " r o u t i n e " a n d
c a l l e d t h e ' s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s " b y s o c i o l o g i s t s , as
b e i n g generated by p r a c t i c a l d e c i s i o n making.
1

p.

232.

part

243.

'The " D e l i n q u e n t " i s an e m e r g e n t p r o d u c t , t r a n s f o r m e d o v e r t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o a sequence o f enc o u n t e r s o r a l and w r i t t e n r e p o r t s , p r o s p e c t i v e

and r e t r o s p e c t i v e r e a d i n g s o f "what h a p p e n e d " ,
and t h e p r a c t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f " s e t t l i n g "
m a t t e r s i n t h e everyday agency b u s i n e s s , '

14
P.
C i c o u r e l i s making
facile

333

a p o i n t b o t h about t h e need f o r a

less

a p p r o a c h b y s o c i o l o g i s t s and a g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

a c t o r ' s e x p e r i e n c e as he e x p e r i e n c e s i t , and a l s o a b o u t t h e n e e d
to

r e c o g n i s e the importance o f f a c t o r s t h a t Becker p o i n t e d

B u t w h a t he

out.

does n o t e v e r m e n t i o n i s t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f

why

o n l y c e r t a i n p e o p l e c o m m i t c r i m e s a n d o t h e r s do n o t , w h a t e v e r
their

subsequent

experience.

crime i s c o n f i n e d l a r g e l y
but

then f a i l s

He

a t t a c k s the assumption

to the lower class w i t h great

t o go on t o g i v e any a c c o u n t o f why

P o s s i b l y he may

r e g a r d t h e a c t o r ' s own

that
effect,

i t i s committed.

a c c o u n t s o f why

their

c r i m e s a r e c o m m i t t e d as q u i t e

sufficient

for

as a v a l i d p i e c e o f t h e e v i d e n c e

greater attention to this

is not i d l e .

The

often superficial

difficulty

consensus.

on them a n d e x p l a i n why

own
to

the d i f f i c u l t y
arises.

The

one.

o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h i s account w i t h the

to a point

terms

actor's

t h e same p r o b l e m i n t r y i n g

t o h i m , b u t he

t o accept t h a t
Up

t o expand

t h e crimes were committed i n w i d e r

e x p l a i n h i s p a t i e n t ' s problems

the c o r r e c t

limited

I t i s when he w a n t s

p s y c h o a n a l y s t has

g e t t i n g the p a t i e n t
is

the accounts g i v e n are

o r n o n - e x i s t e n t a n d i n v a r i a b l y more

than the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

that

i s that

and c e r t a i n l y h i s p l e a

s o l v e s i t by

the psychoanalytic explanation

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t may

do

the

244.

same, and

as

g r a t i o n may

r e g a r d s some o f t h e
not

and

the

own

view w i l l

tural

be

difficult,

t h i n g s he

but

can

point to,

t h e more g e n e r a l

l a r g e r t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d , t h e more t h e

and

seem r e d u n d a n t .

naturalistic

Once a g a i n

the

inte-

explanation

delinquent's

the problems of s t r u c -

explanation arise.

David Matza.
Matza d i r e c t l y

confronts

the problem t h a t

i s one

o f my

c o n c e r n s , n a m e l y t h a t o f g i v i n g an a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t i o n
i n h i s case d e v i a n t
actors.
as

two

He

tries

poles:

actions, while

in

doing

justice

t h e l e g a l v i e w w h i c h t e n d s t o see

i t as

the a c t o r ' s

situation.

w h a t he

dom

i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h those f a c t o r s i n h i s l i f e
other

ance o f t h e
as

causal

f a c t o r s being
actor's

own

obstacles

thus

socialised

into

criminal

c e r t a i n values

subculture.

a
which

factors

Matza

which

opts
free-

constrain
The

import-

his reactions to s i t u a t i o n s

stressed.

This

as M e r t o n ' s t h a t he

a c t s , t h e norms i n t h e

sees

criminal's

but manipulable.

a t t i t u d e s and

f a c t o r s i n delinquency.
naive

the

one

p a r t i c u l a r Matza a t t a c k s the v i e w t h a t s u b c u l t u r e s

e q u a l l y as

he

s o f t determinism, i n which the

t h e y develop are
In

c r i m e as

t h e i n e v i t a b l e outcome o f p r e d i s p o s i n g

for

him,

to

the d e t e r m i n i s t i c s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c

c h a r a c t e r , b a c k g r o u n d , and

calls

of a c t i o n ,

t o s t e e r a m i d d l e c o u r s e b e t w e e n w h a t he

d e l i b e r a t e a c t , and
t e n d s t o see

still

main

and

imples a view of the

is rigidly

and

are
actor

permanently

norms i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h i c h

case o f t h e

criminal being

'Delinquency' Matza suggests

those of
'is a

status

245.

and

d e l i n q u e n t s a r e i n c u m b e n t s who i n t e r m i t t e n t l y c a r r y o u t a
15
the
role*.
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s v i e w i s t h a t / d e l i n q u e n t ! s s i t u a t i o n
is

a l w a y s c o m p l e x w i t h many f a c t o r s t o be r e c o n c i l e d , a n d i n

particular

the normative

demands o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s o c i e t y w h i c h

c a n n o t be i g n o r e d .
'My t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e s u b - c u l t u r e i s o f t w o m i n d s
r e g a r d i n g d e l i n q u e n c y , one t h a t a l l o w s members t o
behave i l l e g a l l y and t o g a i n p r e s t i g e t h e r e f r o m ,
the o t h e r r e v e a l s t h e impact o f c o n v e n t i o n a l p r e cepts ' .
In certain situations

t h e demands o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l

may be w e a k e n e d i n t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
for
be

this,

demands f r o m

society

T h e r e a r e many r e a s o n s

some o f w h i c h M a t z a d e s c r i b e s .

explicit

16

T h e r e may, f o r e x a m p l e ,

peers f o r the d e l i n q u e n t t o prove

him-

s e l f and h i s l a c k o f f e a r o f t h e l a w b y c o m m i t t i n g

a crime

d r i v i n g away a c a r .

Specially important are the

circumstances

surrounding

as s e e n b y t h e d e l i n q u e n t s , s i n c e

values

t h e crime

only permit

stances,

o f committing

though these

extend

offences

further

Thus t h e v i c t i a i may be s e e n as t o o r i c h
ploitative
tort

etc.

This

leads

recognised

t o a view o f t h e crime

delinquent's treatment

circum-

a t law.

t o c a r e , mean a n d e x as a

t o be made g o o d b y r e p a r a t i o n , n o t as a c r i m i n a l
The

their

i n extenuating

than those

- say

civil

offense.

a t t h e hands o f t h e p o l i c e and

c o u r t s may be s e e n b y h i m a s o b s c u r e , a r b i t r a r y , u n f a i r , a n d
d i c t a t e d by personal

malice

o f t h i s may be a v a i l a b l e .
fully
picked

understood

o r e x p e d i e n c y , and e l a b o r a t e
P o l i c e and j u d i c i a l

evidence

attitudes are not

and t h e i r weaknesses i n p r a c t i c e r u t h l e s s l y

o n a n d u s e d as f u r t h e r

justification

f o r crimes.

He q u o t e

246.

Becker w i t h approval

'The f u n c t i o n o f t h e g r o u p o r o r g a n i s a t i o n

then, i s decided

in political

of the group

I t i s likewise true

r u l e s are
and

...

t o be

c o n f l i c t not given i n the

that

e n f o r c e d , what b e h a v i o u r

which people are l a b e l l e d

as

nature

the q u e s t i o n o f what
i s regarded

o u t s i d e r s m u s t be

as

deviant,

regarded

as

17
political. '
impact

on

This p o l i t i c a l

the d e l i n q u e n t not

a r o l e he

may

n o t w a n t , and

also of drawing

experience

o f t h e l a w has

o n l y i n terms of f o r c i n g him
thereby

close

t o , no

moral m o n o l i t h i t d i d from

longer

seems t o be

although

are

i s more l i k e l y

o f f e n s e and

motives

t o take

sufficient.

This

t h i s kind of

individual

important

a c t o r as

i s impossible

they are, not

except

an

term

account,

to h i s account,

i n terms

i n a limited
But

the

of
way

term

which centres upon

the

i n d i v i d u a l r e a c t i n g to h i s environment

t a k i n g v a r i o u s d e c i s i o n s as he t h i n k s a p p r o p r i a t e .
the f a c t o r s

inade-

to develop i t i n t o a p h i l o s o -

t o adopt the a c t o r ' s p o i n t of view.

i s not

an

I n h i s second book Matza uses the

tries unsatisfactorily

outside standards.

itself

and

Once i n t h i s

t h a t w o u l d i n o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s be

p h i c a l p o s i t i o n o f s e e i n g phenomena as

trying

it,

t h e d e c i s i o n t o commit

I have a d o p t e d , n a t u r a l i s m , t o d e s c r i b e

by

noble

as M a t z a p u t s

f u n d a m e n t a l l y a g r e e d on.

p o s i t i o n he

t h o u g h he

attitude

e f f e c t i v e l y b o u n d b y m o r a l demands f o r c o n f o r m i t y ,

these

quate are

the

but

afar.

This allows the d e l i n q u e n t t o d r i f t ,

l o n g e r be

into

r e s t r i c t i n g h i s freedom,

a r e a c t i o n i n terms of the d e l i n q u e n t ' s

to the law which,

no

an

o f the s i t u a t i o n are

s a i d and

done and

When a l l
the

actor's

and

247.

own

view

this

d e s c r i b e d one

must s t i l l

as M a t z a s a y s , be w i l l i n g ,

i s n o t t h e same as b e i n g p r e - o r d a i n e d

determined,

and

or p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y

but n e i t h e r i s i t a b s t r a c t l y free.

'Being

willing

18
is

t h e human l e a p t h a t a l l o w s an o p e n p r o c e s s
As

concern

the t i t l e

o f the book suggests,

and

t h i s k i n d o f account Matza i s able

c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n b e i n g and
o f a n i d e n t i t y and

i s a l l part of

outwards.

The

He

In giving

l i g h t upon the

to live with i t ,

pro-

development

and

what

w o r k s v e r y much f r o m

q u e s t i o n i s , once a g a i n , how

this

the

f a r o u t he

g e n e r a l i s e d knowledge about the w i d e r

the e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s
the n i t t y

gritty

of the s i t u a t i o n .

inside
gets.

of the i n t e r a c t i o n , not
institutional

courts,

t h e p o l i c e and

t h e d e v i a n t p e r c e i v e and

act.

o f how

He

b u t he has

He

comes a b o u t ,

He

but l i t t l e

are

they should

t o how

of

shows how

and

the

perceived,
so

c o n t r i b u t e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount t o t h e

deviance

originates.

facts.

a b o u t why

t o Matza

the r e l a t i o n

of i t to wider

never asking wider questions

society to explain

What m a t t e r s

aspects

it,

the a c t o r

his part i n i t .

t o throw

r a r e l y goes b e y o n d t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l s i t u a t i o n , u s i n g assump-

t i o n s and

and

by

becoming d e v i a n t , the

the a b i l i t y

implies f o r future action.

is

continue'.

w i t h e x i s t e n t i a l becoming, the experience

o f t h e s i t u a t i o n as i t d e v e l o p s ,

He

this

to

perceive
knowledge

where i t

i s a b l e t o g i v e an a c c o u n t w i t h r e a l p e o p l e

t o s t o p as

t h e y become m e r e l y

s o o n as

the context i s widened

shadows i d e n t i f i e d b y a name

tag.

and

in

248.

Brving

Goffman,
1

Goffman s work o f t e n
dilettantism

i n the m u l t i p l i c i t y

i n t r o d u c e s and t h e b i z a r r e
plores,

gives

the impression

o f waspish

o f e x a m p l e s a n d c o n c e p t s he

ramifications

o f i n t e r a c t i o n he e x -

but t h i s i s t o ignore the important

theoretical

t r i b u t i o n he makes i n t a k i n g u p one o f t h e b a s i c
concepts,
tions.
not

r o l e , and e x t e n d i n g

i t s implications

con-

structural

i n several

direc-

He c o n f i n e s h i m s e l f t o p r i m a r y r e l a t i o n s a n d so d o e s

o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e t h e o r y o f s t r u c t u r e

sharp i n s i g h t s

i n t o everyday s o c i a l

of the conventional

himself, but h i s

c o n t a c t expose t h e n a i v e t y

concept.
19

I n F u n i n Games

, f o r e x a m p l e , he e x t e n d s t h e a n a l o g y o f

games t o s u g g e s t t h a t

they are "world-building

means w h e r e b y a c l e a r

d e f i n i t i o n of the s i t u a t i o n i s created,

accepted
in

and m a i n t a i n e d ,

t h e same l i g h t ,

with

Ordinary

social

activities",

c o n t a c t s may be s e e n

the important r i d e r that

s t a t u s e s and i d e n t i t i e s s p i l l

external

roles,

o v e r i n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n and have

t o be managed.
'The p r o c e s s o f m u t u a l l y s u s t a i n i n g a d e f i n i t i o n
of the s i t u a t i o n i n face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n i s
s o c i a l l y o r g a n i s e d t h r o u g h r u l e s o f r e l e v a n c e and
irrelevance.
These r u l e s f o r t h e management o f
e n g r o s s m e n t a p p e a r t o be a n i n s u b s t a n t i a l e l e m e n t
i n s o c i a l l i f e , a m a t t e r o f c o u r t e s y , manners and
etiquette.
B u t i t i s t o these f l i m s y r u l e s and
not t o the constant character o f the external world,
t h a t we owe o u r u n s h a k i n g sense o f r e a l i t i e s .
To
be a t ease i n a s i t u a t i o n i s t o be p r o p e r l y s u b j e c t
t o these r u l e s , entranced by t h e meaning they generate
a n d s t a b i l i s e ; t o be i l l a t ease means t h a t one i s
u n g r a s p e d b y t h e i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y a n d t h a t one
l o o s e n s t h e g r i p t h a t o t h e r s have o f i t .
To be
a w k w a r d o r u n k e m p t , t o t a l k o r move w r o n g l y , i s t o
be a d a n g e r o u s g i a n t , a d e s t r o y e r o f w o r l d s ' .
pp.

80-1,

249.

Now

Goffman a l s o says t h a t

counters are

that

i n the

w h i c h d e f i n i t i o n s are

automatically

situations

i s claiming

The

quotation

s i t u a t i o n t o be

i s c o n c e r n e d much l e s s

an

by

the

i s that

w i t h what the

w i t h i n the

is pointing

of

the

way

expect

particithe

crucial

a l o n e t h e r e may

a
derive

each

other

t h e n , t o an

s i t u a t i o n s i n which successful i n t e r a c t i o n f a i l s ,

basis of a s t r u c t u r a l analysis

be

means

actors

t h e y manage t h e m s e l v e s and

He

no

interaction in

f r o m o u t s i d e t h a n w i t h how
encounter.

factors

processes

s u s t a i n e d t o be
of

en-

importance

shows t h e

major p o s i t i o n s

i n the

or

'structural'

f a c t t h a t he

of the

f a c t o r necessary f o r the
m e a n i n g f u l way

wider

d e c i d e d and

derivative

What he

the

h a v e more w e i g h t t h a n o t h e r s .

of h i s discussion l i e s

pants.

way

d e f i n e d d o e s d e p e n d on

some o p t i o n s w i l l

by

the

no

analysi

w h e r e on
reason

the

to

this.
20

G o f f m a n g o e s on
suggest t h a t r o l e s

in

are

'Role D i s t a n c e '
not

t h a t r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n can

played simply at a l l .
be

managed i s b y

t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e i r i d e n t i t y as
distance
current

to m o d i f y the
interaction.

part

the

The

actors

r o l e p l a y e r s and

i d e n t i t y and
And

to extend t h i s p o i n t
only

using

r e a s o n t h a t makes t h i s

impinging of other r o l e s

on

r e a l games, m o s t s i t u a t i o n s a r e

situation - unlike

definitionally

this
the

d i s t a n c e necessary i s the
the

way

distancing

f i t themselves i n t o

of the

to

and

identities
not

"watertight".

' I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l does n o t embrace

t h e s i t u a t e d r o l e t h a t he f i n d s a v a i l a b l e t o h i m
w h i l e h o l d i n g a l l h i s o t h e r s e l v e s i n abeyance.
I
have a r g u e d t h a t a s i t u a t e d a c t i v i t y system p r o v i d e s
an a r e n a f o r c o n d u c t and t h a t i n t h i s a r e n a t h e
i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t a n t l y t w i s t s , t u r n s and s q u i r m s , e v e n w h i l e
s t i l l a l l o w i n g h i m s e l f t o be c a r r i e d a l o n g by t h e
p r e v a i l i n g d e f i n i t i o n of the s i t u a t i o n ' .
P.
139.

250.

He f r e e s h i m s e l f
but because t h e r e

f r o m one g r a s p n o t
i s a n o t h e r h o l d on

139.

P.
The

a c t o r m i g h t t h u s be

t a n e o u s l y and
important

s e e n as

i t m i g h t be

Our

roles

simul-

r o l e i s more

s u p p o s e d l y d o m i n a n t one

of s p i l l i n g

over i n t h i s

way.

i n terms of a s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d r o l e - s t r u c t u r a l

account t h e r e f o r e
As

several

subsidiary

i n c e r t a i n respects than his

predictions

level.

playing

that his

a u t h o r i t y r o l e s have a h a b i t

t o be f r e e ,
him'.

require

Goffman p u t s

careful modification

at the i n t e r a c t i o n

it:

'The n o t i o n t h a t p o s i t i o n i s p a r t o f a p a t t e r n o r
s y s t e m must now be r e a p p r a i s e d .
Some f o r m a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y ones w h o l l y c o n t a i n e d i n
the p h y s i c a l l y bounded r e g i o n o f a w a l l e d - i n
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , p r o v i d e a concrete system o f a c t i v i t y
t h a t can be u s e d as a p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e .
Even
here, the s y s t e m - l i k e p r o p e r t i e s of the
organisation
c a n n o t be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d :
b u t when we t a k e a
w i d e r u n i t s u c h as a c o m m u n i t y o r a s o c i e t y , t h e r e
i s no o b v i o u s c o n c r e t e s y s t e m o f a c t i v i t y t o p o i n t
t o as t h e p a t t e r n o r s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e p o s i t i o n
has i t s p l a c e .
I s u g g e s t t h a t a more a t o m i s t i c
f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e m u s t be u s e d ,.. When we s t u d y
r o l e we s t u d y t h e s i t u a t i o n o f someone o f a p a r t i c u l a r
a n a l y t i c a l c a t e g o r y and we u s u a l l y l i m i t o u r i n t e r e s t
to the s i t u a t i o n of t h i s k i n d of person i n a place
and t i m e ... B u t any i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e e n c o u n t e r s
as s o c i a l s y s t e m s i s s u r e l y h a z a r d o u s ' .
p p . 94-5.
I n other

words people are

many r o l e s and
and

we

w o u l d do

not

insist

in quite

bits

of r o l e s

just

role actors

same way

m u s t be
as

- t h e y draw

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y and

w e l l t o remember t h i s .

that there

the

not

'concrete

in a total

of s o c i a l systems, Goffman i s r i g h t

i n rapid

W h i l e we

sequence

would perhaps

system o f

activity'

i n s t i t u t i o n i n order to
t o r e m i n d us

on

t h a t when

talk
we

251 o

conveniently

talk

s y s t e m s , we a r e
do n o t

bother

Our

initially

to v e r i f y .

at i t s systemic
these

o f vague e n t i t i e s

aspects,

m i g h t n o t be

a s s u m p t i o n may

indicate

like

communities as

social

m a k i n g an a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h we
We

say m e r e l y t h a t we

i f questioned,

are

often

looking

never wondering whether

less important

i n this

be

the q u e s t i o n i n g of i t would

the l i m i t s

c o r r e c t but

case t h a n o t h e r

aspects.

of i t s naivety.

I n the P r e s e n t a t i o n o f S e l f i n Everyday L i f e Goffman

on
for

the problems of f a c e - t o - f a c e
the o p e r a t i o n s t r u c t u r a l

specifically
preferring
of r o l e ,

an

and

their implications

factors i n interaction.

He

excludes a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f ,

to explore

the dramatic

a p p r o a c h i t f h i c h he

(technical), political,
the

contact

dilates

same s u b j e c t

analogy i m p l i e d i n the

contrasts w i t h goal

structural

and

cultural

concept

attainment

approaches t o

matter,

'The s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t o f any a c t i v i t y p r e s e n t e d b y
the i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t or the r o l e i t p l a y s i n
t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s o f an o n - g o i n g s o c i a l
s y s t e m w i l l i i o t be a t i s s u e ( i n t h i s b o o k ) ;
I shall
be c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e p a r t i c p a n t s ' d r a m a t u r g i c a l
problems of p r e s e n t i n g the a c t i v i t y before o t h e r s . '
p.
He
' t o be

goes on

t o p o i n t out i n i n t r i c a t e

and

a given k i n d of person, then, i s not

a t t r i b u t e s , but
appearances t h a t
The

17.

also

to s u s t a i n the

standards

one's s o c i a l g r o u p i n g

a r t s of impression

ongoing complexity

t o possess the
of conduct

attaches

management a r e n o t

f o r the a c t o r , but

varied detail

also important

to

required

and

thereto'.

only a problem

how

p.
of

socio-

65.

252.

logists

i n i n f l u e n c i n g the

outcome.

As

he

s a y s , an

a s p e c t o f p o w e r f o r e x a m p l e , i s t h a t i t s h a l l be
and

visible,

c l o t h e d i n the

a p p e a r a n c e and
diminished,

behaviour;

and

may

be

challenged

on

the

Finally,

recognisable

impressive

i f i t i s not,

a series of i n t e r a c t i o n s .
effect

c o r r e c t and

until

important

forms

i t s effectiveness
i t i s established

C l e a r l y t h i s may

have an

an

e x t e n d e d e x a m p l e o f one

sources of s i t u a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s

and

personal

is
through

important

outcome o f e v e n t s c o n c e i v e d i n s t r u c t u r a l
Goffman g i v e s

of

terms.
of

identity

the
and

t h e p r o b l e m s i t p r e s e n t s f o r s i t i i a t i o n management, i n S t i g m a .
E v e n h e r e , s t i g m a s can
visible
statuses
in

be

seen n o t

masks o f i d e n t i t y - l i k e
t h a t we

are

blindness

a l l c a l l e d on

a l e s s o r more i m p o r t a n t

only

as

- but

to play

sense we

are

p e r m a n e n t and
also

as

roles

and

a t some p o i n t , when

the

odd

one

out.

' S t i g m a i n v o l v e s n o t so much a s e t o f c o n c r e t e
i n d i v i d u a l s , who can be s e p a r a t e d i n t o two p i l e s ,
t h e s t i g m a t i s e d and t h e n o r m a l , as a p e r v a s i v e
two-role s o c i a l process i n which every i n d i v i d u a l
p a r t i c i p a t e s i n b o t h r o l e s a t l e a s t i n some c o n n e c t i o n and i n some p h a s e s o f l i f e .
The n o r m a l
and t h e s t i g m a t i s e d a r e n o t p e r s o n s b u t r a t h e r
perspectives.
These a r e g e n e r a t e d i n s o c i a l
s i t u a t i o n s d u r i n g mixed c o n t a c t s by v i r t u e o f the
u n r e a l i s e d norms t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o p l a y u p o n t h e
encounter.
The l i f e l o n g a t t r i b u t e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l may cause h i m t o be
type-cast:
he may h a v e t o p l a y t h e s t i g m a t i s e d r o l e i n a l m o s t
a l l of h i s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , making i t n a t u r a l t o
r e f e r t o h i m , as I h a v e d o n e , as a s t i g m a t i s e d
p e r s o n whose l i f e s i t u a t i o n p l a c e s h i m i n o p p o s i t i o n
to normals.
However h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t i g m a t i s i n g
a t t r i b u t e s do n o t d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e two
r o l e s , n o r m a l and s t i g m a t i s e d , m e r e l y t h e f r e q u e n c y
o f h i s p l a y i n g a p a r t i c u l a r one o f t h e s e . '

pp.

relatively

137-8.

253 c

H e r e i s a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e management o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
and
i s always c r i t i c a l
and

t o t h e avoidance o f embarrassment/ c o n f u s i o n ,

the obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f t h e s t i g m a t i s e d h a v e t o be

draxm on and m o d i f i e d i n p r e s e n t a t i o n b y each s i d e t o a c h i e v e

success, r a t h e r
ant

highly
It

than simply c o n s t i t u t i n g

scripted

an a t t e n d -

role.

i s interesting

publication

a status with

t o note t h a t

just four

years a f t e r the

o f G o f f m a n ' s most i m p o r t a n t w o r k o n r o l e

i n 1962, t h e r e was a f u n c t i o n a l i s t

reply

distance

i n the characteristic

21
form o f an attempt a t i n c o r p o r a t i o n .
role
its

distance

i s implicitly

Coser

points out that

r e c o g n i s e d i n some s o c i a l

absence f o r example i n t h e f a n a t i c ,

the stuffed

roles, i n
s h i r t , the

o v e r - s e r i o u s and t h e a n x i o u s , and i n i t s over-abundance i n t h e

blase* and t h e c y n i c a l .

She s u g g e s t s t h a t

non-normative, i t s presence i s r e q u i r e d
h i g h s t a t u s and a u t h o r i t y

roles,

terms o f a t t i t u d e s

than s p e c i f i c

the
is

role

rather

so f a r f r o m

i n a g r e a t e r degree i n

where u n i f o r m i t y

i s r e l a t i v e l y unscripted,

being

i s defined i n

behaviour, that

The l e e - w a y o f r o l e

i s inhere
distance

e x p e c t e d t o be u s e d t o o v e r c o m e c o n f l i c t i n g demands f r o m

p a r t n e r s and r e s u l t i n g a m b i g u i t i e s .

C o n f o r m i t y may r e q u i r e t h e

e l a b o r a t i o n o f a r o l e , and a r i t u a l i s t i c

p e r f o r m a n c e come t o be

s e e n as d e v i a n t b e c a u s e i t i g n o r e s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s
members o f t h e r o l e
the
role

same l a t i t u d e .
distance

set,

role

of other

who i f o f l o w e r s t a t u s a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d

Thus C o s e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s

t h e case i n w h i c h

i s u s e d t o c o n f i r m s t a t u s as i n t h e o p e r a t i n g

t h e a t r e d e s c r i b e d b y G o f f m a n , w h e r e t h e s u r g e o n made a s e r i e s

254,

of j o k i n g references
preserve

to the other s t a f f

i n t e g r a t i o n and a r e l a x e d c o n f i d e n t atmosphere,

t h a t i n w h i c h i t i s u s e d when t h e r o l e
i n the blase a t t i t u d e
in

type

a b a n d o n e d , as

o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n r i d i n g a merry-go-round

Coser c a l l s

Although

'true'

s a t i s f y i n g other role requirements

structure

questions

i n t o w h i c h Coser t r i e s

Coser wishes t o m a i n t a i n t h a t

t o t h e use o f r o l e

w i t h her.

the simple

notion of role

t o i n c o r p o r a t e h i s concept.
t h e r e a s o n s f o r and terms i n

His notion of the ambiguities of s i t u a t i o n a l

o t h e r r o l e s and s t a t u s e s

perceived
be

t h a n h e r s , however.

spill

direct

result

defini-

He

allows

o v e r and i m p i n g e i n t h e i r

demands on t h e a c t o r ' s p r e s e n t

a relatively

present

from

G o f f m a n w o u l d h a v e no q u a r r e l

t i o n was c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s r i g i d
that

distance

and t h u s o f d e a l i n g w i t h

w h i c h e l a b o r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t a r e ones w h i c h d e r i v e
s o c i e t y and a r e l e a r n e d i n i t ,

This

role-distance.

Goffman h i m s e l f r e f e r s

a m b i v a l e n c e , he e x p l i c i t l y

If

i s being

from

c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r more s e r i o u s a n d c o m m i t t e d j u n i o r s .

latter

in

and t h e p a t i e n t s t o

situation.

This

may

o f t h e members o f t h e r o l e s e t

a t a g i v e n t i m e , b u t i t may a l s o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h q u e s -

t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l aims and i d e n t i t y , where c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r e

p e r c e i v e d between r o l e s ,
to the present

s i t u a t i o n , but both of which are p a r t of the

a c t o r ' s conscious
a role

o n l y one o f w h i c h i s s o c i a l l y r e l e v a n t

identity.

R o l e d i s t a n c e may be u s e d t o r e j e c t

or to maintain conformity to i t ,

normatively required;

a n d as s u c h i t may be

b u t i t may a l s o be u s e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l

i n n o v a t i o n , f o r making out, f o r c a r v i n g a niche

f o r oneself, f o r

255.

d e v i a t i n g - and

succeeding without being c a l l e d

G o f f m a n s c o n c e p t was
it

In trying

a deviant.

w i d e and a d m i t t e d l y v a g u e as he

to incorporate

portrayed

i t t o f u n c t i o n a l i s m Coser

only

22
lights

on some o f i t s u s e s .

show how

i t illustrates

Those w h i c h G o f f m a n

the l i m i t s

of s t r u c t u r a l

by d e s c r i b i n g i n d i v i d u a l s awareness o f s t r u c t u r e
that

i s o f t e n t h o u g h t o f as t h e p r i v i l e g e

hence t h e i r a b i l i t y
He

to manipulate

explanation
-

something

of sociologists -

i s a b l e t o make t h e c o n c e p t o f r o l e w o r k b y

k i n d s o f bounded f o r m a l i s e d s i t u a t i o n s
systems"

and

( c ) b y d e s c r i b i n g how

indicates

- "situated

c o n t e x t f o r w h i c h i t was

an

certain

activity

i t o p e r a t e s as a s e t t i n g f o r

allows i t to work,but

the d i f f i c u l t i e s

(a) taking

i t s scope t o

i n t e r a c t i o n n o t as a c o m p l e t e p r e s c r i p t i o n .
c o n c e p t i n t h i s way

and

it.

a c t o r - c e n t r e d view o f i t (b) by l i m i t i n g

role

stresses

i n making

originally

i t work

conceived.

To r e s t r i c t

the

implicitly
i n the

macroscopic

About

this

p o s s i b i l i t y Goffman i s s c e p t i c a l .
C i c o u r e l and

Garfinkel.

I d e a l w i t h t h e s e two a u t h o r s t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y d r a w
on e a c h o t h e r h e a v i l y f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s o f t h e i r

practical

23
methodological c r i t i q u e

complex

so t o a v o i d

a n d o b s c u r e , and

G a r f i n k e l ' s views are

o f w o r d s e x p o u n d i n g h i m i n h i s own
on Lassraan's c o n c i s e summary
Garfinkel

and C i c o u r e l i s t h a t

notoriously

s p e n d i n g an undue number

t e r m s , I s h a l l draw
The

extensively

principal difference

the l a t t e r

emphasises the

between

imp-

256,

lications

o f the questions raised

investigator

i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s d a t a , whereas G a r f i n k e l

concentrates mainly
explain

on t h e p r o b l e m o f o r d e r i t s e l f ,

b a c k , so f a r as s o c i o l o g y i s c o n c e r n e d , t o Hobbes,

have emerged

be t r a c e d

and u n l i k e l y t o b r e a k

the r e g u l a t i v e , normative,

meaningful

the

but with

behaviour

sustainingsame k i n d

points

these

definitions.

the

he

a concern n o t

aspects

of rules

thought

of rule-

i n defining
with

t h e problem

Goffman t o o i s concerned

o f t h e same scope as

'How i s m e a n i n g f u l

with

contradicting

notions of legitimate

and t h a t

i n society

Garfinkel.

i n t e r a c t i o n possible?

i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n about

o r d e r , when we a l s o r e c o g n i s e

occasions,

meaningful

o f q u e s t i o n , b u t he does n o t make t h e o r e t i c a l

i s made y e t more u r g e n t

"exists"

or legitimate

the function

about i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s

political

This implies

and s i t u a t i o n s , and thence

The a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n

of

down.

and

The a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w c a n

- understanding i n i n t e r a c t i o n - which

governed a c t i o n ,

of

rules.

constraints

t o L o c k e who saw o r d e r i n t e r m s o f m u t u a l

relationships

with

o f normative

He

o r d e r , and answers

i n s o c i o l o g y i n terms o f p o l i t i c a l

the influence

stable

as I w i l l

c o n v e n t i o n a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f o r d e r c a n be

asked e s s e n t i a l l y a q u e s t i o n about p o l i t i c a l

of

himself

The
traced

by G a r f i n k e l f o r the s o c i o l o g i c a l

t h a t people

a c t i n terms

o r d e r on d i f f e r e n t

there are d i f f e r e n t theories

about what

b o t h a t t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f w o r l d v i e w s and

practical level of action*^.

257.

G a r f i n k e l , e c h o i n g Goffman's c o n c e r n w i t h t h e a s p e c t s o f
s i t u a t i o n a n d i m p r e s s i o n management as w o r l d - c r e a t i v e
sustaining,

emphasises t h e n o t i o n o f ' t r u s t '

between

andinteractors

as o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o s u s t a i n i n g a ' n o r m a l ' d e f i n i t i o n o f
reality.

The i n f l u e n c e

tion of this

o f Mead t o o i s e v i d e n t i n h i s d e s c r i p =

as t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f r e c i p r o c i t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s ,

t h a t I t h i n k as y o u do a n d b e l i e v e
certain limits,
of the other,
in

t h a t y o u t h i n k as I ,

within

w h i c h i s i n Mead's t e r m s t h e t a k i n g o f t h e r o l e

t h e c a l l i n g o u t i n o n e s e l f o f t h e response

expected

the other.
The

that

final

and p r o b l e m a t i c element

of reflexivity,

and a b e l i e f

that i s the fact

i n Garfinkel s
that

trust

theory i s

i s sustained

i n t h e common-sensical o r everyday n a t u r e o f t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n maintained n o t simply by reference t o

constitutive
of r e a l i t y

r u l e s d e f i n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n b u t by making

i n process conform t o these r u l e s .

The

accounts

peculiarity

of r e f l e x i v i t y

i s i t s concern w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f

the s i t u a t i o n ,

an account o f r e a l i t y ,

which i s tantologous.

Thus i t c o n s i s t s i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n a n d s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a s p e c t s
of the s i t u a t i o n

so t h a t

they conform w i t h the c u r r e n t

a n d c o n f i r m i t s common-sense ' n a t u r a l n e s s ' .

definition

Garfinkel describes

the work o f a S u i c i d e P r e v e n t i o n Centre which i s r e q u e s t e d t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e mode o f d e a t h o f d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s i n u n u s u a l a n d
puzzling circumstances.
' O r g a n i s a t i o n a l l y , the S u i c i d e P r e v e n t i o n Centre
consists o f p r a c t i c a l procedures f o r accomplishing
r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y o f s u i c i d a l d e a t h s as
recognised features of the s e t t i n g i n which that
a c c o u n t a b i l i t y occurs.

258.

In t h e a c t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t accomplishment i s
f o r members o m n i p r e s e n t a n d u n p r o b l e m a t i c a n d
commonplace.
F o r members d o i n g s o c i o l o g y , t o
make t h a t a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a t o p i c o f p r a c t i c a l
s o c i o l o g i c a l e n q u i r y seems u n a v o i d a b l y t o r e q u i r e
that they t r e a t the r a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f pract i c a l a c t i v i t i e s as " A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y s t r a n g e " .
By t h i s I mean t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o " r e f l e x i v e "
p r a c t i c e s s u c h as t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h a t b y h i s
a c c o u n t i n g p r a c t i c e s t h e member makes f a m i l i a r
commonplace a c t i v i t i e s r e c o g n i s a b l e as f a m i l i a r
commonplace a c t i v i t i e s ;
and o f p r o c e e d i n g i n
s u c h a way t h a t a t t h e same t i m e t h e member " i n
the m i d s t " o f w i t n e s s e d a c t u a l s e t t i n g s r e c o g n i s e s
t h a t w i t n e s s e d s e t t i n g s have an a c c o m p l i s h e d sense,
an a c c o m p l i s h e d f a c t i c i t y , a n a c c o m p l i s h e d
object i v i t y ,.. F o r S u i c i d e P r e v e n t i o n C e n t r e s t a f f ...
the r a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i r p r a c t i c a l e n q u i r i e s somehow c o n s i s t i n t h e c o n c e r t e d w o r k o f
making e v i d e n t from fragments, from p r o v e r b s ,
from passing remarks, from rumours, from p a r t i a l
d e s c r i p t i o n s , from " c o d i f i e d " b u t e s s e n t i a l l y
v a g u e c a t a l o g u e s o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e l i k e , how
a p e r s o n d i e d i n s o c i e t y ... Somehow i s t h e p r o b lematic crux of the matter,
27
1

Garfinkel i s claiming that

a c t o r s are concerned, though
for
of

those

trying

face

i s a problem w i t h which a l l

i t i s only conceived

t o e x p l a i n the unusual,

i t w h i c h makes i t u s u a l .

ties

this

that

i s g i v e an account

C l e a r l y t h e same k i n d o f d i f f i c u l -

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t , and G a r f i n k e l g i v e s an extended

account o f the problems faced by t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e

m a k i n g sense o f h i s i n f o r m a t i o n .
a full

as a p r o b l e m

critique

coder i n

C i c o u r e l expands t h i s

o f s o c i o l o g i c a l methodology.

Normal

into

situations

become p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e s o c i o l o g i s t h o w e v e r , as s o o n as he
s e e s them as a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y s t r a n g e , b e c a u s e i t i s t h e n
he
and

recognises
tries

aspects,

that

that

the actors are taking a great deal f o r grante

t o d i s c o v e r how t h e y i n c o r p o r a t e a n d c l a s s i f y
a n d how t h e c o n t e x t d e v e l o p s .

Although

rules

new
c a n be

259.

d i s c o v e r e d w h i c h i n some s e n s e d e f i n e w h a t i s g o i n g o n , t h e y
are

never e x h a u s t i v e and c o n c i s e i n t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s .

t a k e s up t h i s
tribution

concern w i t h reference t o Wittgenstein's

Cicourel
con-

t o t h e p r o b l e m o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g meaning,,

'Language a n d 'game' h a v e r u l e s b u t t h e s e a r e n o t
l i t e r a l r u l e s i n t h e sense o f e x h a u s t i n g a s e t o f
p o s s i b i l i t i e s or defining a set of possible outcomes,,
As he ( W i t t g e n s t e i n ) s t a t e s , we g e t e n t a n g l e d i n o u r own r u l e s , ,
B u t t h i s means t h a t
we h a v e ' r u l e s ' n o t r u l e s , b e c a u s e we w a n t t o know
how t h i s e n t a n g l e m e n t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g
such a c t i v i t i e s a r e b o t h t h e sources o f d a t a and
b a r r i e r s t o p r e c i s e measurement.
The p r o b l e m a t i c
f e a t u r e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d b y
f o r m a l l o g i c , o r by any system i s o m o r p h i c w i t h i t s
axiomso
The l a n g u a g e one a d o p t s f o r d e s c r i b i n g
the r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e always runs t h e r i s k o f ent a n g l e m e n t w i t h w h a t we mean.
The l o g i c o f e v e r y day a c t i v i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e s o c i a l o b j e c t u n d e r
s t u d y i s embedded m u s t b e r e l a t e d t o t h e l o g i c o f
the o b s e r v e r ' s t h e o r y sitch t h a t t h e two systems a r e
b o t h d i s t i n c t and y e t i n t e r r e l a t e d .
Wittgenstein
i s t e l l i n g us t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w h i c h r e l a t e
one s y s t e m t o a n o t h e r a n d t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s each system t a k e n s e p a r a t e l y and b o t h systems
t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i l l n e v e r be p e r f e c t .
T h e r e c a n be
g e n e r a l congruence b u t n o t p e r f e c t congruence'.
And

the reason f o r t h i s

language

i s , partly,

that

t h e vagueness o f t h e

i s compensated f o r b y t h e o n g o i n g n e g o t i a t i o n o f t h e

contexts o f i t s use, the continual decisions

aspects i n t o
incorporate
problems
reality

them i n t o m u t u a l common sense r e a l i t y .

f o r the sociologist
are obvious.

actors,

to bring

certain

f o c u s a n d p e r c e i v e them i n a c e r t a i n way a n d so

as e x p l a i n e r o r e x e g e t e

I t i s immensely

n e a r a n a c c o u n t w h i c h does j u s t i c e
the

28

as G a r f i n k e l s

subjects t o spell

diffictilt

The p e c u l i a r
of social

t o g e t anywhere

t o what i s u n d e r s t o o d between

experiment i n d i c a t e s ,

i n w h i c h he g o t

o u t w h a t was u n d e r s t o o d i n a w r i t t e n

conversa-

260.

tion,

i n t h e course

o f which

t h e y were forced, t o r e c o g n i s e

that

t h i s d e p e n d e d e x t e n s i v e l y on t h e b i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e a c t o r s a n d
the context o f t h e conversations.
xtfhen one w a n t s t o g e t b e y o n d t h i s
logist's

This i s doubly

difficult

t o an account i n t h e s o c i o -

own t e r m s - he h a s t o make sense o f how t h e a c t o r s

made sense o f w h a t t h e y d i d .
The
structure

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l concept o f s o c i a l
are equally problematic.

social relations
'structure'

a r e n o t an a u t o m a t i c

process

dependent on a

o f p r e - g i v e n r o l e s and d e f i n i t i o n s b u t t h e r e s u l t

of the actor's working

intelligible

Garfinkel points out that

at a definition

and a c c e p t a b l e , w h i c h

o f r e a l i t y which i s

only i m p l i e s a drawing

on

given notions, certainly not t h e i r determination of r e a l i t y .

It

f o l l o w s from

this

by u s e , and though
meaning over

t h a t n o t i o n s themselves w i l l

remaining

t h e same i n name, w i l l

t i m e and between groups o f u s e r s .

the b a s i c d i f f i c u l t y

become m o d i f i
differ i n

Lassman s t a t e s

succinctly:

'Following from the f a c t t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s r a r e l y

concern themselves w i t h t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f d a i l y
l i f e , b u t t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e y
i d e n t i f y v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s as e v i d e n c e o f ' s t r u c t u r e s ' o r 'systems', t h e y presuppose s o l u t i o n s t o
o r t h e o r i e s o f how c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e , how
'meanings' a r e b o t h g e n e r a t e d and u n d e r s t o o d , and
how b o t h l a n g u a g e a n d s o c i a l r u l e s w o r k ... G i v e n
an a s s u m p t i o n o f ' s t r u c t u r e ' t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t c a n
t h e n r e c o n s t r u c t s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and impute
m o t i v e s t o t h e a c t o r i n a p o s t h o c manner t h a t
a n a l y s e s ' a c t i o n meaning' r a t h e r t h a n 'act meaning'.
This procedure c a r e f u l l y avoids making p r o b l e m a t i c
the process whereby t h e a c t o r i n r o u t i n e s i t u a t i o n s
" a t t a c h e s meaning" t o s o c i a l e v e n t s .
Explanation
o f a c t i o n a r e t h e n a r g u e d t o be ' r e a s o n a b l e ' i n t e r m s

261.

o f p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s o f what c o n s t i t u t e s
structure' ,
The t y p i c a l s t r u c t u r a l i s t s t r a t e g y ,
i n P a r s o n i a n t h e o r y f o r example, has been t o
f o r m u l a t e t h e o r i e s o f an u n d e r l y i n g
pattern
o r deep l e v e l o f o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h i n t h e a c t o r ' s
p e r s o n a l i t y c o n c e i v e d as a n i n t e r n a l i z e d s o c i a l
o r d e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s t a b l e s e t o f 'needdescriptions'.
T h e r e i s no a d e q u a t e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n made b e t w e e n t h e a c t o r ' s v i e w
o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s v i e w . . .
1

To a r g u e t h i s p o i n t i s t o t h r o w d o u b t o n t h e
adequacy o f t h e c r i t e r i a t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y
g i v e n ( i f any a r e g i v e n ) f o r d e c i d i n g between
descriptions o f s o c i a l events.
The f a c t t h a t
a c t o r s whom s o c i o l o g y i s t r y i n g t o d e s c r i b e a r e
themselves making d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r actions
s h o u l d n o t be r e g a r d e d a s a s o l u t i o n t o s o c i o l o g y ' s p r o b l e m s , b u t r a t h e r as b e i n g p e r h a p s ,
i t s greatest methodological problem'.
pp.

13-lk,

Once a g a i n , a l t h o u g h f r o m a r a t h e r

d i f f e r e n t point

there i s a serious questioning of the l i m i t s

generalisation.

o f view,

of sociological

E t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y reccomends us t o d e v o t e

c o n s i d e r a b l y more a t t e n t i o n t o t h e way i n w h i c h s o c i a l
and

communication are sustained, emphasising t h a t

and

t o a degree a t l e a s t

involved.

idiosyncratic

s t r u c t u r a l perspective by p o i n t i n g

t h i s i s complex

t o the culture

I t undermines the g e n e r a l i s i n g

situations

and persons

impetus o f t h e

t o t h e processes whereby

d e f i n i t i o n s w h i c h a r e s o c i a l l y and r e g u l a r l y m a i n t a i n e d as t h e
basis o f s t r u c t u r a l accounts, are themselves c o n s t i t u t e d .
question i s raised
off

a s t o how a s t r u c t u r a l a c c o u n t c a n e v e r g e t

the ground w i t h t h e d e t a i l e d

processes.

The

investigation of

interpersonal

262.

Social Structure;

Problems and P r o g r e s s .

I began t h i s paper w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n t r a s t s
b e t w e e n xtfhat I c a l l e d
pecially

the scientism of the s t r u c t u r a l

and es-

t h e systems v i e w o f a c t i o n , and t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c

which a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n a c t i o n i n terms o f t h e a c t o r ' s

view
own

views.

I n t h e course o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e work o f a range o f

writers,

I have t r i e d

ist

point

t o show t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l

o f v i e w and t h e n a i v e t y o f t h e c o n c e p t s i t e m p l o y s ,

a n d a l s o how t h e y i m p l y a n u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d c o n c e p t
of the actor.
The

c l e a r e s t and most c o n c i s e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s e

shortcorain

29
is

i n T a y l o r ' s paper.
' F i r s t l y we m u s t r e c o r d hoiv t h e s t r e s s u p o n t h e
c r e a t i o n o f s e l f i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n produces
an a n t i - s t r u c t u r a l i s t t e n d e n c y .
I f one a r g u e s ,
as s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s t y p i c a l l y d o , t h a t
b o t h s o c i e t y and t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r e c r e a t e d i n
i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e n t h e v i e w o f s o c i e t y as a p r e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m o f r o l e s t o w h i c h e a c h new i n d i v i d u a l merely adapts i s s e r i o u s l y m o d i f i e d .
R o l e s become f o r s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s , n o t
simply behavioural s t r a i g h t - j a c k e t s which i n d i v i d u a l s d o n when t h e y e n t e r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l
environments, b u t p a r t l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c creations
w h i c h a r e b u i l t up b y t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n ....
What i s b e i n g a r g u e d a g a i n s t h e r e i s t h a t v i e w o f
man w h i c h i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y d e n i e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f consciousness and meaning b y o m i t t i n g
them f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n - b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g u p o n
a s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h a r e s a i d t o be s i m p l y c a u s a t i v e
or a t l e a s t p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o the performance
of deviant acts.
The a r g u m e n t i s a g a i n s t t h o s e
who p o s t u l a t e m o t i v e s as e n t i t i e s w h i c h somehow
pre-date the behaviour - which e x i s t already i n
t h e i n d i v i d u a l and a r e m e r e l y a c t i v a t e d by c e r t a i n

263.

circumstances - i n t h i s t h e i r attack i s not j u s t

d i r e c t e d against s o c i a l f a c t o r t h e o r i s t s ,/against
s y s t e m s o c i o l o g i s t s - a g a i n s t a l l who t h e y w o u l d
c l a i m s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s t o r t t h e n a t u r e o f man
by i g n o r i n g t h a t which guarantees h i s humanity namely h i s a b i l i t y t o c o n f e r meaning upon s i t u a t i o n s i n terms o f c e r t a i n conceptions about t h e
w o r l d a n d h i m s e l f w h i c h he c o n s c i o u s l y e n t e r t a i n s . '
p p . 3-4.
The i s s u e w h i c h becomes d o m i n a n t as a r e s u l t o f t h i s c r i t i q u e
is

t h a t o f t h e p l a c e t o be g i v e n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d h i s

peculiar
social
the

experiences i n the d e s c r i p t i o n

r e l a t i o n and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

c r i t i q u e attacks

assumptions
frequently
actions
look
it

elaborates

if

theory which purports

fashion.

terras and

objects

arises,

t o account f o r

The t e r m s o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n

as a v e r s i o n

when t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

inevitability

critique

which

i n r e f e r r i n g t o r e l a t i o n s and s i t u a t i o n s and w h i c h

acceptable i n i t i a l l y

explanation

of

The p o s i t i o n

i s one w h i c h u s e s s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

i n a deterministic

i s only

like

and e x p l a n a t i o n

of the actions

concerned;

p r o g r e s s e s t h a t an a u r a o f

so t h a t i n t h e e n d r e s u l t t h e a c t o r s

propelled

by causal f o r c e s .

An a t t a c k

on c a u s a l

and d e t e r m i n i s m has t h u s been a n o t h e r p a r t

o f s t r u c t u r e , b u t the problem i s d i s t i n c t .

one f o r g o e s c a u s e s , one i s s t i l l

stuck with

look

of the
F o r even

the question

o f t h e r e l a t i v e e m p h a s i s g i v e n t o a s o c i o l o g i s t ' s t e r m i n o l o g y as
opposed t o an a c t o r s

one, and t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

t i o n as o p p o s e d t o e x p l o r a t i o n
It

i s my c o n t e n t i o n

with

that

of the individuals'

f o r generalisasituations^.

t h e c r i t i q u e has l e d t o a f a s c i n a t i o n

t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h i c h has been

264.

variously
and
of

c o n c e p t u a l i s e d by

ethnomethodologists.
the

individual's

interaction

a solution
of the

A recognition

s i t u a t i o n , and

( i n the

c o o p e r a t i o n or

interactionists,

problem of

significance

be, s o c i e t i e s a r e

of

the

the

for

the

course t h a t
no

a l l o w us

any

among t h e

one

the

and

presupposes
led to a

neglect

wi.ll

interactions

take.

o f age,

sex,

h a n g t o g e t h e r , and

the

i t is

and

which

Perhaps

the

social

t o make l i m i t e d g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s

how

may

interactions

doubt i t i s i n c o m p l e t e , but

of

s i t u a t i o n s are

communication

f a c t t h a t whatever t h i s s o l u t i o n

comprise p a r t
societies

fact that a l l successful

t h i s s i t u a t i o n has

structural variables

e x a m p l e do

complexities

more t h a n r e p e a t e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l

a c c o u n t i s c r u d e and
case t h a t

the

r e p e t i t i v e action)

there i s a sustained organisation

influences

the

sense w h i c h i m p l i e s

c o l l e c t i v e and

to the

of

of

phenornenologists

and

class,
do

foundations of a general understanding

of

where i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r a c t i o n

located.
31

In

a characteristic

argument, W i l s o n

normative paradigm i n sociology

Parsons e s p e c i a l l y )
and

that

a c t s h a v e p r e c i s e and

m e a n i n g on

of

the

context.

one

no

and

smoothly.

m e a n i n g s and

course a c t s are

that rules

literal

interpreted

that
operate

in this

meaning, o n l y a

deductive e x p l a n a t i o n or p e r f e c t
The

of

p a r t l y dependent i n t h e i r

h a v e t o be

T h e r e i s no

the

rule-governed

deductive, which implies

literal

s i t u a t i o n and

limited

i s probably thinking

assumes t h a t a l l b e h a v i o u r i s

e x p l a n a t i o n i s t o be

smoothly, but

(he

maintains that

rules

which

constructed
operate

argument i s l o g i c a l l y p e r s u a s i v e but p r a c t i c a l l y

265.

thin,

j u s t because the

tively

as

t h e y do,

rules

t o e n a b l e us

make d e t a i l e d

predictions

b e h a v i o u r and

our

explanation that
by

the

are

reality

not

reactions

variable

d e v e l o p m e n t as

The

and

the

possible

necessarily
pay-off of

be

spelled

second the

much w e a k e n e d
difficulties
social

subject to

constant

the on-going

true

contingen-

in principle, is

the

to point

l i m i t a t i o n s of
out

that

the

i t makes assump-

which a r t i f i c i a l l y

t a l k i n g as

scope

restrict

t h o u g h t h e y were

l i m i t e d t o w h a t t h e y i n f a c t h a b i t u a l l y do.
a s t r u c t u r a l account i s i t s scope,
as

I suggested i n the

the

f i r s t place the
out

experiences of

meaning of

own

the

social

f r a m e w o r k and

i t s t e r m s has

to the

terms.

contribution
t o be

remaining
relationship

actors

structure

to the

explicit,

The

which comprise

i n t e r m s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e , and

sociologists

actors'

The

l a s t c h a p t e r , the

sociologically defined features

e x p l a n a t o r y f r a m e w o r k and
Thus i n t h e

the

structural

practise.

i s to i n d i c a t e

choices o f a c t o r s by

problems are,
between the

and

interaction, while

t i o n s w h i c h s i m p l i f y s i t u a t i o n s and
the

i t s force

a consequence o f

s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n and

on

and

future

implication that

fragile

effec-

everyday l i v e s

attack

much has

means a l w a y s s i g n i f i c a n t i n
What i t does do

of

to i t .

i t assumes t o o

of interpersonal

no

our

i n them a b o u t e a c h o t h e r ' s

a l w a y s c r u c i a l and

i s highly

change and

by

to run

p e r s u a s i v e l y and

v e r y success of s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n :

raised

cies

o p e r a t e as

and

in

the

involved.
has

to

the

explanatory
i t s relationship

266,

It

has been apparent

positions, although
structuralism,

then that

t h e y have a l l o w e d

criticisms of

By r e f u s i n g t o a b s t r a c t a n d g e n e r a l i s e ,

t o c r e a t e models, and b y i n s i s t i n g
the c r i t i c s

cending

telling

on h a v i n g

r e a l people t o t a l k

are faced w i t h the i m p o s s i b i l i t y

t h e s i t u a t i o n and b u i l d i n g any c o h e r e n t

theory.

Interactionists

against t h i s problem.
For

theoretical

i n p r a c t i c e c o n f i n e themselves overmuch t o t h e

a c t o r and h i s s i t u a t i o n .

about,

the alternative

of trans-

explanatory

a n d e t b n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s b o t h come up

L e t me s a y i n more d e t a i l w h a t I mean.

the interactionists

i t has t h e tendency t o r e s u l t i n

an a s s u m p t i o n o f c o n s t a n c y about t h e s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v e d , i . e .
t h e presumed s i m i l a r i t y
istics

o f s i t u a t i o n s because o f t h e i r

i n the situational

of t h e wider

context.

character-

c o n t e x t , thus i g n o r i n g the relevance

I t may a l s o l e a d t o a n e g l e c t o f t h e

s o u r c e s o f power, p r e s t i g e a n d s t a t u s , w h i c h as t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s
rightly

say, a r e i m p o r t a n t and s p i l l

t h e y may n o t be s t r i c t l y
that

they concentrate

so

'structural'

(often deliberately),

assumed v i e w p o i n t

determined
that form

part of the d e f i n i t i o n .

where

To t h e e x t e n t
indeterminacies

t h e r e f o r e , i n t e r a c t i o n i s t s have negf e a t u r e s , u s i n g as a r e a s o n f o r d o i n g
the fact

i n the past

of t h e s o c i a l process.

situations

on t h e n i c e t i e s and o n g o i n g

of the actor's s i t u a t i o n
lected wider

over i n t o

that

s t r u c t u r e has been t h e

and has n e g l e c t e d

important

aspects

They have a l s o o b j e c t e d t o t h e o v e r -

v i e w o f man i m p l i e d i n t h e g e n e r a l i s e d a b s t r a c t i o n s
an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f s t r u c t u r a l

explanation.

t h e y h a v e n e v e r come t o g r i p s w i t h i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

What
of the

267.

continuing relevance
have t h o u g h t
in

o f such a w i d e r

i s obvious,

e x p l a n a t i o n , which

no m a t t e r w h a t i t s p r a c t i c a l

I would
shortcomings

t h e p a s t , and t h u s t h e y have n e v e r c o n f r o n t e d t h e p r o b l e m o f

how t o a c c o u n t f o r a c t i o n b o t h i n a g e n e r a l way a n d w i t h o u t u s i n g
a model o f t h e a c t o r w h i c h
which

i n at least

drift

characteristics

remains p r o b l e m a t i c f o r the a n t i - s t r u c t u r a l -

two ways,

First,

account o f p r i m a r y deviance,

individuals
ies

those v e r y

make a c t i o n human p r o b l e m a t i c a n d i n t e r e s t i n g .
Social structure

ist

denies

which

existential

even g i v e n a r i s k - t a k i n g o r
wider

factors

than the

s i t u a t i o n and t h e problems and o p p o r t u n i t -

a r i s e i n i t a r e r e l e v a n t i n e x p l a i n i n g xvhy some i n -

d i v i d u a l s r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r s commit d e v i a n t a c t s .
do

this

i s to f a i l

of

official

t o e x p l a i n them a t a l l , t o t a k e t h e c r i t i q u e

statistics

t i o n s o f t h e law occur

t o the point of suggesting

are b u t r a t h e r a concern
why, a s w e l l

precipitate
that

i t i s made c l e a r , f i r s t

secondly
who b r e a k

b y whom

t h a t we a r e s u r e w h i c h

so.

them.

set of rules

as r u l e s , a n d

B u t on t h e b a s i s i n t h e v a r i o u s
this

classification,

one s t i l l

The

i s t o ensure

how t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d , i f t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d , b y

r e s u l t i n g from
the

statistics

a b o u t a n d f o r whom t h e y c o u n t

does

o f what t h e r u l e s

as t h e v a r y i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d o i n g
of o f f i c i a l

infrac-

This

w i t h whose r u l e s a r e b r o k e n

of the critique

we a r e t a l k i n g

that

q u i t e randomly, f o r example.

n o t i n v o l v e a r e v e r i s i o n t o a consensus v i e w

and

To f a i l t o

those

possibilities

w a n t s t o know a b o u t

i n f l u e n c e o f f a c t o r s beyond t h e immediate s i t u a t i o n o f t h e

rule-breaker which

h a v e a b e a r i n g on how t h e i n f r a c t i o n s

come

268.

about.
we

The

d i f f e r e n c e which i n t e r a c t i o n i s m

begin this

level

of analysis i s that

f o r c e s on u s

i t i s no

when

l o n g e r t o be

c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f a b s t r a c t e d p r e s s u r e s w h i c h somehow i n d u c e
the

individual

t o a c t , but i n terms

o f h i s sometimes more, b u t

more o f t e n l e s s c o n s c i o u s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o w e r and

t h e o r g a n i s e d and

persistent

social

r e l a t i o n s b y w h i c h t h e s e a r e m a i n t a i n e d , w h i c h a r e one
sources

o f h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and

To

criticise

it

altogether i s another.

tion
to

structural

crude

i s one

thing,

as r e g a r d s s e c o n d a r y

situation i s further

rejecstructure

i t i s experienced

by

d e v i a t i o n where t h e a c t o r ' s

c o m p l i c a t e d by h i s experience o f the s a n c t i o n

consequent

is

clearly

of

a deviant i d e n t i t y ,

upon h i s e a r l i e r p e r c e i v e d i n f r a c t i o n , i t

important to relate
not j u s t

s a n c t i o n s b u t t o t h e way

further

d e v i a t i o n and

t o the f a c t

i n w h i c h t h o s e who

p o w e r t o do

t h a t he

the

creation

experiences

impose t h o s e s a n c t i o n s

s o , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n an

o r g a n i s e d and p e r m a n e n t s y s t e m
a system

social

reject

r a t h e r than a d e t e r m i n i s t i c view of i t s operation.

Secondly,

raaintaintheir

to

What i s n e e d e d i s n o t s u c h a

i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n so as t o show how

process

of the

of h i s motivation.

b u t a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s t o r e l a t e

individuals,

ing

a n a l y s i s as

of wider

of authority.

To

claim that

such

i s subject to constant m o d i f i c a t i o n i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n

to

s i t u a t i o n s and

to

d e n y i t s e x i s t e n c e as a r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t s y s t e m

relations.

through p o l i t i c a l

Structural

expediency,

i s b y no

analysis i s thus relevant

of

to the

s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e v i a n t and

the

means
social
underagencies

269

of s o c i a l controls
the r e l a t i v e

I t i s a l s o r e l e v a n t t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

importance o f t h i s

r e l a t i o n s h i p and t h e s a n c t i o n s

i n v o l v e d and t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e v i a n c e .
that

the deviant

acted

i n the f i r s t

I ti s after a l l possible

place

f o r t h e same

as he does a f t e r he i s l a b e l l e d as a d e v i a n t .
of the e f f e c t s o f the l a b e l
vary w i t h d i f f e r e n t
terms o f t h e l e g a l

if

question

i s a n e m p i r i c a l one a n d w i l l

sorts of deviant, different

no d o u b t

that i s noti n

classification of their infractions, buti n

terms o f t h e i r reasons f o r a c t i n g .
structural

The

reasons

explanation

i s explored

Only i f such a wide

i n detail,

t h a t i s t o say o n l y

t h e r e l a t i o n s n o t j u s t b e t w e e n p o l i c e m a n and d e v i a n t b u t

between t h e p o l i c e m a n and h i s s e n i o r s , between t h e p o l i c e and

the

judiciary,

legislature

t h e j u d i c i a r y and t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ,

and t h e

a n d t h e p u b l i c , a n d among a l l t h e s e b o d i e s i s e x -

p l o r e d as i t a c t u a l l y o p e r a t e s r a t h e r t h a n as we g u e s s t h a t i t
is
are

s u p p o s e d t o , c a n t h e r e be a n y f u l l
deviants.

groups p e r c e i v e d

This

involves finding

and i n t e r a c t

and t h e a c t i o n s

understanding, c o n f l i c t ,

there

o u t how a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t

( i f a t a l l ) w i t h each o t h e r ,

t h e i r power d i f f e r e n c e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d
perceptions

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f why

a n d how t h e s e

how

different

c o n s e q u e n t u p o n them i n v o l v e m i s -

guilt,

rejection,

consensus, and

hostility.
What may a p p e a r as c o n d i t i o n s c a u s i n g

behaviour are i n f a c t

always c i r c u m s t a n c e s e x p e r i e n c e d and responded t o .

mediation
it

i n t h e response, however i n a c c u r a t e

i s of the 'objective*

an

Unless

this

understanding

s i t u a t i o n o r o f w h a t was i n t e n d e d ,

and

270.

however i r r e l e v a n t
in

the long

t o the wider

(and a t times

term) s i t u a t i o n , unless

this

It

even i f these are f a l s e ,

i s the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

their

limitations

o n l y t h e n d o e s he a r r i v e

i t i s the actor's

t h a t lead him t o a c t .

task to unravel

and t o r e l a t e

significant

i s included i n the

e x p l a n a t i o n we a r e c o n s t a n t l y d e l u d e d , s i n c e
perceptions,

more

these perceptions

and

them t o w i d e r a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y ;

at a f u l l

explanation

o f how

the actions

come a b o u t as t h e y do a n d h a v e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e y d o .

This

i n v o l v e s s h o w i n g t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e a c t o r ' s viexv i n t e r m s
o f t h e consequences o f h i s a c t i o n b u t never i g n o r i n g
To e x p l i c i t l y

question

and t o c l a i m t o t r a n s c e n d

v i e w h o w e v e r , r a i s e s t h e p r o b l e m o f on w h a t b a s i s
This

i s a question

itself,
its

t o vvhich e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y h a s

though w i t h o u t r e s o l v i n g i t (see above).

o f w h a t goes on i n i n t e r a c t i o n

t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t none
and i n t r a -

personal

A r i s i n g out of t h i s
relation

one does s o .
addressed
One

side of

situations,

m e a n i n g a n d i t s n e g o t i a t i o n c a n be
i s the other

Ethnomethodology

s o l i p s i s t i c . e l e m e n t s o f t h e meaning o f ideas
The

with

ignored.

concern about the s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

stresses

and s i t u a t i o n s

s o c i o l o g i s t i s concerned n o t only

i n d i v i d u a l s b u t w i t h g r o u p s and w i t h e n t i r e

the

the actors

o f t h e complex p r o c e s s e s o f i n t e r -

t o t h o s e he u n d e r s t a n d s .

to i n d i v i d u a l s .

is

t h e o r } r and most o f i t s p r a c t i c e i s d e v o t e d t o a d e t a i l e d

understanding

the

it

t o g i v e an account i n such g e n e r a l

with

s o c i e t i e s , a n d i f he

terms, reasons w i t h which

a c t o r s do n o t f o r t h e most p a r t c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s , he

inevitably

take

must

a p o s i t i o n t h e t e r m s o f w h i c h do n o t c o i n c i d e

271.

w i t h t h o s e o f t h e a c t o r s , and w i l l
them.

The c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s

explicit
general

i n as much d e t a i l

indeed e x p l i c i t l y

then,

i s t h a t he m u s t make

as p o s s i b l e

the relation of h i s

t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w t o w h a t t h e a c t o r s do a n d t h i n k , a n d

he m u s t be aware t o w h a t e x t e n t he i s n o t j u s t
but

r e d e s c r i b i n g them.

inability
is

both

not

question

describing

To w o r r y a b o u t t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

t o u n d e r s t a n d a c t i o n and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

fruitless

them

and unnecessary;

to explain i t

a c t o r and s o c i o l o g i s t a r e

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e same t h i n g a n d do n o t h a v e t h e same f r a m e

of reference.

The s o c i o l g i s t h o w e v e r m u s t be aware o f t h a t o f

t h e a c t o r a n d i f he i s t o e x p l a i n o t h e r s '
hoxir h i s f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e
should
way

a c t i o n s he must

relates to theirs.

show

I d e a l l y he

s t a t e w h a t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n r u l e s a r e , b u t we a r e a l o n g

from

that.

If

anything

c a l l e d a s o c i a l science

of sociology

i s to

r e m a i n , s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i t seems, i s h e r e t o s t a y , t h o u g h more
aware o f i t s s t a t u s a s a n a r t i f i c i a l

explanatory

construct

that

h a s t o be c o n s t a n t l y j u s t i f i e d b y s h o w i n g hoxtf i t i s r o o t e d i n
real

social relations.

that

aims - a l b e i t

at

An i n v e s t i g a t i v e e m p i r i c a l

while recognising

g e n e r a l i s a t i o n cannot t o t a l l y

individuals.

and d e f i n i n g l i m i t a t i o n s -

incorporate

i n d i v i d u a l s as

I t h a s t o make s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s .

p u r p o s e o f what I have s a i d i n t h i s
the nature

discipline

and e x t e n t

chapter

of this necessity

so t o d e v e l o p a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t

The

has been t o e s t a b l i s h

f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and

aspect o f a d i s t i n c t i v e

s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o l o g y and t o i n d i c a t e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s

social
i traises.

272.

I n the f o l l o w i n g chapter I s h a l l t u r n t o another

provide such a methodology, Marxism,
t i o n o f t h e problem o f o b j e c t i v i t y .
with
be

some o f t h i s

and w i t h i t a f i n a l
Whilst I shall

formul

disagree

a l t e r n a t i v e , I s h a l l show how much o f i t may

seen t o c o n t r i b u t e

so f a r .

attempt t o

t o t h e v i e w s I have been w o r k i n g

with

C H A P T E R

S I X .

MARXISM AND THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE.

It

was one c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e l a s t

chapter t h a t , i n Gouldner's

terras t h e d o m a i n a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e a u t o n o m y o f s o c i a l
had

t o be r e j e c t e d .

may

be s a i d

and

because i t e x e r c i s e s c o n s t r a i n t s

be

ture

structure

i n one sense t o e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f i n d i v i d u a l s

this r e i f i e d version

does c o n s t r a i n

dividuals
and

T h i s assumes t h a t b e c a u s e s o c i a l

on t h e i r a c t i o n s ,

c o n s i d e r e d as immune t o human i n t e r v e n t i o n .

against

structure

i t i s to

Gouldner

t o contend t h a t w h i l s t

argues

social

struc-

men a n d d o e s e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f i n -

i t i sn o t independent o f but

composed o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s

i s c o n t r o l l a b l e b y groups o f them,

e x p l a n a t o r y power o f t h e s o c i a l

structure

The p r o b l e m o f t h e
concept and t h e place

o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n i t i s one t h a t h a s d o g g e d M a r x i s m .
On t h e

one h a n d i t h a s w a n t e d t o c l a r i f y

systematic oppressions o f c e r t a i n s o c i a l
segments o f t h e s o c i e t y ,
possibility

of structure

Marxism has p o s t u l a t e d

this

f o r some

b u t on t h e o t h e r hand t o emphasise t h e

of individual wills.

far theconstraints

But

structures

o f change b y c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n

organisation

structure

theunity o f the

and a c t i o n

I n i t s z e a l f o r s h o w i n g how
pervade i n d i v i d u a l

consciousness

that a l l ideas are a r e f l e c t i o n

and p a r t i c u l a r o f t h e c l a s s n a t u r e o f t h a t

the structure

a n d c h a n g e i t becomes

273.

of social

structure.

o f c o u r s e l e a d s t o be p a r a d o x t h a t i n d i v i d u a l

to break w i t h

-the

initiative

impossible.

27^ o

This chapter w i l l

be c o n c e r n e d

p a r a d o x and hence w i t h
e x p l a n a t i o n once
But
terms
the

to resolve t h i s

t h e scope and n a t u r e o f s t r u c t u r a l

again.

the matter i s not usually

expressed,

f o r Marxism, i n

o f t h e n a t u r e and scope o f s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n b u t as

problem

o f i d e o l o g y - t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f t h e s o c i a l

determination of ideas.
about

w i t h attempts

Thus M a r x i s m a l s o r a i s e s a

the o b j e c t i v i t y of s o c i o l o g i c a l

problem

e n q u i r y i n a new

r a d i c a l way b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a l l i d e a s a r e s o c i a l l y
and t h a t

their significance

c a n o n l y be c o m p r e h e n d e d

o r i g i n s i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e made c l e a r ,
the

More

determined,
when t h e i r

specifically,

s u g g e s t i o n has been t h a t a l l i d e a s a r e i d e o l o g i c a l

sense t h a t

they represent the world, especially

i n a p a r t i c u l a r way, w i t h

the aim, conscious

ing certain interests, very often

developed

i n t o a b o l d f o r m i n Marx's

bourgeois

political

economy, w h i c h ,

a theory which

d e s c r i b e d how

as i t c l a i m e d , t o n a t u r a l

the s o c i a l

class interests.

he s a i d ,

i n the

This

general

c r i t i q u e of

so f a r f r o m

being

t h e economy d i d w o r k , a c c o r d i n g ,

l a w s , was

a prescriptive

view

o f how

s h o u l d w o r k , one o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s b e i n g t h a t

a method

world,

or n o t , of f u r t h e r -

c l a i m was

it

and

such

o f r u n n i n g t h e economy f a v o u r e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e

bourgeosie

a t t h e expense o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t ,

Marx

thus

shifted

a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e t h e o r y a n d w h a t i t c l a i m e d t o be s a y i n g t o
the

consequences i n s o c i a l - e c o n o m i c

and t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
pounded

the theory.

o f these

terms

of believing

in it,

c o n s e q u e n c e s t o t h o s e who

He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

social reality

pro-

i s not

275.

subject to fixed

l a w s as i s n a t u r a l r e a l i t y ,

s o c i e t y i s r u n depends a l m o s t

a n d t h a t how a

e n t i r e l y upon t h e c h o i c e and

i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h o s e who h a v e t h e p o w e r t o c o n t r o l i t .
thus i n d i c a t e d

t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l y e v a l u a t i v e aspect

o f any

s o c i a l d e s c r i p t i o n , and contended t h a t

this

should

be made e x p l i c i t s

that

they f e l t

people

should

admit

He

henceforth
society

o u g h t t o be r u n i n t h i s way, r a t h e r t h a n c l a i m i n g t h a t i t was
t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a b l e way.
various views o f t h i s

The t h i n g

t o l o o k a t when d i s c u s s i n g

s o c i e t y t h e n i s l e s s what t h e y a r e ,

than

why t h e y a r e as t h e y a r e , a n d t h e s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e h a s
specifically
the s o c i a l
The

t a k e n up t h i s q u e s t i o n a n d a t t e m p t e d

r o o t s o f i d e a s and t h e o r i e s

r e a c t i o n o f s o c i o l o g y as a d i s c i p l i n e h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n

similar to that
a f t e r which,
lessly,

t o l a y bare

o f t h e c e n t i p e d e , who when a s k e d w h i c h

was t h r o w n

into

l e g came

c o n f u s i o n and t h r a s h e d about

" c o n s i d e r i n g how t o r u n " ,

As B i r n b a u m

says:

' D i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l components o f
s o c i a l s c i e n c e seem t o h a v e h a d a s h o c k e f f e c t
on many o f o u r c o l l e a g u e s .
T h o s e who r e s p o n d
t o t h e c h a l l e n g e c a n n o t do so d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y ;
the u s u a l l y complacent tone o f s c h o l a r l y d l s =
c o u r s e s u d d e n l y d i s a p p e a r s - t o become s t r i d e n t
and d i s c o r d a n t .
The i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d m o r a l
t e n s i o n s i m p l i c i t i n t h e s e q u e s t i o n s seem t o
i n h i b i t many o t h e r s f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e
discussion.
The i n s i s t a n c e on s o c i o l o g y ' s
s t a t u s as a ' s c i e n c e ' , so common i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r s t o be a n a r t i c l e o f
f a i t h - o r a d e f e n c e mechanism',
It

i s not surprising that

s o c i o l o g y s h o u l d be t h r o w n
which

help-

2.

the newly f l e d g e d d i s c i p l i n e o f
into

c o n s t e r n a t i o n by such a

suggestion,

e f f e c t i v e l y p u t i t b a c k among t h e s a l o o n b a r c o n v e r s a t i o n s ,

276.

political

diatribes

f a c t o r which
as

t o t h e b a s i s o f any

any m o r e , and

a s s e r t i o n about

reflect

a f a m i l i a r problem.

i f one

were t h e m s e l v e s
relations

was

radical,

c l a i m e d t o be

i n which people

relationships

taken at face

value

believed

d i f f i c u l t y now

c l a i m t o base a v i e w

of

the product of the k i n d

The

was
which

society,
of

social
1

c l a i m was

t h a t people s

by g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of the

of the s o c i e t y of t h e i r

time, a fact

w e r e n o r m a l l y u n a w a r e , b u t whose c o n s e q u e n c e was
thought i n a d e f i n i t e

direction.

f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n was

c h a l l e n g e d i n a way

of

I t was

the sacred b e l i e f s upon

lived.

i d e a s were s o c i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d

The

The

uncertainty

t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f t h o s e who

these p r e j u d i c e s themselves,
might,

the

social reality.

s u c h a s s e r t i o n c o u l d n o t be

might

them - t h a t was
that

shalloxtf j o u r n a l i s m whence i t came.

c o n f o u n d e d t h e c o n f u s i o n h o w e v e r , was

not simply that

one

and

social

of which

to bias

their

Freedom o f t h o u g h t and
t h a t made t h e

they

thereby

possibility

d e l i b e r a t e l y b i a s e d t h o u g h t seem a b l e s s i n g i n r e t r o s p e c t ,
A reaction to this

s t a t e o f a f f a i r s was

when i t came t h e c o u n t e r a t t a c k was

inevitable,

as v i c i o u s as

the

attack.

It

t o o k t h e f o r m o f t u r n i n g t h e t a b l e s o n t h e o p p o n e n t and

if

my

ideas are

claim that

s o c i a l l y determined,

ideas are

can y o u .

T h i s was

words t h a t

" A l l social

and

l e n d themselves

any

o f them,"

By y o u r

a s s e r t i o n I c a n be

f o l l o w e d up b y

sayings

so a r e y o u r s , i n c l u d i n g

s o c i a l l y determined.

n o t o n l y can I n o t make any

and

the

own c o n t e n t i o n ,

sure o f , b u t

nor

the argument, i n Bendix's

theories arise

to manipulation.

i n an h i s t o r i c a l
T h a t i s no

context

argument a g a i n s t

3
The

social

origins

or even

'determination'

of

277

man's t h o u g h t r e a l l y h a v e n o t h i n g t o do w i t h w h e t h e r w h a t he
says i s t r u e
he

or false:

t h a t depends on an assessment o f what

s a y s , n o t why he s a y s i t .

relevant
which

To m i s t a k e

the l a t t e r

t o the former i s t o indulge i n p o l i t i c a l

only confuses,
1

I n M a c l n t y r e s sober

though

a man t o h o l d a s e t o f b e l i e f s
from t h e reasons which

mud-slinging

i t may l e a d t o e m o t i o n a l

analytical

terms,

as a l w a y s

persuasion.

'The c a u s e s w h i c h

lead

a r e a l w a y s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d

c a n be a d d u c e d i n s u p p o r t o f t h o s e

k
beliefs.
Maclntyre

i s c o r r e c t i n w h a t he s a y s .

What i s p r o b l e m a t i c

though,

i s whether,

promise

r e a s o n s - w h e t h e r as B i r n b a u m s u g g e s t e d

reasons b u t defence
claimed, false

o r under what c o n d i t i o n s ,

consciousness.

relatively

social

ideas abouts

ence t o t h e i r

social

S u r e l y one c a n n o t

parthenogenesis

s t a b l e aspects

h a v e come t o be c a l l e d
are

they are not

mechanisms, r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n s ,

to claim the i d e a l i s t i c
to those

c a u s e s may com-

social

o r as Marx
go so f a r as

o f ideas w i t h o u t reference

of social relations

structure,

which

f o r what, a f t e r

all,

s u r e l y t h e y o n l y have meaning i n r e f e r 5

context of l i v i n g

relationships?

And

d i d n o t M a r x i n f a c t make o u t a p r e t t y g o o d case f o r b o u r g e o i s
economics b e i n g compromised by t h e i n e q u i t a b l e
its

application,
The

and t h e i n t e r e s t s

counter claim that

irrelevant

to their validity

that

this

served?

the s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f ideas i s
i s the f i r s t

and c r u d e s t

o f a s e r i e s o f r e s p o n s e s a l o n g t h e same l i n e s ,
to r e f u t e

consequences o f

variant

a l l o f which

seek

t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l f o r c e o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge

278.

and

so a l l o w s o c i a l

n o t h i n g had
which

science

happened

I shall

T h i s g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y i s one

consider i n t h i s

b y a n t i - M a r x i s t s and

s o c i a l l y determined,,
I will

in

- i f i t i s a fact

the c l a i m t h a t

this

first

anguish,

i n praxis.

As

general strategy,

and

t h e n g o e s on

are

has

variants

Lukacs, namely

i t s own

t r u t h i s t o be

discovered

not
of
of

the second d i s p l a y s c o n s i d e r a b l e
ideas are

socially

determined,

t o t r y t o c o n s t r u c t o r l o c a t e some a g r e e d

i n v o l v e d i n these

the

t r u t h and i t s

opposed t o t h e complacency

\\rhilst a c c e p t i n g t h a t

o b j e c t i v e basis from which

t o analyse

or

social relations.

e f f o r t s h a v e a l l b e e n M a r x i s t s , and

Those
discuss

a t t e m p t s o f M a r x , L u k a c s and Mannheim t o r e s o l v e t h e

problem.

The

final

strategy i s to avoid a direct

w i t h t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m and
rejecting

i d e a s as

i n p r a c t i c e and
In

- that ideas

a b s t r a c t p h i l o s o p h i s i n g but i n the d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n

ideas to r e a l i t y

the

age

adopted

the

T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , two M a r x i s t

each h i s t o r i c a l

t h e o r i e s , and

of three

I t i s normally

d i s c u s s when X come t o M a r x and

suggestion that
own

chapter.

though

consists essentially i n declaring

unimportance of the f a c t

which

t o p r o c e e d more o r l e s s as

this

confrontation

r a t h e r than accepting or

s o c i a l l y determined,

t o ask what t h i s

o n l y then l o o k at the e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

c o n t e x t I d i s c u s s t h e w o r k o f Mannheim and

means

implications

of h i s p u p i l

Stark.
To

r e t u r n t o the f i r s t

variants
social

s t r a t e g y i n i t s non= and

t h e n , i t a p p e a r s t o be

o r i g i n s o f ideas are

just

anti-Marxist

overdoing i t to claim that

irrelevant

to their

truth.

the
Nor

279

will

attempts

at nice distinctions

suffice

t o deal w i t h the

p r o b l e m , f o r e x a m p l e De Gr^.
At a l l s t a g e s o f g n o s i o - s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h
we a r e c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h e s t a b l i s h i n g a r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n i d e a s a n d men, a n d n o t b e t w e e n s t a t e m e n t s
and r e a l i t y ( m a t e r i a l t r u t h ) , n o r b e t w e e n s t a t e =
raents a n d o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s o n a s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l
l e v e l ( f o r m a l t r u t h ) . A n y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l imp=
l i c a t i o n s t h a t may be f o u n d i n t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s
may be o f c o n c e r n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , b u t n o t t o
the s o c i o l o g i s t .
The u t m o s t t h a t g n o s i o - s o c i o l o g y
may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e
i s t o demonstrate the s o c i o l o g i c a l l i m i t s w i t h i n
w h i c h a c o n c e p t u a l p o s i t i o n c a n hope t o g a i n a c c e p t a n c e , o . The l a i t y e x p r e s s e s t h i s f a c t i n i t s
adage "A man i s a p r o d u c t o f h i s time",,
1

Despite

the evident i m p l i c a t i o n s o f saying

by s o c i a l

that ideas

s t r u c t u r e , De Gre ( a n d many o t h e r s ) j u s t

go a n y f u r t h e r

and l o o k a t t h e consequences

t r u t h o f the ideas,

6.

are produced

refuses t o

of this f o r the

U n t i l we g r a s p t h i s n e t t l e we c a n g e t

a b s o l u t e l y nowhere, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h c e r t a i n k i n d s

of research

where

- e.g, i n

the t r u t h o f the ideas

student

rebellion,

i n some k i n d s

race

riots

of political

i s of central

interest

and r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e

crime,

I am r e m i n d e d o f W e r u h e r

v o n B r a u n who i n Tom L e h r e r ' s s o n g avowed

f o r m a k i n g t h e r o c k e t s and s e n d i n g

and a l s o

t h a t he was r e s p o n s i b l e

them u p , b u t n o t f o r w h e r e

t h e y came down.

7
N o t a v e r y much more r e a l i s t i c

view i s suggested by G u r v i t c h

b u t he d o e s make a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t .
he c o n t e n d s , c a n c l a r i f y q u e s t i o n s
but

The s o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e

f o r e p i s t e m o l o g y and v i c e - v e r s a

t h e y c a n n o t do e a c h o t h e r ' s j o b s .

ledge

poses t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e v a l i d i t y

The s o c i o l o g y o f knowo f ideas

to

epistemology

280.

a f t e r exposing
logical
one

standpoints are p o s s i b l e .

into

the o t h e r you merely

sociology.
of

their roots i n social relations.

You

ideas

s o c i a l a c t i o n and

empirical

We

criteria

The

first

into

i n s o f a r as

otherwise.

m u s t be

What we

it

t h i n g s t h a n we

i s t h a t De

and

Ideas

we

c l e a r about i s t h a t

and
social
be

the r e a c t i o n s to
in a

to i t .

social
Often,

problems

i d e a s have

arising
their

a r e o f t e n s a y i n g v e r y much more

t a k e them t o b e .

First,

Gre

should not

o b v i o u s l y occur

The

are

they s e l f

question of
s h o u l d be

contradictory?

i s u s u a l l y more o r l e s s o b v i o u s ,

need q u i t e

know
rational-

t h e c l a i m t h a t i d e a s have

t h e n a r i s e s i n s e v e r a l ways t h a t we

distinguish.

may

admit

i n response t o i d e n t i f i a b l e

t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e and

answer here

must f i r s t

t h e y r e f e r more o r l e s s e x p l i c i t l y

in

validity

might

sense v e r y i n n o c c u o u s ,

up

limited

t o what e x t e n t

reason.

t h e y are t h o u g h t
i t .

of

i s not a matter f o r

s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f M a r x i s m and

thinking

c o n t e x t and

and

t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t we

t h i n g t h a t we

i s i n one

b l i n d e d by

this

the

determinants

t o be u s e d ( w h i c h a r e u s e d ) t o d i s t i n g u i s h

G u r v i t c h are r i g h t
origins

effective

t r u e views of s o c i a l r e a l i t y

true

of

over-

cannot i g n o r e the q u e s t i o n o f

a r e r e a l and

investigation,

i s a t i o n from

to

i n t o a branch

a r a d i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n i n terms

epiphenomenal r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n , b u t

own

t r y to dissolve

t h e k i n d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e i n g done t o a v o i d b e i n g

extent to which

it

i f you

make p h i l o s o p h y

must p r e s e r v e

whelmed b y r e l a t i v i s m .

the

But

Many e p i s t e m o -

though

their

careful
The

in politics

a l o t of u n r a v e l l i n g of i d e o l o g i c a l

developments

2Sl.

to

show t h i s ,

it,

Secondly, are they

inadequate
to

because t h e j a r g o n w i l l

about doing

justice

own t e r m s -

to the l i m i t s

i n view o f another

H e r e we h a v e
o f the frame o f
T h i r d l y , are

i d e a complex

that

a l s o known t o be h e l d b y t h e p e r s o n o r g r o u p i n q u e s t i o n ?

This

i s one o f t h e commonest f o r m s o f p o l i t i c a l

attempt

to disintegrate

asked i f t h e y a r e f a l s e
h e l d by o t h e r s .
moral suasion

the party l i n e .

attack.

I n this

i t may be
o f views

o f the idea t o accept the

t h e y can r e a l l y b e g i n

A great deal of p o l i t i c a l

any o f t h e f i r s t

Finally,

an

case i t i s up t o t h e o t h e r s t o u s e

t o get the holders

assuming an i d e n t i t y

attack;

or inconsistent i n the l i g h t

supplementary p o i n t o f view before

If

on t h e i r

- a n d t h i s may n o t a l w a y s be c l e a r .

they i n c o n s i s t e n t or false
is

false

when m e a s u r e d a g a i n s t s o c i a l r e a l i t y ?

be c a r e f u l

reference

just

be e l a b o r a t e d t o o b s c u r e

invective

an

i s wasted by

o f v i e w p o i n t s when t h i s d o e s n o t e x i s t .
three o f these

fail,

o n l y w i t h t h e ad hominem m u d s l i n g i n g

the attacker i s l e f t

alternative

- the appeal t o

l o o k a t w h a t t h e man dLs n o t w h a t he s a y s o r d o e s , a t w h e t h e r
w h a t he d o e s w i l l

i n c i d e n t a l l y be o f a d v a n t a g e t o h i m o r h i s

f r i e n d s q u i t e apart from
rather

c y n i c a l l y be c a l l e d p u r e

The p o i n t o f t h e s e
if

one o f them h o l d s

taken place.
is

the reasons f o r doing i t .

This

politics.

various alternatives

i s that

i t i s only

t h a t a t r u e u n m a s k i n g c a n be s a i d t o h a v e

I t i s most e f f e c t i v e

i f one o f t h e f i r s t

three

u s e d , b u t t h e b a r b s o f t h e a d hominem a t t a c k c a n l e a v e

scars

might

i fi t i s launched

on a b r o a d

enough s c a l e .

The

lasting

sociology

282.

of knowledge approach unearths

a great deal

which to construct a springboard

other side of the

of the ideas

question

o f the

a l s o as
own

q u i t e apart from

i n t e n t i o n s of those

course i r r e l e v a n t .
e v i l men

Marx d i d n o t

plotting

so

c a u g h t up

a b a n d o n o r change i t and
side.

The

so

that

may

h o w e v e r , i n s o f a r as

i t may

doing

t h o u g h t h e r e c a n be
So

that

o c c u r r i n g and

f a r i t i s evident

i t does n o t m a t t e r

saying

social

to

i t s evil
and

consequences
that

What t h e
as much

the
explanation
likelihood
way

of

What i t i s

the e v i d e n c e s u p p l i e d by

the

o n l y g i v e grounds f o r s u s p i c i o n .
t u r n e d on
no

the ideas

themselves t o

reason f o r not doing

that

the f i r s t

whether ideas

strategy of

t o meet t h e

determination i s irrelevant

o f f p r e c i s e l y what i t i s i r r e l e v a n t

to, this

and

test

this.

are. s o c i a l l y

i s always u n s a t i s f a c t o r y i t q u i t e f a i l s
In

the

but

their

t o the ideas

i t shows t h a t

i n fact

t o remember i s t h a t

neces-

t h e y were q u i t e u n a b l e

a challenge

of

class,

g i v e more r e a s o n s f o r p r e s e r v i n g t h e p r e s e n t

e v i d e n c e m u s t t h e n be

this,

are

i n a system o f

though - there i s j u s t

s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge can
The

The

of the working

t h i n g s , perhaps w i t h minor m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

essential

under-

t h e c a p i t a l i s t s as

o f what t h e y i n t e n d i s t a k i n g p l a c e .

show i s t h e o p p o s i t e

that

see

the

our

c o u l d n o t , d a r e d n o t , see

which t h e y a n t i c i p a t e are n o t
reverse

And

h o l d i n g the ideas

c a u g h t up

explanation presents

t h e i r holders

attack.

such an a t t a c k .

the oppression

sorcerers' apprentices

m a k i n g , and

f o r s u c h an

c o i n i s of course t h a t i t increases

standing

sarily

of material w i t h

claiming
determined
criticism.

trying

t o mark

strategy f a i l s

to

283.

e x p l a i n on what b a s i s

i t undertakes a s o c i a l a n a l y s i s , which,

whether o r n o t t h e s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f such a b a s i s i s
problematic,
on

i s at least

a reasonable question.

t o t h e second s t r a t e g y , w h i c h t r i e s

Before

t o s p e l l o u t and t o

justify

a number o f b a s e s f o r a n a l y s i s , i t i s w o r t h

a final

variant

of the f i r s t

t o overcome t h i s p r o b l e m .

strategy that

t h e maxim

'I

opinions;

he h a s a n i d e o l o g y , p . 47.

difficulty

associated

in

the sloppy

I n Geertz
thought
and

pretends

the d i f f i c u l t i e s

y o u have

political

The c o n f u s i o n a n d

t h e 'problem o f i d e o l o g y '

i s displayed

t h i n k i n g w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e a b o v e maxim.

v i e w t h e way o u t o f Mannheim's p a r a d o x , t h a t

i s related

science

explicitly

by encapsulating

have a s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y ;

with

looking at

Geertz begins h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f
g

' i d e o l o g y as a c u l t u r a l s y s t e m '
in

going

begin,

i fa l l

t o s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , inhere d o e s i d e o l o g y e n d
i s v i a a clear non-evaluative

ideology which i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t from

concept o f

non-ideology.

There has c e r t a i n l y been muddled t h i n k i n g i n t h e r e a c t i o n s t o

t h i s paradox;

the question

i s w h e t h e r s u c h a p r o g r a m as G e e r t z

sets himself i s f e a s i b l e .
The

result of h i sefforts i n i t s final

f o r m u l a t i o n i s as

follows;
' S c i e n c e names t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s i t u a t i o n s i n s u c h
a way t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t a i n e d t o w a r d them i s
one o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s , ,
I t s style i s restrained,
spare, r e s o l u t e l y a n a l y t i c :
by shunning t h e semantic
d e v i c e s t h a t most e f f e c t i v e l y f o r m u l a t e m o r a l s e n t i ment i t s e e k s t o m a x i m i s e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l a r i t y .
B u t i d e o l o g y names t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s i t u a t i o n s i n
s u c h a way t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t a i n e d t o w a r d them
i s one o f c o m m i t t m e n t .
I t s style i s concrete,

284.

v i v i d , d e l i b e r a t e l y suggestive:
by o b j e c t i f y i n g
m o r a l s e n t i m e n t t h r o u g h t h e same d e v i c e s t h a t
s c i e n c e s h u n s , i t s e e k s t o m o t i v a t e a c t i o n ...
An i d e o l o g i s t i s no more a p o o r s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t
than a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t i s a poor i d e o l o g i s t . '
p. 71.
The

problem o f ideology i s thus reduced t o s t y l e

- p r o v i d e d one

w r i t e s i n t h e c o r r e c t d i g n i f i e d m a n n e r a n d d r a w s no e v a l u a t i v e
conclusions i t i s 'science'.
he

As f o r S u t t o n e t a l . ,

quotes a t the beginning o f h i s a r t i c l e ,

a question of bias, oversimplification,

adaptation to public prejudice.
totally
that
if
The

10 whom

i d e o l o g y i s a t most

emotive

language

and

I n t a k i n g t h i s viexv G e e r t z

ignores the fundamentally problematic nature of ideology

i s the claim that a l l social

science

i s ideological,

even

i t i s d i s p a s s i o n a t e i n t o n e , c o n s i s t e n t and s o p h i s t i c a t e d , ,
p r o b l e m o f i d e o l o g y p o i n t s n o t t h e m a t t e r o f b i a s and o v e r -

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , b u t t o the f a c t
e v a l u a t i v e assumptions,
of the s o c i a l

experience

Significantly,

that a l l social

and t h a t

these

t h e o r i e s make

are e x p l i c a b l e i n terms

o f t h o s e m a k i n g them.

Geertz begins

by discussing ideology i n

g e n e r a l b u t t h e n moves i n h i s s o l u t i o n t o i d e o l o g i c a l
where p o l i t i c a l

heat

conflict,

and c o n f u s i o n a r e g e n e r a t e d .

Culture patterns - r e l i g i o u s , p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,
a e s t h e t i c , s c i e n t i f i c , i d e o l o g i c a l - are programs;
they provide a template or b l u e p r i n t f o rthe o r g a n i s a t i o n o f s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ,
much as g e n e t i c s y s t e m s p r o v i d e s u c h a t e m p l a t e
f o r t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f organic processes.'
p. 62.

285.

' I t i s a l o s s o f o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t most d i r e c t l y
g i v e s r i s e t o i d e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y , an i n a b i l i t y ,
f o r l a c k o f u s a b l e models, t o comprehend the
u n i v e r s e o f c i v i c r i g h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n
w h i c h one f i n d s o n e s e l f l o c a t e d , '
p , 64 o
And

t h i s of

course i s j u s t to miss the

t o comprehend, b u t
o n l y one
the

way

of

a r e j e c t i o n of

organising

point:

the

i t i s not

The

conflict

basic point

social affairs,

arises

at

failure

c o n v e n t i o n a l wisdom
and

one

which

c o n s e q u e n c e o f b e n e f i t t i n g c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t s as

others

issue i s not

when and

- this is logically posterior

assumptions of a t h e o r e t i c a l standpoint are,

has

against
how

- but
and

as

ideological

what

why

the

they

are

of

Bendix

so o
Geertz's i m p l i c i t
quoted above, t h a t

response t o

i t is irrelevant.

e x p r e s s i o n i s s a f e g u a r d e d and
o r i g i n s do
is

not

matter.

t h a t i f i t can

be

social position,

shown t h a t

one

one

p a r t i c u l a r view

set

of

v i e w ( e x c e p t ad

the

p o s s i b i l i t y of creating

set

o f i n t e r e s t s , w h i c h i s j u s t what Marx d i d .
remains i n t h a t

i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e and
other.

T h e y can

detrimental

to the

the

a rival

v a l u e s and

c a n n o t be

be

however,

derives

i n t e r e s t s and

validity

one

does n o t

hominem), i t does
v i e w b a s e d on

an
The

assumptions of

of
social

begin to matter

even t h o u g h t h i s i n i t s e l f

the

form

i s open t o c r i t i c i s m , the

the

still

of

that

P r o v i d e d the

Where t h e y do

from, or i s compatible w i t h ,
of

this i s , like

kind
compromise

raise
opposed
difficulty

the

two

used i n d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m of

used however, t o u n e a r t h f a c t s which

o t h e r s i d e and

so

can

force

an

are
each
are

elaboration

286.

o f t h e o t h e r t h e o r y , perhaps t o t h e p o i n t o f a b s u r d i t y o r even
self-contradiction.

Something o f t h e k i n d has t a k e n

between f u n c t i o n a l i s m and i t s v a r i o u s
conflict
and

opponents i n s o c i o l o g y -

t h e o r i e s , a c t i o n t h e o r i e s , symbolic

b e h a v i o u r i s t t h e o r i e s , a n d among t h e s e

theories.

place

I n h i s e m p h a s i s on s c i e n c e

interaction

theories

various kinds of

and t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f

t h e one t r u e way, G e e r t z i s t h u s q u i t e o b l i v i o u s t o t h e f a c t
that

t h e r e i s an e v a l u a t i v e and t h e o r e t i c a l
The

d e b a t e t o b e waged.

o n l y sense i n w h i c h G e e r t z does r e c o g n i s e

is

i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e way i n w h i c h i d e o l o g y

by

r e f u s i n g t o recognise

the existence

o t h e r h a l f o f such dichotomous choice

inadequacy

oversimplifies

or legitimacy of the
p o i n t s as f u n c t i o n -

d y s f u n c t i o n , b o u n d a r y maintenance and e x t e n s i o n ,
integration-autonomy.

this

consensus-conflict

The a n t i - i d e o l o g i c a l v i e w o f t h i s

kind

of r e c u r r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l problem i s t h a t

b o t h p a r t s m u s t be

conceived

trying

o f as one p r o b l e m , r a t h e r t h a n

or the other.

The l o n g t e r m

result

of this

theory at a l l ,

since

of the r e a l i t y

i n q u e s t i o n and c l a i m i n g t h a t

better

t o i t than others.

justice

t o d e f e n d one

C a t h o l i c i s m i s no

t h e o r y c o n s i s t s i n t a k i n g an e x p l i c i t

view

one's v i e w d o e s

When t a x e d w i t h t h i s , t h e

a n t i - i d e o l o g i s t moves t o e c l e c t i c i s m , c l a i m i n g t h a t

different

t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s are appropriate f o r d i f f e r e n t kinds o f

phenomenon, e . g , a f u n c t i o n a l i s t m o d e l m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r a n a l y s i n g t h e f a m i l y i n some s o c i e t i e s ,
for industrial
the prospects

r e l a t i o n s o r some d e v i a n c e .
f o r an o v e r a l l

theory t o n i l .

and a c o n f l i c t
This

also

model

reduces

I t i s o n l y when

287.

the

various

general

dichotomies

p o s i t i o n s from

nificance

i n terms

other

i n other

M i l l s

contended"'""'",

motive

and p a r t i a l

which

which

respects,
that

c a n be
people

pre=justify,

their

use o f t h e d i f f e r e n t

All
the
is

question.

this

vague
next

deal

w i t h

overcomes
Lukacs

only

development

question

that

o f Marxism,

some

e f f o r t

this.

does

t o arise

this

must

and Mannheim

have

programme

consistent i n

( o rideologies);

that
suit.

s t r a t e g y f o rd e a l i n g
i s unsatisfactory,

science,
path

o f

thought

without

appears

w i t h
I t

or by
begging

t o be p e r s i s t e n t

But even

accepting

t h e end o f t h e matter.

o f the merits
that

ideas

o f the
are

attempts

socially

epistemological implications

b e made
examine

b e , as

unthinkingly follow

not b r i n g

i s that

be

by careful

by accepting

does

I w i l l

from

sig-

f o rone o r t h e

suggests,

and comparison.

the problem
that

either

r e a l i s t i c

recommendation

determined,
and

The

should

f u l l

t o the

o f vocabularies

n o t always

dismissive

o f fi d e o l o g y

their

I tmay

a c t i n terms

vocabularies

t o legislate

that

recognised,

may

sociology

the f i r s t

t o separate

theoretical

they

suggestion

n o t possible

the

to

that

i n a l l ,

subversive

f i a t ,

The

and that

are related

o f opting

and as Geertz

actions,

not t o imply

spring

o f t h e consequences

their

is

they

theories

t o establish

a position

which

i n turn

the efforts

o f Marx,

t o give

a b r i e f

exegesis

o f view

on t h e basis

t o do s o .

Marx.
Anyone
critique

attempting,

o f Marx

from

a s I am,

a particular

point

and

288

of

few months

with
the

h i s concepts

and

feel

evident

escape
very

Marx

close

cussed,
the

years

- he

o f devotion

asks

mostly

very

with

the result

a work

t o the uninitiated

(and

often

very

necessary

extreme

quoted)

a t the time,

himself

a n d one

The

into

the production

on

except

i t often

i s therefore driven either

dis-

some

o f l a s t i n g

o f

the
with
importanc

contemporary

seems now

This

be

d i f f i c u l t y

o f this

places.

came

f o r

f o rc e r t a i n

positions,

t o

and

must

t h e German I d e o l o g y

Because

unreasonable

He

sources

a t a

must

impossible

great

o f

the scholarship

questions

obviously

directed

reader

i n different

o f knowledge

t o rely

secondary

like

passages.

and a t times

tradicts

so I have

although

deliberately
that

gone

o f t h e answers.

points

h i s writings,

have

with

o f the basic

and sympathetic

o f crucial

were

obscure

that

i n doing

f a m i l i a r i t y

conditions o f h i s time

when f a c e d

t o o many

some

smattering

Yet i t i s quite

t o p r o v i d i n g many

interpretation

does,

especially

commentaries.

careful

i s that

few o f h i s works,

and s o c i a l

b u t inevitably

more

him

l i f e

daunted,

the better

o f a

and t h e o r i e s and a

i n t e l l e c t u a l

needs

of

reading

audience

i s now

very

obvious

preoccupation,
as i f Marx

took

and that

he

con-

i s quite

true,

he

t o attack him f o r this,

12
as

f o rexample

an

ass o f him, or l i k e

what

he

debate
less

Plamenatz

has said
and then

view.

and Popper

more

do

sympathetic

, a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y make
commentators,

i n different

places

i n the l i g h t

t r y t o e l i c i t

a more

balanced,

discuss

o f the current

though

n o t meaning

289c

On
by

making

though

w i l l

with

suggested,
moral

and

insights

himself
i n

way

t o i

from

of this

part

from

the cruder

Like
he

Weber,

produced
doing

so.

on t h e s i d e

o f p o s i t i v i s t

never

managed

assertions

particularly

called

h i s

('essence'

was

'philoas

he

t o

free

idealism,

then

to disentangle

m a t e r i a l i s m on t h e
i

t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y ,

i n praxis which

goes

some

f o r c e d , f o r t h e sake

an abhorrence

i l l u s t r a t e s

with

t o make

was

of materialism.

Ideology

i s

and

forms

and from

have

the evaluative

struggle

involvement

he

man,

t h e one hand,

I n fact

and as

the factual

This

i n t e l l e c t u a l

on

being

o f h i s calling,,

has been

a notion o f truth

c l a r i t y

t h e German

he

o f

from

revolutionary

deliberate

self,,

From t h e

Apart

o f the nature

terms)

form,

was

o f him with

o f what

t h e c u r r e n t German
extreme

i s a

t o Marx

vindicated.

easily.

Marx

f a i r

h i m t o o much,

f o rhim t o conflate

side

o f Marx's

damning

less

there

or view

ti n H e g e l i a n

from

towards

lean

that

reasonably

and r h e t o r i c

of h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l

large

s c i e n t i f i c
to

be

entirely

escapes

tendency

anthropology'

other.
though

he

apparent

elements

i t s most

himself

show,

i n the implications

sophical

think,

a l l the emotion

reasoned

and

refers

I w i l l

d i f f i c u l t y

become

evident

can I

scientist-cura-philosopher,

p o l i t i c i a n
I t

one

i s n o t as

major

social

count

him c o n s i s t e n t and w i t h o u t

he

other
a

this

The
this

of i d e a l i s t i c
following
wrangle

of

mysticism

quotation

i n

process,

' I n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h e German p h i l o s o p h y
which
d e s c e n d s f r o m h e a v e n t o e a r t h h e r e we a s c e n d
from
e a r t h t o heaven.
T h a t i s t o s a y , we d o n o t s e t
o u t f r o m w h a t men s a y , i m a g i n e , c o n c e i v e , n o r f r o m
man as n a r r a t e d , t h o u g h t o f , i m a g i n e d ,
conceived,

290

in
o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t men
i n the flesh.
We
set
o u t f r o m r e a l a c t i v e men
and on t h e b a s i s
of
t h e i r r e a l l i f e - p r o c e s s we d e m o n s t r a t e
the
development
of the ideological reflexes
and
echoes o f t h i s l i f e process.
The phantoms
f o r m e d i n t h e human b r a i n a r e a l s o
necessarily
sublimates of their material l i f e
processes,
w h i c h i s e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e and bound t o
material premises.
Morality, r e l i g i o n ,
metap h y s i c s , a l l the r e s t o f i d e o l o g y and
their
c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h u s no
l o n g e r r e t a i n the semblance o f independence.
T h e y h a v e no h i s t o r y , no d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t
men
d e v e l o p t h e i r m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t s and
their
material intercourse alternately along with
this their real existence, their thinking
and
the
products of their thinking.
Life i s not
determined by consciousness but
consciousness
by l i f e .
I n the f i r s t method of approach
the
s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t a k e n as t h e
l i v i n g individual 5
i n the second method, which
informs to real l i f e ,
i t i s the real
l i v i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s t h e m s e l v e s , and c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s
c o n s i d e r e d s o l e l y as t h e i r
consciousness.
T h i s m e t h o d o f a p p r o a c h i s n o t d e v o i d o f premises
I t
s t a r t s o u t f r o m t h e r e a l p r e m i s e s and does n o t
abandon them f o r a moment.
I t s premises are
men,
not
i n any f a n t a s t i c i s o l a t i o n and r i g i d i t y ,
but
in
their actual, empirically perceptible
process
of
development
under d e f i n i t e conditions.
As
soon
as t h i s a c t i v e l i f e p r o c e s s i s d e s c r i b e d , h i s t o r y
c e a s e s t o be a c o l l e c t i o n o f d e a d f a c t s as i t i s
with the empiricists (themselves s t i l l
abstract)
or.an imagined a c t i v i t y of imagined subjects,
as
with the
idealists.
Where s p e c u l a t i o n ends - i n r e a l l i f e - t h e r e
positive science begins:
the representation of the
p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y of the p r a c t i c a l process of
development
o f men.
Empty t a l k about c o n s c i o u s ness ceases and r e a l knowledge
has t o t a k e i t s
place.
When r e a l i t y i s d e p i c t e d , p h i l o s o p h y as
an i n d e p e n d e n t b r a n c h o f knowledge
loses i t s
medium o f e x i s t e n c e .
At b e s t i t s p l a c e can
only
be t a k e n b y a summing up o f t h e most g e n e r a l
r e s u l t s , a b s t r a c t i o n s w h i c h a r i s e f r o m t h e ob=
s e r v a t i o n of the h i s t o r i c a l development
o f men.
Viewed apart from r e a l h i s t o r y , these
abstract
t i o n s h a v e i n t h e m s e l v e s no v a l u e w h a t s o e v e r ,
1

pp.

37-8.

291.

Marx
between
cogent
than

idealism
points

sound

other,
of

i s desperately

and empiricism,

the overall

argument.

what

l4

and A v i n e r i

i m p l i c i t l y
cusses

emerges

be

pinned

action

agrees

on

accurately

required

t 'Marxism's

most

o f free

t o combine

points
was
d i s -

phenomena

operation
with

which

action

he

the
sees

voluntary
as a t
As

consists

objective

can

discovered.

b y men.

d i f f i c u l t y

an

misture

f o r philosophy.

view

change,

nor the

e x p l i c i t l y

social

this

rather

epistemology

never

of their

excruciating

attempt

Marx's

that

many

t h e one
a

here

Bottomore

(see above)

f o rrevolutionary

As

He

i s t o reconcile

puts

i t s enforced

him,

and laws

makes

of polemic

neither

science.

belief

i n e v i t a b l e and t h e r e s u l t

he

path

I n practise

science.

once

i n

have

o f h i s contempt

d i f f i c u l t y

i s one

15

with

i n h i s fundamental
down

great

w i l l

insistence

a middle

and although

alternative?

o f natural

i t because

I t

His

that

to steer

impression

I f he

i s h i s third

t h e two and an

out,

trying

Stark

precisely

determinism

with

16
a

b e l i e f

The

Holy

i n subjective
Family

nothing.

freedom .

i n contrast

t o t h e one

I ti s rather

man,

real

I t

i s not h i s t o r y which

uses

men

as

in

the pursuit

fi t were

attack
real
to

separate

l i v i n g

men's

person,

o f h i s ends.'

on i d e a l i s t i c
a c t i v i t y

determinism

that

p.

produces
above.

l i v i n g
as

man

a means

'History
who

does

to carry

Marx

again

again

t o jump

F o r o n t h e one h a n d
their

actions,

than

ends
man

i s an

stress

from
he

does

out i t s

there

Once

from

everything,.

139

which

and thereby

quotation

else

and once

allows

f o ri t i s nothing

emanationism

and back.

ideas,

He

on

voluntarism

wants

t o say

are determined,

and

292.

yet
is

simultaneously
i t s e l f

implies
actors

free.

that

t h e ideas

c a n be

bedevils

least

satisfactory,
so, though
works,

cases

moral

the

three

aspects

the

establishment

separate

of

course

be

understood

each

attempts

a t a

subsuperstructure

social
them

their

own

o f t h e human
i\rays

o f achieving
sure

too arbitrary.
as p a r t

condition.
t h e same

complete

t o substantiate a

about

i st h e

which

i s

anthropology

as i n t h e other
fundamental

say that

theoretical

f o u n d a t i o n f o rs o c i a l
A l l three

o f a

which

o f

To

men's

There are

interests

because

that

ideas

and h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
o f science,

by the

solution.

dichotomy,

and

relations

assumption

are introduced i n the guise

o f a

are attempts

t o define

the notion o f objective

precepts

are

t o real

separately from

b u t a t the price

factual

i s the determinant

The necessary

i t too f a i l s ;

but

refers

are used

i n them.

a l l o f Marx's

o f these:

which

which

defined

three

more

a c t i v i t y

B u t t h e way he

are i m p l i c i t

a c t i v i t i e s
thein

t o say that

these
end,

knowledge, i s

are interlinked

and can

only

theoretical

enterprise, f o r

committment

t o a

materialist

standpoint.
In
clear:

the last
as he

analysis,

puts

i t he

Marx's

ascends

committment
from

earth

t o materialism i s

t o heaven.

17
Lichtheim

points out

' " M a t e r i a l i s m " has a double meaning.

I tmay be
taken t o signify the r e a l i t y o f the external world,
but f o r Engels i t a l s o meant something
else:
the
primacy o f "matter" as an a b s o l u t e substance
in=
volved i n the constitution o f the universe.
M a t e r i a l i s m i n t h i s sense i s n o t a t h e o r y o f knowledge b u t a methodological doctrine
(ontology).
I t affirms that matter ( o rnature) i s p r i o r t o
s p i r i t
or ideas
and that s p i r i t i s an emanation

As

293.

of matter.
Such a f f i r m a t i o n c a n be n e i t h e r
proved
or disproved.
Their acceptance resolves i t s e l f i n t o an a c t o f r e l i g i o u s ( o r a n t i religious) f a i t h .
When E n g e l s d e c l a r e d
that
he a n d M a r x h a d a d o p t e d " M a t e r i a l i s m " a s a g a i n s t
H e g e l ' s " I d e a l i s m " , w h a t he m e a n t was n o t t h a t
he a n d M a r x h e l d a t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e
different
from Hegel's, b u t that they regarded
"matter"
as
i n some s e n s e m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n " s p i r i t " .
I t

was

unfortunate

to

impress

f o rM a r x i s m

h i s more

r i g i d

that

views

on

Engels

survived

the subject

on

18

h i s

coauthor

t o h i s fellow

19
communists.

Marx

himself

was

well

materialism

i n human

a f f a i r s

was

b y no

as

f o rthe physical world,

of

the physical

for

them.

lations
had
to

I n order

between

t o contend
the long

that

they

despite

were

false

was

as he

ideas

were

Marxist

because

s c i e n t i f i c ,

being

inevitable,

straightforward
a

question
i t had

deterministic r e -

superstructure,

irrelevant

consequences

ontological

as

about

o f the meaning

d i d about

and i d e a l

talking

not simply

but also

consciousness.

subsequent
20

h i s t o r i c a l l y

men's

collective

o f h i s work,

material

r
from

that

h i s fundamental

Marxism
and

t o talk

that

means

i t was

o f men,

m a t e r i a l base

term

deterministic,

aspect

a c t i v i t y

since

aware

when

of their

Although

compared

a c t i v i t y ,

Marx

c o n v i c t i o n , was

t h e o r i e s have

Marx

himself,
not

e n t i r e l y

emphasised

this

i t allowed

f o rthe claim

that

based

sure

foundation

ideas

on a
being

material

epiphenomenal

o f the

base.

The
consequence o f t h i s i s apparent
i n the following
.
21
Lenin:
' I t i s obvious
that Marx's basic idea that t h e
development o f t h e economic f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i e t y
is a process o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y cuts the ground

quotati

f r o m u n d e r t h i s c h i l d i s h m o r a l i t y v/hich l a y s
claim to the t i t l e of sociology.
By
what
method d i d Marx a r r i v e a t t h i s b a s i c
idea?
He
a r r i v e d at i t by s e l e c t i n g from a l l s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s t h e " p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s " as
being
the b a s i c and p r i m e r e l a t i o n s t h a t
determine
a l l o t h e r r e l a t i o n s ..
This idea of m a t e r i a l i s m i n s o c i o l o g y was
i n i t s e l f a piece
of
genius.
N a t u r a l l y 'for the time being' i t
was
o n l y a h y p o t h e s i s , b u t i t was
the
f i r s t
hypothesis
to create the p o s s i b i l i t y of a
s t r i c t l y s c i e n t i f i c approach to h i s t o r i c a l
and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s .
Hitherto, being
unable
to
descend t o s u c h s i m p l e and p r i m a r y
relations
as t h e r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n t h e
sociologists
p r o c e e d e d d i r e c t l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e and
study
the
p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l forms.
They stumbled
on
the fact that these forms a r i s e out of
certain
i d e a s h e l d b y men
i n the p e r i o d i n question
and
there they stopped.
I t a p p e a r e d as i f s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y man
consciously.
But t h i s d e d u c t i o n
..
was
i n complete
contrad i c t i o n to a l l h i s t o r i c a l observations.
Never
has
i t been the case, nor i s i t the case
now,
t h a t the members o f the s o c i e t y are aware o f
t h e sum
t o t a l of the social r e l a t i o n s i n which
t h e y l i v e as s o m e t h i n g d e f i n i t e , i n t e g r a l ,
as
s o m e t h i n g p e r v a d e d b y some p r i n c i p l e .
On
the
c o n t r a r y , t h e mass o f p e o p l e a d a p t
themselves
to
these r e l a t i o n s unconsciously,
and are
unaware o f t h e m as s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l
social
r e l a t i o n s ... M a t e r i a l i s m h a s r e m o v e d t h i s
cont r a d i c t i o n by c a r r y i n g the a n a l y s i s deeper t o
the very o r i g i n of these s o c i a l ideas of
man;
and i t s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e c o u r s e o f
ideas
depends on t h e c o u r s e o f t h i n g s i s t h e
only
deduction compatible
w i t h s c i e n t i f i c
psychology
M o r e o v e r t h i s h y p o t h e s i s was
the f i r s t
to
elevate sociology to the l e v e l of a science
from
yet
another aspect.
Hitherto,
sociologists
had found d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n the
complex n e t w o r k o f s o c i a l phenomena w h i c h pheno
mena were i m p o r t a n t and w h i c h u n i m p o r t a n t
(that
is
the sort of subjectivism i n sociology)
and
had been u n a b l e t o d i s c o v e r any o b j e c t i v e
c r i t e r i o n f o r such a
d i s t i n c t i o n .
M a t e r i a l i s m p r o v i d e d an a b s o l u t e l y o b j e c t i v e
c r i t e r i o n by s i n g l i n g out the
'relations
of
p r o d u c t i o n ' as t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y and
by making i t p o s s i b l e to apply t o these
relations that general s c i e n t i f i c c r i t e r i o n
of
r e p e t i t i o n whose a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o s o c i o l o g y
the s u b j e c t i v i s t s
denied,,.

295.

By

taking

that

economic

i t was

production

basic,

i . e . that

r e l a t i o n

t o i t , Marx

as

points

Lenin

the

claim

b e l i e f

that

solved

o u t ,Marx
economic

i n materialism

one

coLild

dispose

and

thereby

o f moral

rather

than

and

wealth

analysis

a plausible
that

production

and h i s method

t o come

ptions

that

about

The

what

Significantly,

based

be

i n reformist
Marx's

- has been
wanted

c l e a r e s t statement

was

also

reformed,
Marx's

t h e economy

compromise

fervent belief

p a r t i a l l y

standpoint,

on t o o narrow

only

i n the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n

that the

h i sp r e d i c t i o n s

o f the self-denying features

resulted

he

i t was

of

more

h i s t o r i c a l l y

contained

i n this

famous

often

and t h e

by h i s attempt
inevitable.

o f the base-superstructure

argument

quotation

'In
the social production of their l i
into definite relations that are indi
independent
o f their w i l l , relations
v/hich c o r r e s p o n d
t o a d e f i n i t e stage
of
their material productive forces.

that

i n socialist

o f wealth

obscured

assum-

publicising

22
is

that

m a t e r i a l i s t i c ,

although

were

- i n particular

that

should

they

i t d i d i n revolution.

prove

relations

meant

consciousness,

t o a moral

because

than

to

and

applauded,

- and because

o f exploitation

objective

analysis

ontological

claimed

been

a view,

end

false

though

empirically,

t h e economy

one

linked

The

long

such

values

as

seen i n

by f i a t ,

have

i n the last

which

was

be

j u s t i f y i n g

with

since

and c l a i m i n g

should

basic.

ideas

assumption

redistributed.

f a i l e d

mattered

i d e n t i f i e d

as b a s i c

else

time

were

also,

problem

o f problems

some

relations

beliefs

i n t h e economy

the b e l i e f

a number

spent

thus

basic

everything

o f inconvenient

b e l i e f

i.e.

as h i s

f e men e n t e r
spensable and
o f production
o f development
T h e sum
t o t a l

296

of these r e l a t i o n s o f production
constitutes
the economic s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y t h e r e a l
foundations
on which r i s e s a l e g a l and p o l i t i c a l
superstructure and t o which correspond
definite
forms o f s o c i a l consciousness
The model o f
production
of material l i f e
conditions the
s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e
process
in general.
I t i s n o t t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f men
that determines their being,
b u t on t h e c o n t r a r y
their social being that determines their
consciousness o '
0

23
In

the Poverty

in

a mood o f
'The w i n
feudal l
i n d u s t r i

Two

words

quoted

by Plamenatz

xire

find

As

Plamenatz

of being

a basic

points
need.

quotation:

'determines'

o u t ,production

i s basic

Marx

follows:

puts

tas

premise

e.g.

property

rules
may

range

an

Marx
is

because

i s correct

nature

what

kind

mass

i n claiming

that

of the p o l i t i c a l
grounds

what

o r mere

lack

abundance

obsession

with

material

some

o f p o l i t i c a l

collective,

t h e mode

o f production

rather

f o rclaiming

"Production"

and n a t u r a l

kind

than

b u t he

goods.
order

has

no

determines

vice-versa.

empirically,

of

o f i n t e r e s t

i s t o be

order

things,

kind

o f production.

environment

that

24.

f o rother

not determine

refusal,

production

i f production

t h e need

o f means

of a benign

f o rassuming

d i d have

generates

b u t i t does

an ascetic

i n d u s t r i a l

grounds

he

from

required

also

rules;

nor indeed

perhaps
to

o r need

and

i nthe

'The f i r s t p r e m i s e o f a l l h u m a n
existence...
( i s ) t h a t men m u s t be i n a p o s i t i o n t o l i v e
i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o make h i s t o r y ' .
This

him

even greater t e c h n o l o g i c a l
determinisms
dmill w i l l give you a society with a
o r d , t h e steam m i l l a s o c i e t y w i t h t h e
a l
c a p i t a l i s t .

are c r u c i a l i n the f i r s t

'being'.
sense

o f Philosophy

and I w i l l

the

What
come

297.

to

this

i n a minute,

c a p i t a l i s t ,
nineteenth

was

h a d come

that

a given

t o dominate

mode

o f production, the

the p o l i t i c a l

order

o f the

century.
25

Avineri
i t

i s a

basic

tautologous

substratum

consciousness
we

gives

previous

relations

with

humanises

nature

s t i t u t i v e
The

being

o f i t ;

rationalises

view,

refers

day

a c t i v i t y

rather
Avineri

than
may

about

ideology,

consistent

stress

was

remarkable

was

productive

a c t i v i t i e s

past

the time
doing

when

they

could

the beneficial

Avineri

recognises

defines

action

that

'being'

f o rt h e a c t o r s

a c t i v i t y

i nt h e

not very

i t i s coninteraction.

matter

and

consciousness
then,

on

Avineri's
o f

every

logical

remarkable.

What

the reaction o f the ideology

t o maintain

be

seen

b y Marx

things

Adam

Smith

includes

as w e l l

i n i t .

an apparently

process

well

and thus

f o r us b y

o f t h e meanings

causal

the everyday

t o be

and

'Determination'

world

Marx

i s n o t between

into

into

not

i t .

which

both.

out o f social

ordering

back

with

because

human a c t i v i t y

and so h i s

consciousness

t o the conceptual
a

shaped

i s t h e i r

arises

o f a

The

themselves

d i s t i n c t i o n

conscious

ways.

nature

interaction

b u t

a c t i v i t i e s

and reproduce

consciousness

which

shapes

consciousness

determines

b u t between

physical

but physically

Man

maintain

the existence

i n many d i f f e r e n t

i n constant

- men's

they

recognised

- men's

e f f o r t s .

base-superstructure

s p i r i t

fact

conceptually

others

t h e way

social

Marx

conceptualises

society's

Thus

a way o u t i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

one.

o f hard

see i s n o t o n l y

world,

Marx

as

the idea

and

them
others

claimed,
component

the simply

physical

that

298.

aspect

defined

observable

movement

terminology,
causal

though

relationship

Marx's
determinism
driven
arises

independently by
are thus

indissolubly

he

a t times

attempted

t o accept

talks

between

and free

the investigator.

though

and

i n Marx's
there

were

o f this

i s indicated

determinism u n t i l

dilemma

o f

by Marcuse.

revolutionary

s c i e n t i f i c
Marx

i s t o say, i

point

ti s i n e v i t a b l e

o f revolution

ought,
with

morally,

f a t a l i s t i c

and when

ditioned

by

existence.

the necessary

dependence

the

p.

319

'pre-historical'
Marx

l i f e ,

and Marcuse

revolutionary

True,

principle

social

to

where

...

things

stage

'Marxian

determinism

the deterministic

that

that

t o follow.

involves

that

i s

consciousness

'The c o n c e p t t h a t d e f i n i t e l y c o n n e c t s
Marx's
d i a l e c t i c with the history o f class society i s
the
concept o f necessity.
The d i a l e c t i c a l
laws
are
necessary laws;
the various forms o f class
society necessarily perish from their inner
contradictions.
The laws o f c a p i t a l i s m w o r k w i t h
i r o n necessity towards i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t s ,
Marx
says.
T h i s n e c e s s i t y does n o t , however, a p p l y
to t h e p o s i t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t
society.
The t r a n s i t i o n f r o m c a p i t a l i s m ' s
inevitable
death t o socialism i s necessary, but only i n the
sense t h a t t h e f u l l development o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
is necessary.'
That

them,

resolution
w i l l

as

linked

Idea

that

socialism

i s then,

h i s t o r i c a l

attempted
this

t o the l i f e

are suggesting that

i s aroused

up

men

incompatible

materialism

consciousness

enunciated by

consciousness

get t o the

i s reached,

theory

We h a v e

namely

w i l l

26.

i s

t o show
principle
o f class
t o the

conhowever,
applies
society,

point

are deluded

and

299

confused

and

situation
of

being

through

unable

and

dependant
revolution

to

of

assume

they

on

they
to

there

People

cannot

factual
are

t r u t h

unfree

They

only

are

i n

t r u t h

i s

well

i s

t r u t h

are

no

capable

f i t their

about

therefore

falsehoods.

when

that

the

They

freedom

consciousness.
though

see

society.

relationship
naive

to

can

p o s i t i o n

before

of

insights

the

see

but

own
sense
freedom

i t .

The

i t i s

surely

revolutionary

seeing
into

i n

grasp

to

shown,

their

quite

l o t

even

comprehensive

27
pattern

which

conflate

moral

studied,

with

true
and
an

provides

factual

held

by

actors

programme

of

action,

revolutionary

with

consciousness,

p a r t i c u l a r aim

e v i t a b i l i t y

and

material

i n

view.

since
The

o b j e c t i v i t y

of

true

conditions

i s

i n

ence

on

f u l l

r e a l i s a t i o n of
by

ideas

evaluative

with

remarks

consciousness

Gramsci

a
on

limited
the

set

this

extent

I t i s

i s
to

as

of

development

also

values
of

facts

to

to

equate

which

the

and

concerned
i s

to
be
t r u t h

consciousness

consciousness

fact

also

i n -

i t s

depend

with

the

i n

these

evident

consciousness,

' O b j e c t i v e a l w a y s means "humanly o b j e c t i v e " ,

w h a t may
correspond exactly to
" h i s t o r i c a l l y
s u b j e c t i v e " , i n other words o b j e c t i v e
would
mean " u n i v e r s a l l y s u b j e c t i v e " .
Man
knows
o b j e c t i v e l y i n s o f a r as h i s k n o w l e d g e i s r e a l
f o r the whole of mankind h i s t o r i c a l l y u n i f i e d
i n a u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l system:
but
this
process
of h i s t o r i c a l u n i f i c a t i o n takes place with
the
disappearance of the i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
w h i c h t e a r human s o c i e t y a p a r t ,
contradictions
which are the c o n d i t i o n f o r the f o r m a t i o n
of
g r o u p s and
the emergence of i d e o l o g i e s
which
are not c o n c r e t e l y
u n i v e r s a l , but are
rendered
i m m e d i a t e l y s h o r t - l i v e d by the p r a c t i c a l o r i g i n
of t h e i r substance.
There i s therefore a
struggle
towards o b j e c t i v i t y (towards being free
from
p a r t i a l and
f a l l a c i o u s ideologies)
and
this
struggle i s i t s e l f the s t r u g g l e f o r the
cultural
u n i f i c a t i o n of mankind,'

28,

300.

This
a l l

means
take

basic
that

that

the

and

same

be

i n society,

natural

one.

of

contradictions
p r i n c i p a l

point

thinks

i n t h e i r view

and

Gramsci

I t assumes
and

everyone

i . e . a Marxist

are basic

redistributed.

i s what

standpoint

relations

is

the

value

important

economic

should

'objective'

that

difference

of values

that

and

that

and

one

worth

r e v o l t i n g

over;

other

bases

of d i v i s i o n

may

exist

and

c u t economic

ones,

e.g.

i t

age.

The

contends

basic

and

between
sexual

cross

Marxist

that

economic

dominant.

(though

not necessarily)

exploitation

manner

(even

i f only

values

other

than

the

t r u t h was

not

clear;

s a r i l y
is

i t i s not

probably

certainly

ordering

them

into

he

of

t o argue

from

as
How

seeing

f a r Marx

meaningful

xvhole.

and

interests
esthetic,
i n

that

remain

both

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
f o r

example

and

p a r t i a l l y

relations

and

reductionist

a l li n t e r e s t s
thought

and

seeing

s o c i a l i s t alternative
a

revolution

the difference
of

w i l l

i n a

regards

d i d not regard

sense

of

course

economic

i s

d i f f i c u l t y

intertwined

plausible

may

exacting

interests

on

t o making
a

and

dependent

I n fact,

crucial

closely

economic.

separable

s o c i a l i s t .

and

'ultimately')

the

are

t h i s

r e l i g i o u s ,

very

are

there

of values

i s at present

dominant

i s thus

differences

Although

d i f f e r e n t kinds
ideology

argument

(removal

not

not

as

ideal

goods

o r may

seen

power

i n

be,

t o be

economic

one

interests

I n fact

continue

i s

t h i s

goal

society.

sex,

the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

and

i s a

c o n f l i c t i n g interests)

of

o f what

wealth

harmony

they

s o c i a l i s t

i s claiming

that

when

the

i n value
insights

Knowledge

as

i s

neces-

standpoints
gained

and

i s always

from

301.

particular

point

great

deal

broad

framework

adjust
a

o f knowledge

rather

potential

society
one,

o f view.

But this

c a n be

of c a p i t a l i s t

than

be

and has been

society

transformed.

watershed

between

b u t i t cannot

be

i s n o t t o deny
gained

which

presented

as

n o r can i t sassociation w i t h

within the

has allowed

Socialist

knowledge

that

i tt o

r e v o l u t i o ni s

and ignorance

the only

and

a particular

about

necessary

value

alternative

29
be

ignored.

"being

Elias

conscious",

makes

i t appear

stand

i n contrast

and
this
i t

i s easy

t o a l lforms

One

need

what

Marx

being",
Marx's

The

himself

o f "social

r e a l i t y "

p i c t u r e men

i s sometimes
theory

The

notion

adequate
without

f o ri n o r d e r

thereby

insistence

deluded.

much

on determinism.

was

w i t h

revealed

conceals b u t

social

i t was

world,

into

i s thus

w i l l

century

one."

precisely
or

reason

f a rh a r s h e r

enough
begging

f o r h i s

capitalism

extraordinarily

Disraeli

"callei

rather i n -

problem

good

o f

discovery.

r o l l e d

had i n fact

which

as a

that

inspection

not only

t o define

Nineteenth

monolithic,

The b l a n d n e s s

societies,

o f both

o f the free

B u t Marx

a t a l l times

t o recognise

and sometimes

d i f f i c u l t

foul

which

consciousness

closer

o f their

and superstructure

f a l l i n g

peculiarly

On

and

i n a philosophical vein

i s an example

i t i s very

questions.

have

a d i s t o r t i o n

o f base

i n that

important

only

i t s e l f

i n a manner

o f men's

consciousness

very

"Being"

and l e v e l s

not look

men's

s t i l l

'contrasted

"Bewusstsein",

a l lforms

t o see t h a t

reveals.

two

i t Marx

i s an i d e o l o g i c a l overextension

also

not

"sein"and

that

a l lages.

puts

was

self-

referred t o the
r e a l i t y

by

such

302.

investigations
The

organised

view

and

economy

the
and

not

ample

reason

lose.

his

and

to

c a l l

only

this

careful

c a l l

of

to

show,

hypothesis

did

down

b o i l

chief

means

in

the

be

seen

fact

to

of

course
as

brought

personal

the

was

of

from

and

accounts,

a l l

a c t i v i t i e s

for

money

i s

to

wealth

Capital.

i f his
Lenin

economic

which

of

he
the

suppress

this

obscure

class

Marx's

to

the

claimed

to

that

of

truth,

of

to

social
and

overtones

of

to

not

only

on

i t .

economic

true

need

produced

the

only

need

but
And

of

of

to

was

the

His

alienation,

could
that

reports

exchange
by

e m p i r i c a l l y

everything

everything

i t was

i n

substantiate

s t a t i s t i c s ,

insight

an

production.

that

order,

be

that

theory

factory inspectors'
important

was

his

information -

most

the

alienation

was

economic

dependent

Marx

material,

view

moral

i t was,

relations

argued

recognise

of

p o l i t i c a l

where i t

gave

and

from

evident.

materialism

this

London.

classical
i t , and

theory

again

are

His

the

to

deterministic

here

demonstrating

related

derived

as

i n

i n t e l l e c t u a l

the

philosophical anthropology
had

to

working

chains,

prompted

Mayhew s

i t natural necessity,

the

side

class

or

construction of

ideology

their

v e r i f i e d

in

ruling

f e t i s h i s m , though

Marx

he

i n Manchester

the

on

positive

which

commodity

by

obscured,

had

The

ideas

e f f o r t
long

be

they

Engels's

conservative

could

that

as

observations,

etc.

the

to

bear

reduction

value.
modern

'The

of
need

economic
30

system,

and

i t i s

which

the

l a t t e r

this

produces.'

'The
s o c i a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , Marx declares.
takes place e n t i r e l y
according
to the laws
of
c a p i t a l i s t i c commodity p r o d u c t i o n .
Under
these

3 0 3 .

l a w s t h e c o m m o d i t y seems t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e
and e n d o f human a c t i v i t y .
I n o t h e r words t h e
m a t e r i a l s t h a t s h o u l d s e r v e l i f e come t o r u l e
over i t s c o n t e n t and g o a l and t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s
o f man i s c o m p l e t e l y made v i c t i m t o t h e r e l a t i o n s
of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n .
1

Marx i s a g a i n m a k i n g two s i m u l t a n e o u s

points,

are deluded

they l i v e

false
to

by t h e system under which

i d e a s , and i n t h i s

that

which

feeds

men
them

s i t u a t i o n t h e y s h o u l d r i s e up and r e f u s e

a l l o w t h e s y s t e m t o d o m i n a t e t h e m , as r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o c i a l i s t s

point

o u t t h e weakness o f t h e r e c e i v e d v i e w s .

a mere e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y ,
of

though?

31

man, h i s " f r e e

'Far f r o m

labor i s the "existential

conscious

activity"

being

activity"

- n o t a means f o r m a i n t a i n 32

mg

life

but f o rdeveloping h i s "universal nature".

e x h o r t a t i o n i s embodied w i t h t h e f a c t u a l

claim.

moral

Marcuse

elaborates;
' "The o b j e c t w h i c h l a b o u r p r o d u c e s , i t s p r o d u c t ,
i s e n c o u n t e r e d as a n a l i e n e n t i t y , a f o r c e t h a t
has become i n d e p e n d e n t o f i t s p r o d u c t .
The
r e a l i s a t i o n of labour i s i t s o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n ,
Under t h e p r e v a i l i n g economic c o n d i t i o n s t h i s
r e a l i s a t i o n appears i t s o p p o s i t e , t h e n e g a t i o n
of t h e l a b o r e r .
O b j e c t i v i s a t i o n appears a l o s s
of and enslavement b y t h e o b j e c t and a p p r o p r i a t i o n
as a l i e n a t i o n a n d e x p r o p r i a t i o n . "

33.

The w o r k e r a l i e n a t e d f r o m h i s p r o d u c t i o n i s a t t h e
same t i m e a l i e n a t e d f r o m h i m s e l f .
H i s l a b o r becomes no l o n g e r h i s own, a n d t h e f a c t t h a t i t b e comes t h e p r o p e r t y o f a n o t h e r b e s p e a k s a n e x p r o p r i a t i o n t h a t t o u c h e s t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f man.
L a b o r i n i t s t r u e f o r m i s a medium f o r man's s e l f f u l f i l l m e n t , f o r t h e f u l l development o f h i s
p o t e n t i a l i t i e s .. I n i t s c u r r e n t f o r m h o w e v e r
i t c r i p p l e s a l l human f a c u l t i e s .. The w o r k e r
does n o t a f f i r m b u t c o n t r a d i c t s h i s e s s e n c e .

3^+.

3 0 4 .

' "Labour s e p a r a t e d f r o m i t s o b j e c t i s , i n t h e
l a s t a n a l y s i s , a n a l i e n a t i o n o f man f r o m man;
the i n d i v i d u a l s a r e i s o l a t e d from and s e t a g a i n s t
each o t h e r ( f o r example, i n t h e j o b market ) t h e y
a r e l i n k e d i n t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h e y exchange r a t h e r
than i n t h e i r persons.
Man's a l i e n a t i o n f r o m
h i m s e l f i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y an estrangement f r o m
h i s f e l l o w men."
1

It

was t h i s

35.

e m p i r i c a l argument t h a t a l l o w e d Marx t o argue

t h a t r e v o l u t i o n was t h e o n l y way o u t - p e o p l e w e r e e v i d e n t l y
q u i t e deluded

as t o t h e consequences o f t h e i r a c t i o n s f o r

s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e , a n d most o f t h o s e
o n l y t o suppress t h e r a d i c a l
made h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t ,

f e w who w e r e a w a r e

changes t h a t

this

implied.

sought
This

i n t h e words o f a modern M a r x i s t ,

'Values a r e n e c e s s a r i l y l i n k e d

t o beings

who h a v e n e e d s , a n d t h e
36

nature

o f these

needs d e t e r m i n e s

the character of the values,'

very p l a u s i b l e i n the circumstances

t h a t men's i d e a s ,
little

and l e n t w e i g h t

t h e i r a c t u a l consciousness, gives

understanding

o f how s o c i e t y r e a l l y

t h e o r y o f how t h e change w o u l d f i n a l l y
implicit

u a l l y become so e x a g g e r a t e d

them

very

B u t Marx's

come was b a s e d o n a n

p r e m i s e t h a t made n o n s e n s e o f a b e l i e f

determination of ideas, that i s , that

i n the total

t h e s i t u a t i o n would

t h a t people would begin

its

r e a l n a t u r e , a n d so t a k e

it,

t h a t i s they would respond t o t h e i r

as

operates.

t o the b e l i e f

event-

t o recognise

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n t o change
situation rather

than

the determinist theory indicated react passively t o i t .

Lenin

later

showed, t h i s

change o f p o l i t i c a l

given r e v o l u t i o n a r y circumstances
political

effort

a t persuasion

consciousness,

i s n o t achieved

As
even

without the

and c o e r c i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e

3 0 5 .

party.

People continue

t o be

w h i c h t h i n g s become c r y s t a l
no

doubt t h i s

tion'

is just

covers both

other than
stability
belief

t h i s and

order,

obstacles

w h i c h w i l l be

socialist

Hence t h e
and
on

term

'mystificavalues

A desire

exploitation,

for

a l l these

of the r e v o l u t i o n .

the r e v o l u t i o n a r y

s w e p t away b y

Partly

adherence t o

revolution.

at

i n deference to a u t h o r i t y , p a c i f i s m ,

i n t h e way

t h e p a r t y becomes t h e

the M a r x i s t

a b e l i e f and

a belief

c o n c e i v e d however f r o m

stroke

but

i n p r i v a t e ownership despite

political

right

c l e a r to the i d e o l o g i s t .

confusion,

those of the
and

'deluded' beyond the p o i n t

the

instrument

They

standpoint

as

course o f h i s t o r y .
of t h a t

are

anomalies

In practice

inevitability.

f o l l o w i n g argument, p u r p o r t i n g t o d i s c r i m i n a t e

w r o n g , t r u e and
the basis

false,

r e l e v a n t and

of a m a t e r i a l i s t

irrelevant

analysis i s , along

at

a d e i f i c a t i o n o f the economic r e l a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n

m a t e r i a l and
objective
since
also

interests,

ideas
the

t h e r e f o r e o b j e c t i v e and

are

the product

only possible

of t h e i r

standpoint,

p r a c t i c e means a l l o t h e r p e o p l e who
d i f f e r e n t h i e r a r c h i e s of values,

I t
as

h e n c e as g i v i n g r i s e

from which moral conclusions

are

social context,

a l l o t h e r s , and

s e e n as

to

deduced
This

that i n

hold d i f f e r e n t values

being

one

with

Lenin's s i m i l a r b e l i e f i n materialism, h i g h l y misleading.

is

are

trivial

irrelevant.
In t r a d i t i o n a l moral discourse the n e c e s s i t i e s
t h a t g i v e r i s e t o OUGHT r e m a i n h i d d e n , as a r u l e ,
f r o m man.
The OUGHT-forra i t s e l f i s l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s i n s o f a r as i t r e p r e s e n t s
i t s e l f as an a p r i o r i p o s i t i o n t o t h e r e a l m o f

and

or

is

3 0 6 .

n e c e s s i t y a n d n o t as i t s s p e c i f i c e x p r e s s i o n .
I n t h i s necessary m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the
a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s , OUGHT d i s p l a y s i t s c h a r a c t e r
of ' f a l s e consciousness'.
To g e t t o t h e
a c t u a l terms o f r e l a t i o n s i t i s always necess a r y t o go b e y o n d t h e i m m e d i a c y o f t h e OUGHTform o f discourse towards the comprehension
o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g o b j e c t i v e n e c e s s i t i e s , howe v e r d e e p l y h i d d e n t h e y may b e u n d e r t h e
i n t r i c a t e layers o f normative crust.
I n the
c o u r s e o f much " d e m y s t i f i c a t i o n " i t becomes
p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e ' g e n u i n e OUGHTS' w h i c h
c o n t a i n some a c t u a l n e c e s s i t y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f m a n k i n d f r o m t h e ' r e i f i e d OUGHTS' w h i c h h a v e
become i n d e p e n d e n t o f man a n d oppose h i m i n t h e
form o f b l i n d unquestionable, a p r i o r i p r e s c r i p t i o n s .
(The l a t t e r r e p r e s e n t t h e ' d i r e c t n e g a t i o n o f
human e s s e n c e ' a c c o r d i n g t o M a r x ) .
Thus t h e
q u e s t i o n i n g examination o f the u n d e r l y i n g
n e c e s s i t i e s o f OUGHT e n a b l e s u s t o d r a w t h e
necessary l i n e o f demarcation between the obj e c t i v e , p o s i t i v e f u n c t i o n o f moral discourse
and i t s r e i f i e d m y t h s . '
3 7 .
The

'necessity

o f the development o f mankind' i s thus

w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r value
speciously

and the moral

t o the m a t e r i a l which i n f a c t

economic o r d e r

The r e a l i s a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l

r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h i s value

standpoint,

theoretical

assumption t owhich a l l others

subsumed.

So f a r f r o m

judgements a f i r m

foundation

elevating a particular
To

derive

materialism being

how i t w i l l

are

progress

which

i s thus
this

i n fact

particular

r e l a t e d and

a way t o g i v e

i t i s a mere s l e i g h t

moral

o f hand f o r

one b e y o n d r e p r o a c h o r q u e s t i o n .

'ought' from

' i s ' i n t h i s way i n v o l v e s

( a ) I know w h a t t h e r e a l b a s i s
say

t o be t h e

ata particular

seen as i n e v i t a b l e a t l e a s t i n t h e l o n g t e r m

the f u l l

reduced

t u r n s out

as i t i s d e f i n e d b y M a r x i s t s

point i n time.
is

standpoint,

identifie

develop,

saying

o f s o c i e t y i s , ( b ) hence I c a n

( c ) h e n c e I know w h a t t h e

appropriate

3 0 7 o

v a l u e s a r e f o r each s t a g e , ( d ) hence I can d i s t i n g u i s h

f a l s e moral consciousness.
even i f y o u a r e r i g h t

The f a t a l

about

s t e p i s t o assume t h a t

( a ) , you w i l l

be a b o u t

p e o p l e m i g h t d e c i d e t h e y want something q u i t e
can o n l y c l a i m
totally
live

they w i l l

t r u e and

(b),

because

different.

You

n o t i f you contend t h a t people are

determined i n t h e i r values by the k i n d

of society

they

i n a n d t h a t y o u know t h e k e y f a c t s a n d v a l u e s o f t h a t

Though t h i s
range

i s partly

t r u e , people a l s o argue

society.

i n terms o f a

o f autonomous and d i s t i n c t v a l u e s and about a s p e c t s o f

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s b a s i c t o a n y s o c i e t y , a n d may make a v a r i e t y
of

consistent choices i n t h e i r p r a c t i c a l

properly

claim a l l of t h i s

t o be f a l s e

lives.

You c a n n o t

consciousness

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c l a i m i n g y o u r own m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y ,

without
which i t

is

impossible t o demonstrate.

A l l y o u c a n do a t t h i s

is

go i n f o r m o r a l a r g u m e n t a n d e x h o r t a t i o n a n d a p p l y

power y o u have t o compel a c c e p t a n c e .

not

social
The

whatever

i s practical

politics,

theory.

action of objective

w i t h Marx's p h i l o s o p h i c a l
about

That

point

interests

i s closely

intertwined

a n t h r o p o l o g y which a t t e m p t s t o argue
1

t h e e s s e n c e o f man i s l a b o u r a n d h e n c e t h a t h i s r e l a t i o n s

w i t h h i s fellows i n h i s labour are of c u l t u r a l

Here

'essence' i s used

fact

s o c i a l l y most s i g n i f i c a n t '

h e n c e o f human n e e d s ' .
and m o r a l e l e m e n t s

importance.

somewhat e q u i v o c a c l y t o mean b o t h ' i n

a n d ' c o r e o f human n a t u r e a n d

Once a g a i n t h e n we d i s c o v e r b o t h

factual

i n t h e same c o n c e p t w h i c h once a g a i n l e a d s

us b a c k t o t h e e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s as b e i n g o f c e n t r a l e x p l a n a t o r y
significance.

3 0 8 .

'Revolution i s necessary therefore not only

b e c a u s e t h e r u l i n g c l a s s c a n n o t be o v e r t h r o w n
i n a n y o t h e r way, b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e c l a s s
o v e r t h r o w i n g i t can o n l y i n a r e v o l u t i o n succ e e d i n r i d d i n g i t s e l f o f a l l t h e muck o f ages
and become f i t t e d t o f o u n d s o c i e t y anew.'
Marx's r e v u l s i o n

3 8 .

a t t h e s i t u a t i o n he saw made h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n

of a p h i l o s o p h i c a l

anthropology with

t h e more

He was w e l l aware when he ivas d i s c u s s i n g

cogent.

socialist implications a l l

as a b o v e , t h a t i t was n o t e n t i r e l y t h e same k i n d
as t h e e m p i r i c a l

y e t he h a d a p e r s i s t e n t

as t h o u g h i t w e r e f a c t n o t m o r a l i t y ,

attempting

factual analysis
the kind

be remembered
not

just

social

i n this

to describing

insight
economy,

t o t h a t end.

less

relevant

And i t s h o u l d
was

a l l h i s w r i t i n g s a r e more

Despite

less

labour i n the c a p i t a l i s t

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m o r a l dogma as a
and a spur t o a c t i o n i s

t o u s h e r e , a n d i s no way o u t o f t h e
M a r x was u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h a t

That t h e y were c o n t e n t w i t h p a t e r n a l i s m

t h e y d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d , t h e y d i d n o t see.
r e c o g n i s e was

or

vast

t h e immense i m p o r t a n c e o f h i s

m i g h t n o t w a n t t h e c h a n g e s he e n v i s a g e d b e c a u s e o f a
in values.

devoted

r e a l i t y b u t t o t r y i n g t o b r i n g about

f o r his investigations

determinism problem.

ample g r o u n d s f o r

c o n n e c t i o n t h a t Marx's l i f e

h i s somexvhat c o v e r t

directly

since together w i t h h i s

i tconstituted

i n t o the nature of alienated

starting point

obfuscation

tendency t o t r e a t i t

o f d e v e l o p m e n t he s o u g h t .

c h a n g e s , and n e a r l y

directed

assertion

c l a i m s he made a b o u t t h e i d e o l o g i c a l

of s o c i a l r e a l i t y ,

devastating

of

i t ,

t h a t w h a t he saw

was p a r t l y new

people

difference
meant

that

What he f a i l e d t o
t r u t h s and p a r t l y

3 0 9 .

the
a socialist vision,

He so e m p h a s i s e d / f a c t

o n t h e b a s i s o f a new m o r a l
discredited

still

t h a t he f a i l e d

For Marx

and l o c a t e

they might

the role

which

largely
might

social relationships,

He d i s m i s s e d

as t h o u g h

a l l others current

I am s u g g e s t i n g

on t h i s

can o f course

i s that

t h e core

of objective

strategy,

seen, a

this

moral

from
alternative

a t t h e t i m e as compromises
by l i v i n g

i n society

Stated t h i s

as i t w a s ,

c r u d e l y Marx

a monopoly on t r u t h o f t h e most e x c l u s i v e

c o n c l u s i o n whatever h i s v a r i o u s
The n o t i o n

While

i t were t h e o n l y

n o t as i t c o u l d , w o u l d a n d s h o u l d b e .

Quotations

repres-

a s s u m p t i o n f o r d e v e l o p i n g new

r e s u l t i n g from delusions fostered

kind.

how t h i s

i ti s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y distinguished

seems t o be c l a i m i n g

of truth

i n terms o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

potential.

element i s t h e necessary value

c l a i m s and t r e a t e d

framework.

a w a k e n i n g w h e r e b y man c o u l d see

way t o d e v e l o p i n g h i s f u l l

factual

liberal,

as w e l l a s a change i n t h e f a c t s

as a c o g n i t i v e

systematic insights

selectively,

o f a watershed

He d i d n o t a l w a y s make i t c l e a r

a change o f v a l u e s , a t l e a s t

as w e l l

recognise,

them i n a n o t h e r ,

the r e v o l u t i o n played

and f r e e d o m .

the

f a c t and v a l u e were

t o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t people

h i s new v a l u e s , o r t h a t

some o f t h e f a c t s

moral

emerged

be u n w i l l i n g t o see h i s new f a c t s b e c a u s e t h e y c o u l d n o t

accept

ented

v i s i o n t h a t new f a c t s

t h e o l d , and t h u s t h a t

interdependent,

t h a t i t was o n l y

rests

be f o u n d

him;

o f h i s arguments l e a d

what

to this

statements.

i n t e r e s t s , t o conclude

on t h e w i d e n i n g

d i f f e r e n t uses o f t h e term.

t o defend

discussion

o f t h e gap b e t w e e n t w o

We u s e i t i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

3 1 0 .

evaluative

way when, f o r e x a m p l e , we a s k someone w h a t

i n t e r e s t s a r e , when someone
say

that

aim

or desire,

their

' d e c l a r e s a n i n t e r e s t ' , o r when I

'my i n t e r e s t i s t o a c h i e v e X',
and i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y

I n t e r e s t here

true

t h a t p e o p l e know

w h a t t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s a r e .

The f a c t t h a t p e o p l e do

is

t h e y w a n t t o do t h e m .

often

last

t a k e n as e v i d e n c e t h a t

analysis

and o f t e n

things
I n the

i t d e r i v e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t p e o p l e want d i f f e r e n t

competing o r c o n f l i c t i n g t h i n g s .

M a r x r e l i e s on a n d d e v e l o p s , i s t h a t
i n y o u r i n t e r e s t t o ..."
better

means

The o t h e r u s e , w h i c h

i n the phrase

Here a n o u t s i d e r

" i t w o u l d be

assumes he knows

t h a n t h e p e r s o n h i m s e l f what t h e b e s t c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i s .

But

o f c o u r s e t o be a b l e t o s a y t h i s he m u s t know t h e g e n e r a l

aim

w h i c h t h e p e r s o n he a d v i s e s i s t r y i n g t o a t t a i n , a n d a l s o

that
If

t h e s p e c i f i c a i m he a d v i s e s a g a i n s t i s n o t a n e n d i n i t s e l f .

t h i s i s s o , w h a t he i s d o i n g i s p o i n t i n g

out e i t h e r a l o g i c a l

i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n t h e p e r s o n ' s d e d u c t i o n o f t h i s as a means
related

t o a g e n e r a l end;

t h e f a c t t h a t f r o m e x p e r i e n c e he

knows i t i s a n i n a d e q u a t e means o r t h a t
o r he may p o i n t

there are b e t t e r

o u t consequences o f t a k i n g

w h i c h have n o t been f o r e s e e n by t h e a c t o r
with

this particular

undertook.

He a r g u e d t h a t

men's a c t i v i t i e s
increasingly
living

the kind

of analysis

the unanticipated

i n a cloud-cuckoo-land.

This
Marx

consequences o f

b a s e d on a c c e p t e d d e f i n i t i o n s w e r e

f a r from the a n t i c i p a t e d

line

and w h i c h c o n f l i c t

t h e same o r some o t h e r g e n e r a l e n d t h a t he h o l d s .

c a n be s e e n t o f i t v e r y w e l l w i t h

ones;

becoming

ones, and t h a t p e o p l e

He was c l a i m i n g

were

t h a t he knew

3llo

better

than the

utilitarian
that
of

the

c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i s t s how

virtues.

the

he

T h i s , as

I have p o i n t e d out

v a l u e s were u s e d t o d e f i n e

sense i n w h i c h i t was
objective',

meant, the

t h a t by

the

values of

were i n h e r i t e d , n o t

in i t ,

the

or

d e p e n d s on

the

his

guiding

and

necessarily

use

he

wanted:

again his

of

one

the

and

view.

was
But

set

interests

be

say

reasonable
system
and

system.
values

really

implicit

The

second

another

person

d e s p i t e a l l the

not

have a d i f f e r e n t m o r a l

or Fascism.

desire,
Marx's

i n o r d e r t o be

able

t h e y w o u l d choose the

meaning.

of

revalations

were ( a r e )

c o n t e n t w i t h and

see

last

expression

i f t h e y w e r e l o g i c a l l y c o m p e l l e d t o do
c h o i c e w o u l d have no

had

a i m s and

errors.

t h a t i s an

t h e y may

dictatorship

to

the

t h e i r aims

o n l y was

t o embrace s o c i a l i s m

T h e y may

i s not

in

i n d i v i d u a l cannot i n the

wants:

t h a t people should
that

that

sense

thereby

word i n t e r e s t by

t h a t the

refused

not

of course,

t h a t a l l the

Those i n d i v i d u a l s who

paternalism, oligarchy,

choose.

that

being inconsistent;

evaluative

but

to t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n the

w r o n g a b o u t w h a t he

attitude.

insistence

was

nihilo,

to claim

tautology

of Marxism, s t i l l

and

it,

It

o t h e r s b e i n g p a r t i a l v i e w s and

corrective

r e s o r t be

actions

i n the

those p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the

related

i l l e g i t i m a t e was

w e r e d e t e r m i n e d by

i s true

system

sense i ^ h i c h w o u l d make

it.

d e v i s e d ex

d e s i r e s were c l o s e l y
What was

the

claiming

i n the

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a s y s t e m one

c e r t a i n kinds of i n t e r e s t s i n
t o argue t h a t

the

went f u r t h e r t h a n t h i s i n

g e n e r a l v a l u e s t h e m s e l v e s were i n h e r e n t

activities.

that

But

to achieve

to

alternative

that,

once

312

Marx's a t t e m p t s
which w i l l

t o provide

a p r i v i l e g e d value

p o s i t i o n on

e n a b l e h i m t o draw e v a l u a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s

studies of societies therefore f a i l .

that a factual

state of affairs

c o n c l u s i o n as he w o u l d l i k e

from h i s

He i s n e v e r a b l e

inevitably

leads

t o an e v a l u a t i v e

a n d i n v a r i a b l y h a s t o i n t r o d u c e more

or less covert evaluations i n t o h i s f a c t u a l a n a l y s i s .

recognise

t h e n t h a t when we s a y t h a t M a r x ' s g e n i u s

political

a n a l y s t we do n o t mean b y t h a t

the f a c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g
did

on t h e b a s i s

was a s a

t h a t he s i m p l y

societies.

should

described

He h a d t h e i n s i g h t he

o f a m o r a l v i s i o n w h i c h was e s s e n t i a l f o r h i s

analysis t o penetrate
missing h i s attempts

as f a r a s i t d i d o

Before

entirely

t o j u s t i f y h i s a n a l y s i s as f a c t u a l

m o r a l i t y as ' n e c e s s a r y ' h o w e v e r , I w i l l
attempts

t o shoxtf

consider

dis-

or h i s

the fresh

made b y one o f h i s l a t e r f o l l o w e r s L u k a c s , who h a d

the knowledge o f what a r e v o l u t i o n based on Marx's

theory

c o n s i s t e d i n b y t h e t i m e he w r o t e ,

Lukacs
3 9

Weber, s a y s L i c h t h e i m ,
an e p i l o g u e

d r e w on M a r x , "Mannheim's w o r k was

t o W e b e r ' s " a n d t h e " i m p o r t a n t l i n k b e t w e e n them was

p r o v i d e d by Georg Lukacs".

As a c o m m i t t e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y M a r x i s t

w r i t i n g h a l f a c e n t u r y and more a f t e r M a r x h i m s e l f , L u k a c s h a s
i n h e r i t e d more o f t h e n a r r o w n e s s a n d c o m m i t t m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h e d
theory o f the years
Parties,

since the founding

of effective

than the d e s c r i p t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y

founding father.

Communist

and i n s i g h t

ofthe

He h a s c h a n g e d h i s v i e w s s e v e r a l t i m e s

during

3 1 3 *

his l i f e

i n response to P a r t y pressures - H i s t o r y

C o n s c i o u s n e s s was

r e v i l e d by

and

Class

Moscow when i t a p p e a r e d i n

1 9 2 3

Since i t r e m a i n s h i s m a j o r t h e o r e t i c a l work however, most

of

his

of

o t h e r w r i t i n g b e i n g concerned w i t h

art,

I will

c o n s i d e r i t h e r e on

L u k a c s made two
problems r a i s e d
rather

as

the
not

the

that

of

meaning of h i s t o r y

theoretical

elaboration

quite

a l o t to

h i s t o r y , but

say

I will

t o the
not

The

but

His

special

about the

development of p r o l e t a r i a n
first,

t h a n , as

ideas.

M a r x c l e a r l y showed how
1

of people s a c t s i n the
important
on

the

than the

the

a discussion of
is

than a l l social

antecedents of

Marx c a l l e d

thought,

here.

at

any

rate

on

the

f o r c e s of

unintended

take

a l l but

i n d i v i d u a l as

the

his

basically

the

inevitable

history

a source

of

consequences

c a p i t a l i s t economy w e r e o f t e n much more

m o t i v e s when s e e n c o l l e c t i v e l y .

m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e m and
selves.

a stress

He

between a r t

consciousness, to

L u k a c s t a k e s as

i n M a r c u s e , on

consciousness

relationship

s i n c e he

contribution

totality?

a path to t r u t h .

case o f a r t r a t h e r

H e g e l i a n i s m emerges as

rather

as

Praxis,

neo-Hegelian

unfolding

since t h i s would i n v o l v e

consider his

second p o i n t

x\rith h i s
an

written,

relativistic

t r u t h through

as

t h e o r y o f a r t , w h i c h i s c o m p l e x , and
limited

the

i t was

of p r o l e t a r i a n

o n l y a means t o r e v o l u t i o n

a l s o had
and

attempts to deal w i t h
marxisms

interpretation

i t s m e r i t s as

than i n theory, which i s l i n k e d

e m p h a s i s on
and

by

the

t h e i r m o t i v e s and
hypostasise

on

them as

Men

reflect

t h e i r own n a t u r e
factors

t h i s process r e i f i c a t i o n

and

outside
tried

to

but
them-

show t h a t
of

these

i t was

o p e n t o men,

'forces'

action.

i n individual

individual will.
sciousness;

Men

operates

The

i n collective
what i s g o i n g

through a c t i o n regardless of
con-

i n g l y obvious,

total

o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h becomes i n c r e a s -

between the i d e o l o g y i n terms o f which a c t i o n s

are undertaken,

and t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r s o c i e t y .

the c a p i t a l i s t
through

economy c l a s s c o n f l i c t

slowly rises

t h e i d e o l o g y a n d makes t h e s e

Unconsciously,

develops i n t o

i n d i v i d u a l must be s e e n i n a

the o b j e c t i v e r e s u l t .

There i s , however a b a s i c

manifest.

control

t h e i r i d e a s have an e f f e c t b u t h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t

context t o recognise

surface

to understand

t o take

act consciously, but i t i s a false

t h e one t h e y a p p e a r t o .

of

and p a r t i c u l a r l y

F o r as l o n g as t h e y f a i l

on h o w e v e r , t h e s t r u c t u r e

In

i f they understood,

a moral b a t t l e

a class struggle.

the c a p i t a l i s t s

too, but t h i s

This

to the

contradictions

f o r consciousness

increases

the consciousness

o n l y makes t h e p o l a r i s a t i o n

more e v i d e n t and t h e i d e o l o g y l e s s and l e s s a d e q u a t e a mask.

T r u e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f what has r e a l l y
going

on i n s o c i e t y , i s i n e v i t a b l e

unveiled, but this

ful

revolution.

tariat

embraced
itself

as t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r e

c a n o n l y f i n a l l y be a c h i e v e d
Lukacs r e c o g n i s e s

r e m a i n s a c l a s s , and b e f o r e

been

that

after a

success-

so l o n g as t h e p r o l e -

i t has t a k e n o v e r ,

and

and i n c l u d e d t h e whole o f s o c i e t y , i t i n e v i t a b l y

onesidedly

i n c o n t r a s t t o the bourgeoisie, though i t i s

i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o see m o r e ,
c l a s s a n d t h e one t h a t
view of society.

sees

since i t i s by f a r t h e l a r g e r

exposes t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s

of the e x i s t i n g

Truth

f o r Luka*cs i s i n e v i t a b l y f r o m a p o i n t

t h i s does n o t
reflecting
from the

imply

t h a t i t need by

sectarian

point

interests.

of view of the

most adequate c o n c e p t i o n .
o v e r and
limited

with

be

ideas are

t h e b a s i s o f an

i t d e v e l o p s one

i n r e l a t i o n to the

c l e a r whether Lukacs b e l i e v e s
revolutionary

society

t e m p o r a r y n a t u r e o f c l a s s e s and

and

seems t o be

consciousness f o r the

can

t h a t any

the

and

still

but

of
truth

being

the

i t takes

represents
elimination

proletariat will

of the

analysis

features.

unfolding

i s possible,

claiming

sense

By

of

be

struggle

True consciousness i s thus

overall, objective

s i t u a t i o n as

as

until

p a r t i c u l a r features

engaged.

i m p u t e d on

i t s crucial,

ment b y

of society

society,

i n a d d i t i o n the

/ confused by

i n which they are

w h i c h may

And

but

i s i n t e r e s t e d i n the

i n t e r e s t s , since i t s main purpose i s the

involved

total

He

proletariat,

i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the

the b o u r g e o i s i e .
and

in

one-sided i n the

totality

The

of view,

that

of the s i t u a t i o n
looking

at

the

e s t i m a t e what the

correct

totality.

not

I t is

knowledge of the
c e r t a i n l y he

post-

insists

on

of t h e i r p r a c t i c a l t r u t h s ,

t h a t what can

be

known i s t h e

'correct'

p r o l e t a r i a t a t each stage of i t s d e v e l o p -

having regard to the

total

s i t u a t i o n and

ignoring

a c c i d e n t a l problems i n the s t r u g g l e .
Thus t h e
'Twofold d i a l e c t i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of " f a l s e cons c i o u s n e s s " c o n s t i t u t e s an a n a l y s i s f a r r e m o v e d
f r o m t h e n a i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t men i n f a c t
t h o u g h t , f e l t and w a n t e d a t any moment i n h i s t o r y
and f r o m any g i v e n p o i n t i n t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e ,
I do n o t w i s h t o d e n y t h e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e o f
t h i s , but i t remains a f t e r a l l merely the m a t e r i a l
of genuine h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s .
The r e l a t i o n
w i t h c o n c r e t e t o t a l i t y and t h e d i a l e c t i c a l d e t e r -

local

3 l 6 o

minants a r i s i n g from i t t r a n s c e n d pure d e s c r i p t i o n

and y i e l d t h e c a t e g o r y o f o b j e c t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y .
By r e l a t i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o t h e w h o l e s o c i e t y
i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o i n f e r t h e t h o u g h t s and
f e e l i n g s w h i c h men w o u l d h a v e i n a p a r t i c u l a r
s i t u a t i o n i f t h e y were a b l e t o assess b o t h i t
and t h e i n t e r e s t s a r i s i n g f r o m i t i n t h e i r i m p a c t
on i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n and on t h e w h o l e s t r u c t u r e
of s o c i e t y .
T h a t i s t o s a y , i t w o u l d be p o s s i b l e
t o i n f e r t h e t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s a p p r o p r i a t e
t o t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n ... C l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o n s i s t s i n f a c t o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e and
r a t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s "imputed" (zugerechnet) t o
a p a r t i c u l a r t y p i c a l p o s i t i o n i n the process o f
production.
1

pp.

By

c o n t r a s t , as B o t t o m o r e

points

5 0 - 5 1 .

out

'Marx s t a t e s q u i t e p l a i n l y t h a t t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s
w i l l , t h r o u g h i t s own e f f o r t s and e x p e r i e n c e s ,
a t t a i n a f x i l l y developed consciousness o f i t s
c l a s s s i t u a t i o n and a i m s ... What p a r t w o u l d be
p l a y e d i n t h i s p r o c e s s by i n t e l l e c t u a l s , by
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and m o v e m e n t s , M a r x d i d n o t
e x a m i n e , b u t i t seems c l e a r t h a t t h e s e w o u l d i n
any case be s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p ment o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s .
At the o t h e r extreme
Lukacs s u b o r d i n a t e s the w o r k i n g c l a s s t o the
" r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s " expounded by p a r t y
i d e o l o g i s t s , and t h u s p r o v i d e s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the u n r e s t r a i n e d d i c t a t o r s h i p
o f t h e p a r t y w h i c h has c h a r a c t e r i s e d a l l t h e
Soviet-type societies since 1 9 1 7 .
1

And

n o t o n l y do we

intellectual,

have a d e f e n c e

w h i c h has

t r o u s , b u t when L u k a c s
possibility'

at least
refers

of the arrogance of the

e m p i r i c a l l y been f o u n d

t o the

w h a t he means i s t h a t

'category

disas-

objective

a t which the l i n e s

b a t t l e b e t w e e n b o u r g e o i s i e and p r o l e t a r i a t
d r a w i n g up e v e n i f t h e r e i s l i t t l e

party

relations i n capitalist

s o c i e t y have reached a c e r t a i n p o i n t

lectual's role

4 0 .

c a n be

open c o n f l i c t .

i s t o grasp these o b j e c t i v e

of

s e e n t o be
The

intel-

f a c t s and hammer them

3 l 7 o

home as

a political

the h i s t o r y
of class
nature

programme.

of a l l h i t h e r t o

conflict,

- the

thereby

analysis,

thus

i n which t h i s

as

o f course Marx c l a i m e d

existing

s o c i e t i e s i s the

indicating

specifically political

v i e w and
one

Yet

the

the o n l y important

one

issue

aspect.

various

and

also

other possible value

members and

groups i n the

conflict, i s singled

out

i s at l e a s t to ignore

the

to reject

as

standpoints

society.

of

consciousness i s

o t h e r p o s s i b l e bases o f cleavage i n s o c i e t i e s b e f o r e
a class r e v o l u t i o n ,

evaluative

aspect - of h i s p o i n t

class

This

history

s e l e c t i v e and

Lukacs' imputed r a t i o n a l

that

and

insignificant
w h i c h may

I t i s , as

be

after
the

held

by

Bottomore i m p l i e s ,
4 1

finally
This
and

t o say:

i s the
is fine

I know t h e way

characteristic
provided

or i t s i n e v i t a b i l i t y ,
c o m m i t t m e n t and
relate

he

claim to either

recognises

that

will

developments.

o f c l a s s r e v o l u t i o n ( o r any

i t s objectivity
his

naturally

This

sense o f

other k i n d of

development) i s c l e a r i n Merleau-Ponty's c r i t i q u e

of

the

historical

Lukacs:

Q u a n d on d i t que l e m a r x i s m e t r o u v e un s e n s a
l ' h i s t o i r e i l ne f a u t done pas e n t e n d r e p a r l a
une o r i e n t a t i o n i r r e s i s t i b l e v e r s c e r t a i n s
fins.
m a i s 1 ' i m m a n e n c e a l ' h i s t o i r e d'une p r o b l e m e ou
d'une i n t e r r o g a t i o n p a r r a p p o r t a u x q u e l s ce q u i
a r r i v e a chaque moment p e u t tre c l a s s e , s i t u e ,
compare comme p r o g r e s ou r e g r e s s i o n ... b r e f
s a c c u m u l e a v e c l e s a u t r e s r e s u l t a t s du p a s s e
pour c o n s t i t u e r un s e u l t o u t s i g n i f i a n t . *
The d i f f i c u l t y w i t h H e g e l i a n i n e v i t a b i l i t y was, as
complained, that

i t lacked

the

politician

i t represents

p o i n t o f v i e w , t o w h i c h he

contemporary p o l i t i c a l

inevitability

the r i g h t values

stance of the messianic

l a y s no

taut

because I h o l d

element of p r a x i s .

42.
Marx

Ideas

do

3 1 8 .

d e v e l o p o v e r t i m e b u t t h e y do so i n r e l a t i o n t o r e a l i t y a n d i n
the

course o f t h e i r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n

tion.

The i n e v i t a b i l i t y

t o i t undergo m o d i f i c a -

o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t r e l i e s on

having grasped c e r t a i n ideas which define

certain

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s which i t i s claimed w i l l

persist until

formed i n c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s .

fundamental

But i fthe h i s t o r y o f ideas

shows a n y t h i n g , i t shows t h a t a l l i d e a s may be r e j e c t e d

c h a n g e d i n a n y number o f ways and t h a t

or

i t i s not possible to

f o r e s e e beyond a c e r t a i n l i m i t e d p e r i o d
to react.

trans-

how p e o p l e a r e g o i n g

T h e r e a r e t o o many i m p o n d e r a b l e s b e c a u s e o f t h e

v a g a r i e s o f human e m o t i o n a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a n d o f p o l i t i c a l
conflict.
The o n l y m e a n i n g i n h i s t o r y i s t h e one men g i v e i t ;
i s none t h e r e t o be d i s c o v e r e d .
belief
lose

i s that

o f h i s o%m s t a r t i n g p o i n t ,

from a p a r t i c u l a r viewpoint.
as

The p a r t i c u l a r d a n g e r o f a

i n historical inevitability

sight

an ' o b j e c t i v e '

there

Marxist

science r a t h e r

the theoretician

f o r g e t t i n g everything
t h e o r y comes t o be

will
is

seen

t h a n as a n amalgam o f i n c i s i v e

m e t h o d o l o g y , some t h e o r y a n d a s e t o f v a l u e s t h e m s e l v e s

derived

from the very c a p i t a l i s t

clearly

falls

into this

societies

i t studies.

Lukacs

trap.

'The c a t e g o r y o f m e d i a t i o n i s a l e v e r w i t h w h i c h
t o o v e r c o m e t h e mere i m m e d i a c y o f t h e e m p i r i c a l
w o r l d and as s u c h i t i s n o t s o m e t h i n g ( s u b j e c t i v e )
f o i s t e d onto the objects from the outside, i t i s
no v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t o r " o u g h t " o p p o s e d t o t h e i r
"is".
I ti s rather the manifestation of t h e i r
authentic objective structure.'

Lukacs
in

thus

and

recognise
respond
the

the

the

This

at which
could

it

was

by

showing

to

Thus

being

the

state

then
show

society.

as

perceived

that

this

was

the

so

by

only

was

ripe

can

i n step

with

inevitability

for

intellectuals,
spreading

message

truth

though

visible

on

the

basis

of

society

to

the

required

therefore

by

able

the
of

to

the

revolution.
whose

job

the message,

the

and

special

i n i t s arriving at

i t was

intellectual

their

i t i s , and

the

that

the

true

do

Hence

whole

by

groups

intellectual

f o r what

could

consisted

society

be

totality
an

total

the

affairs
he

and

deluded by

Only

of

This

totality
the

individuals

c o n f u s e d and

appropriately.
of

that

politians,

overall

unfolding

the

arguing

remain

social

evolution

point

of

t o be

societies will

concerns

of

seems

results
(a)

and

i t achieved.

development

point

and

appreciate

(b)

the

just
totality

and

not

finally

attainable

kind

of

points

into

practice

between
though
Lukacs

do

not

of

the

s e e how

condemnation,

actions

activity.

quite

on

late

i t i s just

the

accepted

for reflective

practical

that

about

insists

already

special

^implication

is

have

reserved

action

and

particular situations,

through praxis.

a s Marx

them.
I

misleading

like

claims

i n man's
this

this

theorising

He

inadequacy of

collapse

the

because

L u k a c s makes

that
about

that

the

the

gets

development.
that

when

possible,

for trying

further

What

to

i s of

the meaning

only

put

differences

o f Marx,

ideas

only

same

ideas

i s logically

reasons

this

development

of

i s

do i t .

course

and

away

from

separated
he

permitted

does
Marx

from

not

say

to

see

3 2 0 .

what

he

did.

the

testing

and

not

of

tightening
rigour

i n

His
and

of

circle

thought
as

in

way

that

upon

the

total

the

how

though

truth

could

of

science

to

situation

he

realistic

of

i n

were

only

rule

out

express

contained

no

available
the

or

conceive,

reflection

facts'

not

speak

for

themselves

the

breath

life

i s conferred

to

take

standing
What

long
back

Lukacs

which

terra
and

view

say

is

inadequate,

of

abstraction i s necessarily

Given

that

theory,
the

for

purity

agree

we
with

i s O.K.

of

doubt

that

depend
his

logically

book

truth

upon

concern

the

as

impossible.

life

or

only

to

though

the

facts
and

based

do

given

Any

of

attempt
requires

this.

into

practice,

that

the

question

abandonment
on

really

his

of

very
wants

I f we

moment.
with

action.

generalising,

The

else

not

of

the

claim

the

action

on,

inevitably

and

on

f a i l

act

meaning.

i n praxis.
of

possibility

were

anyone

goes

reflection

defined

distorting.

impulse

here,

but

greater

he

less

i t i s put

correct

views

i n practical

plan,

i s the

provided

and

Lukacs

be

by

to

praxis i s worth

and

independent

to

propose

reality,

But

s t i l l

abstracting

i t i s quite

h i s whole

i m p l i c a t i o n s of

theory

is

the

theory

have

i t seems,

social

emphasised.

request,

action,

To

whether

of

theorising,

i s denying

that

laudable

they

theoretical

intellectual

earlier

the

as

reflection

had

they

and

outlook.

to

of

i s a

general

a c t i o n and

he

insofar

in practical

f l e x i b i l i t y

appears

p r a x i s which

'Stick

and

are

through

just

argue

see

working

course

to

to

demands

process
i s
theory.
general
to

accept

abandon
therefore

solution,

which

3 2 1 o

'Only by o v e r c o m i n g the - t h e o r e t i c a l - d u a l i t y
of p h i l o s o p h y and s p e c i a l d i s c i p l i n e , of methodo l o g y and f a c t u a l k n o w l e d g e c a n t h e way he
found
by w h i c h t o a n n u l t h e d u a l i t y o f t h o u g h t and
existence,
Every attempt
to overcome the
duality
d i a l e c t i c a l l y i n l o g i c , i n a system of thought
s t r i p p e d of e v e r y c o n c r e t e r e l a t i o n to e x i s t e n c e ,
i s doomed t o f a i l u r e .
( A n d we m a y
observe
that
d e s p i t e many o t h e r o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n h i s
work, H e g e l ' s p h i l o s o p h y was
of t h i s type).
For
every pure l o g i c i s p l a t o n i c :
i t i s thought
r e l e a s e d from e x i s t e n c e and hence
ossified.
Only by c o n c e i v i n g of thought as a form of
r e a l i t y , as a f a c t o r i n the t o t a l p r o c e s s
can
p h i l o s o p h y o v e r c o m e i t s own
rigidity
dialectica l l y and t a k e on t h e q u a l i t y o f B e c o m i n g . '
p.
It

i s not

rather

easy

than

totality
accept

pretended
pure
act

can

on

fact

it

i s a

of

'factual

of

i s

just

part

as

that

matter.

of

reality

an3^thing

by

standing

reality.
of

society

when

he

to

whole,

origin,

doubt

urges

us

we

even

were
to

reality

conceive

part

problems
And

for

of

Even

for

to
see

and
ever

solved

the

and

by

isolated

remember

i f concrete

we

certain

anyone
be

i f

outside

that

should

of

that

composed

reality'.
attempts

without

that

on

human

prior

therefore

n e u t r a l vantage

nised

say

i n relation

whole

conclusions
a

the

else

seen

only

alone.

Lukacs'
society

be

i f thought

i t , i t i s p o s s i b l e to

much

i t and

that

logic
or

i t may

we

ho\ir

about

anything

that

reflecting

see

also

or

purposes,

to

2 0 3 .

one

to

assumptions
f a i l

point

sees

construct

has

as
to

different

much
be

but
as

basis
with

which

to

describe

dramatically evaluative

Marx's.

abandoned

things

on

and

( o r makes

The

search

the

fact

different

for

recogsense

3 2 2 .

of

what

one

sees)
1

defense

o f one s

necessary

part

relations.
consider,

taking

of that

The
resorts

trying

to wriggle

that

writer

to quite

assuming

examining

particular

on

and

this

problem

of

that

strategy.

out of the consequences,

that

point

account

determination

of this

thus

vantage

o f one's

different

the s o c i a l

the nature

much

positions,

justification

final

than

result

different

of a

rather

time

from

i s a

social
shall

Mannheim,

of ideas

and

then

spends

most

of h i s

'determination'

with

the

of the paradoxical

edge

i s taken

off t h e con-

kk

sequences

Mannhe im.
Karl
an

Mannheim

intellectual

have

been

appeared
his

that

i n

as well

1 9 2 3 >

but he

was

rigorous

a very

to

p i n down

human

thought

if

anything

other

than

Mannheim,

what

after

led

him

t o be

sensitive

the questions

expected.
was

Weber,

was

and a d i s c i p l i n e ,

grips with

that

Kettler

necessarily

he

may

Marx

that

he

thereby
i t began

and probably
suggests,

the sociology
imprecise

was

Kettler

social

t o be

rigorous

i n making

i t s e l f

coming

I t tries

i s unrealistic,
results
clear

of knowledge,

i n h i s analysis

were

suggests

misleading

tried

who

asking.
that

to

which

not a

science

prevents
by

so as

expected

and Hegel

Lukacs,
one.

be

and

Consciousness

and a c t i o n i n a way

crude

i n using

i n Hungary,

and C l a s s

Unlike

insight

to

he

a s by

heritage.

years

of sorts,

i n f l u e n c e d by H i s t o r y

h i s fundamental

i t s e l f

h i s early

and a Marxist

intellectual

thinker

spent

about

but

- he

are

this

saw too

3 2 3 .

much.

Certainly

extremely
but
he

the

difficult

most

For

standard

some

so

are

since

The

relation

thereby

problems.
thus

there

Sociology
Utopia,
in

of

1929,

English

say,

his

1956.

became

to

Marx

less

and

to

sarily

has

Essays

in

the

his

Marxist,
and

more
My

chronological
Sociology

as

led

a
to

i n

the

of

i s

over

be

found
their

overcome

by

religion.
not

to

of

in

published
thing

to

saying

that

references
with

states

history

the
and

neces-

introduction

The

to
that

and

i n

sociology

of

scepticism

of

and

therefore

Kecskemeti

truth

l i f e ,

Ideology

constant

his

that

determination

Essays

Culture

him

i s

epistemological

entire

of

with

Knowledge,

r e l a t i v i s m but

careful

between

In

despite

the

his

of

and

to

s o c i o l o g i s t , ending

aspect.

to

relatively

insight

misleading

discussion

self-

be

described

starting
of

to

answer

way

1 9 2 3 - 2 6 ,

too

not

no

and

Sociology

be

questions

does

only

none

i n

to

to

between

objective

successor

of

attempt

might

he

i t leads
are

structure

the

offered

fundamental

should

differences

in

complained,

Nonetheless,

this

theory

have
he

says,

source

social

attitude
a

the

one.

I f i t i s not

Parsons.

believed

historicism
knowledge

of

Hegel,

references

Mannheim

i n

written

Essays

to

contribution

considerable

and

i n

this

direct

developed

change

he

his

certainly

propositions

i n which

to

Knowledge

and

others

relativism, that

his

ideas

and

Bottomore

i f your

area

than

are

as

e s p e c i a l l y as

of

He

down,

including

main

rather

Merton

solutions

to

mistakes,

underestimated,

the

pin

instance

mine,

obvious

reader.

to

objection

contradiction,
true,

i s , as

perfunctory

raised.

the

he

because

truth

could
this
I

be
firm

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time
It

real

show.

does

seem

witness

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group

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As

in
p.

of

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the

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discusses

meaning,

(a)

(b)

' ...

of
=

he

what

and

explores
i n
of

of

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so

apparently

p.

i t may

with

of

called

classified

29.

that

the

Mannheim

determinism

was

at

this

a l l thinking

the

on

terms
three

but

even

of

then

a
he

may

For
an

with

dos
of

be
the

persons

the

unity

of

or

the

non=

immersion

Wissens",

At

a n a l y s i s of

everyday,

processes

puts

emphasise

thi

types

immediately

fact.

fact

the

to

the

in

cultural

meaning

meaning.

mind?

later

public,

subjective

i t s relations
doing

i n

fact

came

he

problem

depends

Documentary

as

determinism"

of

him,

that

never

i n d i v i d u a l f e e l i n g s and

the

worry

at

"Seinsverbundenheit

meaning

meaning

abandoned

him

i t s existence ,

the

of

ask

by

out,

the

meaning

to

he

sort

the

meaning,

concerned

kinds

some

objective

of

that

of

describes

expression

(c)

i n mind.

\\rhich h e

Expressive

kind

had

to

"social

of

recognised

(a)

i n

able

later

difficulties.

points

of

he

he

He

continued

Unfortunately

1 4 4 .

aspect

stage

rigid

terms

deterministic
thought

problem

i s determined

aware

period.

i s also

so.

thinking

stage,

was

the

have

"determinism"

clearly

historical

Kecskemeti

Mannheim

not

of

each

p o s i t i o n but

"Did

kind

for

fact

others.
or

instance

i f I

expression

of

vehicle

for

of

the

i n

on

the

this
occasion

user,

broader

context

difficulty

r e i n t e r p r e t the
give

the

e l u c i d a t i o n of

involved

The

question

alms

compassion

to

of

this

other
a

and

two

beggar

(b), a

wider

i s

knowledge
is

of

someone

lead
are

one

my

around

to

i n relation

the

to

unintentional
i s a

experiences

nature

i t s e l f

the

'most

not

explain their

he

always
then

correct

be

adds

hat

...'

we

He

does

that

o b j e c t i v e and

form

i n documentary

based

on

them,

have

later

the

ask

i n

taking

the

which

recognise
theoretical

artists

make

expressive

goals;

these

meaning",

p.

though

whether

important

to

rejects

58.

the

theory

point

survive in

i . e . i t has

i f i t implicitly

certain

manifests

consists

i s not

wholly

the

does

or

view

i n which

He

formal

of

"Documentary

character,

faith,

xirtiich
non-

i s a

55

e x p r e s s i v e meaning

even

5 5

subject which

of

may

the

point

the

make

meaning,

the

process

there

comments,

meaning)
p,

documentary

to

know

art, stress

"From

p.

impress,

of

confessions
own

to

but

'This

exploited for
1

temporal

of

procedure':

in
can

creation".

aesthetic

to

of

by-product",
of

utterances,
order

that

Mannheim's

however

'ethos'

artistic

radical

( c ) .

actualised,

or

fact

i t (documentary

unconscious
matter,

the

interpretation

activity

essential
i n

hypocrisy
the

become

e.g.

i t i s i n my i n t e r e s t

possibilities

artist's

meaning

whom

suspect

controversial
of

c h a r a c t e r and

however,

'bracketed

include
their

i s

them
claim

and

i s

to

validity.
The
and

difficulty

particularly

schauungen',
fancy

and

essence

of

of

the

i s that

uses

the

cultural

this

earlier

essay

on

he

s t i l l

i s

the

part

of

Mannheim's

"Interpretation
prone

Weltanschauung,

to

which

objectification,

as

of

Hegelian
i s the

his

tool

work,

Weltan-

flights

of

distilled
of

analysis.

3 2 6 .

He

does

realise

prevents

him

reality.

be

from
1

unity ,

understanding

doing

that
what

leads

him

(he

s t i l l

product

deduced

'global

from

This

cultural

however,

this
he

to

wants,

say

uses

that
the

Weltanschauung,

and

and

he

draws

abstraction

an

that

from

reality-

i s from

although

the p a r t i c u l a r

determinist

i t c a n be

analysing

term)

traced

cannot

back

interesting contrast

to i t s

between

explanation.

' I n t e r p r e t a t i o n serves f o r the deeper understanding

of meanings;
causal explanation
shows t h e con=
d i t i o n s f o r the a c t u a l i s a t i o n or r e a l i s a t i o n of
a given meaning.
A t a n y r a t e t h e r e c a n be no
causal genetic explanation
of meanings...
Meaning
i n i t s proper essence
c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d o r
interpreted.
Understanding i s the adequate
grasping of an intended
meaning or of the v a l i d i t y
of a p r o p o s i t i o n ( t h i s then i n c l u d e s the o b j e c t i v e
as w e l l as the e x p r e s s i v e stratum
of meaning);
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n means b r i n g i n g the a b s t r a c t i v e l y
d i s t i n g u i s h e d s t r a t a of meaning i n c o r r e l a t i o n
w i t h each other, and e s p e c i a l l y to the documentary
stratum.'
p.
He

seems

well

terminology
about

here

for dealing

of

the

with

r e l a t i o n s of

ideas

certainly

not

they

they

an

the

the

aware

have

to

claim

autonomy

and

inappropriateness

meanings.
to

their

are

the

dynamic

overall situation ultimately

remains
He

relevant

elaborates

Sociology
truth

of

to

of
an

f u l l

this

Knowledge',
idea

from

8 1 .

of

He

their

i n the
where

looking

final
he
at

context,

product
own

to

essay,

of

which

non-deterministic,

understanding

causal

i s prepared

social

direct

of

distinguishes
i t s function,

i t renders

though i t
the

Problem
denying

but

talk

but

comprehend
'The

to

he

of

links
the

the

does

not

3 2 7 *

then
to

put

the

the

former.

contingent
just

have

implies
the

those

extent

when

ideal

mind
out

of

and

mere

of

know

unknown

make

they

be

put

do

not

as

description

of

One

i s

then

practice

in

his

attempt

to

do

not

reality
testing

and

meaningful

later

back

empirical
or

and

indirect

related

have,

into

Only

i s

ideas

i t .

conceptual

an

latter

their

against

relations?

factors,

to

actors
to

and

I t i s

the

not

probably
we

of
more
do
will

them.

and

what
relations

discussion
deal

we
not

we

with

i s

the

of

that

makes

explain

situation presents

known

to

definitions,

will

be

able

know

enough

to
to

more
on

The

unless

as

more

actors,

those

dispositions

predict.
predict
than

economy

i t s e l f

the

has

history

determined.

of

the

radical duality

cannot

limits

favour

who

actor's

The

or

individual

Drives

know

in

e s s e n t i a l to

element

to

the

factors

concludes

mental

completely

have

consider

material

in

i s no

conditions

the

by

meet

there

Each

general

the

understanding

whether

artist

ideal

drives.

and

do,

the

the

change.

them

the

that

existence

possibilities
about

question

material

hunger

they

the

conditioned

Real

his

attitudes,

try

ask

emphasising

and

as

attacking

that

can

are

by

i t s e l f

matter.

assume

range

of

art.

about

of

will

he

unfolding

former,

ideas

we

are

tiow t h e

which

tested

ideas

however

product

meaning

we

which

social

does

as

the

the

showing

consequences

they

in

done

of

question.
He

as

and

r e l a t i v i s m does

this

i s

actually

to

reflected

question

This

claims

when

happens

of

crucial

what

they

prediction

But

do

are

as

they
as

well

thus

in

3 2 8 .

terras

of

the

actor's

before

he

we

clever

are

does?

which

are

or

meaning

of

genuinely
that

and

new

is

recognised
to

in

but

him
to

hand

there

are

which

we

have

and

people's
for

own

their

kind

of

social

of

even

do

that

i f men

tion.
we

because

but

We

always

cannot
require

this

of

of

meaning,

sublimated

Mannheim

the

approach
for

the

always

and

involves
The

and
a
says

change

situation

modifications

perceived

to

lead

giving

by
and

change

are

and

innovation
and

some

to

on

the

the

need

not

relations

to

But

with

they
one

another
social

we

have

set

of

this

and

cannot
the

fact

real
roots

i n men's
relations,

upon

practice

begin

autonomy

only

standpoint

because

testing in
this,

real,
has

and

inadequate

i t away.

confronted

a l l ideas

basis,

i s

r e j e c t i n g the

existing ideas

'reduce'

social

against

s i t u a t i o n s as
that

i s that

sociological

and

ideas

Yet
to

i t s e l f

explaining
are

creates

meanings

limited

we

some

ideas

meanings.

their

r e l a t i o n s and

new

arises.

both

also

his

want

unless

synthesis;

reflect

seems

cannot

are

way

are

will

additive

idea

some

he

conflicts

in

implications.

define

consequences;

an

we

altered

a l l thought

that,

i s no

of

understanding

views

analysis

validity

social

by

conceptions

position

not

but

what

'predict'

created

this

necessity

explanation

do,

job,

Old

tell

produced.

which

i s a

we

crudely

of

structural
see

own

function

have

tension

his

but

can

clearly

distinctive
the

to

we

problems

new,

existing set

The

at

these

thought

already

times

reality.

and

change

meaning,

one

than

into

of

made

At

solutions

incorporated

imagination

which

i n

imaginabecause
to

3 2 9 .

launch

our explanation.

As

was

clear

clarified

i n the analysis

it

i s e s s e n t i a l that

this

be

we

would

that

i t sa x i o m a t i c

We

explain
have

to wait

for

any f u r t h e r

his

earlier

is

factors
the

which

assertion

of

on

basic

grounds
and

and

assumptions

comparison
that

and

of a

simply

and

of the implications

where
was
four

he

able

made

t h e time
expands

he

said

i s true

Essays

and

by

the

intimate
and

c r i t i c a l

always

others'

level

innovation
tried.

We

limitations

suggestions.
i n the Sociology

situation,

to take

so,

assumptions

them

notions,

i n h i s introduction,

that

of an

between

the imaginative

non-deterministic

always

at the

situation i s

have

over

f o r doing
also

exposing

bent

o f o u r own

of our

of ideation

and

i s by

the ex-

reasons f o r

the relationship

by

proposition

ranges

I t i s not

reasons

Utopia

modifies

that

added

to get beyond

systematic

wrote

these

he

of the grounds

the social

that

aware

to say of him

factors

audience

more

This

i s made

and t r y i n g

are

By

and

synthesis,

a l l thinkers

argues

give

and

of a

of knowledge

personal

and v a l u e s

Progress

role

He

separation

position.

of the a s s e r t i o n

social

the genesis

which

explicit.

Here

i t s validity.

the asserter's

be

of Ideology

questions.

understanding,

a pervasive

h i s social

status

part

that

Marx,

i n r e l a t i o n to that

to i t st r u t h .

or question

intricate.

their

of these

of the sociology

increase

t o make

the l a s t

i n saying

relevant

assertion,

based

mention

function

possible

until

position,

not always

planatory

and

of

that

individual,

anyone

as an

of

Culture,

Ernest
he

Mannheim

distinguished

imagery

independent

and
variable

3 3 0 .

was

dogma.

divorces
society
exist

Mannheim

the

idealistic

into

are

of

and

dichotomy

articulated

pretation

quickly

h i s t o r y he

the

materialistic

as

i n

rejects

quite

'extreme

view'

viextfs

history

unrealistic.

reality.

Of

the

of

Ideas

materialist

that

as

and
they

inter-

says

' I t may
f i r s t imply the claim t h a t the
functions
w h i c h m e e t t h e b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l w a n t s o f man
have
a g r e a t e r u r g e n c y and a r e l e s s amenable to p o s t ponement and s u b l i m a t i o n t h a n a r e t h o s e
which
meet s o - c a l l e d s e c o n d a r y n e e d s ;
secondly,
economic
a c t i v i t i e s h a v e a more l i m i t e d scope o f
variability
t h a n o t h e r s , and t h e r e f o r e i t i s the l a t t e r w h i c h
are s u b j e c t to a ' s t r a i n to c o n s i s t e n c y ' w i t h
the
former.
Finally,
'economic a c t i v i t i e s ' have
an
a b s o l u t e c o n t i n u i t y and i n t h a t s e n s e t h e y
form
the p r i m a r y b a s i s of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n .
These
p r o p o s i t i o n s c a n be i n t e l l i g i b l y d i s c u s s e d w i t h =
out r e c o u r s e to the u n r e w a r d i n g antinomy of mind
and
matter.'
P.
i.e.

they
The

can

be

discussed

sociology

of

mind

as

basic

as

he

3 5 .

theoretical

now

calls

assumptions.

i t

' i s not an i n q u i r y i n t o the s o c i a l c a u s a t i o n

of
i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s but a study of the
social
c h a r a c t e r of those e x p r e s s i o n s whose
currency
does not r e v e a l or adequately
disclose their
action context
. . The b l i n d n e s s t o t h e
action
context of i d e a s gains support
from the
fact
t h a t i d e a s r e m a i n communicable and
seemingly
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e long a f t e r the s o c i a l
situation
which they helped
to c o n t r o l or d e f i n e
ended.
A c t u a l l y i d e a s t a k e on a new
meaning when t h e i r
s o c i a l f u n c t i o n changes and i t i s t h i s
relation
of meaning and f u n c t i o n w h i c h the s o c i o l o g y
of
mind e l a b o r a t e s . '
0

p.
His

view

working

of
on

this
many

relation
different

i s

of

an

levels,

4 4 .

over-determination
and

here

he

seems

to

of

'causes'

conflate

3 3 l o

reason,
say

motive

that

and

simple

cause.
causal

adequate.

The

conditions,

recognised

priate.
overt
to

concentrate

Not

than

only

more

actions
An

used
and

with
their

to

of

Culture',

to

democracy,
The

methods

to

In

the

fact

The

others

becomes

knows
fact

about
relying

'human n a t u r e '

there

existence

the

problem

the

from

i t i n a

you

with

Michel's

support

it.

appro-

The

thing

actions

of

ideologies.
becomes

i s the

same

accounts

are

of

of

order

chosen
and

iron
the

law

would
of

an

Thus

by

enable

way

and

self-

special
administration.

which

happen

in

but

relations

he

i n

( l ) .

only
a

oligarchy, a l l

unarticulated
the

beings,

i s contained

relationship,
of

elements

a l l human

selfhood

democracy

what

basic

of

v i t a l

was

Democratisation

three

elites

of

Mannheim

'The

quasi-logical

generalisations
to

and

from

i t also

i n normal

equality

consider

suggests

away

men's

terminology

of

meaning

when

easier

essay,

individual

mankind
on

last

that

got

more

herring.

investigation

the

follow

As

of

his

now

to

i s i n -

consequences

i n actual

the

want

of

of

red

to

relation

i s probably

much

because

essential

core

situation.

become

The

resolve

obvious

by

claims

( 3 ) The

seems

causal determination

(l)

autonomy

awareness,

kind

the

has

sophistication,

the

he

motives,

operate

the

consequences

He

of

he

i t as

ideas

about

i s given

view

i s that

flexible

of

rate

unrecognised

regards

some

any

reasons,

discussion

and

example

referring

and

i s how

the

realistic

that

( 2 )

on

worrying

does

of

i s important
and

at

sequence

language

determinism

rather

as

What

But

i s

kind

real
one
i n
about

between

the

3 3 2 .

elements

may

elaborated
ship

into

between

possible
and

be, and i n the case

an ideology

social

to s p e l l

e.g. democracy

on t h e b a s i s

o f democracy,

and l i b e r t y .

Clearly,

This

about

this

the nature

process

played

by d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r a l - s o c i a l v a r i a t i o n s

Weber's

development

account

of capitalism,,

articulation
ful

of ideas

relationship

basis

democracy
levels

justice.
of
via

goes
have

t o show

and pervaded

have

and i n d i v i d u a l i s m

to a democratic
elected

i n the fact

political

From

this

ideology

of a reliance

i nthe

i t i sthe

the meaning
on t h e

account
by t h e

how

Western

the

social

order,

elites

that

the necessity

to perform

the need

fitness

of

science,

to

getting

and to e x e r c i s e

f o r the elites,

on i n n a t e

central

their behaviour

derives

a t

administration,

t o show

i s also

concepts

culture

f o r the development

of r a t i o n a l i t y , which

be r a t i o n a l .

instead

essay

made

lies

makes

a r e made

been

The

rational

the ideas

Similar

i n allowing

ethic

or logical

politics,

to conform

i s crucial,

i s that

that

part

concerned,

developed

links

the

I t i s not i n t e l l i g i b l e

linguistic

on i n t h i s

restraint

to

reality

art,

the role

check

to note

- i n epistemology,

democracy

people

conceptual

of the situation

Mannheim

all

social

The r e l a t i o n s between

demands

of

with

The point

developed

where

of the protestant

intelligible.

of a purely

alone.

of the role

to that

finally

o f man

c a n be

the level

evident'

relation

i s only

beyond

e,g

of the 'self

been

out the conceptual

of assumptions

relations.

have

their
must

f o r a

duties.
be

seen

quasi-

rational

to rule

self-

planning

by v i r t u e

of

et

3 3 3 .

inherited

or

magical

straightforwardly
demonstration
could

not

actors

logical
the

nor

as

i t did,

the

operation

of

ideas

an

example

"determination"

of

ideas

by

you

could

not

century
French
once

that

at

Versailles.

Revolution

the

music

arguing

for

and

historical

the

argues

of

of

i n

social
have

creative,

meaningful

only

van

situation

importance

of

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about

what

was

acceptable

or

even

time.

He

does

'Geist'

to

refer

of
has

rhetoric
a

tone,

to

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works

art.

but

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of

there

other
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emotional

make

his

point

i n mind.

suggests

i s no

than
most

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that

power

general

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and

as

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of

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of

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eighteenth

the

forces

angelic,
k.

at

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He

i s

clearly

Beethoven's

music

i t emerged.
ideas

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He
feelings

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explicitly

use

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term

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but

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use

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i n

age,
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view

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class,

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or

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event

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p.

support

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in

cataclysm

dominant

economic

Revolution,

way

Beethoven

i n which

social
are

i s made

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talks

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core

reality.

structure i s implicit

reference
French

ideas

l i t e r a l l y

would
He

knowledge

of

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does,

the

assumptions,

culture,

Mannheim

to

idea

whole

Beethoven',

the

as

the

demoniacal

for

not,

which

relations

relationship

social

simply

the

neither

are

social

had

are

They

relations

r e l e a s e d and

Ludwig

links

Stark's,

' I t was

which

d e s t r u c t i v e and

inform

without

developed

we

argues

causal.

relations

take

He

These

have

and

If

of

properties.

the

ideas,

of

high

individual
background,

political
referred

and

he

to

upheaval.

facts
except
He

33h.

is

not making

the

reasons

reasons
broad

strict

indactive

f o r trends

given

i n thought

a t t h e time

and l a r g e l y

unrecognised

understanding

but

one

have

the

theory

should

be

able

discovered
and

after

undue

a n d make

the period

both

be

of the thought

strictly

On

This

predictive,

the basis

and f i t i n other

links

with

events

fits

o f i t one

factors

and i d e a s

a view

and

to

evidence

about

Such

about

the motives

a l l the available

of concern.

surmise

i s relevant.

elaboration.

to predict

later

factors

can never

t o show how

without

to which

and the r e l a t i o n

interpretive
does

inference^but

before

can never

be

50
strictly
is

falsifiable.

whether

and

here

something

of course

is

crucial.

is

used

by

p l i c i t l y
soon

we

should

be

way

deal

own

be

is

that

evidence
situation

to s a y however,

'undue'

on

the

them

ex-

at the

or contradict

are i n fact

view,

ground

i s , of referring

of the people

around

the

elaboration

h i s feet

to transcend
we

able

f o r or against

of keeping

to the view

begins

more

must

o f what

i n h i s example;

cautious, since

of their

time;

theirs

a c c u s i n g them,
than

we

do,

and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s

of

who
being

a s much

as

are.
Stark,

a s may

deterministic
much

more

medium

be

view,

complex.

philosophical
the

useful

we

as evidence

the action

as our view

a great

unaware
we

Stark

counts

or implicitly

as

had

One

What

expected,

because
Ideas

argument

of social

he

goes
sees

progress

or s c i e n t i f i c

relations

on
that

to reject

the

causal

the relationship i s

not only

by

experiment

and the f o r t u n e s

rational
but

or

through

of the

groups

3 3 5

or

individuals

p a t i b i l i t y

groups

the

l e v e l ,

good

about

r a t i o n a l

society
the

was

r u n .

Brit

about

the basic

ideas
what

persisting,
dichotomy
into

arise

abstracted

opts

he

and

means.

ideas

apparent

when

he

returns

views

t h i s

v i t a l

he

fothers d i d n o t ,
only

interdependence

f a i l s

to

specify

though,

despite

h i s

exegesis

discussion

ad-

i s i n
radical

insights

His d i f f i c u l t i e s

lengthy

t o a

t h e way

i n maintaining

view.

r e l a t i o n ,

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relations.

error

structure

could

themselves,

functional

though

from

con-

o f i n t e l l e c t u a l argument

His major

and

both f o r

He

even

relations

h i s predecessors,

between

that

with

o f Marx's

confirmed

the social

calls

structure,

t h i s

like

he

n o t a t an

things

of revolution.
which

incom-

themselves,

the basis

t o the l e v e l

the l i m i t a t i o n s of t h i s

on

was

i n social

f o r what

emerge f i r s t

d i f f e r e n t

predicted

notions behind

or factual

relations

t o do

This

l o g i c a l

may

defects i n the ideas

being

equately

The

the i n e v i t a b i l i t y

later

Stark

wanting

reasons.

c o n f l i c t would

between

them.

but i n social

o f people

apparently
tention

hold

o f two d i f f e r e n t views

i n t e l l e c t u a l
two

who

become

of d i f f e r e n t

of the

implication

5 1

of

h i s view

to

social

f o rfree

r e a l i t y

conceptualising,
is

l i m i t e d both

inherited
xvhich,

t o give

pretations,

by

them

i n r e a l i t y

the s i t u a t i o n ,

exclude

and ideas

meaning.

the existence o f a

susceptible

w i l l

Thought

application

and define

though

w i l l .

and

of

reconceptualisation
which

the s i t u a t i o n

o r perhaps

One

a reference

d i a l e c t i c

set o f ideas

and by

of several
others.

The

need

i s i n a

many
c i r c l e :

are
i t s e l f ,

i n t e r one

has

3 3 6 .

s i t u a t i o n

situation
suggests

one wants

i t s e l f
that

p a r t i a l l y

then

and so a v o i d

can conceive

one

comparisons

way

one

definitions
r e f l e c t
lives

fone's

the merits

that

o u t one

despite

relationship,

these

which,

being

referred

separates

Two

even

s t i l l

things

and values

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into

as

arise.

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take

define
make

us want

one c a n
another

i n

and s e t o f

i n one's

t o
one

social

i n another.
then, i s

queries

we

o f t h e i r
about

i s

say, are modified

relations

by

and. a b s t r a c t

being

and

t o see them

p r a c t i c a l

which

maintained,

t h e i r meaning

social

of t h e i r

o f

objectively

the dichotomy

t o conceptualise
them

then

the closeness

t o raise

unless

But

o f ideas/structure

want

only

conceive

limited.

whilst

one

and o f

i n the a b i l i t y

and b e l i e v e

practice,

r e a l i t y ,

our a b i l i t y

r e a l i t y

so t h a t

and as l o n g

put into

cannot

one v i e w

resides

what

a c t f r e e l y

one a g a i n s t

i s only

insights

the d i f f e r e n t

sees

cannot

Freedom

inevitably

t o social

situations.

o f them

i n the dichotomy

one may

One

one t o

o f freedom

and has a l t e r n a t i v e s

can imagine

p r a c t i c a l

questions

through

from

one

enables

one

are sharply

ft h e r e

one does

how

a n d one

set o f d e f i n i t i o n s

danger

determines

available.

relationships,

that

horizons

work

problems

a l l i e d .

o f knowledge

and provide

that

The

and t r u t h

cannot

on what

The

sociology

s i t u a t i o n

o f alternatives

y e t one i s l i m i t e d b y t h e

The

assuming

closely

alternatives

evaluate

so,

i s t o see,

become

c a n make

with,

h i s t o r i c a l and comparative

i s a l l there

t r u t h
one

i n doing

g e t o u t o f one's

viewpoints,
sees

t o deal

as

ideas

content,

t o

analys<

3 3 7 .

them

independently,

a b i l i t y

t o innovate

reference
these
what

p o s s i b i l i t i e s

wrong
an

permitted

t o see them

a r t i f i c i a l

able

t o see

social
when

great

them

the

implied

societies

i n this

I have

was

l a i d

dichotomy.

our notion

t o analyse
clear

implications

of which

r e a l i t y ,

I f we

developed

way w i t h

be

i n social

I fyou manufacture

and questions

and are

b u t i twould

that

one,

on t h e need

the p o s i t i v i s t i c

p r a c t i c a l

separation.

and r e a l i s e

our

indicated,

beings

a parenthesis

i n a v e r i f i a b l e

t o see

t o the other

way

immediate

already

t o develop,

than

a b i l i t y ,

o f human

i s an instrumental

r e l a t i o n s

begin

As

without

are d i s t i n c t i v e

as more

stress

can

r e a l i t y .

of this

and i n e v i t a b l y temporary

structure

social

i t

i n t e l l e c t u a l l y

t o social

have

and, as a r e s u l t

are

o f

a t a

time

observable

r e s u l t s ,

we

o f the term

t h e one,

determines

you

which

and
contrast

in=

5 2

evitably
rather

arise.

than

abstracted

'Structure'

actual

social

ghosts

rather

their

a c t i v i t i e s .

This

i s t i c

i n both
To

and
be

seen

force

notions

formalistic

r i g i d i f i e d
men

i n men's
contrast

scheme

and ideas,
minds

which

i s quite

of the ideas/structure
the r e l a t i o n

between

of causal

determination,

takes

one

claim.

abstraction

implications

than

i n any case

out o f the paradox

r e i f i e d

r e l a t i o n s between

the necessity

that

n o t as

knowledge

as

as
gxiide

unreal-

i t s elements.

question

t o claim

i s seen

generated

I f social

by

the hard

structure

b u t as human

action

f o ri n d i v i d u a l action

dichotomy

t h e two
much

of the

sociology

i s conceived

o f

n o t as

and i s looked

must

a t i n i t s

i n p a r t i c u l a r situations

as

3 3 8 .

well
i n

as b e i n g

the previous

urgent.
in

The

less

mined
and

structure,

that

knowledge,

empirical

have

His

grounds

machina,

t o what

viewpoints

said

d i d make

something

i s a

over

lead

time

and then

place

and value

on

stand-

problem
o f

f o r the

apparently

o f the acceptance
a

discussion

i n Chapter

Two

i t .

the problem.

i s an absurd

insights

o f

i f i t s

t o transcend

a t transcending

t o some

and

t o argue

attempts
this

deter-

o f the sociology

i s one

about

though

different

others

of i n t e l l e c t u a l s

i t does

with

theoretical

vain

two attempts

build-up

though

than

are less

however,

possible

situation

rather

vary

versions

longer

suggestei

are not causally

But this

o f relativism

problems

elaborate

as

The

remains

and i t s t i l l

i t i s no

o f certain

already

Mannheim

they

i n t h e manner

o f determinism

i f ideas

by deterministic

i n e v i t a b i l i t y

practical

Kven

remains

because

superiority

o f relativism

i n analysis,

posed

o f society,

t h e problems

form,

the question

from

the

problem

t o adopt

model

chapter,

dramatic

by

point

an o v e r a l l

deus

I w i l l

ex

mention

later.
More
and

more

accept
he

them,

interesting

relativism,

knows

n i t i v e

e x t r a o r d i n a r y as

i s h i s attempt

p e n e t r a t i o n , thus

'congruence'
Ideology

t o make
giving

f o rany given

or

' f i t '

and Utopia

a t transcending

i n the d i f f i c u l t i e s

i t i s necessary

a t least

an attempt

i s used

t o evaluate

c r i t e r i o n

here

even

o f their

cog-

f o rchoosing

period.

The

and i s discussed

t o these

i f we

the assumptions

f o rthe depth

h i s t o r i c a l

i n r e l a t i o n

i t raises

the problem

between

idea

o f

mainly

i n

two concepts

and

their

3 3 9 o

more

or

less

inadequate

d e s c r i p t i o n of

r e a l i t y .

Already

i n

his

53

essay
have

on

'Historicism'

our

own

constant
of

our

situation,

to

though,

of

view

reinterpretation

cognitive
comes

point

he

value

but

and

discuss

this

on
i n

that

so

the

very

difference

between

ideologies

bound

inadequate
whereas
thus

the

unable

Utopias
about

as

are

such

up.

What

bases

f o r the

ideology
to

both

and

than

to

and

has

i s

and

the

i t i s
are

but

that

conservative
i n

even

and

society,
help

to

b r i n g

changes,

'A s t a t e
w i t h the

o f mind i s U t o p i a n when
state of r e a l i t y w i t h i n

i t i s
which

incongruous
i t occurs
0

This incongruence i s always evident i n the

fact
that such a s t a t e of mind, i n experience,
i n
t h o u g h t , and i n p r a c t i c e i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s
o b j e c t s w h i c h do n o t e x i s t i n t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n , , I n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y man
has
occupied
h i m s e l f more f r e q u e n t l y w i t h o b j e c t s
transcending
his
scope of existence than w i t h those
immanent
i n h i s e x i s t e n c e , and d e s p i t e t h i s , a c t u a l
and
concrete forms of s o c i a l l i f e have been b u i l t
upon the basis of such " i d e o l o g i c a l " states of
mind which were incongruent w i t h r e a l i t y .
Such
an i n c o n g r u e n t
o r i e n t a t i o n became U t o p i a n
only
when i n a d d i t i o n i t tended
t o b u r s t the bounds
of the e x i s t i n g order,'
The
of

d i f f i c u l t y

p a r t i a l

he

work,

both

r e a l i t y ,

and

and

needs

When

claim

that

be

different

second

his

a l l

must

others.

changes

expect

we

w i t h which

say

looking

nascent

there

i n his

about

must

changing

view

d e s c r i p t i o n of

the

looking

the

Utopias

wishes

i s backward

comprehend

forward

he

of

length

confused

only

that

of

'truer'

greater

becomes

clearly

point

not

and

l i g h t

are

he

that

history

each

some
at

claims

and

t o t a l

comes

when

ideology

he
and

tries

to

introduce

superimpose

i t upon

the

5h
notion

t h i s

3 ^ 0 .

Whereas
as

he

and

because

i d e o l o g i e s are

actual

i n c o n s i s t e n t \tfithin

also
the

distortions
f a i l i n g s

and

the

source

of

of

the

are

even

view

with

the

pointing

of

What

i n

the

order
new

one.

he

has

to

best

of

fact

that

nonetheless

to

f a i l i n g s

p r a c t i c a l l y

Utopias

and

more

realisable

i n

point

Utopias

point

to

Hence

do

are

here

r e a l i t y

they
a

break

to

unite

should

be

order

a
the

point

of

accurate

importantly prophetic
new

with

are

from

are

recognis

they

i s

s t i l l

they

the

view,

Conversely,
that

sort

of

of

sense

whatever

distortions

and

the

of

represent

factual

truer

existing

progress.

that

being

but

they

Utopias

themselves.

establishment

fact

i n

a l l i d e o l o g i e s and

necessarily limited

p a r t i a l

i t

regards

i n

proposed.

'Ideas which l a t e r t u r n e d out t o have been o n l y

d i s t o r t e d representations of a past or
potential
s o c i a l o r d e r were i d e o l o g i c a l w h i l e those
which
we a d e q u a t e l y r e a l i s e d i n t h e p r e c e e d i n g
social
o r d e r were r e l a t i v e
Utopias.'
p.
His

slide

possible
which
ones
by

by

the

contain
which

and
plus

are

ideology

fact

fact,

always

course
as

cognitive

that
as

fact

lie
-

well

follows

as

the

he

has

no

evaluative i s
p a r t i a l

evaluative

evaluative to

has

such

accurate

realisable
basic

to

although

s u f f i c i e n t l y

to

pra.ctically
of

the

factual

are

reference

which

from

1 8 4 ,

comments

on

about

Thus

he

ideologies

claims,

and

t o t a l

unchallengable

counterpart

suggestions

evaluations.

be

made

f o r

Utopias

society's

f a i l i n g

i t s development
i s

able

to

define

'This conception of ideology maintains that

beyond
t h e c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i s e d s o u r c e s o f e r r o r we
must
reckon with the effects of a disturbed
mental
structure.
I t takes cognizance of the f a c t that the
" r e a l i t y " w h i c h we f a i l t o c o m p r e h e n d m a y b e
a
dynamic one;
a n d t h a t i n t h e same h i s t o r i c a l
e p o c h i n t h e same s o c i e t y
t h e r e may b e
several
distorted types of inner mental structure,
some
because t h e y have n o t y e t grown up t o t h e p r e s e n t
and o t h e r s because t h e y are a l r e a d y beyond t h e
present.'
p.
Further,
f u t i l e
to

'All

when

r e a l i t y

The

point

i t comes
i s t o be

i s that

i m p l i c i t l y
in

thought

point

d i s t i n c t i o n

labelled

"ideological"

to practice,
sought

8 7 .

and

the

i n p r a c t i c a l

ideologies
i t out by

hide

the

to ideological

ideas

only

bring

access
6k,

p.

whereas

practicable

w i l l

as

reliable

a c t i v i t y , *

t r u t h

suggesting

i s regarded

Utopias

changes

workable

which
results

5 5

i f

acted

on,

This
accuracy

conflation
with

following
that

our

thinking

path

about
are

i s admitting
good

correct
is wrong
others

to

Mannheim

source

as
say

i s the

of

h i s and
they

are

by

value
also

p.

social

the

What

source

that

of

f o r us

some

he

he

disapproves

enable

see
us

i s

often
happy
of
quite

anything,
to

see

fact

i s not

i s less

He

i n the

'The

i t i s

insight.
t o

that

position

contrary,

1 1 2 .

descriptive

apparent

t o admit

assumptions

necessary

suggestion

our

On

and

i s f i n a l l y

i s ready

error.

insight',
that

effectiveness

assumptions

i s determined

to p o l i t i c a l

as

cognitive

value

quotation.

necessarily
a

basic

of

more

what
than

342.

The c o m p l e t e
elimination of reality-transcending
e l e m e n t s f r o m o u r w o r l d w o u l d mean t h e d e c a y o f
the
human w i l l .
H e r e i n l i e s t h e most
essential
d i f f e r e n c e between these two types o f r e a l i t y
transcendence:
whereas t h e d e c l i n e o f i d e o l o g y
represents a c r i s i s only f o r c e r t a i n s t r a t a and
the
o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h comes f r o m t h e unmasking
o f i d e o l o g i e s always takes t h e form o f s e l f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e , t h e complete disappearance
o f t h e Utopian element f r o m
human t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n w o u l d mean t h a t human
n a t u r e a n d human d e v e l o p m e n t w o u l d t a k e on a
t o t a l l y n e w c h a r a c t e r ... M a n w o u l d l o s e h i s
w i l l t o change h i s t o r y and t h e r e b y h i s a b i l i t y
to u n d e r s t a n d
i t . '

p.
What

i s important

elements'
the

f i r s t ,

w i l l ) ,
and
He

t o

'Utopias'.

the fact

b u t these

Utopias,
makes

that
ing

i t , b u t make
he

misleading
general

may

democracy.
the

unmasking

ideologies.

this

go

they

workable

a utopia

this.

can be

The

noble

important

by

rather

can be

just

as w e l l

correct

ideas

logical,

i n a

support-

f o r change.

the

suggestion

He

i s quite

as wrong
And

different

as

'forward'

i n pointing

than

and

society:

i n r e l a t i o n

rather

saying

than

and p r a c t i c e .

t o dictatorship

of Utopian

distortions.

ideas

from

i f you

ideologies

i n , say, 1 9 2 4 .

Utopias

from

( o rvalues

suggestions

himself

Mannheim i s p r a c t i c a l l y
function

follows

are both

s u c c e s s f u l l y imposed

'back'

'reality-transcending

both

t h e s t a t u s quo

t o protect

was

through

unreasonably

ideologies i n theory

values

societies

recognises

c r i t i c i s e

Reich

from

are essential

interpreted

into

i n doing
as

ideas

p r a c t i c a l l y

does

the Third

u n j u s t i f i e d

be

a n d as he

not only

Presumably
that

may

i s the slide

Mannheim's c o n c l u s i o n

that

the l a t t e r

they

here

2 3 6 .

t o

out

t o unexamined

psychological

3 ^ 3 o

point
of

however,

view

depth

we

i s that

may

raise

i s that

were

completely

s u i t a b i l i t y
argued

as

questions

f o r ,

broad

everything

moral

limits,,
even

ti s i m p o s s i b l e

moral

evaluative

evident.

And,

What

would

fthese

are not p a r t i c u l a r l y

t o g e t any leverage
when

the t r u t h

realises,

we

are l i k e l y

This

then,

t o be
a t an

that

protesters,

t o those

limited
everyday

they

'cannot

o r i n Dean Acheson's

values

w i t h

are not

equality
between

for

men

and

i n practical

we

can

different

investigate,

conservative

the mentality'
he

terms.

understand.

class

that

self-

with very

we

within

compatible,

values

start

i n middle

avowal

of

t o be

of the people

understand

only

i s held

vague;

i n the extent
level

true

them

interpreted
f we

f there

against

t o the relations

i s that

recog-

particular

series

these

albeit

but not l i m i t l e s s l y

assumptions

appears

complaints

reference

the

successfully

t o hold

some

opposing

be

tend

makes

or

could

People

as Mannheim

of h i s point

and t h e

t o be

argument

increase

easier

appears

example

Part

much

this

cognitive content,

widely

very

o f view

their

be

a n d so

points

Mannheim i s i m p l i c i t l y

be

without

can

each

ethics,

point

Unfortunately

and c o n t r a s t i n g two

about

r a t i o n a l i s t i c

o f one

absolutes,

and

comparing

o f our understanding,,

nising

very

by

could

of

student

never

56

understand
the
or

why

meanings

Alger

relativism.

we

committed

o f t h e sympathy

h i s t o r i c a l l y
Thus,

Hiss

distant

are l e f t
We

needed

treason.

This

t o understand

i s one

alien

societies

ones.
w i t h

are unable

c o n t i n u i n g dilemma

f i n a l l y

t o detach

as

regards

ourselves

of

from

344.

our

own

with

time

and social

the basic

values

vestigating.
unified
l i e s

and
of

others

t o them,

t o achieve

remember

that

documentary

new

f a rthis

on

the prospects

ethics,

too

f a rh o w e v e r

and

moral

d i f f e r e n t
what

among
would

t o inspire

each

other

kind

be

made

i n r e l a t i n g
areas,

relationship

mindedness
consider

I n any case
theoretical

o f d i a l e c t i c a l
lower

between

more

o f anti-thesis.
on t h e part

level

general
This

when

b u t as

with

i nt h e
above,

subjectivist

convergence
l a t t e r

that

t o go
wisdom

retain

by pointing

and

out
tran-

dichotomies

i s s l i g h t .

evaluative

some

We

the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

Progress

positions

may

t o more

p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t the
ones
calls

must

remain,

i n Hegelian

f o rtheoretical

o f the investigator,

the alternatives

discussion

suggested

should

dilemmas

synthesis

so e l i m i n a t i n g

theoretical

conventional

points

basic

For this

we

t h e more

one

o f value

deadening

hope

t o the surface

than

that

t h i s

terms,

i n a

as

rather

investigators.

ignores.

Our

viewpoint,

depends,

on t h e degree

o f view

dim.

single

the o l d are encapsulated

c a n go

result

o f a

viewpoints.

Far better

i n

general

t h i r d

sympathy
are i n -

and c a r e f u l

o f d i f f e r e n t
a

we

and

complacency.

the other

scending

comparison

f o ra r a t i o n a l i s t i c

occurs

seem

our assumptions

method,

process

number

i n philosophical

produces

and p r a c t i c a l l y

naturally

as

synthesis

t h i s

some

o f the groups

l i m i t e d

t o bring

need

f o rt h e development

and by

Mannheim's
How

as w e l l

i n continuing

t o s t i c k

must

o r even

i n practical

a n d y e t we

and a t t i t u d e s

Our p r o s p e c t s

position

efforts,

position

formulating

a willingness
h i sbasic

opent o

theoretical

assumptions

and

implications
that
of

they

of

are

his

the

opposite

Like

any

other

social

sided

as

as

limitations
view

mindless

or

one

position

for

and

and

to

paragraph
this

one

and

of

f u l l

others.

of

preserve

and

the

must

the

be

the

just

features

of

to

basis
avoid

those

humanity
account

not

this,

f o r i n a

imply

the

other

issues

next

social
since

and

be
i s

to

i n

the

necessity

and

the

f o r
the

take

up

i n

this

this
conclusion
of

rejection

assumpof

methodology
i t necessarily

d i s t i n c t i v e

non-reductionist

the

i t s implications

The

been

constant

blinding

involved

so

one-

rather

chapter.

a l l along

as

option

raised

doing

i n

l i f e -

i s not

of

s c i e n t i f i c
i n

position

and

an

aware

f o r

contended,,

to

i t i s

problems

have

theirs

what

importance

course

virtue

To

interesting
which

have

i s

the

of

himself

i f one

relativism,

of

but

e c l e c t i c i s m , but
of

sense

Freihscwebende

l i k e l y

that

and

the

the

constrictive

aware
does

I n

distinctive

are

reassertion of

resulting

the

i n

does,

practical

the

be

possible

myself

as

them

understanding

only
to

Mannheim

only

This

address

attempts

eliminates

to

limitations

appreciate

group,

they

overcome

development

materialism
which

i s

gives
which

fact,

he

i n t e l l e c t u a l s

Their

to

the

Mannheim's

what

'dispassionate'

r e l a t i o n
the

of

world.

even

that

which

else,

the

to

group,

result

this

sense,

and

important

reasons

e f f o r t
of

of

assertion

tions

an

of

position

cultivate

this

social

anyone

autodidactic

only

i n

structure

experience

to

constitute

just

the

t a k i n g the

trained

open mindedness

Intelligenz

of

c o n t i n u a l awareness

i f

intractable

concerned
way,

to

C H A P T E R

S E V

O B J E C T I V I T Y AND

In

this

chapter

have

been

l e f t

with

the p r a c t i c a l

o b j e c t i v i t y
indicate
of

tive
but

place

Sociological

i t does

with,

point

with

f o r much

o u t now

be

evaluative

stresses

that

they

must

that

one o f t h e most

l i f e

i s t o arrive
which

maintains

men

that

whilst

am

clear;
tasks

'It

346.

objec-

that

much

concerned

I am

between the

only

accepted

i s

o f every

r e a l l y or allegedly

o b j e c t i v i t y as e s s e n t i a l

have

concerned

research.

a t a r a t i o n a l understanding

either

on

material,

later,

o f the sociologist's

important

o f an

the relationship

Weber, h a v i n g

b e made

o f

debates

on t h i s

evident

citizen,

f o racademic

nature

draw

events

fierce

or d e s i r a b i l i t y

be

deal

on t h e d i s c i p l i n e

p o l i t i c a l

i n America,

x^ill

that

explanation and

on t h e questions

and as

ends

on t h e problem

impose

o f recent

o f i t h a s t o do w i t h

evitably

for

views

I w i l l

what

d i r e c t l y

remembered

o f the loose

o f sociological

d i s c i p l i n e .

as academic

w i l l

o f my

especially

the d i f f i c u l t i e s
I t

some

I n p a r t i c u l a r I w i l l

the p o s s i b i l i t y

n o t bear

sociologist

up

ones,

I n the context

about

I would

take

implications

campuses,

N.

EXPLANATION.

o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s these

Sociology.

taken

of

i n previous

and t h e nature

some

university

I w i l l

i n -

assumptions,
self-evident

science
o f these
1

struggle ."'"

t o t h e method

the

o f c u l t u r a l
'ideas'
He

by which

then
research

3 ^ 7 .

is

conducted

allow

of

reported;

i t must

be

interpersonal r e p l i c a b i l i t y ,

statement
one,

and

and

although

not

i n any

based

on

way

clear
that

personal,

personal

and

i s be

v a l i d
a

and

public

subjective or

esoteric

viewpoint,

' I t has b e e n and r e m a i n s t r u e t h a t a

systematica l l y c o r r e c t s c i e n t i f i c proof i n the
social
sciences, i f i t i s to achieve
i t s purpose,
m u s t be a c k n o w l e d g e d as c o r r e c t e v e n b y
a
Chinese - or - more p r e c i s e l y s t a t e d - i t
must c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v e t o a t t a i n t h i s
goal,
w h i c h p e r h a p s may
n o t be c o m p l e t e l y
a t t a i n a b l e due
to faulty data.
Furthermore,
the
successful l o g i c a l analysis of the
content
of an i d e a l and i t s u l t i m a t e axioms and
the
discovery of the consequences which
arise
f r o m p u r s u i n g i t , l o g i c a l l y and
practically,
m u s t a l s o be v a l i d f o r t h e C h i n e s e .

2.

'...The c h o i c e o f t h e o b j e c t o f
investigation
and t h e e x t e n t o r d e p t h t o w h i c h t h i s
invest i g a t i o n attempts t o penetra-te i n t o the i n f i n i t e c a u s a l web,
are determined by
the
evaluative ideas which dominate the
investigator
and h i s age.
I n the method of
investigation,
the
guiding "point of view" i s of great
import a n c e f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e conce)tual
scheme w h i c h w i l l be u s e d i n t h e
investigation.
I n t h e mode o f t h e i r use h o w e v e r , t h e
investigator
i s o b v i o u s l y bound by the norms o f our
thought
j u s t as m u c h h e r e as e l s e w h e r e .
For
s c i e n t i f i c
t r u t h i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t i s v a l i d f o r a l l who
seek
the
truth.'

3.

Consequently,
is

thought

hiding

to

has

no

recognise

behind

science.

t r u t h

worthwhile

indifference
Failure

the

to

i s

the

echoes

thus

Weber

and

with

necessity
i s

xi/ill

sought

discover

connection

'science'

Mills

which

'An

be

attitude

s c i e n t i f i c
f o r value

really

i n words

t r u t h

i t

moral

"objectivity".'

assumptions

f a i l u r e

more

of

which

to

relevant

and

practice
to

our

time

3 4 8 .

'To s a y t h a t " t h e r e a l a n d f i n a l a i m o f h i t m a n
engineering" or o f "social science" i s" t o
predict" i s t o substitute a technocratic
s l o g a n f o r what ought t o be a reasoned
moral
choice o '
This
f i r s t

5-

raises

place,

do

more

problems

not moral

value-judgements

may

that

the investigator

should

that

he

another
and

campaign

make

e x p l i c i t

require
can
is

overtly

Or

an attempt

t o do

assumptions

justice

- w i l l
one

point

does

not this

the result

be
On

between

do

you study?

remain

passionately

fi t i s 'honest'
same

crude

viewpoints

r e l a t i v i s e d

that

with

the

between

then being

Finally,

how
one

misrepresenta-

the r e l a t i o n
choice

t o

honesty
i s so,

completely i d e n t i f y

the various

they

point

i s i t not merely

of the actors

n o t be

unproblernatic

of actors

the moral

But i ft h i s

t o the views

imply

research and

of view

i , e . i

stance?

should

completed

Consequently
this

I n the

assumptions

stand by

i n favour of i t ,

t o render

groups

investigators

what

actors
their

i n terms

o f the

taken by

different

and i s o l a t e d

or can

integrated?
the f i r s t

opposed

does

from

therefore

t o defend

however

and value

and t h e researchers', the moral

which

they

drawn

p o l i t i c a l

perhaps

relationship

as

actively
value

be

t o publicly?

t o f a i l

investigating

views
of

an

one hope

tion?
in

cop-out

i t solves,

commitment

that

i s committed

than

t o value

not follow
'It
to v
i n t e
"int
give
empi

question,

from

the admissibility

assumptions,
the

Weber

of

emphasises

value-judgements,
that

the former

l a t t e r ;

s h o u l d be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n " r e l e v a n c e
alues" refers simply t o the philosophical
r p r e t a t i o n of that s p e c i f i c a l l y
s c i e n t i f i c
erest" which determines the selection of a
n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r and t h e problems o f an
rical
analysis.

3 ^ 9 *

In empirical
investigation,
no
"practical
evaluations" are legitimated
by t h i s
s t r i c t l y
logical facto'
Weber

i s clearly

very

worried

classroom

or the lecture

platform,

with

of

the inevitable

o b j e c t i v i t y ,

inconvenient

h a l l

the a b i l i t y

t o one's

6,

about

the p o s s i b i l i t y of the

being

turned

result

that

to recognise

theoretical

into

p o l i t i c a l

another

v i t a l

and account

position

component

f o r facts

i s lost.

He

says

elsewhere
' I am r e a d y t o p r o v e t o y o u f r o m t h e w o r k s o f
our h i s t o r i a n s
t h a t w h e n e v e r t h e man o f s c i e n c e
introduces h i s personal value-judgement a
f u l l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f a c t s ceases
,.,
To t a k e a p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l s t a n d
and t o a n a l y s e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s
positions
i s another,'
Weber's
often
and
to

additional

appears

i n any

case

derive

from

and be

value
f i n a l

from

statement

particular
that
value

them.

assumptions

implications

real

by

However,

Weber

i n terms

o f means

i s accepted

this

involved

i s i n fact

What

value

evaluations

does

ones,

t a l k

i d e a l l y

and

cannot

be

c l a r i f i c a t i o n
envisages
of the

standpoint

t o a

Weber

only

follow

insofar

envisages
( 2 ) that

shown

i n terms

t seems

and

c a n be

of the

and ends

are

assumptions,

they

- Weber

(see below)
how

value-judgements

of adopting a value

value-judgements

about

such

general

of research results

argument

t o the guiding

j u s t i f i e d

situation.

assumption

that

although specific

p r a c t i c a l l y

specific

t o be

or extraneous

that

deduced
of

contention

i s one
thing,
and
party

may
as

l i t t l e

the

claim
(l)

i s
the

rational

situation

i t i s described i n the research.

Now

3 5 0 .

this

i s arguably

research
the

necessarily

nature

looks

never

concerns

o f either

individuals,

science

whereas

real

o f evaluation
about

the schematic

r e a l i t y

where

and t h i s

complexities

value-judgement

from

plane

decisions

analysis

o f the situation

aspects

into

judgements
the

values

p o l i t i c a l
to

about

research

other

be

views

account

individuals

ends

simplified

situation
both

reconciled.
w i l l

cannot

Against
amount

what

this

be

i n most

cases

r a t i o n a l l y

and

argued

t o ,f o rany i n d i v i d u a l

t o move
o f

abstracted
Valuea l l i t s

further

empirical

not included i n

assumptions

practical

i t c a n be

and

taking

situation

make

Research

o f i t s respects.

and f i n a l l y

involved,

To

t o the plane

simplified.

involving

because

a r e made

i s thus

and i n t e r e s t s

p o l i t i c a l

o f the situation

and means.

situation

so

o f the real

i n saying

practical

point,

value

and i n t e r e s t s

judgement

a t the

d e f i n i t i o n , and f u r t h e r

decision

taken,

be

i n the real

aspects

religious

o f demands and p o s s i b i l i t i e s and

i n certain

and thus

e.g. one

or

i s t h e second

assumptions,

action

defining

parties

the generalities

o f both

cannot

i n

investigated

o f the investigation

l i m i t e d

imply

value

r e a l i t y

a l l

or the organisations.

a particular

involves

judgements

with

F i r s t ,

a t t h e immediate

individuals

situations,

levels

time

nor often

these

t o be

o f p o l i t i c a l

i s concerned

of c o n f l i c t i n g

various

and s i m p l i f i e s

a n d n o t a t t h e same

as

Social

f o rtwo reasons,

o f the problem

a t the organisation

involved

abstracts

and scope

denominations

up

t h e case

an

course

about t h e

essentially
o f action

i s

the c o n f l i c t i n g
systematically
that

what

making

this

i t i s a

value-

351.

decision that

c e r t a i n aspects

and

possibilities

than others, a moral decision that

Hence t h e v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t i s as
research.

This

and

after

limited

i s misleading

one

one-sided
i n s o f a r as

t a k i n g a l l sides of the

and

t h e d e c i s i o n i s one

not d e l i b e r a t e l y

from

and

limited

i t i s only

as

the

one-sided

situation into
a t any

account,

rate

p e r t a i n i n g t o a l l aspects

circumscribed beforehand

i n a manner w h i c h

the p o i n t of view of p r a c t i c a l value=judgements i s arbitrary,.

Value-judgements thus
as e i t h e r

f o l l o w from value-assumptions only i n s o f a r

there i s a r e c o g n i t i o n that

o r i n s o f a r as

there i s subsequently

the s i t u a t i o n i s

importance

and

t h u s m u s t be

T h i s p o s i t i o n has
b y w r i t e r s who
i c a l knowledge.
logist

consequences o f s o c i o l o g -

T h e i r p o i n t i s t h a t whether or not

draws v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t s f r o m h i s v a l u e - b a s e d

to recognise

b e l i e v e s in
this

are of o v e r r i d i n g

o f t e n b e e n made o u t as a b s u r d r e c e n t l y ,

and

used t o f u r t h e r p o l i t i c a l
refuses

that

the b a s i s f o r a c t i o n .

p o i n t out the p o l i t i c a l

others c e r t a i n l y w i l l

simplified,

a f u r t h e r moral d e c i s i o n

the respects w i t h which the research deals

of

important

v i e w o u g h t t o predominate

o r d e l i b e r a t e l y r e f u s i n g t o i n some c a s e s , b u t
recognising that

a r e more

do

ends and

t h i s and

Nicholaus

His research
he

s t a n d up

i s one

the

socio-

research,

results w i l l

be

i s f a i l i n g m o r a l l y i f he
politically

f o r what

o f t h e more t r e n c h a n t

sorts

S o c i o l o g y has w o r k e d t o c r e a t e and i n c r e a s e
the i n e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n of knowledge, i t
has w o r k e d t o make t h e p o w e r s t r u c t u r e r e l a t i v e l y
more p o w e r f u l and k n o w l e d g e a b l e , a n d t h e r e b y t o
make t h e s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y more
i m p o t e n t and i g n o r a n t , . <,

he

critics

352.

I s i t an a c c i d e n t t h a t i n d u s t r i a l s o c i o l o g y
arose i n a context o f r i s i n g "labour t r o u b l e s " ,
t h a t p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g y g r e w when e l e c t i o n s
grew l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e , o r t h a t t h e s o c i o l o g y
o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s i s now f l o u r i s h i n g - t o name
o n l y a few examples here?
As s o c i o l o g i s t s y o u owe y o u r j o b s t o t h e u n i o n
o r g a n i s e r s who g e t b e a t u p , t o t h e v o t e r s who
g o t f e d u p , t o t h e b l a c k p e o p l e who g o t s h o t
up '
Now, i t l o o k s h e r e as t h o u g h N i c h o l a u s
that

i s echoing

' R e s e a r c h f o r b u r e a u c r a t i c ends s e r v e s

more e f f e c t i v e

8o

Mills'

t o make

statement

authority

a n d more e f f i c i e n t b y p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o f u s e
9

to a u t h o r i t a t i v e
Mills'

planners,

but this

i s not really

t h e case.

p o i n t i s a b o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y t o make e x p l i c i t

one's

a s s u m p t i o n s a n d t o make t h e a s s u m p t i o n s i n t h e k n o w l e d g e
research
former

will

methodological point,
sociologist
Nicholaus
that
qua

the l a t t e r

as a n i n d i v i d u a l ,

of sociological

enquiry, a

i s a moral p o i n t about t h e

and i t i s t o t h e l a t t e r

addresses h i s remarks,

so.

that

The l i n k b e t w e e n t h e t w o i s

assumptions

than

' f o r t h e sake o f a r g u m e n t ' o r ' f o r t h e t i m e

on w h i c h t o base an e n q u i r y , i f m o r a l i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t

t o t h e s o c i o l o g i s t who m u s t make t h e a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e n
he

The

i f m o r a l a s s u m p t i o n s mean a n y t h i n g qua m o r a l s r a t h e r

being'

that

be u s e d b y o t h e r s f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes

i s a c l a i m about t h e n a t u r e

value

should

consider

t h e m o r a l and p o l i t i c a l

obviously

consequences o f d o i n g

I f h o w e v e r he i s a m o r a l as b o t h M i l l s a n d N i c h o l a u s

many s o c i o l o g i s t s

a r e , t h e o n l y p o i n t one c a n p r e s s

must make w h a t e v e r a s s u m p t i o n s t h e y do h a v e
or t o f i t

i n w i t h the p r e v a i l i n g view,

'for

explicit.

fear

i s that

the time

they

being

I t i s only

353.

as
the

individuals that

t h e y may be e x h o r t e d t o c o n s i d e r

importance o f t h e i r work,

morally

T h i s argument i s o f course

e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as t h a t o f t h e N a z i d o c t o r s i n t h e c o n centration

camps who j u s t i f i e d

their vile

e x p e r i m e n t s by s a y i n g

'We a r e s c i e n t i s t s a n d o u r w o r k i s s c i e n t i f i c . '
For sociology

is

true.

in

t h a t i t may be d o u b t e d w h e t h e r someone w i t h a

'scientific

however, t h e r e

T h a t was a n d

i s an a d d i t i o n a l

problem

purely

a t t a c h m e n t t o h i s a s s u m p t i o n s and a p p r o a c h t o t h e

p e o p l e who a r e h i s d a t a , c a n do h i s j o b s u c c e s s f u l l y .
me t o t h e s e c o n d p r o b l e m , t h a t o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y

This

leads

of passionate

i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e p e o p l e one i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g , ,
It

has been o f t e n

sociology

involves

said,

especially

recently,

because

the attempt t o understand s o c i a l a c t i o n

a n y t h i n g c a n be b e g u n b y way o f e x p l a i n i n g
with t h e a c t o r s

that

it,

before

an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

c o n c e r n e d and t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y .

Weber's a r g u m e n t f o r V e r s t e h e n ^ ^ h a s g i v e n r i s e t o t h e m e t h o d
of p a r t i c i p a n t observation,

with

the problems inherent

i n the

b a l a n c e o f t h e t w o a s p e c t s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n as i n s i d e r , a n d
o b s e r v e r as o u t s i d e r .
is

familiar with

The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

fieldwork

tradition

t h i s p r o b l e m and t h e r e s e a r c h e r back f r o m two

y e a r s o r so i n t h e f i e l d

i s systematically

' t a l k e d down' b y h i s

c o l l e a g u e s as h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s f i e l d w o r k
comes o u t i n h i s r e p o r t s

situation

o f w h a t he saw a n d e x p e r i e n c e d .

its

extreme t h i s

identification

and

'forgetting'

western society

the

problem i s less

takes t h e form o f 'going

altogether.

In
native'

For s o c i o l o g i s t s

extreme, because p e r i o d s o f time i n t h e

35^o

field

c a n a l t e r n a t e more f r e q u e n t l y and

w i t h academic c o l l e a g u e s .
sympathy

and

The

easily with

importance of

identification,

involvement i s evident i n a classic

observation l i k e

discussion

of participant

Whytes S t r e e t C o r n e r S o c i e t y , w h e r e t h e a u t h o r

had

t o be

his

view of the world from middle class white Harvard.

the

p r o b l e m has

When we

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y educated from the i n i t i a l

re-emerged

investigate

required

i n the debate about

innocence

'taking

of

Recently
sides'."^

a d e v i a n t g r o u p , does t h e n e c e s s a r y

sympathy

t o understand the group i m p l y a p r e s e n t i n g o f the w o r l d

as t h a t g r o u p e x p e r i e n c e s i t , and o n l y t h u s , so t a k i n g s i d e s
a g a i n s t t h o s e who
There
passionate

would

a r e two q u e s t i o n s h e r e .

of
his

The

or not

i n r e s e a r c h as

t h e f a c t s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f u l l y w h a t i s

and

t h o s e he

investigates:

views f o r fear of d i s t u r b i n g t h e i r s ?

w h a t d o e s he do a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n t
groups

i s whether

o t h e r i s what t h e r e l a t i o n i s between t h e v i e w s

the i n v e s t i g a t o r ,
own

One

commitment i s n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e

an a i d t o g e t t i n g a l l
g o i n g on.

c o n t r o l i t s deviance?

- d o e s he m e r e l y r e p o r t

study i s again i l l u s t r a t i v e .

and
He

m u s t he
And

i f he

o r opposed v i e w s o f

suppress
does,
other
1

leave i t at that?

Whyte s

c o u l d n o t have a c h i e v e d t h e

t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g he d i d u n l e s s he h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d t o
participate

sympathetically i n the l i f e

a b o u t t h a t way

of l i f e ,

judgements

of Cornerville,

i t s v a l u e s and b e l i e f s ,
temporarily.

certainly

suspend

own

not

h a v e done i t j u s t b y l o o k i n g a t w h a t p e o p l e d i d , f a i l i n g
t o u n d e r s t a n d why

He

to

learn

his

make t h e e f f o r t

at least

and

to

could
to

t h e y d i d i t , what t h e meaning

355.

of

t h e i r p r a c t i c e s was

By

extension i t i s arguable

people
leads

investigated
to f u l l e r

with this,

t o them and
that

understanding.

But

to a participant

r e p o r t s o f many p a r t i c i p a n t

friendly

c e r t a i n t h i n g s he

For

observer.

observers

will

then nor w i l l

count

He

so

and o n l y

From t h e

finally

research

i t appears t h a t

the

usual

o f g r o u p member b u t
trusted

and w i l l

there

n o t be

and
are

expected

he h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f d o i n g

will

however, j o i n

as a g r o u p member and

i n sufficient

perhaps a f r i e n d

h a v e t o go

through the process

the

group's c u l t u r e ,

his

s y m p a t h y and

o f o t h e r members.

t i m e he w i l l

be

of being inundated

o f o v e r - c o n f o r m i n g w h i l e he

l e a r n s the c u l t u r e
a non-observing

and

faculties w i l l

be

d u l l e d and h i s i d e n t i t y

abeyance.

As

he becomes more s u r e

h o w e v e r , he

will

and

his

t o compare t h e two

sequences.

I f he

does n o t

At

this

critical

accepted

a g a i n and b e g i n t o l o o k

c a r e f u l l y b o t h a t w h a t members s a y a n d b e l i e v e and
and

with

o u t s i d e the group i n

o f h i m s e l f and

become a s o c i o l o g i s t

point

demonstrates

his position.

participant

or

activities

t h e pxxrposes o f h i s i n d u c t i o n o r s o c i a l i s a t i o n t o t h i s

he w i l l

do,

and

non-participating

d e s c r i b e d as

n o t w a n t t o do

of the

difficulties

I t i s r e c o g n i s e d by a l l t h a t

h a v i n g done them.
to

participant

s t a t u s t h a t m i g h t be

outsider.

do, b u t

insight

t h e r e are

f o r the successful researcher i s that

with a special

to

and

Whyte r e m a r k s t h a t he b e g a n as a

approximated

t h e y were,

commitment t o t h e v a l u e s

increases s e n s i t i v i t y

o b s e r v e r j became a n o n - o b s e r v i n g

role

o f what i m p o r t a n c e

f o r c o n s i s t e n c y and

a t what

unintended

' r e - e m e r g e ' i n t h i s way

he

they
con-

will

356.

become m e r e l y a spokesman f o r t h e g r o u p .
wants, a l l xvell and good, b u t t h a t
precludes sociology.
accepted i n t o
give a ' f u l l

I fthat

i s xvhat he

i s a p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n and

I f o n t h e o t h e r h a n d he i s n e v e r

fully

t h e group b u t nonetheless a r d e n t l y d e s i r e s t o
and f a i r '

a c c o u n t o f i t , he i s i n d a n g e r o f s e n -

t i m e n t a l i s i n g and r o m a n t i c i s i n g t h e g r o u p , s t r e s s i n g o n l y
a s p e c t s w h i c h a p p e a l t o h i m as a n o u t s i d e r .

He w i l l

hipness o f the a d d i c t , t h e v a i n g l o r y o f the mobster,

appreciating that

those

enjoy the
without

these are s u p e r f i c i a l aspects o f the l i f e

experience o f e i t h e r .
It

i s possible also t h a t ,

a v o i d i n g e i t h e r o f these

t i e s , he may become a g e n u i n e p a r t i c i p a n t

difficult

o b s e r v e r and a f t e r w a r d s ,

when w r i t i n g u p h i s r e s e a r c h , e m p h a s i s e t h e v i e w o f t h e g r o u p
b e c a u s e he f e e l s
ing

i n relation

t h a t i t s view has n o t had a p r o p e r p u b l i c

t o those o f d i f f e r e n t

view o f t h e vandal say, i n r e l a t i o n

m a g i s t r a t e s and s o c i a l w o r k e r s .
but

o r opposed g r o u p s ;

hearthe

t o the views o f p o l i c e ,

This i s a legitimate

strategy

i t i s one b a s e d n o t o n t h e demands o f r e s e a r c h p e r s e , b u t

on t h e p o t e n t i a l a u d i e n c e
view t h a t p o l i t i c s
hall

f o r the completed research.

s h o u l d t h u s have been k e p t o u t o f t h e l e c t u r e

h a s s i n c e b e e n d e c r i e d as l i b e r a l i s m

T h a t depends on t h e a u d i e n c e .
Federation, that

Weber's

and m o r a l weakness.

I f t h e audience

i s the Police

i s a p o l i t i c a l f a c t w h i c h s h o u l d be t a k e n

a c c o u n t when d e l i v e r i n g

the lecture.

From t h e p o i n t

o f view

of

s o c i o l o g y as a d i s c i p l i n e h o w e v e r , s u c h m a t t e r s o n l y

to

the extent

that

into

arise

the lecturer believes the professional

357.

audience

has i n t h e past

and

consequently,

that

consistently neglected certain

t h e s e need s t a t i n g l o u d l y and r h e t o r i c a l l y

to get the point across,

drawing

views

S. L y n d p u t s t h e m a t t e r

clearly,

o n h i s own e x p e r i e n c e ,

'The t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e r h e t o r i c o f t r u t h t e l l i n g and t h e r h e t o r i c o f e t h i c a l commitment

was e x h i b i t e d d u r i n g t h e r e c e n t c o n t r e t e m p s
between m y s e l f and t h e board o f Governors o f
Chicago S t a t e C o l l e g e
Among t h e p r o f e s s o r s
who f o r m e d t h e a d h o c d e f e n s e c o m m i t t e e t h e r e
were t h r e e p o s i t i o n s .
One was t h a t a t e a c h e r
n e c e s s a r i l y t e a c h e s t h e w h o l e o f \\rhat he t h i n k s
and t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d h a v e t h e r i g h t t o s a y a n y t h i n g t h a t he w i s h e s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m ,
0

A second p o s i t i o n h e l d t h a t w h a t e v e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f academic a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s might a p p l y

t o on-campus u t t e r a n c e s , o f f - c a m p u s a t e a c h e r
s h o u l d be f r e e t o a d v o c a t e l i k e a n y c i t i z e n .
My own a t t i t u d e was d i f f e r e n t f r o m b o t h t h e
foregoing.
I n contrast t o the f i r s t position,
i t seemed t o me t h a t t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e low-keyed p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a l t e r n a t i v e s and t h e a t t e m p t t o k i n d l e i n
an a u d i e n c e a n a w a r e n e s s o f some i n d i g n i t y .
B o t h seemed t o me i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s f o r t h e
man o f i n t e l l e c t t o d o ; y e t t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n t ;
and my i n s t i n c t was t o a c c e p t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n
t h a t a c l a s s r o o m i s a p l a c e w h e r e one's p u r p o s e
s h o u l d n o t be p e r s u a s i o n , b u t an o p e n i n g up o f
p o s s i b l e neiv ways o f s e e i n g t h i n g s ,
1

T h i s does n o t o f c o u r s e
no

imply that

persuasion i n the classroom

that

those

that

the aim o f t h a t
examination

t h e r e a r e no v a l u e s a n d

or i n research.

are there are l i m i t e d

12,

and c l e a r l y

The p o i n t i s
s t a t e d , and

game i s n o t p e r s u a s i o n a t a n y p r i c e b u t t h e

of alternatives

and t h e i r

does e n t e r i n , t h e danger i s t h a t

implications.

specious

I f rhetoric

a r g u m e n t s w i l l be

c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n s and by

358

carelessness

i n a t t e n t i o n t o f a c t s , and

t r a d i c t o r y and

g r e a t f e e l i n g , and

essential
in

that a t t e n t i o n to

supplementary f a c t s w i l l

t o engage i n d i s p a s s i o n a t e

situations

one

d i s c u s s i o n on

the a b i l i t y

i s unfamiliar

that

be

though,

intellectuals.

i s that

with

are a b i l i t i e s

men

constant

they are

i t b l u n t s judgement.

t o be

before

as p a s s i o n a t e

the core

If

I t has

may

be

matters

that

i s required.

be

confused

This

others.

and

progress

'emotion

recol-

maintained
just

i n certain

- but

no m a t t e r how

of

confusion.
an a t t e m p t

to

tedious, painful

be.

does n o t f u l l y r e s o l v e t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n

the s o c i o l o g i s t s '

h o w e v e r , l i n k e d as
which viewpoint
tions

they

f o r academic

a justification,

o r s e e m i n g l y i r r e l e v a n t t h a t p r o c e s s may

of

as

I f t h i s i s not

necessary p o l i t i c a l l y

are

was

i t s uses i n c e r t a i n stages

a c a d e m i c s t u d y means a n y t h i n g , i t r e p r e s e n t s

clarify

I t

o f the academic p r o c e s s the r e s u l t i s n o t

r a d i c a l i s m = t h a t might
circumstances

i t is

i t i s an a i d t o i n s i g h t ,

c e r t a i n audiences, but

in tranquillity'

and

correct to t a l k of

made, s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r t o a W o r d s w o r t h i a n

lected
as

and

that

contrivance that

P a s s i o n i s thus a two-edged i n s t r u m e n t s

research,

arouse

What i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember

i t i s o n l y by
As

ability

t o empathise w i t h people

an a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g s h o u l d p r o v i d e .

remain detached.

but

The

subjects which

t h i s sense t h a t I b e l i e v e Mannheim was

unattached

slight.

con-

v i e w p o i n t t o those

i t i s with

o f t h e p e o p l e he

t h e q u e s t i o n o f how

t o a d o p t i n any

case.

enter i n both i n his selection

The

he

studies

decides

sociologist's

of a p a r t i c u l a r group

upon

assumpof

359.

people
tant

t o s t u d y and i n t h e r e s p e c t s

i n which

t o s t u d y them - h i s d e f i n i t i o n

practical

and t h e o r e t i c a l

ethnographic
actors.

terms.

he t h i n k s i t i m p o r -

o f h i s research problem i n
Very l i t t l e

research

i s purely

i n t h e sense o f o n l y r e p o r t i n g o n t h e w o r l d o f t h e

The s o c i o l o g i s t ' s v i e w s s e l e c t a n d e v a l u a t e ,

explicitly

i n a concluding chapter, p a r t l y

they leave

o u t i n t h e i r account o f t h e a c t o r s e x i s t e n c e .

in

Whyte's s t u d y , a l t h o u g h a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n s i g h t

certain,

sometimes r a t h e r embarrassed o v e r t o n e s

liberalism
his

appear,

Whyte makes v e r y l i t t l e

study i n a t h e o r e t i c a l

drawing

this.

level.

i s evident,

attempt

to locate

I t isleft

t o Homans

u p o n Whyte i n The Human G r o u p t o make one a t t e m p t a t

Homans u s e s Whyte's d a t a as p a r t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f

i t s assumptions,

though

Homans s a y s l i t t l e

Whyte's s t u d y i s u s e d as d a t a t o a r t i c u l a t e
out w i t h e m p i r i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s .
Cornerville,

i t s culture

t h e r e were g r o u p s i n i t .
are

Thus,

o f W.A.S.P.

a b e h a v i o u r i s t exchange t h e o r y o f i n t e r a c t i o n .
has

i n what

f r a m e w o r k a n d t h u s does n o t h a v e t o

c o n f r o n t t h e value problem a t t h i s
in

implicitly

partly

at least

two p r e v i o u s

Such a t h e o r y
o f them, and

them a n d f i l l

Homans i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n

or i t s values, only i n the fact

Because he i g n o r e s t h e f a c t
s e l e c t i o n s and s t r u c t u r i n g s

d a t a he u s e s , Homans i s a b l e

them

to tacitly

assume t h a t

that

that

there

of the

the theoretic

p o s i t i o n he e m p l o y s c a n be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e v i e w s o f r e a l i t y
h e l d b y Whyte's i n f o r m a n t s a n d b y Whyte h i m s e l f
ist,

Homans' c o n t e n t i o n i s n a t u r a l l y

irrelevant,

that

As a

behaviour

such m a t t e r s a r e

s i n c e a l l he i s l o o k i n g a t i s t h e b e h a v i o u r ;

the fac

36o

is

there

Islands

are groups both there

and t h e a c t i v i t i e s

a n d f o r e x a m p l e on t h e T r o b r i a n d

o f t h e members o f t h e m d i s p l a y

similaritieso

V e r y w e l l , b u t why?

To a l i m i t e d

may be p o s s i b l e

t o make t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s

certain

extent

i t

abovit t h e

b e h a v i o u r o f poeple i n groups because o f t h e i r f o r m o r s t r u c t u r e ,

but

this will

a l w a y s be l i m i t e d

and i t s e l f

i n s o f a r as w h a t i t s a y s o r p r e d i c t s

to

being leaderless:

At

some p o i n t

view of r e a l i t y

I t i s no u s e s a y i n g

they w i l l

limited
and

which h i s research subjects

at

the subjects' view w i l l

as t o make i t i m p o s s i b l e

positions.

Nor w i l l

have w i t h

the view

T h i s x \ r i l l n o t be

t o e x p r e s s as a 1 / e l t a n s e h a u u n g ,
various

theoretical positions

a l l c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e same k i n d s o f t h i n g s

certain

' t e n d ' n o t to

be so u n a r t i c u l a t e d a n d

c o n s e q u e n t l y comioatible by d e f a u l t w i t h

ical

that

t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r has t o c o n f r o n t t h e

f r o m w h i c h he i s c o n d u c t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h .
easy, and o f t e n

the values,

o f g r o u p s who h a v e a c o m m i t m e n t

on t h e c o n t r a r y

therefore,

to falsification

i s a t odds w i t h

p u r p o s e s and b e l i e f s o f t h e g r o u p s .
groups tend t o produce l e a d e r s ,

prone

theoret-

necessarily

that actors

be

are -

o f Ilomans ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f g r o u p s t r u c t u r e may be a

m a t t e r o f u t t e r i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e p e o p l e who w e r e u s e d as d a t a
b o t h p e r se a n d i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e p r e d i c t i o n s
Homans makes a b o u t them.
obviously

clearer

whole s o c i e t y
points
view.

But a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s ,

and t h i s i s

when t h e q u e s t i o n i s w h a t t h e n a t u r e

i s like

conflicts will

ofthe

and w h a t i s i m p o r t a n t i n i t , a t c e r t a i n
appear between r e s e a r c h e r s ' v i e w and a c t o r s '

T h e r e i s no p o i n t

trying

t o pretend

someone w i t h a

36i.

b i - p o l a r v i e w o f c l a s s has a h i e r a r c h i c a l
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c t o r s ' and
a s s u m p t i o n s m u s t be
they
by
and

exist.

the

And

clarified

a t t h e s e and

sociologist

the w o r l d

and

from

one,

At

s o c i o l o g i s t s ' views

differences admitted

o t h e r p o i n t s the

the w o r l d

these

selection

i n v i e w so

l i m i t a t i o n i t imposes upon t h a t r e a l i t y

the

that

are

sociologist

a c t o r s ' a c t i o n s and

in

t o d r a w on

substantiating his theory without

w o r l d , he

will

social action

be

enabled to present

and

sociologists'

generalise

and

p a i d to the
The
and

included

theory.

p r o b l e m o f r e l a t i v i s m and
is difficulty

adopt, which value

b a s e s and

i f the
views
actors'

(or theory)

derived

a l l those

other

i n the a c t o r s ' views

T h e o r y may

t h u s be

t h a t due
left

instance

but

used

to

attention is

out.

of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
an

of

o f t h e more

i t s converse, c u m u l a t i v i t y .

actors'

general
For i f

i n deciding which t h e o r e t i c a l viewpoint

a s s u m p t i o n s t o make, t h e r e i s t h u s

of research

and

t h e o r i e s on

several

saying

that

t h e r e was

o n l y one

to

the

incompatible

hence t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e i r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n .

r e p l i e d by

studies,

to the

have been a v a r i e t y o f responses t o t h i s d i f f i c u l t y .

alists

the

of a s e l e c t i o n

i m p o r t a n c e o f what i s t h e r e b y

inherent d i f f i c u l t y

probability

regard

a picture

make c o m p a r i s o n s p r o v i d e d

s o c i o l o g i s t s ' views i s but

there

For

which conveniently ignores

aspects o f a c t i o n s t h a t are
i n the

full

which i s i n f a c t a product

from h i s theory

not

the

clear.

made

evident,

sociologist

namely the a c t o r s ' s o c i a l r e a l i t y ,

i s free

and

where

o f t h e a c t o r m u s t be

of the a c t o r maintained

points

There
Function-

possible

362.

theoretical position,
the
or

arrival

t h e i r own."'"^

O t h e r s have p i o u s l y

o f a t h e o r e t i c a l messiah,

N e w t o n , who w i l l

usually likened

resolve a l l theoretical

Myrdal

to Einstein

difficulties.

M a r x i s t s h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t H e g e l was o n t o s o m e t h i n g
development o f the d i a l e c t i c .

awaited

suggests

Some

with his

simply adopting

14
the

views

o f those you i n v e s t i g a t e ,

accept r e l a t i v i s m
any

possibility

as a f a c t

Weber's r e s p o n s e

of sociological

life

o f j u s t i f y i n g value assumptions

and t o r e j e c t
or conducting

much r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t .
'
'The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e s e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d s ,
which are manifested i n concrete value-judgements,
to t h e l e v e l o f e x p l i c i t n e s s i s t h e utmost t h a t
the
s c i e n t i f i c treatment o f value-judgements
c a n do w i t h o u t e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e r e a l m o f
speculation.
As t o w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n e x p r e s s i n g these value-judgements s h o u l d adhere
to these u l t i m a t e standards i s h i s p e r s o n a l
affair;
i t i n v o l v e s w i l l and c o n s c i e n c e , n o t
e m p i r i c a l k n o w l e d g e ... To j u d g e t h e v a l i d i t y
of such v a l u e s i s a m a t t e r o f f a i t h .
1

This implies a r a d i c a l
debate

subjectivist

e t h i c s i n which

about v a l u e s ceases a t an e a r l y p o i n t .

was t o

15

rational

This i s confirmed

and m o d i f i e d l a t e r :
'The f a t e o f a n e p o c h w h i c h h a s e a t e n o f t h e
t r e e o f knoxirledge i s t h a t i t m u s t know t h a t we
cannot l e a r n t h e meaning o f t h e w o r l d from t h e
r e s u l t s o f i t s a n a l y s i s , be i t e v e r so p e r f e c t ;
i t m u s t r a t h e r be i n a p o s i t i o n t o c r e a t e t h i s
meaning i t s e l f .
I t must r e c o g n i s e t h a t g e n e r a l
v i e w s o f l i f e and t h e u n i v e r s e c a n n e v e r be t h e
p r o d u c t s o f i n c r e a s i n g e m p i r i c a l knoxvledge, and
t h a t t h e h i g h e s t i d e a l s , w h i c h move u s most
f o r c e f u l l y , a r e always formed o n l y i n t h e s t r u g g l e
w i t h o t h e r i d e a l s w h i c h a r e j u s t as s a c r e d t o
o t h e r s as o u r s a r e t o u s . '

16.

363 =

The

implications

'struggle

of

with others'

that while

' c r e a t i n g meaning f o r o n e s e l f

ideals'

indicates

straightforward discussion

more t h a n s e t

out

and

that

i n practice

political

arena.

and

analysis

helps to resolve

such c o n f l i c t s are
There are

can

do

conflicts,

overcome i f a t a l l i n

c o e r c i o n i n any

The

d a n g e r o f Weber's a c c e p t a n c e o f r e l a t i v i s m i s c l e a r
a t i t s consequence i n t h i s

as

w e l l as

s t a t e m e n t by

the

r a t i o n a l discussion.
i f we

Douglas

'Ours i s a p l u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y i n x^hich t h e r e a r e
b a s i c d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r m o r a l i t y , b e l i e f s and
almost anything else.
I f a sociologist ident i f i e s h i m s e l f w i t h a g r o u p o r c a u s e as d i s t i n c t
from i n v o l v i n g himself t e m p o r a r i l y i n order to
study the group, h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s o c i a l
w o r l d f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h a t group o r cause
w i l l increase, but h i s understanding of t h i s h i g h l y
p l u r a l i s t i c society w i l l not.
R a t h e r t h a n encouraging the t a k i n g of s i n g l e s t a n d p o i n t s ,
which
l e a d o n l y t o o p p o r t u n i s t i c t r u t h s about our
society
we m u s t e n c o u r a g e j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , t h e a t t e m p t
t o u n d e r s t a n d , a n a l y s e and s y n t h e s i s e t h e m u l t i p l e
s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s , m o r a l and c o g n i t i v e , o f a p l u r a l i s t i c society.'
To
the

which a l l r a d i c a l s w i l l
m a t t e r b a d l y , by

with a single
understand the

the

Douglas

options of e i t h e r
The

aim

c e r t a i n l y , but
of a single

constantly

not

to give

up

beginning

s h o u l d be

the

v i e w s t o each o t h e r i n r e a l i t y ,

the
and

to
and

search

t h e o r e t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t i n the

discussing

17.

conceptualises

v a r i o u s viewpoints of d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s

construction

of t h i s , by

presenting

v i e w or b e i n g e c l e c t i c .

groups i n s o c i e t y
and

y e l l Fink!

and

exhortation

and

look

no

consideration

elements of persuasion,

moral c o n f l i c t

t h a t Weber a c k n o w l e d g e s

juxtapose d i f f e r e n t views, a

of t h e i r p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s

in

for
course

r e l a t i o n of these d i f f e r e n t

r e l a t i n g them t o

crucial

36k.

theoretical

problems.

views of the
working
the

I t i s not

juvenile delinquent,

class public,

church but

t o each o t h e r

of seeing
in reality

view separately
and

so

a totality
say
it

and

on,

and

and

And

the

how

a l l of these groups

how

step

they

do

r e q u i r e s one

views to basic

to deal,

i t also requires

one

to relate

explicitly

as

choice

position w i l l
alternatives
with

be
and

the

o f man

of

sociologists

of

take

society,

often

any

i t should

that
be

able

that

final

t o be

one

both

have
perhaps

will
the

possible

c o n s e q u e n c e s , and

i s made f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

informed

answers

said that

smallest

number
at

theoretical

i n terms o f awareness

of

o f a w a r e n e s s o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s when d e a l i n g

a c t o r s w i t h whose v i e w s i t c o n f l i c t s .

analysis

To

various

undesirable

demonstration of t h e i r

an

the

I t i s u n l i k e l y , and

at least

a r g u m e n t and

as

that i s ,

or i m p l i c i t l y .

a l t e r n a t i v e s have been r e d u c e d t o t h e

the

explained

imagination,

assumptions about the nature

as D o u g l a s i m p l i e s ,

least

the

terms.

w i t h w h i c h a c t o r s as w e l l

emerge, b u t

the view of

o f themselves or o f each o t h e r , b u t w h i c h

practice

questions

each

t o t h i n k o f a l l o f them i n t e r m s t h a t none

account of these
In

to take

be

and

their

t o each o t h e r .

t h a t r e q u i r e s t h e o r e t i c a l i n s i g h t and

them w o u l d use

by

i s not

a l l o f them can

t h e y r e l a t e as

the

relate

w i t h what consequences f o r

the next

t o ask

the

c o u r t s , the government

t r y to reconcile i t w i t h

but

why

first

of discovering

the middle class p u b l i c ,

the p o l i c e ,

v i e w s o f each o t h e r .

next,

a matter

s o c i o l o g i s t must r e a l i s e

that

For
the

i n the

t h e o r y he

last
uses

365.

and

discusses

i s f a r f r o m b e i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f h i s own

but i s the r e s u l t

of generations of i n t e l l e c t u a l

p r a c t i c a l a c t i o n w h i c h was
s t a n d i n g and

reflection

j u s t w i t h h i s aim

living

in it.

emotional

b u t t h e germ o f a p r a c t i c a l

changing

guide.

t h e v a r i o u s a n s w e r s as t o w h a t we

cognitive

attitude

aspects.

towards

reality

They a r e t h e components o f
s h a l l do

and how

we

shall

order our l i v e s .

I n t h i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t sense i t i s c l e a r

s o c i o l o g y i s about

n o t o n l y what s o c i a l r e a l i t y

might

be.

likely,

And

i t is i n this

f o r t h a t would

some o f w h i c h
event.

The

to decry

The

social

of r e l a t i v i s m

o f s e e i n g t h i s as an

o f a xvay r o u n d

convenient

There are
i f we

several p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

could establish a single

grounds s u f f i c i e n t l y

c l e a r and

r a t i o n a l being t o accept
seems a t t i m e s t o be
is

trying

sobering to consider that

of a general k i n d would

independent

them and

end,

problems,

the

it.

I t would

as

l i e in
rationalistic
indeed

system

t o compel

Some m o r a l

that

ideal.

of a

ethical

any

begin-

but

t h i s d i f f i c u l t y may

recent attempts to reappraise the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

ethics.

and

t h e o r y t h u s seem l i m i t e d ,

the e n t e r p r i s e

beginnings

i s un-

as p e r m a n e n t d i l e m m a s i n

p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e end

ning of a cumulative
i s not

sense t h a t a s i n g l e v i e w

exist

that

i s b u t what i t

s o l v e a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y number o f

at least w i l l

it,

T h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s have

e q u a l p a r t s o f m o r a l - e v a l u a t i v e and

They c o n s t i t u t e n o t o n l y a

and

of under-

explaining society, but of ordering i t ,

a c t i n g i n i t and
about

done n o t

discipline

be

on
any

philosophy

t o argue i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , b u t i t
i f this
and

c o u l d be

i t would

be

done, m o r a l

debate

a tedious matter

366.

of a p p l i c a t i o n t o cases.
appropriate

Another p o s s i b i l i t y

t o each s o c i e t y

Argument would t h e n r e v o l v e
its

usefulness.

At

i n e a c h age m i g h t be

established.

around whether or n o t i t had outgrown

A n o t h e r i s t h a t f o r each t i m e and p l a c e

m i g h t be s e v e r a l
like

i s that a morality

moralities

t h i s appears t o o b t a i n

t h e extreme there

competing f o r acceptance.

there

Something

i n most i n d u s t r i a l i s e d s o c i e t i e s .

m i g h t be m o r a l a t o m i s m w i t h e v e r y o n e

t o an i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t

o f v i e w w h i c h i t was a c c e p t e d was

holding
right

f o r h i m b e c a u s e o f h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t f o r no-one e l s e .
Something l i k e
societies
only

t h i s a p p e a r s t o be d e v e l o p i n g i n i n d u s t r i a l i s e d

i n regard to relationships

l i m i t e d numbers o f o t h e r s ,

I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t

c o u l d be e x t e n d e d v e r y f a r w i t h o u t

now e x i s t s i s no d o u b t

rules

involve

this

t h e anomic d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f

The p l u r a l i s t i c

s i t u a t i o n which

r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e h i g h degree o f

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the structure
where t h e k i n d

of which

c e r t a i n aspects o f Sexual

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e i n g t h e type case.

complex s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

the morality

o f an i n d u s t r i a l i s e d s o c i e t y ,

o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and hence t h e k i n d o f

g o v e r n i n g them v a r y w i d e l y f r o m one s e c t o r

M a c l n t y r e p u t s some o f t h e i s s u e s h e r e

t o another.

subtly

'We a r e l i a b l e t o f i n d t w o k i n d s o f p e o p l e i n
our s o c i e t y ;
t h o s e who s p e a k f r o m w i t h i n one
o f t h e s u r v i v i n g m o r a l i t i e s , a n d t h o s e who
s t a n d o u t s i d e a l l o f them.
B e t w e e n t h e adh e r e n t s o f r i v a l m o r a l i t i e s , and between t h e
c o h e r e n t s o f none t h e r e e x i s t s no c o u r t o f
a p p e a l , no i m p e r s o n a l n e u t r a l s t a n d a r d .
For
t h o s e who s p e a k f r o m w i t h i n a g i v e n m o r a l i t y
the c o n n e c t i o n between f a c t and v a l u a t i o n i s
e s t a b l i s h e d i n v i r t u e o f t h e meanings o f t h e
words t h e y use.
To t h o s e who s p e a k f r o m

367.

w i t h o u t , t h o s e who s p e a k f r o m w i t h i n a p p e a r
m e r e l y t o be u t t e r i n g i m p e r a t i v e s w h i c h e x p r e s s t h e i r own l i k i n g a n d t h e i r p r i v a t e
choices.
The c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n e m o t i v i s m
and. p r e s c r i p t i v i s m o n t h e one h a n d a n d t h e i r
c r i t i c s on t h e o t h e r t h u s expresses t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o r a l s i t u a t i o n o f o u r own s o c i e t y .
A l l o f t h i s does n o t e n t a i l t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
m o r a l v o c a b u l a r y c a n n o t s t i l l be u s e d .
I t
does e n t a i l t h a t we c a n n o t e x p e c t t o f i n d i n
our s o c i e t y a s i n g l e s e t o f moral concepts,
a shared i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e vocabulary.
C o n c e p t u a l c o n f l i c t i s endemic t o o u r s i t u a t i o n , because o f t h e d e p t h o f o u r m o r a l conflicts,
liach o f us t h e r e f o r e has t o choose
b o t h w i t h whom we w i s h t o be m o r a l l y b o u n d ,
a n d b y w h a t e n d s , r u l e s a n d v i r t u e s we w i s h
t o be g u i d e d .
These t w o c h o i c e s a r e i n e x tricably linked.
I n choosing t o regard t h i s
end o r t h a t v i r t u e h i g h l y , I make c e r t a i n
m o r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h some o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d
other moral r e l a t i o n s w i t h others impossible.
S p e a k i n g f r o m w i t h i n my own m o r a l v o c a b u l a r y ,
I s h a l l f i n d m y s e l f bound by t h e c r i t e r i a
embodied i n i t .
These c r i t e r i a w i l l be
s h a r e d b y t h o s e who s p e a k t h e same m o r a l
language.
And I m u s t a d o p t some m o r a l
v o c a b u l a r y , i f I am t o h a v e a n y s o c i a l r e l a tions.
For without rules, without the c u l t i v a t i o n o f v i r t u e s , I c a n n o t s h a r e ends w i t h
anyone e l s e .
I am doomed t o s o c i a l
solipsism.
Y e t I must c h o o s e f o r m y s e l f w i t h whom I am
t o be m o r a l l y b o u n d .
I must choose b e t w e e n
the a l t e r n a t i v e forms o f s o c i a l and m o r a l
practice.
Not t h a t I s t a n d m o r a l l y naked
u n t i l I have chosen.
For our s o c i a l past
d e t e r m i n e s t h a t e a c h o f us h a s some v o c a b u l a r y
w i t h w h i c h t o f r a m e a n d t o make h i s c h o i c e .
Nor c a n I l o o k t o human n a t u r e as a n e u t r a l
s t a n d a r d , a s k i n g which form o f s o c i a l and
m o r a l l i f e w i l l g i v e t o i t t h e most adequate
expression.
F o r each f o r m o f l i f e c a r r i e s
w i t h i t i t s own p i c t u r e o f human n a t u r e .
The c h o i c e o f a f o r m o f l i f e a n d t h e c h o i c e
o f a v i e w o f human n a t u r e go t o g e t h e r .
1

A number o f p o i n t s

need t a k i n g

up f r o m t h i s .

emphasis on i n d i v i d u a l c h o i c e f o r m o r a l i t y

18.

First i n his

b y i n d i v i d u a l s who

368.

have w i t h d r a w n
implicitly
His

from

t h e a v a i l a b l e ones d e l i b e r a t e l y ,

r a i s e s a q u e r y as t o t h e g r o u n d s o f s u c h a

own t e r m s seem t o i n d i c a t e

that

choice.

t h e r e c a n be n o n e , b u t i f

he t o o k h i s n a t u r a l i s m a s t e p f u r t h e r he m i g h t
mistake

Maclntyre

find

i t .

The

i s t o p u t i t i n terms o f a choice o f a m o r a l i t y r a t h e r

t h a n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f one w h i c h i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e k i n d s
of

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n w h i c h one i s i n v o l v e d w i l l y n i l l y ,

of

retreating

that

to lead a hermits

the accepted

an a l t e r n a t i v e ,
to

that

developing
to

morality i n this

though i tw i l l

context.

existence.
social

This

i s n o t t o say

context constitutes

p r o b a b l y be q u i t e c l o s e l y r e l e v a n t

'Choice' i s e x e r c i s e d i n c r i t i c i s i n g

t h e ones one i n h e r i t s ,

ones s i t u a t i o n . .

The

short

choice

and

and i n a p p l y i n g o t h e r

moralities

i s n o t random i n t h e way

here i m p l i e s but r o o t e d i n a c r i t i c a l

interest

Maclntyre

i n the r e l a t i o n s

one has a l r e a d y w i t h o t h e r s .
S e c o n d l y , and r e l a t e d
members o f s o c i e t y as

to this,

'outside'

the conception

existing moralities

w i t h i n them i s t h e r o o t o f t h e n o t i o n o f random
existing moralities.
that
the

criticism

Maclntyre

may

and some as

choice

between

w e l l be c o r r e c t t o s u g g e s t

o f m o r a l t r a d i t i o n s has r e a c h e d a p o i n t a t w h i c h

s i t u a t i o n i s v e r y c o n f u s e d , a t w h i c h many p e o p l e a r e more

c o n c e r n e d t o avow t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e d i s t i n c t
to

o f some

talk

that

a b o u t w h a t t h e y now b e l i e v e .

t h e y do b e l i e v e n o t h i n g , n o r t h a t

attitude
adequate.

That i s n o t t o say
such a p u r e l y

i s n e c e s s a r y i f what i s i n h e r i t e d
The more u s u a l

o l d ways

than
either

critical

i s r e j e c t e d as i n -

and a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e , as I

369.

suggested above, i s t o a t t e m p t t o c o n s t r u c t
of

t h e o l d and w i t h

life

and s o c i a l

a watchful

o f views o f i t i s true

have q u i t e

for

t o one's

a b o u t human n a t u r e a n d t h e
enough, b u t i t does n o t

the radical r e l a t i v i s t i c

ments i n d i c a t e ,
way

eye o n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

bits

relations.

Finally, Maclntyre s point

variety

new v i e w s u s i n g

implications

Norman p u t s t h e same p o i n t

necessarily

that h i s state-

i n a more

constructiv

sociology.

U n d e n i a b l y , t h e " f a c t s o f human e x i s t e n c e "

a r e b o u n d t o c o n s t i t u t e i n some sene t h e
" f o u n d a t i o n s " o f any system o f e t h i c a l concepts;
b u t t h e m i s t a k e i s t o suppose t h a t
they are the foundations i n a r e d u c t i o n i s t
sense.
The t r u e r e l a t i o n o f s u c h f a c t s
and e t h i c a l c o n c e p t s m i g h t p e r h a p s be i n d i c a t e d by s a y i n g t h a t t h e y c o n s t i t u t e t h e
"raw m a t e r i a l " o f e t h i c s , w h i c h t h o u g h common
t o e v e r y s y s t e m o f e t h i c a l c o n c e p t s , may be
given a d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e by d i f f e r e n t
systems.
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f s u c h f a c t s t h e n ,
does n o t r e q u i r e us t o abandon t h e n o t i o n o f
ethical relativism.
B u t i t d o e s mean t h a t
we c a n al\vays f i n d some p o i n t o f c o n t a c t
between t h e e v a l u a t i v e concepts o f another
c u l t u r e a n d t h o s e o f o u r own .., The n o n comprehension i s n o t t o t a l . '
Though t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n

of this

19.
relativism

seem d i m , i t a p p e a r s t h a t we h a v e a c e r t a i n amount t o w o r k o n .
We may go some way b y a n a l y s i s ,

argument, c o m p a r i s o n and r e s e a r c h

towards r e d u c i n g v a r i e t y and c l a r i f y i n g

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s , but

o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f some m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l
unlikely

t o be e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l .

h e a v e n w o u l d be v e r y b o r i n g .
in

social relations

and i n s o c i a l

u t o p i a , we a r e

Indeed success,

I t i s the constant
theories

short

like

developments

and i n m o r a l i t i e s

370.

t h a t make them a t t r a c t i v e
provide

i n any o f these

temporary,
problem
of

entails

the ideal

of

them a p l u r a l i t y

outdate i t s e l f

involvement
i t s past

t o c o n s t r u c t a view

contemporary

Despite

appro-

implemented.

has been t h e b a s i s

t h e appearance o f t h i s

i n a w e l t e r o f technique

sociology, i t w i l l

continue

Even were t h i s p o s s i b l e

o f s o c i o l o g y i n t h i s process

being lost

remain

t h e case

and d e t a i l

that

Rooted i n a l i m i t e d p e r s o n a l r e a l i t y , r e s o n a t i n g
g i v e s e n t i m e n t s b u t n o t o t h e r s a n d embedded i n
c e r t a i n domain assumptions, e v e r y s o c i a l t h e o r y
f a c i l i t a t e s t h e p u r s u i t o f some b u t n o t a l l
courses o f a c t i o n , and t h u s encourages us t o
change o r a c c e p t t h e w o r l d as i t i s , t o s a y
yea o r nay t o i t . '
The

human

social

b e t w e e n them

i n p r o p o r t i o n as i t were

contributions.

v i s i o n a r y aspect
in

i n assumptions about

t h u s s u r v i v e and antagonism

i s held out o f t r y i n g

con-

efforts.

o f t h e o r i e s about

t o t h e age i n a l l r e s p e c t s .

would

Man's

i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y

i n m o r a l i t i e s and p l u r a l i s m

relations w i l l

The

t o more c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e .

t o h i s environment

n a t u r e and w i t h

priate

spheres are i n e v i t a b l y -

w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h i s own e a r l i e r

Pluralism

we

t h e c r e a t i o n o f s u b s i d i a r y ones a n d t h e r a i s i n g

formerly lower p r i o r i t i e s

cerned

it

interrelated

The a n s w e r s w h i c h

i f o n l y b e c a u s e t h e s u c c e s s f u l s o l u t i o n o f one

adaptiveness

as

and engaging.

b e s t we c a n hope f o r i s a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

20.

of the

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e v a r i o u s i n f l u e n c e s and assumptions and

thus a g r e a t e r understanding
Clearly this persistent

of the nature of the social

element o f r e l a t i v i s m

theory.

i n sociological

t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h poses c o n s i d e r a b l e problems f o r t h e d i s c i p l i n e

371.

as an e x p l a n a t o r y s c i e n c e .

Of

there are assumptions which

course,

i n a natural

have t h e s t a t u s

of

science

unverifiable

21
and n o n - f a l s i f i a b l e
in

the s o c i a l

principles.

and

crucial

s c i e n c e s however, are f i r s t

a r e n o w h e r e n e a r as c l e a r
tions f u l l y

The

understood,

o r as l i m i t e d ,

that

are

reality

Secondly, they not

principles
in

but also p o t e n t i a l guides

t o order or reorder i t .
i n natural

science

t h e sense o f s a y i n g ;

how

i t works.

Theoretical

where t h e y a r e
w i t h how

see

clear,

social reality

i t t h i s way

and

i s r a r e l y , are

has

i s that

point

of view

to understand

a c t o r s would

how

they w i l l

or t h a t unintended

logist will
action

the r u l e s

want t o i n n o v a t e .

e i t h e r assuming t h a t
stable,

how

be

concerned

not

i t might

as

will

only
work,

not, that

society.

the

consequences,

The

corollary

c h a n g e , and

Prediction

even

regularities

social reality w i l l

so why

the s o c i a l

t h e a c t o r s and

one

the

t h u s depends

the s o c i o l o g i s t understands

of

change,

on

system i s

consequences r e c o g n i s e d by

i n t i m e r e c o g n i s e d by

taken, or t h a t

understand

science,

as n a t u r a l

emerge f r o m a n o t h e r

to understand

can

reality

o f t h e members o f t h e

intended or n o t , or rule-governed a c t i o n .
this

explanatory

you

does w o r k b u t w i t h how

Thus w h a t a p p e a r f r o m one

i n that

i n a sense o r d e r n a t u r a l

since i t i s the constant c r e a t i o n

of s o c i a l behaviour,

to action

assumptions i n s o c i a l

which

only

then e x p l a n a t i o n

T a x o n o m i c and

do

implica-

the reasons f o r

r e p r e s e n t p r i n c i p l e s f o r a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and
of a r e a l i t y ,

i t s principles

not are t h e i r

and h e n c e n e i t h e r

consequences o f a c c e p t i n g them.

differences

the

socio-

rectificatory

as w e l l

or

372.

b e t t e r t h a n t h e a c t o r s i n w h a t x\rays t h e y a r e l i k e l y
innovate.
still

We know f r o m h i s t o r y

f o r l o n g , though

their

c e r t a i n l y we m u s t e x p e c t
As r e g a r d s

that

t h e second p o s s i b i l i t y ,

i t only holds

that

understand

they would

alternatives w i l l

the actual s i t u a t i o n .

The f i n a l

p r e d i c t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e s o c i o l o g i s t
actors view

values

claiming t o understand

he a c t s b e t t e r

t h a n t h e a c t o r , so

as he c o n f r o n t s new s i t u a t i o n s .

Like the previous

t h i s b o i l s down t o c l a i m i n g e i t h e r

t h e s o c i o l o g i s t knows w h i c h v a l u e s

sense t h a t
to

changes i n

that

a r e d e p e n d e n t on h i s p h y s i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s

or t h a t

they w i l l

remain

stable whilst

d e a l w i t h changed c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

dubious,

they are also l i m i t e d

or moral.

the actor's
(materialism)

are basic i nthe

others are modified

Both o f these

are not only

i n t h e sense t h a t w h a t

happens i s n o t a d i r e c t d e r i v a t i v e
material

alter

o f t h e w o r l d i n a l l i t s c o m p l e x i t y and t h e n t o

the w o r l d i n which

possibility

respond

possibility

t h a t he may make g u e s s e s a b o u t t h e a c t o r ' s l i k e l y

attitude

consequences

consequences i . e . i t i s q u i t e

t h e i r hierarchy of value

when f a c e d w i t h

matters

i f the actors

of unintended

t h e i r a c t i o n s as t h e y s a y a n d a c t as t h o u g h

possible

the

i s a relative

changes f r o m any c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y .

b e f o r e b e c o m i n g aware o f t h e s e

of

s o c i e t i e s do n o t s t a n d

stability

do r e s p o n d when t h e y become c o n s c i o u s
of

t o want t o

of 'ultimate'

actually

f a c t o r s be

they

As Weber s a i d , v a l u e - j u d g e m e n t s c a n be

t r a c e d back t o and j u s t i f i e d

b y g e n e r a l v a l u e s b u t c a n n o t be

deduced f r o m

them.

The more g e n e r a l a p r i n c i p l e

and e x p l i c i t

a guide

i ti s to practical

action,

the less

direct

373.

I n s o f a r as p r e d i c t i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n i s a t t e m p t e d i t
involves

the r e l a t i o n

to

a sociologists

in

terms o f t h i s

of the v a r i o u s a c t o r s ' views of r e a l i t y

t h e o r y , b u t when a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s g i v e n
t h e o r y i t must i n c l u d e n o t j u s t

actors d i d according to the d e f i n i t i o n s

a l s o w h a t i t meant t o t h e a c t o r s .
because

the reason

may m i s l e a d i n g l y be p r e s e n t e d
and as t h e ' p r o d u c t

as t h a t

i s necessary
or not doing

simply
something

i m p l i e d by t h e t h e o r y

o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' xvhen t h e a c t o r may

have an e x c e l l e n t r e a s o n

f o r a c t i n g as he d i d .

p l a n a t i o n i s t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y
the

of the theory, but

This

f o r an a c t o r s ' d o i n g

what t h e

himself

I f t h e ex-

t h e n , i t must t a k e a c c o u n t o f

a c t o r ' s r e a s o n s and show how

they r e l a t e

theory.

T h i s i s n o r m a l l y done b y t r y i n g

actors'

i d e a o f r e a l i t y and t h e n c r i t i c a l l y

to the sociologist's

t o understand

the

evaluating i t i n

t e r m s o f i t s c o n s i s t e n c y a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s when u s e d i n
a c t i o n and i n t e r m s o f a l a r g e r v i e w

o f r e a l i t y which

incorporates

it.
By d o i n g
for being

this

subversive.

p r a c t i c e s and way
take
may

s o c i o l o g y has g a i n e d

F o r t o q u e s t i o n anyone's e s t a b l i s h e d

of l i f e ,

t o q u e s t i o n the t r u t h s which

t o be s e l f - e v i d e n t i s t o r a i s e
n o t b e , and t h a t

the p o s s i b i l i t y

that

t h e r e may be a l t e r n a t i v e s w h i c h

e a s i l y be r e j e c t e d .
tions a l l faiths.

a rightful reputation

Sociology

i s subversive

But i t i s subversive

centre.

I n practice

than l e f t

because c o n s e r v a t i s m

i n that

of r i g h t ,

they
they

cannot
i t ques-

left

and

i t i s p r o b a b l y more d a n g e r o u s t o r i g h t
i s associated with established

37^.

practices which are c o n s t i t u t i v e of s o c i a l r e a l i t y

as i t now i s ,

r a t h e r t h a n w i t h dreams a b o u t o r e v e n a t t e m p t s a t c h a n g i n g
The

r e s u l t s o f t h e e x a m i n a t i o n may n o t be a l t o g e t h e r

it.

subversive

h o w e v e r , f o r w h i l s t i t may p o i n t t o i n a d e q u a c i e s a n d c o n t r a dictions

i t may a l s o

nonetheless k n i t
sociology

together

can a f f o r d

ideologies

i n d i c a t e how t h e s e v e r y

as t h e y

into a stable

t o be no r e s p e c t e r

same c o n t r a d i c t i o n s

code a n d s y s t e m .

o f f a i t h s , v a l u e s and

a r e h e l d and p r a c t i s e d b y o t h e r s ,

because i t i s i t s e l f n e c e s s a r i l y

I f

that i s

engaged e i t h e r i n t o t a l

t i c i s m a n d t h e t a k i n g up o f one v i e w a n d one t h e o r y
another, or i n the search f o r a successful

theory

scep-

after

founded

upon

22
empirically successful
and

assumptions.

So l o n g as p o l i t i c a l

moral a l t e r n a t i v e s e x i s t i n s o c i e t i e s , i t i s l i k e l y t o

continue

anxiously

criticising

and e v a l u a t i n g

seai-ching f o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y answer.
any

hope o f b e i n g

continue
This
social

Such a n a n s w e r o n l y h a s

approached i f t h e argument and t h e a n g u i s h

at a l l levels.
implies a distinctive

t h e o r i e s apar't f r o m t h e i r

alternatives

a n d so t h e i r

view o f the l o g i c a l

evaluative nature.

t o p r e d i c t , t o provide

a wide range o f d a t a r a t h e r than b e i n g

opposed t o n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c

I t i m p l i e s an

which

comprehends

precisely testable.

o n l y i s i t i n a n y case much more d i f f i c u l t

as

social

to illuminate rather

an e x p l a n a t i o n

e s t a b l i s h t h e empirical v a l i d i t y

status of

involvement w i t h various

emphasis upon t h e f u n c t i o n o f a t h e o r y
than

them w h i l s t

Not

to conclusively

of social scientific

theories

ones, f o r r e a s o n s w h i c h I have

375.

explained over the preceding

pages, b u t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a

t h e o r y t o a w o r l d where each p e r s o n and g r o u p a l r e a d y has h i s

own t h e o r y o f how
in

them m u s t

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w o r k and w h a t i s i m p o r t a n t

be t o p r o v i d e

range o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

a new

p e r s p e c t i v e b a s e d on a

Sociology

will

n e v e r escape f r o m

dilemma, s i g n i f i c a n t b u t u n p r o v a b l e v e r s u s t r u e b u t
because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y
a sufficient

amount

about a s u f f i c i e n t

wider
the

trivial,

o f o b t a i n i n g and s u c c e s s f u l l y a n a l y s i n g

of significant

and a l s o r e l i a b l e

information

number o f p e o p l e i n a s h o r t enough t i m e .

s o c i o l o g y does n o t e r r on t h e s i d e

of significance i tw i l l

v i e w r a p i d l y be r e d u c e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f p o l i c y

research.

I f
i n my

A P P E N D I X .

THE METHODOLOGICAL STATUS OF "TILS WEBER THESIS".

Intellectual

Context.

Weber's e s s a y

'The P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c a n d t h e S p i r i t o f

C a p i t a l i s m ' has been o f e n d u r i n g i n t e r e s t

sociologists

ever

since i t s f i r s t

whole t h e i n t e r e s t s

t o h i s t o r i a n s and

a p p e a r a n c e i n 1905

o f t h e two d i s c i p l i n e s have been

h i s t o r i a n s b e i n g concerned

On t h e
divided,

t o r e v i s e , annotate, develop o r

r e f u t e Weber's s u b s t a n t i v e c o n t e n t i o n s a b o u t

the historical

r e l a t i o n s between P r o t e s t a n t i s m and C a p i t a l i s m , and s o c i o l o g i s t s

b e i n g more i n t e r e s t e d
account.

I belong

i n the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l v a l i d i t y

to thel a t t e r

camp, h a v i n g no e x p e r t i s e t o

a l l o w me t o q u e s t i o n s u b s t a n t i v e p o i n t s o f h i s t o r y ,
more I am p a r t i c u l a r l y

presents an e x c e l l e n t

how Weber o p e r a t e d

p o s i t i o n he d e v e l o p e d

i n practice

w i t h some c a r e

i n C h a p t e r One.

I t will

the methodological

which

in

I have

fur
considered

be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t

Weber's c o n c e r n s w e r e d e a l t w i t h t h e r e :
relevance

The

opportunity to

i n the A r c h i v

S o z i a l w i s s e n s c h a f t u n d So z i a l p o l i t i k ,
in detail

and f u r t h e r -

i n t e r e s t e d i n Weber's m e t h o d o l o g y .

Protestant E t h i c Thesis
analyse

of the

two o f

h i s discussion of value

a n d o b j e c t i v i t y w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d b y h i m p a r t i c u l a r

t h e A r c h i v e s s a y o f l^Ok,

" O b j e c t i v i t y i n S o c i a l Science and

S o c i a l P o l i c y " , and t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problems i n v o l v e d i n t h e

376.

377.

explanation

of action,

m e a n i n g f u l adequacy.
Thesis w i l l

i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s t h e o r y o f c a u s a l and
This discussion

f o l l o w t h e same p a t t e r n :

at

the social, p o l i t i c a l

to

investigate

following
status

of the Protestant
I will

look

i n this

sectioi

a n d t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n s w h i c h l e d Weber

the r e l i g i o u s origins of capitalism,

one I w i l l

j^thic

and i n t h e

consider the p a r t i c u l a r methodological

of the thesis

i n t h e essay i n q u e s t i o n ,

a n d some o f t h e

r e a s o n s f o r w h i c h Weber gave i t t h a t s t a t u s .

The a i m o f t h e

a p p e n d i x as a w h o l e i s t o s h e d f u r t h e r l i g h t

on t h e i m p o r t a n t

questions o f methodology r a i s e d ,
contribution t o the s t i l l
It

surely

just

looking

d e b a t e on "The Weber T h e s i s '

t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e

was a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e a c c o l a d e

'purely h i s t o r i c a l '

sober and s c h o l a r l y
size

glance

origins of capitalism

of a value-free
is

unfinished

m i g h t seem a t f i r s t

religious

a n d i n d o i n g so t o make a

enquiry.

a t what happened i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

way.

But t h i s

i s t o be d e c e i v e d b y t h e

o f h i s u n d e r t a k i n g and t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y dominance o f h i s

concern - c a p i t a l i s m .

Weber was c o n c e r n e d w i t h

b e c a u s e i t was t h e c e n t r a l s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l
of h i s time.

At least

p r o b l e m was - q u i t e
was o n l y
and

and economic f a c t

then, h i s choice o f

i n t e r e s t e d i n Western, bourgeois, r a t i o n a l

capitalism

existence

there

t o that extent

capitalism

r e a s o n a b l y - t i m e - b o u n d , b u t f u r t h e r , he

was v e r y c a r e f u l

spirit,
the

A f t e r a l l , Weber

t o e x c l u d e , when d i s c u s s i n g

as i t h a s e x i s t e d

of wealth.

i n societies

What f a s c i n a t e d

capitalism

the c a p i t a l i s t
ever

h i m was t h a t

since
while

h a d a l w a y s b e e n c a p i t a l i s t s o f a s o r t , i t was o n l y i n

378.

Western Europe t h a t

i t had developed

into

a system which

t h e c o n t i n e n t a n d was s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g .

And as s o o n as t h i s

f a c t was r e c o g n i s e d , one was l e d i m m e d i a t e l y

p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e o f Western, bourgeois

engulfed

t o consider the

c a p i t a l i s m , namely i t s

single-minded, methodical r a t i o n a l i t y i n organising progressively

entire

societies

i n e v e r y r e s p e c t f o r t h e s y s t e m a t i c and e n d l e s s

i n c r e a s e o f m a t e r i a l goods.

The i n s t i t u t i o n p r o d u c e d b y t h i s

d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d i n Weber's v i e w

characteristic

c a p i t a l i s m and c o n t a i n i n g a l l i t s d a n g e r s ,
super-rational machine-like

o f modern

i s bureaucracy, the

o r g a n i s a t i o n o f human a c t i v i t y

t h r e a t e n e d t o e n g u l f human i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

which

democracy and any o t h e r

values

apart from those

s u b o r d i n a t e t o and e x p r e s s i v e o f m a t e r i a l -

ism.

Monunsen q t i o t e s Weber's c o n c e r n on t h i s

issue;

'
"How i s i t , i n v i e w o f t h i s o v e r w h e l m i n g
tendency
t o b u r e a u c r a t i s a t i o n , a t a l l p o s s i b l e s t i l l t o save
a n y t h i n g o f w h a t i s meant b y i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m o f
movement" ... The m a i n t e n a n c e o f a d y n a m i c s o c i e t y
i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e t a i n s t h e maximum p e r s o n a l
i n i t i a t i v e i s the central idea determining h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c o n c r e t e p o l i t i c a l and economic
problems.'

1.

These f e a r s t o o w e r e t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d h i s i n t e r e s t
in

the origins

Weber s t a t e s

o f t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y uniquely oppressive

explicitly

'The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S p i r i t o f c a p i t a l i s m i s
b e s t u n d e r s t o o d as p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
r a t i o n a l i s m as a w h o l e , a n d c o u l d be d e d u c e d
from the fundamental p o s i t i o n o f r a t i o n a l i s m
on t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m s o f l i f e . '
The
tion

P r o t e s t a n t iCthic T h e s i s
into

system.

the h i s t o r i c a l ,

i s thus c l e a r l y

2.

s e e n as a n i n v e s t i g a -

and as i t t u r n s o u t n o n - r a t i o n a l o r i g i n s

379.

of

this

rationalism.

At other points

i n h i s e s s a y t o o , he

displays

t h e same c o n c e r n a t t h e a w f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e

marriage

o f p u r i t a n i s m a n d e c o n o m i c ch.an.ge i n p o l i t i c a l

terms.

'The p u r i t a n w a n t e d t o w o r k i n a c a l l i n g ;
we a r e f o r c e d t o do s o .
F o r when a s c e t i c i s m was c a r r i e d o u t o f t h e m o n a s t i c c e l l s
i n t o e v e r y d a y l i f e and began t o d o m i n a t e
worldly morality, i t d i d i t s part i n b u i l d i n g t h e t r e m e n d o u s cosmos o f t h e m o d e r n
economic o r d e r .
T h i s o r d e r i s now b o u n d
t o t h e t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s
o f machine p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h t o d a y d e t e r m i n e
t h e l i v e s o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e b o r n
i n t o t h i s mechanism, n o t o n l y t h o s e d i r e c t l y
concerned w i t h economic a c q u i s i t i o n , w i t h
i r r e s i s t i b l e force.'

3.

And he l o o k s f o r w a r d \ \ r i t h f o r e b o d i n g t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
'economic e t h i c s a r o s e a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d
o f t h e a s c e t i c i d e a l , now i t h a s b e e n s t r i p p e d
of i t s r e l i g i o u s impact.
I t was p o s s i b l e f o r
t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s t o a c c e p t i t s l o t as l o n g as
t h e p r o m i s e o f e t e r n a l h a p p i n e s s c o u l d be h e l d
out t o i t .
When t h i s c o n s o l a t i o n f e l l away i t
was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h o s e s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s
s h o u l d appear i n economic s o c i e t y w h i c h s i n c e
have g r o w n so r a p i d l y . '
This l a s t

comment i n t r o d u c e s

the t h i r d

factor

Weber's i n t e r e s t i n a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m
problem.
were

I have a l r e a d y i x x d i c a t e d t h a t

t h e e x i s t e n c e and d o m i n a n c e

t i m e and s o c i e t y ,
relation
third

this

influencing

as a t h e o r e t i c a l
factors

i n Weber's

own

a n d h i s own v i e w s and v a l u e p o s i t i o n s i n

t o i t and w h a t he t o o k t o be i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s .

e l e m e n t was

revolt

4.

two i m p o r t a n t

of capitalism

the p o s s i b i l i t y

against capitalism

light

constituted

this.

o f a s o c i a l and

and t h e a n a l y s i s

The

political

of capitalism i n

b y M a r x , whose t h e o r e t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l
f o r Weber a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n

o f the

writings
extant

380.

knowledge o f c a p i t a l i s m .

Marx was a f a m i l i a r shadow i n t h e

b a c k g r o u n d o f Weber's w h o l e o p u s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i s c o n c e r n
with

capitalism,

w h e r e he i n f l u e n c e d

sense i n p o i n t i n g

t o the revolutionary

w h i c h i n 1905 m u s t h a v e

as t h e s o l e

methodological
social

consequences

of capitalism,

seemed i m m i n e n t , and i n s u g g e s t i n g

t h i s r e v o l u t i o n might lead
materialism

Weber b o t h i n a g e n e r a l

to socialism

and t h e r e j e c t i o n o f

e n d o f human e n d e a v o u r ;

and i n a s p e c i f i c

sense by h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e e c o n o m i c b a s i s o f

change a n d o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m .

known, Weber's P r o t e s t a n t

Ethic

As i s w e l l

e s s a y was a d e l i b e r a t e

t o p u t t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w , t h a t economic c o n d i t i o n s
influenced

b y e t h i c a l codes o f p r a c t i c e

and b y

i s a t i o n and a n a l y s i s

own s o c i e t y ,

salient
is

features

clear

by h i s value p o s i t i o n s
and b y t h e s t a t e

themselves

religion.

of the origins of capitalism

o f s t u d y were i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s c o n d i t i o n e d

attempt

were

A l t h o u g h n o t v e r y o b v i o u s , t h e n , Weber's c h o i c e ,

his

conceptual-

as a

subject

by t h e s t a t e o f

i n r e g a r d t o some o f i t s

o f knowledge a t t h e t i m e .

As

from the quotations already c i t e d , from a glance a t the

Protestant

IQthic i t s e l f ,

consistently

o r a t h i s o t h e r w r i t i n g s , Weber

open i n h i s avowal o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
T h i s i s i n accordance w i t h

was

origins of

his

interest.

out

i n h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l w o r k , t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s g a i n e d as

answers t o q u e s t i o n s p u t , problems d e f i n e d
and b y t h i s

criterion

s h o u l d be e x p l i c i t
imposes.

that

t h e p o s i t i o n he s e t

w i t h an aim i n v i e w ,

t h e knowledge i s u s e f u l , r e l e v a n t .

a b o u t t h i s a n d aware

One

of the l i m i t a t i o n s i t

Weber's l a t e r \tfork on t h e o t h e r w o r l d r e l i g i o n s and

38l

their

significance

for capitalist

an e x p l o r a t i o n , o f t h e s e

d e v e l o p m e n t can be

and

made one's t h e o r e t i c a l

h o w e v e r , Weber was
admitted.
rhetoric
clearly

r e l a t i v e value

He

further

clear,

point;

'The

o f the c u l t u r e s which are

be

room f o r

e v a l u a t i o n - i t i s c l o s e l y argued
s a y s a t one

one's

evaluations should

essay t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e

or extraneous
stated.

g i v e n the reasons f o r
terms o f r e f e r e n c e

adamant t h a t no

I n h i s own

as

limitations.

H a v i n g c h o s e n one s p r o b l e m and
choice,

seen

and

question of

the

compared h e r e w i l l

not

5
recexve a s i n g l e word.'
t h e r e are

ironic

comments and

about the r e l a t i v e
effect

He

importance

i s n o t q u i t e as f a i t h f u l

of c u l t u r e s .

But

t o be

two

at least

d e a l t w i t h , not

Thompson, b o t h

adjectives.

t o d o u b t s as
adequately

and

personal

t o w h e t h e r he

and

fully,

o b f u s c a t i n g and

to

I t i s a f a r cry
and
rhetoric

i n the long s e r i e s of
pink

fanatical hatred

grounds not

to disentangle a s s e r t i o n from

only at

of

times

i n v e c t i v e , but

leads

i s p r e s e n t i n g h i s evidence at a l l

important

m o r a l i s i n g i s s o c i o l o g i c a l l y and
best

almost

be

concerned

u s e s t o make h i s p o i n t s , i n a w e l t e r o f
Thompson's^ b i t t e r ,

makes i t h a r d

may

on i n a s u s t a i n e d

s o c i a l i s m comes t h r o u g h ,

m e t h o d i s m on p o l i t i c a l

at worst

overall

c o m m e n t a t o r s , Tawney

o f whose w o r k i s c a r r i e d

Tawney's l i b e r a l
a p p o s i t i o n s he

o f h i s most a b l e

the

where one

discount p r e j u d i c e or cut through verbiage.

from

this

i n n u e n d o e s a t a number o f p o i n t s

i s o f a s o b e r l y dependable account,

absorbed w i t h the problems

as

though i t i s .
historically

This k i n d

of

irrelevant,

at

seriously misleading, both i n

382.

p r e s e n t i n g a moral

judgement i n t h e p l a c e

misrepresenting the analysis.

no more r e a d a b l e ,
of

I t i s o f course

readable,

though

t o anyone w i t h a n i n t e r e s t a n d some k n o w l e d g e

t h e s u b j e c t , t h a n Weber's e s s a y .

lack scholarship or i n t e l l e c t u a l
t h e i r best

o f a n a l y s i s and i n

t o obscure i t .

N e i t h e r Tawney o r Thompson

i m a g i n a t i o n b u t t h e y b o t h do

Comments

s u c h as t h e f o l l o w i n g b y

Tawney a r e s i m p l y , a n d i n h i s case e m b a r r a s s i n g l y

obviously

out o f place:
' I f i t i s p r o p e r t o i n s i s t on t h e p r e v a l e n c e
of a v a r i c e and greed i n h i g h p l a c e s ( i n m e d i e v a l
Europe), i t i s n o t l e s s i m p o r t a n t t o observe
t h a t man c a l l e d t h e s e v i c e s b y t h e i r r i g h t
names, a n d h a d n o t l e a r n e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e m s e l v e s t h a t g r e e d was e n t e r p r i s e a n d a v a r i c e
economy. '
Unfortunately,

i f we r e a c t t o t h i s

asks us, by s a y i n g
we s h a l l

fair

those

capitalists

have m i s s e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l

t h a t i n medieval
of

'Aren't

as i t s e m o t i o n a l

content
ideologists,'

p o i n t he i s m a k i n g , n a m e l y

Europe t h e c h u r c h m a i n t a i n e d

p r i c e , no u s u r y

wicked

i t s economic e t h i c s

e t c . , f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e many

f r o m t h e hands o f t h e few, even i f i t d i d n o t p r a c t i c e what i t

preached.

Methodological

Status.

In respect
definition,

of the c l a r i t y

and t h e o b j e c t i v i t y

and h o n e s t y

o f i t s s e l e c t i o n and

o f i t s a n a l y s i s , Weber's

P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c t h e s i s thus appears t o approximate

he

set himself.

to

judge

from

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

the history

the standards

s t a t u s o f t h e essay

itself,

o f t h e d e b a t e on i t , a p p e a r s o n t h e

383.

o t h e r hand u n c e r t a i n .
is

Weber's

the
In

own

Marxist
doing

economically
he

methodological
'scientific'
to Marx, or
m a t t e r had

achieved

least

on

this

dominance.

the

economy a s

in

r e l a t i o n to

the

this,

l a w s xirere d i a l e c t i c a l
admit

he

said

are

not

economic
out

the
that
the

attempt
This

was

religion

to

arose
was

of

i n part

least

objects

end,

but

task

and

be

he

did

the

Weber s e t h i m s e l f ;
the

i t possible

attempt

to

to

economic
to

No

to

and

he

changes?

The

to

why.

explain

and

was

society
the

quite

ready
and

history

and

factors

work n e c e s s a r y

talked

of

the

and

that

would

w o u l d be,

w h a t was

to

t r a c i n g how i t

He s p e c i f i e d

other

to a r g u e ,

dialectic

t h e i r own

the

economic

say

i n the

the

natural

motion

He

ethic,

really

is

determinist,

when t h i s
of

of

of

a t work a l l a l o n g
say

justice

laws

forces.

importance

attitudes

i n response

not

make

do

t h o u g h Marx

ones.

own

causal

even

factors

men

in his

of

i t was

to

capitalism.

Capitalism

economy i n

the

causal

other

seen

of

to

clarity

side

Marx's v i e w

economy and
the

of

other

growth of

fails

i t .

economic

abstract

could

i n providing

Was

his

of

evaluate

the

motivation
ment?

importance

factors

i n the

no

laws not

at

event,

of

and

lack

importance

Nonetheless,

was

the

the

the

to

the

basis,
he

of

this

put

his best.

weight

development

to

of

inevitably brings

about

to Marx a t

d o m i n a t e d by
the

but

i n the

of

causes

view

unfortunately

a good d e a l

of

to

biased

a n a l y s i s , and

order

the

attempt

preconceptions

at

concentrate

of

self-conscious

this

political

One

win

nor

in i t .
importance

of

psychological
capitalist

wondered,

that

Protestant
The

developthese

jit h i e

difficulty

384.

with

the methodological

he took i n h i s e x p l i c i t

however,

i s that

referred

t o - a complex i n t e r a c t i o n

you

will),

the only path

in

terms

'It

t h o u g h he a c c e p t e d

to s c i e n t i f i c

of c a u s a l l y

correct

ideas.

c o n f l a t e d ' i n h i s famous d i c t u m

i s , of course,

materialistic

n o t my

analysis

one-sided

he

talked

two a s p e c t s a r e

a t t h e end o f t h e e s s a y ;

aim to s u b s t i t u t e

one e q u a l l y

causal

These

times

(a dialectic i f

r e s p e c t a b i l i t y that

effective

statements

- and s e v e r a l

of factors

s u c h was h i s c o n c e r n w i t h

as

nicely

even

line

for a

one-sided

spiritualistic

causal

8
interpretation
geistige
but

of c u l t u r e

- i s off-putting:

f o r present

purposes

clear:

i t h a s t o do w i t h

problem

is,

how

development,
the

and h i s t o r y .

Protestant

there

c a n one g i v e

ithic;

it

cannot

to

go b a c k t o t h e b e g i n n i n g

what

be c a u s a l ?

i t i s Weber i s t r y i n g
Weber

states very

contra-distinction

of

to s o r t

of the essay

The

conceptual

of capitalism

i f a relationship

I n order

equivalenl

to/ c o n d i t i o n s ,

account

of the s p i r i t

surely

iinglish

a s p e c t o f the meaning i s
material

a s opposed

a causal

the development

"Spiritualistic"

i s no e x a c t

the relevant

ideas

from

i s conceptual

t h i s matter

o u t we

to understand

have

exactly

t o do.

c a r e f u l l y and c o g e n t l y h i s p o s i t i o n

t o Marx, b e g i n n i n g w i t h

in

a d e f i n i t i o n of

capitalism:
'We w i l l d e f i n e a c a p i t a l i s t i c e c o n o m i c a c t i o n
a s one w h i c h r e s t s on t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r o f i t
by t h e u t i l i s a t i o n o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e x c h a n g e
.. T h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t i s a l w a y s t h a t a c a l c u l a t i o n
o f c a p i t a l i n t e r m s o f money i s made.'

385.

However, he

continues

'The c e n t r a l p r o b l e m f o r u s i s n o t , e v e n f r o m
a p u r e l y economic p o i n t of view, the d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s t i c a c t i v i t y a s s u c h ... I t
i s r a t h e r the o r i g i n of t h i s sober b o u r g e o i s
c a p i t a l i s m with i t s r a t i o n a l organisation of
free labour.
Or i n t e r m s o f c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y ,
the problem i s t h a t of the o r i g i n of the Western
b o u r g e o i s c l a s s and o f i t s p e c u l i a r i t i e s .

10.

'The a n s w e r t o t h i s l i e s i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e
w i d e r q u e s t i o n of the s p e c i f i c and p e ^ i l i a r
r a t i o n a l i s m of Western c u l t u r e . . . jivery attempt
a t e x p l a n a t i o n m u s t ... a b o v e a l l t a k e a c c o u n t
o f t h e e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s b u t a t t h e same t i m e
t h e o p p o s i t e c o r r e l a t i o n m u s t n o t be l e f t o u t
of c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
F o r though the development
o f e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i t y i s p a r t l y d e p e n d e n t on
r a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e a n d l a v / , i t i s a t t h e same
time d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a b i l i t y and d i s p o s i t i o n
o f men t o a d o p t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f p r a c t i c a l
r a t i o n a l conduct.
When t h e s e t y p e s h a v e b e e n
o b s t r u c t e d by s p i r i t u a l o o s t a c l e s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r a t i o n a l c o n d u c t h a s a l s o met s e r i o u s
inner resistance.
The m a g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s
f o r c e s and the e t h i c a l i d e a s of d u t y b a s e d upon
t h e m , h a v e i n t h e p a s t a l w a y s b e e n among t h e
most i m p o r t a n t f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s on c o n d u c t
... I n t h i s c a s e we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f the s p i r i t o f modern economic l i f e
w i t h the r a t i o n a l e t h i c s of a s c e t i c p r o t e s t a n t ism.
T h u s we t r e a t h e r e o n l y one s i d e o f t h e
causal chain.'

11.

Weber c o n t e n d s t h e n ,
other

ideas

might

have

that
the

added,

from

though

aspect

once

had

this

you argue q u i t e

i s not a point

of the development

the dominance

i n medieval Europe,
century

unless

a r e i m p o r t a n t i n the development

a crucial
change

that

to an

and u t i l i t a r i a n i s m

economic

one,

onwards,

hegemony o v e r e c o n o m i c :

how

of c a p i t a l i s m .
he m a k e s

under

of a r e l i g i o u s
from

He

explicitly,

consideration i s

view of the w o r l d
the l a t e

Evidently
was

economistically,

this

eighteenth

religious
reversed?

ideas
Further

386.

lie a r g u e s ,
is

as I w i l l

show b e l o w ,

not a n a t u r a l aspect

once

a g a i n we n o t i c e

of humanity,

in

a l l this

Weber i s d i s c u s s i n g m o s t l y
He

continues

to r a t i o n a l i t y
of

in

economic

t h e words

a s he i s a c c u s t o m e d

wish

to earn

traditionalism
example

per hour,

t h e same a m o u n t .

and t o e a r n

does

'A man

t o e a r n more money, b u t s i m p l y

to l i v e ,

when

actions.

giving- h i s famous

wiio, o f f e r e d more money

work n o t more, a i m i n g

d o e s n o t "by n a t u r e "

field,

And

"causal chain",

i d e a s , and a t times

the economic

action

i t h a s t o be l e a r n e d .

by p o i n t i n g out the o b s t a c l e s of

t h e S i l e s i a r i mower,

less

that rational

to

live

a s much a s i s n e c e s s a r y

12
for
into

that purpose.'
a general

His transposition

of t h i s

particularism

c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h M a r x comes a f e w p a g e s

later.

The f a c t t o b e e x p l a i n e d h i s t o r i c a l l y i s t h a t
i n t h e most h i g h l y c a p i t a l i s t i c c e n t r e o f t h a t
t i m e , i n F l o r e n c e o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h and f i f t e e n t h
c e n t u r i e s , t h e money a n d c a p i t a l m a r k e t o f a l l
the g r e a t p o l i t i c a l powers, t h i s a t t i t u d e ( t h e
c a p i t a l i s t s p i r i t ) was c o n s i d e r e d e t h i c a l l y unj u s t i f i a b l e , o r a t b e s t t o be t o l e r a t e d .
But
i n t h e b a c k woods s m a l l b o u r g e o i s
circumstances
of P e n n s y l v a n i a i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , where
b u s i n e s s t h r e a t e n e d f o r s i m p l e l a c k o f money t o
f a l l b a c k i n t o b a r t e r , where t h e r e was h a r d l y a
s i g n o f l a r g e e n t e r p r i s e , where o n l y the e a r l i e s t
b e g i n n i n g s o f b a n k i n g w e r e t o be f o u n d , t h e same
t h i n g was c o n s i d e r e d t h e e s s e n c e o f m o r a l c o n d u c t ,
e v e n commanded i n t h e name o f D u t y .
To o p e n l y
hear of a r e f l e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l conditions i n
t h e i d e a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e w o u l d be p a t e n t n o n s e n s e , '
The

point

was f a i r l y

made:

how p e o p l e

came t o a c c e p t

they

clearly

would

religious
that

there

ideology
i s this

have

point

i t was and i s r e l e v a n t t o c o n s i d e r
economic

rejected,

played

13.

i n this.
t o make,

practices

\irhich a t one

a n d xvhat p a r t

time

t h e dominant

I t i s important

t o be

clear

f o r when Weber comes t o h i s

387.

final
He

statement

begins

on

the matter,

t h i n g s become v e r y

by m a k i n g a p l a u s i b l e

We11anschauungen, r e l i g i o u s

and

confused
the

again,

suggestion as

t o how

two

e c o n o m i c , met

historically

'The c u l t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s
of the Reformation
were to a g r e a t e x t e n t , p e r h a p s i n the p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s w i t h w h i c h we a r e d e a l i n g p r e dominantly, unforeseen or even unwished f o r
r e s u l t s o f t h e l a b o u r s o f t h e r e f o r m e r s ..
T h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d y may t h u s p e r h a p s i n a
m o d e s t way f o r m a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e manner i n w h i c h i d e a s became
effective forces i n history...
We a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o c l a r i f y t h e p a r t w h i c h
r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s have p l a y e d i n forming the
d e v e l o p i n g web o f o u r s p e c i f i c a l l y w o r l d l y
modern c u l t u r e , i n the complex i n t e r a c t i o n
o f i n n u m e r a b l e d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s .,
We w i s h t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t
r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s have t a k e n p a r t i n the q u a l i t a t i v e f o r m a t i o n and q u a n t i t a t i v e e x p a n s i o n o f
that ( c a p i t a l i s t ) s p i r i t over the world.
Furthermore, what c o n c r e t e a s p e c t s of our c a p i t a l i s t
c u l t u r e c a n be t r a c e d t o t h e m .
I n view of
the tremendous c o n f u s i o n of i n t e r d e p e n d e n t
i n f l u e n c e s betx\reen t h e m a t e r i a l b a s i s , t h e
forms o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n and
the i d e a s c u r r e n t i n the time of the R e f o r m a t i o n ,
we c a n o n l y p r o c e e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g w h e t h e r a n d
a t what p o i n t s c e r t a i n c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and p r a c t i c a l e t h i c s c a n be w o r k e d o u t .
A t t h e same
t i m e we s h a l l a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e c l a r i f y t h e
manner and the g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h ,
by
v i r t u e o f t h o s e r e l a t i o n s , t h e r e l i g i o u s movements have i n f l u e n c e d the development of the
material culture.'
Weber's
perhaps

references
fairly

concern

should

say

to put

a complementary view

"Marx's"

since

- i s e v i d e n t a g a i n i n the

certain

that

this

i s t h e way

he

he

to Marx's -

nowhere makes

last

14.

sentence

or

explicit

and

i t seems

c o n c e p t u a l i s e d what

he

388.

was
he

at.

However, a p a r t

also

t a l k s here

again with
economic,

causal
social

of

from

ideas

as

and

physical

social

production

of

- which

conditions.
emphasis
natural

on

But

conditions

as

analysis
indeed

which

as

forming
there

and

were

material

or

to

in

action,

necessity
to

be

action

was

his

causal

that

that

with
to
his
a

failed

sophisticated
to

the

way
of

point

but
as

i n order
he

of

of

for

social
and

dialectical
part

in

to

argue

laws

transthat

consider

as

well

to

Marx,

of

what

and

for

statements,

view

be

of

and

justice

to

a l l his
meant

do

is

involved

correctness

of

scientific.
in

conditions

t h e i r place

his very

causal

to

t a l k s of

spiritual

be

of

conditions

want

- to

the

i n terms

la\tfs a s

to

xvith

with

means

a political

h i s b e l i e f i n the

analysis

say

century

crucial

- ideas

so

to

causal

Weber a p p e a r s

i s i n terms

i s the

and

forces",

example

always,

causes,

played

conditions

discussion

of

stated

i n doing

i s to

claimed
not

causes,

particularly

physical

nineteenth

amenable
he

and

that

the

did

concerned

actions

pandered

forces

or

i n the

very

m u c h more

remembered

historical

and

ones and

for

justifies

He

developing.

and

and

upon a c t i o n

said earlier,

own

not

which

to

concerned

societies - for

work i n terms

spiritual

as

his

Marx d i d

i s not

w h i c h human i d e a s

conditions,

p l a u s i b l y be

constraints

human r e s p o n s e s .

M a r x was

conditions,

resources

could

science,

science,

Now

f a c t s about

scarce

reference

"effective historical

political

called material

distribution

earlier

implications.

w i t h w h a t he
and

the

as

and
I t is

practice
or

ideas

motives

as

for

e f f e c t i v e argument

about

389.

the

r e s i s t a n c e t o new

alism

and

changing
is

hence

any motive
it

the importance

this.

certainly

But

not

of course

c a u s a l but

m u s t be

envisages

economic

like

terms

causes

only

raison

d'etre' i s that

purpose

contingently

kind.

Worse

to what

Weber a c t u a l l y

not
to

even

m e d i a t e d by

to give

capitalist
after

t h e xiray i n w h i c h

and

goes

i s with

the previous

He

action

since

of

o f them

of a

other

as

whole
specified

inappropriate
Ethic,

ideas

are

f o r he

was

responded

the r e l a t i o n s h i p
actors.

a h i s t o r y of the o r i g i n and

e t h i c s - a l o t of i d e a s .

to

of a c t , which

their

i t i s doubly

d i d i n the P r o t e s t a n t

conditions

in

o f m o t i v e s and

anticipate actions

that

ideas

kind

r e l a t e d to a c t i o n s ;

however,

tradition-

^thic

of motive

i n t e n t i o n to think

circumstances,

between
on

this

on

quasi-conceptual,

for a certain

and

they

concerned with

i n various

the r e l a t i o n

I t makes n o n s e n s e

action

than

of the P r o t e s t a n t

at least

a motive

itself.

p r a c t i c e s consequent

He

i n fact

development

continues

a few

quotation,

'The v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t d o g m a t i c r o o t s o f a s c e t i c
m o r a l i t y d i d no d o u b t d i e o u t a f t e r t e r r i b l e
struggles.
But the o r i g i n a l c o n n e c t i o n
with
t h o s e dogmas h a s l e f t b e h i n d i m p o r t a n t t r a c e s
i n the l a t e r undogmatic e t h i c s ;
moreover
only
the knowledge of the o r i g i n a l body of i d e a s can
h e l p us to u n d e r s t a n d the connection of t h a t
m o r a l i t y w i t h the i d e a of the a f t e r l i f e which
a b s o l u t e l y d o m i n a t e d t h e m o s t s p i r i t u a l men o f
that time.
W i t h o u t i t s poxirer, o v e r s h a d o w i n g
ever3'"thing e l s e , no m o r a l a w a k e n i n g w h i c h
s e r i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d p r a c t i c a l l i f e came i n t o
b e i n g i n t h a t p e r i o d ...

of
pages

390.

We are
i n t e r e s t e d i n the i n f l u e n c e of those
psychological sanctions which o r i g i n a t i n g i n
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and t h e p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n
gave a d i r e c t i o n to p r a c t i c a l c o n d u c t and
held
the i n d i v i d u a l to i t .
Now
these
sanctions
were to a l a r g e e x t e n t d e r i v e d from the p e c u l i a r i ties
He

of

the

goes

on

r e l i g i o u s ideas
to

discuss

Protestantism,

the

individual'

a result

tion,

and

pectable
risk
and

of

the

the

to

religious
are

kinds
he

of

seeks

only

to

in attitudes

claim

"forces";
changing
to

to

course

of

he

show how
his

lead

work to
i s not
ideas

one's

life

quotes

at

length

work,

and

that

argument

concerned

to

and

Such a point

to
how
as

they

-it

these

attitudes

economism

do

not

can

fully

proposes

point

they

Tawney's

was

different

effective

show how

with

economic

push t h i s

became p o l i t i c a l l y

the

their

conditions
and

grace

done

against

development,

res-

minimum

of

that

significantly

economic

i s rather

with

lack

does argue
to

only

of

to

single

predestina-

sign

argument,

of

the

of
the

complement a p u r e l y

circumstances

r e l i g i o u s dogma.

as

of

Weber i s t h u s

In his

historical

intention

economic

he

earlier

H e r e he
they

loneliness

puritans.

in his

15.

asceticism

calling

was

this

e s t a b l i s h that

changes

to

s i n that

practice.

the

But

of

the

ethical attitudes

because

explain

planation.

ordering

the

C a l v i n i s t doctrine

means

i f any.

economic

inner

on

of

them.

worldly

emphasis

action

consider

important,

the

support

t r a c t s of

basis

of

fatal

In

a n a l y s i s of

relevant

and

single

election.

inner

'unprecedented

crucial

activity

s e r m o n s and
the

as

the

behind

be

that

ex-

harder
historical

exist
traced

in
back

391.

i t i s w i l l , w i l l o r g a n i s e d and d i s c i p l i n e d
and i n s p i r e d , w i l l q u i e s c e n t i n r a p t a d o r a t i o n
or s t r a i n i n g i n v i o l e n t energy, b u t always w i l l which, i s t h e e s s e n c e o f p u r i t a n i s m , a n d f o r t h e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n and o r g a n i s a t i o n o f w i l l , e v e r y
i n s t r u m e n t i n t h a t tremendous a r s e n a l o f r e l i g i o u s
fervour i s mobilised,
1

remains

largley

implicit

Protestantism's
does not s p e l l
in

action,

cerned

It

ity,

sense

to t a l k

"forces"

their

nature

never

as elements

situations

be.

development

or as guides

references

to causes

irrelevant

to h i s a c t u a l

sophisticated
historical
position

The i d e a s were

i n the responses

and t h e i r

mediations

can thus

one

of h i s major

for

which purpose

entities,

important

as moral

right

position

The s u b s t a n c e

by

enough,

as a

resources

The
confusion

w h i c h w a s more

of Protestant ideas f o r

a c o n f u s i o n w h i c h was o c c a s i o n e d
theoretical

was t o e s t a b l i s h

he c o n c e i v e d

causal-

and groups to

not as causes.

methodological

concerns

their

could

or ideological

o n l y be c o n s t r u e d

as to the s i g n i f i c a n c e

development,

action.

too i t i s m i s l e a d i n g

of i n d i v i d u a l s

to action,

h e t o o k up i n h i s p u r e l y

essential.

o f i d e a s a s f o r c e s when

abstract

were

of i d e a s as

i s i n t e r p r e t e d as mechanical

something which i d e a s , being

- but

con-

i d e a s and not

are considered, but here

a s t h e word

sense

he i s p r i m a r i l y

with

stresses

will-power

f o r him to speak

f o r c e s , w h e n he i s c o n c e r n e d

Weber

i n that

of t h i s

the ideas that

i t i s absurd

consequences

insofar

as

Thus

aspect.

- will

the consequences

f o r i t i s with

makes a c e r t a i n

action

but

systematic asceticism
out what

with.

historical

in i t s political

16.

by the

w r i t i n g s where

sociology as a science,

of 'correct'

of h i s h i s t o r i c a l

causal analysis
argument

as

i s t o show

392,

what

these

attitudes,

from

a wholly

must

agree

ethics, ideas,

r e l i g i o u s to

with Fischoff

a wholly

then

were

and

how

economic

they

developed

significance,

that

' W e b e r s t h e s i s must be c o n s t r u e d n o t a c c o r d i n g
to the u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as an e f f o r t to t r a c e
the c a u s a t i v e i n f l u e n c e of the P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c
upon the emergence of c a p i t a l i s m , but as an
exp o s i t i o n of the r i c h congruency of s u c h d i v e r s e
a s p e c t s o f a c u l t u r e a s r e l i g i o n and economy.
The e s s a y s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d
as a s t i m u l a t i n g
p r o j e c t of h e r m e n e u t i c s , a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s ( i shoiild say, conceptual
l i n k s ) between d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . '
Weber i s e x p l i c i t l y
process
the

of

how

spirit

of

discussion
were

it

was

by

roots.

In

place.

Nor

was
of

causal
to

tracing

this

of

as

the
I

account,

which

can

early

causes,

is

conceptual,

Weber's i n q u i r y

was

thus very

transformation

of

the

protestant

view

i t was

given

chapters

into

such

cannot
of

terms
the

the
the

of

also
but

process

i t s religious
out

ideas

h i s major

which are

much i n

ethic

they

i s quite

these

that

ideas

and

a
ethics

important matter,

causal

events,

into

Such

even as

development

since

social

developed

shows i s t h a t

that

in history,

physical

and

r e l i g i o u s l y based

i s an

conceptual

show i n t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p to

the

What he

were,

and

conditions,

This

ideas

political

emerged

how

Weber e v e n a r g u e

influences

the

example Tawney i s .

economic

the

kind

can

for

concern.

Their

be

by

conditions.

show w h a t

anything,

as

with

Ethic

considering

affected

Weber's

took place

were

Capitalism,

those

not

concerned

Protestant

involves

i n turn

affected

the

not

17.

be

of

that

concern
the

cause

thesis.
only

the

spirit

things

conceptual
of

393.

capitalism,
result

emphasising

o f an i n t e r n a l

critiques

external,

so

critique, just

The s t i m u l u s

and t h i s

the e t h i c a l
t h a t what

only

like

developed

a radical

by slow

efforts

regards

the a c c e p t a b i l i t y
t o time

of i n d i v i d u a l

and p l a c e

he r e f r a i n e d

circumstances
Despite

from

could

to him.

situation
least

that
to

than

take,

constraint

much

later,

as a r e s u l t

innovation.

of the
As

o f what was

to point
social

into

trans-

t h i s out,

and
point

economic
of view.

obvious

about

Silesian

i n h i s current
and e t h i c a l
more

conversion,

complex.

c o n d i t i o n s l e a d s , a s we
the culture

to c a t e g o r i s e circumstances,
the c a u s a l e f f i c a c y

might

o f t h e time,
and so l e a d s
of ideas

The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n Weber's a t t e m p t

the culture

assertion

of the

was n a t u r a l l y

understanding

the confusion

have been noted.

to Marx's

to h i s r e l i g i o u s

- practice

with

attitudes

to changes

on i d e a s r a t h e r t h a n

an attempt

get inside

ures

i n response

i n principle

expect, to a concern

Weber

changed

i t would

break

as an explanatory

The t r a d i t i o n a l

but i n response

emphasis

rather

conceptual

transformation

that

doubt

exercised a

Weber w a s a t p a i n s

arguing

w a s no

that

and a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s

be a d o p t e d

mower d i d n o t c h a n g e

This

critiques

intellectual

and C a l v i n ' s

h i s c l o s e n e s s t o M a r x a t many p o i n t s , h e w a s h e r e i n

contrast

at

f o r such

the

to the r e l i g i o n ,

o r t h e o l o g i c a l dogma a l w a y s

painful

but

as Luther's

i n f l u e n c e d the d i r e c t i o n

looked

i n fact

formed

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was a l w a y s

of C a t h o l i c i s m had beeen i n t e r n a l

theologicalo

but

that this

and s t r e s s

an understanding, i n c o n t r a s t

of the o v e r r i d i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e

t o him i s w e l l

brought

out i n Giddens

of

feat-

acute

remarks.

Marx i n s i s t s t h a t c l a s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s
form
the b a s i c a x i s upon w h i c h i d e o l o g i e s f i n d
general acceptance i n a society.
Thus i d e o l o g y
i s , i n an i m p o r t a n t s e n s e " i l l u s o r y " :
not
in
the s e n s e t h a t the c o n t e n t of i d e a s y s t e m s i s
a mere " r e f l e c t i o n " and t h e r e f o r e i s i r r e l e v a n t
to the a c t i v i t y of the s u b j e c t , but i n s o f a r
as
i d e a s w h i c h a r e t h o u g h t t o be o f g e n e r a l o r
u n i v e r s a l v a l i d i t y a r e i n f a c t the
expressions
of s e c t i o n a l c l a s s i n t e r e s t s .
A c c o r d i n g to
W e b e r ' s p o s i t i o n h o w e v e r , i d e o l o g y c a n n o t be
adjudged i l l u s o r y i n t h i s sense, because t h i s
demands t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a v a l u e
position
w h i c h c a n n o t r a t i o n a l l y be s a i d t o be
ethically
s u p e r i o r to any o t h e r .
The
c o n c e p t i o n of
c h a r i s m a , a s Weber u s e s i t , c o n n e c t s c l o s e l y
with this.
The p o i n t a b o u t c h a r i s m a t i c i n novation i s that i t i s " i r r a t i o n a l " i n r e l a t i o n
to the p r e - e x i s t i n g
s o c i a l order, since i n i t s
p u r e f o r m , i t d e p e n d s s o l e l y on t h e b e l i e f i n
t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y q u a l i t i e s o f a l e a d e r ...
F o r Weber a d h e r e n c e t o a n y g i v e n s e t o f i d e a l s ,
whether they are r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , economic
or w h a t e v e r , g e n e r a t e s i n t e r e s t s w h i c h can o n l y
be d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h o s e
ideals themselves.
I n M a r x s s c h e m a , on
the
o t h e r hand, the a s c r i p t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y to
h i s t o r y i s p o s s i b l e p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e of h i s
a c c e p t a n c e of the dichotomy between
"sectional"
( c l a s s ) i n t e r e s t s and
" s o c i e t a l " i n t e r e s t s which
i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e s o l v e d i n f a v o u r of the l a t t e r . '
1

The
is

the

importance

room

lishing

i t allows

a new

conditions

of

the

notion

Weber f o r

tradition

as

the

rule

protestantism

the

charismatic

being
and
long

rationalistic

solely

dependent

irrational in
and

painstaking

intellectually.

explanatory

upon the
to

critique

Where G i d d e n s

to

of

social

factors.

In

attractive
past,
the

i s correct

economic

case
in

of

so

far

from

powers

of

the

leaders

the

and
is

estab-

thus

were

past

the

charisma

in

and

took p l a c e

c o n t e x t , and

the

through

creativity

using

innovations

cultural

relation

innovation

individxial

opposed

as

curiously

of

18,

in

result

grew out
implying

of
of

a
i t

that

395.

socially
basis

these

by changed

pretation

the c h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n

conceptual
into

the e t h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s

social conditions

o f dogma i n v o l v e d ,

Because

of t h i s

the s p i r i t

because

of h i s attempt

nificance
ideology
content

development

one s i d e d

from

elaborating

that

looked

case.

fact

discussion

this

especially

Ethic

about t h e

conditions,

on t h e s e

ideas.

His

the tremendous

dominated, by a

ideas

ideology.
were

of the reverse

which would perhaps have

of the

Nor d i d he e m p h a s i s e ,

a society

religious

on t h e c o n t r a s t

Nonetheless

nothing

and economic

t o one d o m i n a t e d b y a n e c o n o m i c
to maintain

legitimacy

of the Protestant

t o complement Marx,

o f t h e change

by the r e i n t e r -

a history

Weber s a i d

view.

charisona,

challenged.

concern with

of p o l i t i c a l

by

the fundamental

c o n f l i c t s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s

a deliberately

sustained

and p a r t l y

was n e v e r

of capitalism,

influence

situations,

where

central

or ideological

reciprocal

was

provided

f o r a s h a r p b r e a k w h i c h was p a r t l y

partly

of

innovations

religious
He w a s

important

without

hegemony i n t h e p a s t ,

a t the time

was i n e v i t a b l y

of late medieval

sig-

like

overstating h i s

implicit i n h i s

Catholicism

and e a r l y
19

protestantism.
illustrates
source

to

sect

religious
lead

discussion

how r e l i g i o n i s u s e d ,

of legitimacy

protestant
and

I n his

and b u s i n e s s

member b e i n g

of the protestant
i n an economic
trust

subject

by t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ,

a s o b e r way o f l i f e .

c o n c e r n e d was t o j o i n i n o r d e r

sect

he

context,

as a

i n a community, a

t o sanctions both

and b e i n g

The a t t i t u d e
to gain

compelled,

social
thereby

o f t h e new member

a business

advantage,

396.

rather

than,

bothered
and

as before,

i f and

thrift.

nineteenth
and

the

to

join

when w e a l t h

for religious

reasons

and

be

resulted

from h i s s y s t e m a t i c

diligence

I n Thompson's a n a l y s i s

of Methodise! i n the

early

c e n t u r y we

exploitation

see

the

dominance

of r e l i g i o n

of

economic

ideology

a t i t s meanest.

'The y o u n g e r l e a d e r s o f M e t h o d i s m w e r e n o t o n l y
g u i l t y of c o m p l i c i t y i n the f a c t of c h i l d l a b o u r
by d e f a u l t .
They weakened the poor from w i t h i n
b y a d d i n g t o them t h e a c t i v e i n g r e d i e n t o f s u b mission;
and t h e y f o s t e r e d w i t h i n t h e M e t h o d i s t
c h u r c h t h o s e e l e m e n t s m o s t s u i t e d t o make up t h e
p s y c h i c component of the work d i s c i p l i n e o f w h i c h
the m a n u f a c t u r e r s s t o o d most i n "need".
1

And

one

might

add

was

n e c e s s a r y to

the

land at

the

chat

such

t e a c h the
end

of

by

seasons

traditional

jected

and
to

make

such

with

the

and

the market

how

enormity

He

the

through

spirit

Protestantism,
this

the machine

rights

of the

was

the u t i l i t a r i a n
of

and

and

duties,

of

it.

interested
ethical

tracts

of

change

they

But

he

looks

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n but

Thompson i l l u s t r a t e s

and

and

the

not

at

at the

such

by

life,

the

t o be

subone

economic

and

eighteenth

the

and

dogmas

Bunyan

writers.

He

aspects

continuities.

continuities

are

to

spoke

consequences

political

can

concerned

to an

from

of B a x t e r

conceptual

i n h i s work,

were

never

unintended
the

k i n d of

seventeenth

later

driven off

than

a religious

handbooks

discipline

for a l l that

in continuities

of F r a n k l i n

capitalism

but

from

took p l a c e i n the

the

being

rather

a W e b e r i a n p o i n t , W e b e r h i m s e l f was

centuries.
Calvin

proletariat

work

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y what

t o make s e n s e

Weltanschauung which

of

ethical-religious

nascent

the

conditioned

an

20.

of

of
As
still

397.

very

evident

concern
belief

to

i n nineteenth

show how

system

which

ideology

which

economic

and

not

so u s e d

that

the

another
only
and

c a n be

from

now

the

this

the

- but

state
good

reality,

to

justify

i s not

to

sa}^ i t

change

an

was

illustrations

i n i t s dominance

"a p e r s o n a l

i n terms

took

to become

c o n c e p t u a l i s e d no
but

basic

to

privatised,

ethic,

at w i l l

That

t o be

of

the

not

only

such

not

matter",

longer

in

of e m p i r i c a l

structurally

no

concern

p r e s s u r e s upon s u c h
the

spirit

early
and

i n ideological
Weber h a s

so

are

an

stages

does not

ethics,

not

only

r e a c t i o n of

ethic;
of

with

empirically,

important;
the

circumscribed

concerned

of p r a c t i c a l

with

the

not

once

only

i t has

economically
does i t

economic

and

i s i t only

development

of

the

the

enormity

hegemony;

i t i s also

not

historically

many t i m e s

been u n j u s t l y

c o n f l a t i o n of h i s t o r i c a l

for

h i s l a c k of h i s t o r i c a l

bring

tracing

out

his

come p r i n c i p a l l y

i s e v e n more

i s i t only

ethics

political

concerned with

essay

development

have

specific.

social

required religion

but

therefore

change

of

almost

the

and

individual

however5

extention

capitalist

i n s t a t u s from

"necessities".

history

by

i t i s Thompson'

Geneva - Tawney g i v e s

a half,

been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t
and

changed

one's v i e w

Weber's P r o t e s t a n t ^;thic
than

methodism, but

expediency.

collective

this

economic

and

has

manipulated

set i n early

century

of

orders

i n C a l v i n ' s own

sex^arate

terms

religion

political

rot

f o r the

century

changes which

specificity.^

from h i s t o r i a n s ,

but

of

criticised

for

t o o k many y e a r s
This

W e b e r was

criticism
no

the

ordinary

and
has

398.

historian.

His

interest

early,

more

"historical"

rather

than

events

generalisations
He

of

sources.

initially
geois

ethics
sense

to

which

change

he

as

no

neither

to

the
at

exemplars

of

the

look

the

ahistorical,
personal

or

account

and

to

economic

the

carefully

separate

fact.

meant by

the

and

cultures

types

and

historiographic

was

- nor

The

title

and

the

events.
the

very

ideal

built

up

author's

essay,

of

the

religious
leads

that

to

i t is

author's

that unless

persuasive

Capitalism",

with

method

fi"om s o u r c e

of

his

approach

and

with

illustrative

directly

in detail

general

use

Spirit

type

political

processes

of h i s

much o p e n t o

argument b e i n g
changes

an

This

bour-

concerned

d o e s he
than

concerned

in a

the

was

origins.

dogma a n d

not

of

he

rational,

i t s religious

politics

age.

and

the

of r e l i g i o u s

the

of

at

R e f o r m a t i o n meant

being

of h i s t o r i c a l

clearly

historical

their

distorting,

epochs

Protestant Ethic,

divines i n other

criticism

preferences,

difficult

the

T h u s he

on

halves

even i n h i s

construct

write

at

Protestant Ethic

two

conventional

of

at

to

w h a t he

reform

time

from v a r i o u s

dogma o r p o l i t i c a l

are

then

of

f o r example Tawney does

r e m e m b e r , i s "The

take

case

define

took p l a c e

spent

- as

quotations

the

d i d not

f o r economic behaviour.

detail:

sense

to

show w h a t

look

always,

d e t a i l e d , documented p i c t u r e s .

he

I n the

concerned

to

personalities,

but

c a p i t a l i s m and

tried

years,

r a t h e r than

knew h i s s o u r c e s ,

level

He

and

i n h i s t o r y was

the

unless

types
they

material i t i s
imagination

from

3 9 9 .

Weber's r e t o r t
stupendous
stimulate

i n size

suspects

and

inevitable

of

the

He

t h a t he

events,

a view

with

contributed

Calvin's
clearly

was
why

terms

of

practical

cesses
air:

Spirit

and
the

economic
trivial

of

of

political

religious

Methodism

His

the

this

- the

when d i v o r c e d

so

and

the

and

the

i n an

long

period.
histori-

innovations
with

some

significance
claiming
to

the

that
that

spell

out

always

subsequent

i d e a s and
the

the

removal

Protestant

Ethic

concrete

social

whole

tautologous

b e t w e e n p r o t e s t a n t and
t o be

h o w e v e r , was

of

achieved.

account

long

trying

of

development

c l o s e as

from

economic

ethics,

argument

dogma g i v e s

"total"

so

to

complexities

dogmatic

c o n c e n t r a t i o n on

relations

became

at a

of

dogma a n d

the

sources

C a p i t a l i s m - from b o t h

conceptual

of

be

and

he

i n tui-a and

i t was

economic

be.

even r e l i g i o u s

ethics

attempt

contribution,

i d e a s , of

suggestive

certainly,

d i s c u s s e s the

practical

contention

That

w e l l aware

showing what

and

t o be

a work would

c o n t r i b u t i o n s over

He

should

ethics,

of h i s main
the

the

to

was

such

any

to use

cruxial

this

of

P i e t i s m and

to

the

too

development

evaluative sense.

care,

into

only

compelled

Calvin,

in

was

that

lines.

i d e a s and

of L u t h e r ,

they

new

inadequacies

i s however,

cally

w o u l d be

t h a t h i s aim

along

interacting

religious

this

and

interest

One

to

"obvious"

s t r u g g l e s and

pro-

capitalistic

and

seemingly

political

22
changes which
any

clear

statement

ideological
the

l i e behind
of

hegemony:

ideological

them.

the

change

iveber was

continuities

and

I t i s this
from

religious

concerned
was

also

not

which

to

precisely

prevents

economic
to

show

s o much c o n c e r n e d

with

400.

tlieir

political

importance

classes

and

social

It

has

been

detail

and

failed

to

and

to

ally

varying

account
than

go

of

of

a particular

contentions,

concerns.
be

time

and

s e t out
of

various

cases

i n a very
place

jolt

the

influx

protestant

but

h i s work i s l i m i t e d by

things

chose

to

of

ideas,
being

that
the

normal
of

aren't

of

studies

so

simple."

why

he

chose

on

their

pettifogging
- and

i t

a nation

in

consequent

T a w n e y made t h e
restricted

has

habits

thesis

h i s t o r y of

i n the

we

Weber s

some h i s t o r i a n

transformation

i t

(a) case

- t h a t was

h i s t o r i a n s out

of

for

present

he

with-the

cases,

the

better

Although

in detail

critiques

were not

a knowledge
stages

for

could

which

in particular

"Look,

and

spread

developments

present

to

historic-

i t s dogmatic

conditions,

according

they
He

to

bee

Europe

l i m i t e d way

in

Scotland

innovations

economic

t o be

(b)

claim:

the

for

cases

W e b e r made t h e

amounts a c r o s s

change

that

analyse

development,

i t s dogmatic

i t i s noi^ t i m e

someone w i t h

- to

to

Calvinist

of m a t e r i a l d e a l i n g

approach.

i n order

that

right.

i n t o , had

and

the

aware

Surely

spread

t h a t L u t h e r a n i sin a n d

s c h o l a r s h i p and

well

scale

example

though other

religious

with

l i m i t e d an

depth

amount

whole been used

of h i s t o r i c a l

must

obvious

d i d riot

the

grand

Calvinism

even

on

Weber was

for

were not

else,

a fair

consequences

so

out,

rates i n varying

anything

their

h i s t o r i a n s to

marked economic

in certain

have

other

contention

and

deliberately
now

point

to

conditions

innovations,
at

left

sustainable

of

groups.

show a n y

economic

i n terms

bravest
time

upon
attempt,

span i t

koi.

covers

- principally

of

specificity

of

the spread

were

sermons

What

of protestantism,

evaluations

Tawney does

times

the various
have

This

practice

related;

status

i n h i s t h e o r e t i c a l statements

rhetoric
of what
aware

t h e same d i f f i c u l t i e s

However, what
into

of s c i e n t i s m
he

was

v/ould be

doing,

happens

decisions

a work not
and

Weber s e e m s

and
as

and

s o much

s e t t i n g out

two

things,
of

again
rather

ss'thic

to appear as a

points.

Of

essay,

that

in his
than

in

clarification

i n explanation

i s that

at various

spread,

made.

emerge

the background

groups

as a whole,

o f Weber's P r o t e s t a n t

him

a r e pushed

court

a p p e n d i x t o do

t o s h o w how

they

high

already

and

influence

t o make some c o m m e n t s b y way

the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

theory

their

showing what

of organising

researches

attempted i n t h i s

dates

i n i t s lack

i s a careful tracing

on t h e n a t i o n

by u s i n g

f u r t h e r b a s i c h i s t o r y , but

- and

i s needed

a n d how

t h e Monarch,,

century

with

of the impact

t o some e x t e n t

before

clearly

on

about dates.

a f f e c t e d a t what

regular

of

the seventeenth

dogged

substantive

taking

over,

confusing

the a c t u a l

status

to have been p r a c t i c a l l y

well

N O T ji S,

PREFACE.

1.

Here
by

as elsewhere

name

and/or

reference

CHAPTER

lo

author

i n the

text

only

t h e work r e f e r r e d

be f o u n d

identify-

to,

full

i n the bibliography.

ONE.

I n what

follows I w i l l

natural

science.

science

and s o c i o l o g y ,

what

I have

u s e the term

I shall

variously

but

points a t which

a t those

imply
a

rather

that

single

no

sense

focus

than

i s principally

I am

social

upon s o c i o l o g y ,
1

I may

social

be t a k e n t o

saying i s wider

than

discipline,
'actor',

I mean s i m p l y o n e who

of undertaking

actions.

dramaturgical connotation.

with,

to

I u s e t h e term

'sociology',

t h e scope o f what

By t h e term
the

refer

t o mean

to say i s confined i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to
My

'science'

I do n o t know how m u c h o f

sociology.

science

2.

will

I will

though l e s s

explicit

402.

acts, i n

The term

This view

t h a n Weber's

carries

i s consistent

definitions

4 0 3 .

of

action

Theory
und
I

and s o c i a l

of Social

action

and Economic

Organisation

ofh i s
(Wirtschaft

Gesellschaft)

mean t h i s

of course

i n principle.

well

be p r e v e n t e d

that

h e c a n w o r k o u t how

It

a t the b e g i n n i n g

b y some c o n s t r a i n t ;

i s significant

much i m p a i r e d ,

that

we

as infant,

Except

of course

ignore

the problem
about

may

the point i s

t o do i t i f h e h a d t h e r e s o u r c e s .

i f h i s a b i l i t y t o do t h i s i s

treat

being,

assumptions

The a c t o r

him a s l e s s

insane
by those

or

a full

human

senile.

who h a v e

i n favour

than

chosen

to

entirely

of dogmatic s c i e n t i s t i c

objectivity.

4o4.

CHAPTER

TWO.

1.

Reprinted

in

2.

T h i s term

i s normally

Its

meaning

ensuing

the Methodology

should

Methodology,

4.

T h i s argument
and

op.

do

I.
The
5

no

The

Bounds

Especially

7.

There

than

two
8.

of

are

i f this

i n the

course

of

the

familiar
and

would

of

and

widely

the

fact

accepted

that

proper

r e q u i r e a book i n

itself

\tfhat I mean h e r e .

Pure

See

Reason,

and

P.F.

Strawson,

i s read

as

'at

collective

the

will

others'.
Asian

reasons

which w i l l

disagreement

in

his A

D r a m a , pp.

why

this

become

24-25

i s unlikely,

apparent

i n the

w i t h Runeiman s views

Critique
both

o f Max

as regards

i n h i s own

discuss

to

say

the

following

views

should

be

and

G o u l d n e r , The
critiques.

matter
Social

his interpretation

of

Weber

clear

f o r example, M i l l s ,

this
of

should

See

on

Weber's P h i l o s p h y

Runciman d i r e c t l y .

agreement

for

"value-relevance".

chapters.

Science

9.

as

Sciences.

Sense,

My

and

Social

p. 1 0 6 .

indicate

Critique

M y r d a l , An

least,

clear

reason

defence

of h i m s e l f and
G,

cit.,

for this

more

Kant,

6.

translated

become

i s both

philosophical
I

the

account,

3.

today,

of

be

evident.

The
from

The

reasons

the

shall

f o r my

not

dis-

text,

Sociological

Coming C r i s i s

Imagination,

i n Western

Sociology

4 0 5 .

10.

The

argument might

values

of

science

institutions
and

that

political
sense

rise

permit

knowledge
order

are

inseparably

the

theory

rather
freedom

of

is a
than
of

c o v e r e d by
science

has

has

until

The

subject

debate,

but

that

(R.

p.

2 4 6 - ' / )

the

of

criticism
'The

progress

only within
...

In

political

of

a
this

conditions

Dahrendorf.

Essays

as

Insofar

consequence

which i s a
of

fact

i t s assumptions,
the

i t .

natural

I t i s notable

flourished

i n the

recently

matter
not

of

that

been very

e s s e n t i a l , one
supposing

on

in a
no

or

stunted

science

social

institutional

although

U.S.S.R., s o c i a l

natural
of

that

and

should

not

But
and

be

intellectuals

only

liberal

both r i g h t

and

left,

restricted
open

to

whilst

academic

led,

that

areas

science

remained

science.
openness

in

any

communication i s e s s e n t i a l w i t h i n

expressed

and

of

the

conflict

liberal

attachments

indeed,

permits

a necessary

positions

granted

degree

possible

and

claim

p a r t i c u l a r kinds

collective enterprise,

Mannheim, i n t o
political

are

to

Dahrendorf argues,

related ,

that

freedoin are

usually

to

a high

As

society,

very

i s true

firm

that

modern s c i e n c e

science

extended

i n s t i t u t i o n s e s s e n t i a l to

scientific

And

give

open-mindedness,

critical

it

t h u s be

like

have

ones.

no

Many h a v e

which

are

- though r a r e l y avowed-in t h e i r work.

s o c i e t y where n o t h i n g

truths

held

to

be

was

taken

selfevident

by

for
anyone,

4 0 6 .

but

a l l were

time,
for
11.

i t i s doubtful

the

This

concerned

scientist

i s not

tions

to

would

reasons

look

at.

claim that

the

are

case

not

it

i s thought

it

r e q u i r e s courage

because
to

t o be

scope

and

need

tions

and

their

of

more

of W e s t e r n
12,

state

case

very

any

The

(l)

that

(2)

that

f o r an

author

a l l these

remain plenty
of

The

expanding

a t Work, a n d

sociology

enterprise.
at

Gouldner

of

others' assump-

examination.

concerned,

this

value-judgment,

regarding

i t as

Purpose,

will

t o be

For

investigation

critical

Social

Weber* a s
the
on

adequate.

difficult

assumption.

f o r the

i n h i s Chapter

remarks

one's

therefore always

Simey,

up

assump-

c o n v i c t i o n and ( 3 )

scientist,

take

state

order

to

social

and

to

social

the

- The

See

level

with

Coming

Crisis

Sociology.

Weber c a l l e d
premises,

attempt

any

a l l the

to have

Hammond - S o c i o l o g i s t s
I am

w o u l d be

p o s s i b l e or

s o c i o l o g y i s a l r e a d y an

which

question

'unscientific'

i t i s i n any

there w i l l

be

and

u s u a l l y s t a t e d seem

i n v e s t i g a t e h i s own

reasons

debate

i f there

to

i n any

they

to

and

always

the
on

appears

illegitimate

province

of

to

regard

to

those

Seven;
general

from
for

the

and

identical,

himself.

for

value

politician.
Science

them a s

of v a l u e - j u d g m e n t s ,

them, i n C h a p t e r
myself

the

Weber i n S o c i a l

therefore contradicting
question

confine

as d i s t i n c t

and
the

will

Weber's
present

evaluative

premises

407.

to

which

define

the research

the nature

enterprise

of r e l e v a n t

i s relative

facts

and w h i c h

and f i e l d s

of

enquiry.
Although

Simey's

i s one o f t h e f e w r e c e n t

of

Weber's methodolog}^ t h a t

so

many e r r o r s

diversion
I

to deal

do n o t c o v e r

leading,

i t would

with

directly

as this

fragmented
these

that

would

argument.

works,

i t .

14.

as i n other

that

the whole

This

was one o f Weber's

by P.L. B e r g e r ,

by

H. G a r f i n k e l ,

16.

See t h e M e t h o d o l o g y e s s a y s
and

17.

was o f c o u r s e

"Politics

See C h a p t e r
1

is

to

as stated.

debate.
now

new

taken

implications

Five.
concern.

and "Science

as a Vocation",

as a Vocation"

passim.

non disputandum

...?',

as to the ultimate

are

t o be a d o p t e d

For

the present,

Six,

as value
I want

assumptions,

fruitful.

theory

Marx's p r i n c i p a l

t a k e n up i n C h a p t e r

value

of

Seven.

De p r i n c i p i i s

The q u e s t i o n

and

Sociologies," but

interesting

see Chapter

as mis-

i n the bibliography,

c e n t r a l concerns,

and w i t h

places,

the f a u l t s

own a r g u m e n t s

conflict-systems

up

I regard

I leave

See f o r e x a m p l e , A. Daxire , "The Two

also

considerable

i n a much l o n g e r ,

which a r e included

This

19.

I n this

Rather,

15.

18.

result

my

of, i t contains

require

material

emerge by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
13=

I am a w a r e

discussions

relativism

and t h a t
premises

only

and t h a t

p. 1 3 9 .
of

values

o f \diose

values

i n Chapter

to claim
discussion

that

Seven.

there are

o f them

c a n be

408

If

sociology

relative
that
and

has

to i t s time

i t deals

with

d e r i v i n g from

unique
puts

aspects

paid

reality.

Hence

unless
tinue

the

sociology

relations,
of t h e i r

theory

assumes a

i s i n no n e e d
generation.

will

continue

aims,

priorities

to develop,
continue

i n What

develops

new

extent
think

of

o f a Newton

tneir

ideas

problems

and

and the

s o c i e t i e s , but

n o t be t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n
but the

reality

constant

i n the l i g h t

and knowledge.

of

Theory

but r e l a t i v e l y a b s t r a c t l y ,

to inform

empirical

i s H i s t o r y ? , ii.H.

inquiry,

Carr

concurs

interests

to which

have

that

change,

phenomena emerge, and t h e h i s t o r i a n

and vantage

i t depends

them u p , a n d t h a t

they

this

constant

must be c o n s t a n t l y r e w r i t t e n a s t i m e s

new h i s t o r i c a l

culture

social

deal,

does.

.Similarly
history

will

to

ork c a n con-

empirical propositions,

though i t w i l l
i t now

of t h i s

similar

empirical theory

to d i f f e r e n t

of a changing

renewed

what

must

a n d on t h e o r e t i c a l

relevance

into

ever

to

a theory

to the extent

h a v e new a n d

sociology

articulated

and i s

though

of the past,

which

such

empirical side

The

at least

on t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f s o c i e t i e s ,

monitoring

as

those

a Newton f o r e v e r y

social
scope

and p l a c e ,

to a f u l l y
because

t o be u p d a t e d

phenomena w h i c h ,

with

society,

of

constantly

learned

i s a question

points.

just

to which

i n their
I will

own

take

on t h e i r

willingness

i t i s a matter of
s o c i e t y and i t s

up i n C h a p t e r

Six

4 0 9 .

23.

24.

2 5 .

In

"Ends

and

of

Value

in

A l a n Dawe,

"The

Listener

4 , i i . 7 1

H.

- Max

of

p.

Modern

ff.

1 3 6

and

Relations,

Good, a n d

for

a different

P.

W i n c h , The

Martins,

Sociology

"The

of

Idea

T.

Kuhn, The

and

I . Lakatos

A.

Growth of

Knowledgeo

28.

T.S.E.O.

pp. 8 7 - 8 .

29.

See

30.

C.W.

H o d g e s , The
Mills,

10

a
of

in

Sociology.
also

D.

Emmet,
sovereignty

though u l t i m a t e l y
Social

related

Science.

Knowledge

of

and

Scientific

Musgrave,

Philosophy

"Situated

58 = 9 >

the

p. 8 0 .

Structure

and

See

pp.

I . M u r d o c h , The

of

Sociology

Science",

See

Values",

Weber and

Roles

view,

Economy", C h a p t e r

Theory.

Relevance

ed,

of

27.

Social

A. S a h a y

Rules,

26.

Means i n P o l i t i c a l

of

Actions

Revoltitions

C r i t i c i s m and

W.

the

Dilthey.

and

Vocabularies

of

Motive".
31.

am

his

indebted
tmtitled

Compare a l s o
in
32.

33.

Social

to

M.

paper
A.

Stant
on

in

the

this

discussion.

subject,

Maclntyre,

Durham,

'A m i s t a k e

about

See

1971
Causality

Science'.

See

'Objectivity

and

J . Rex

Max

W e b e r ' , i n A.

See

Appendix.

in Social

' T y p o l o g y and
Sahay

Science

and

Objectivity
ed.

op.cit.

in

Social
the

Policy',

work

of

410,

CHAPTER T H R E E .

1.

J . O . Wisdom, O t h e r M i n d s ,

2.

I n what
Alfred
the
as

Schutz,

Social
those

I shall

particularly

World,

that

draw

I will

often

on t h e work

h i s The

n o t make e x p l i c i t

are familiar

with

i t will

i n a l l matters

many o f h i s i d e a s

I have

See e s p e c i a l l y

5,

Studies

6,

Op,

7 ,

English

Philosophical

- O t h e r Minds,

Or w e r e
April,

that

not u n t i l

pp.

of

references,

realise

that

and have

changed

borrowed,
Investigations,

1 1 7 = 8 and

recently;

of

Phenomenology

b y no m e a n s f o l l o w h i m

Wisdom
4 ,

follows

and

f.n,

s e e Sunday Times

2 5 t h

1971,
i n Ethnomethodology,

See a l s o

Philosophy

pp

Chapter

Five.

cit,

B. P o w e l l ,
8 ,

Op.

c i t .

9,

The

Social

'Deviancy,
Annual
10,

W.

11,

Jarvie
Jarvie,

Knowledge

1 9 0 0 ;

of A c t i o n ,

1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ,

pp.

cited

of R e a l i t y ,

q u o t e d i n S,

Politics

the Media",

Unpublished

and
1971?

"The

"Understanding

Hall,
B.S.A.

p. 8 .

"The T h e o r y o f T r a n s l a t i o n "

and A g a s s i ,

by

6 3 = 4 ,

Construction

Conference,

Haas,

since

- Philosophy,

Problem of R a t i o n a l i t y
and E x p l a n a t i o n

1962.

i n Magic"

i n Sociology

and

S o c i a l Anthropology",
12,

See h i s R e v o l u t i o n

i n Anthropology.

The

best

account

4 1 1 .

whole

debate

i s i n P.M.

Sound, MacGibbon and

Worsley,

Kee,

2nd

The

Edn.

Trumpet

I968,

Shall

esp,

Introduction.
13o

See

Chapter

Six.

l 4

See

Chapter

Five.

See

h i s S t r u c t u r e of

and

Musgrave,

15o

Scientific

Criticism

and

l6o

"Understanding

and

17.

Apel,

Philosophy

Analytic

'Sympathy f o r A l i e n

19

'On t h e

20.

Here,

as

Social

Growth of

E x p l a n a t i o n .." op.

Geisteswissenschaften,
18.

the

R e v o l u t i o n s , and

p.

of Language

Knowledge.

cit.,

and

Concepts',
of

Truth'.

Habermas' Knowledge

and

attacks

of o b j e c t i v i t y

epistemological

level,

quotation which

also

positivistic

231o

5 5 <>

Determination

problem

p.

the

a t o t h e r p o i n t s , I draw i n d i r e c t l y

the

Lakatos

Human I n t e r e s t .

f o r example

indicates

epistemology

of

the

on

J.

Habermas

consistently

at

i n the f o l l o w i n g
way

i n which

s c i e n c e can

the

operate

ideologically;
On s c i e n t i s t i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , p o s i t i v i s m
s u s p e n d s t h e t h e o r y o f knoxvledge i n f a v o u r
of a p h i l o s o p h y of the s c i e n c e s ,
because
i t measures knowledge o n l y i n terms of the
a c t u a l achievements of the s c i e n c e s .
How
then, p r i o r to a l l s c i e n c e , can the d o c t r i n e
o f t h e e l e m e n t s make s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e
o b j e c t d o m a i n o f s c i e n c e a s s u c h i f we o n l y
o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n about t h i s domain through
science.
Y e t we c a n r e l i a b l y d i s t i n g u i s h
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n from mere s p e c u l a t i o n , o n l y
i f we a r e a l w a y s i n a p o s i t i o n , by v i r t u e o f

an

4 l 2 .

p r i o r knowledge of the o b j e c t domain,

to d i s t i n g u i s h s c i e n c e , w h i c h c o p i e s
the f a c t s , from m e t a p h y s i c s .
Only
v i a an ontology of the f a c t u a l does
the d o c t r i n e of elements l e a d to a
s c i e n t i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n of s c i e n c e that
e x c l u d e s e v e r y form of m e t a p h y s i c s as
meaningless.
This c i r c l e i s concealed
by o b j e c t i v i s m , w h i c h e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f
u n r e f l e c t i v e l y , p r o h i b i t i n g the s e l f r e f l e c t i o n of knowledge.
In this
way
a t a c i t e p i s t e m o l o g y o f commonsense,
a c c o r d i n g to which knowledge r e p l i c a t e s
r e a l i t y or c o p i e s f a c t s i n thoughts, i s
immunised a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e d o u b t .
1

p.
I

am

less

concerned

epistemological

with

critique

points

of methodology.

social

foundations

the

social

of

foundations

88.

this

profound

t h a n w i t h more
I am

ethics
of

k i n d of

concerned
but

not

practical
with

a s he

epistemology.

the

i s with

4 1 3 .

CHAPTER FOUR.

1.

See

C h a p t e r Two

Organisation
2.

See,

for

pp.

9 8 - 1 0 0 ,

Action,

Peters

Action,

E m o t i o n and

A.

Weber T h e o r y

- The

Social

"A

p.

Concept

Economic

Melden -

of M o t i v a t i o n ,

Mclntyre

Science",

Mistake

and

1 0 7 = 8 .

Will,

in Social

Mclntyre

Science",

Ryle

about

"A

Free

Kenny

Mistake

- The

about

Concept

Causality in

of

Mind.

Social

50,

N, C o n n , T h e

5.

A n a l y t i c a l philosophy

6.

See

of

e x a m p l e , Anscombe - I n t e n t i o n ,

Causality
3.

and

pursuit

f o r e x a m p l e , A.

of

the

millenium,

of H i s t o r y , p p .

Mclntyre,

"The

2 3 0 - 1 .

Idea

of

Social

Science".
7.

H.

8.

The

9.

I t was
of

Feigl,
Logic

' N o t e s on

of P e r s o n a l

probably

a n a l y s i s to

fatal

Causality',

this
the

distinction

p.

Knowledge,
ability

other

to

that

4-10.

p. 1 0 3 .
switch

from

one

mode

l e d W e b e r t o make

between o b s e r v a t i o n a l

and

his

motivational

understanding.
10.

The

best

causation
Wright's

formulation
and

freedom

of

the

that

i n Explanation

and

r e l a t i o n s h i p between
I have

found

i s G.H.

Understanding,

Von

pp. 8 1 = 2 .

' I n a s much a s i t i s a n e m p i r i c a l f a c t t h a t
a man c a n do v a r i o u s t h i n g s when he
decides,
i n t e n d s o r w a n t s t o do t h e m he i s , a s a n a g e n t
free.
To s a y t h a t c a u s a t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s

414,

f r e e d o m w o u l d be m i s l e a d i n g .
I t would
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e way i n w h i c h t h e l a w s o f
n a t u r e o p e r a t e w e r e somehow d e p e n d e n t o n
men.
This i s not the case, but to say
that the concept of c a u s a t i o n presupposes
t h e c o n c e p t o f f r e e d o m s e e m s t o me t o b e
r i g h t , i n the sense t h a t i t i s only through
t h e i d e a o f d o i n g t h i n g s t h a t we come t o
g r a s p the i d e a o f cause and e f f e c t .
The i d e a t h a t c a u s a t i o n c a n be a " t h r e a t "
t o f r e e d o m c o n t a i n s a f a i r amount o f emp i r i c a l t r u t h , v i z the t r u t h s to which
d i s a b i l i t i e s and i n c a p a c i t i e s t e s t i f y .
But m e t a p h y s i c a l l y , i t i s an i l l u s i o n .
The i l l u s i o n h a s b e e n n o u r i s h e d b y o u r
t e n d e n c y t o t h i n k , i n t h e s p i r i t o f Hume,
one m i g h t s a y , t h a t man i n a s t a t e o f p u r e
p a s s i v i t y , merely by o b s e r v i n g
regular
sequences, can r e g i s t e r causal
connections,
chains of c a u s a l l y connected events which
he t h e n b y e x t r a p o l a t i o n t h i n k s p e r v a d e t h e
u n i v e r s e from an i n f i n i t e l y remote p a s t to
an i n f i n i t e l y remote f u t u r e .
This outlook
f a i l s to notice that causal r e l a t i o n s are
r e l a t i v e to fragments of the world's h i s t o r y ,
w h i c h h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f w h a t we h a v e
c a l l e d closed systems.
The d i s c o v e r y o f
c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s p r e s e n t s two a s p e c t s :
an
a c t i v e and a p a s s i v e one.
The a c t i v e
component i s t h e p u t t i n g i n m o t i o n o f s y s t e m s
through producing t h e i r i n i t i a l
states.
The p a s s i v e component c o n s i s t s i n o b s e r v i n g
what happens i n s i d e t h e s y s t e m s - a s f a r a s
p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g them.
The
s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t , one o f t h e m o s t
i n g e n i o u s and c o n s e q u e n t i a l d e v i c e s o f t h e
human m i n d i s a s y s t e m a t i c c o m b i n a t i o n o f
t h e s e two c o m p o n e n t s . '
11,

See C h a p t e r

12.

P, W i n c h , T h e I d e a

13o

W.

Davenport,

analysis",
l4

Three.

Concept

of a S o c i a l Science,

"Jamaican
Yale

fishing

Univ. Anthrop.

o f M i n d , p

2 9 3

pp.

- a game
Pubs.

9 3 - 4 ,

theory

I96O,

4 1 5 .

15 o

ji.M. S c i i u r ,
i n Ho So

l6

See

'Drug A d d i c a t i o n u n d e r B r i t i s h

Becker

( e d ) - The O t h e r Side.,

C h a p t e r Two,

Policy'

hl6.

CI-IAPTOR F I V ^ .

1,

Structure

of Social Action, p 7 6 .

P. Mcllugh - D e f i n i n g - t h e S i t u a t i o n , p p .

3o

I ain a w a r e t h a t

1 1 = 1 2 .

one c a n a b s t r a c t a s p e c t s o f

r e l a t i o n s w i t h o u t u s i n g the concept of r o l e
only to refer
this.
way

- one

has

t o t h e w o r k o f Weber o r Siminel t o see

I am h e r e c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r

i n w h i c h Nadel a b s t r a c t s , w h i c h i s i n terras o f a

role
ko

social

system.

'The o v e r s o c i a l i s e d

c o n c e p t o f man

i n modern

sociology -

A.S.R, V o l . 2 6 .
5.

I n Studies i n Ethnomethodology.

6.

See

7<>

See

C h a p t e r Two

and

Appendix.

t h e P h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t h e S o c i a l orld a n d

Chapter

Three.
8,

I d i s c u s s M e r t o n r a t h e r t h a n P a r s o n s and t h e e s s a y
deviance r a t h e r than the r e s t
s t r u c t u r e because
logical

I want

is

that

socio-

Merton's essay

i n this

was

t o the sociology of deviance

u s e d as a b a s i s b y o t h e r f u n c t i o n a l i s t s

an example.

earlier

social

t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e

explanation of deviance.

f o r a long time c e n t r a l
and was

o f h i s w o r k on

on

- Cohen

I c o n c e n t r a t e on d e v i a n c e as I
c h a p t e r , because

said

I t h i n k i t i s here

t h e d e b a t e has t a k e n i t s c l e a r e s t

form.

should

make i t c l e a r t h a t b o t h i n r e g a r d t o M e r t o n a n d t h e

4 1 7 o

other authors

whose w o r k I t a k e up,

a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c r i t i c i s m on
interested

i n explaining

methodological
dealing with
stick

t h e i r own

deviance but

position.

i n the f u l l

apologia i n Clinard

act:

story

- Anomie and

t o meet c r i t i c i s m , "The

anomio t h e o r y and

- "Delinquent

In

H.S,

Becker (Ed.)

In

Outsiders.

Human d e v i a n c e ,
Ibid,

p.

Deviant

see

with.

Merton's

Behaviour

and

S i m i l a r l y Cohen's
Sociology

of the

deviant

Other

as

i n Kitsuse

and

Critique".
Side.

social

control,

2k.

o f the most extreme examples o f t h i s

i n t o a predetermined

treatment

s e t t i n g i s the

o f t h e a n t i - V i e t n a m war

L o n d o n on O c t o b e r ,

2 7 t h ,

1 9 6 8 .

forcing

media's

demonstration i n
See

Halloran

Elliott

M u r d o c k , D e m o n s t r a t i o n s and Communication, P e n g u i n

D e l i n q u e n c y and
Ibid,

p.7

18,

P e r h a p s one

and

The

com-

b e y o n d " , i s i g n o r e d b y me,

Boys:

not

i n t o these

should

s o c i a l p r o b l e m s and

O u t s i d e r s , p.

of f a c t s

am

avoid

concerned

a r e some o f t h e s h a r p c r i t i c i s m o f h i m
Dietrick

and

apologias, but

t o go

I am

Lemert's wide r a n g i n g c r i t i q u e .
attempt

terms,

at

i n elucidating

and

t e x t s , since

p l e x i t i e s would cloud the issues

Those i n t e r e s t e d

attempt

I also d e l i b e r a t e l y

the authors' r e v i s i o n s

to the standard

I make no

Drift,

p. 2 6 .

p. 4 0 .

O u t s i d e r s , p.

Becoming D e v i a n t ,
Encounters

p.

Il6.

1970

kl8.

20.

Also

i n Encounters.

21.

R.L. C o s e r .

'Role D i s t a n c e , S o c i o l o g i c a l

and T r a n s i t i o n a l
22.

S t a t u s Systems',

Goffman's i s t h e most a r t i c u l a t e ,

A.J.S,

of role

system'.
of the term

1 9 6 6 = 7 .

and for w e s t e r n

s o c i o l o g y one o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
concept

Ambivalence

a t t a c k s on t h e

as a n e l e m e n t i n a m e c h a n i s t i c

I ti s interesting

t o note

'social

t h e r e c e n t use

' r o l e ' by s o c i o l o g i s t s from the e a s t e r n

b l o c i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f essays e d i t e d by P e t e r Berger
Marxism and S o c i o l o g y .
and M a r x ' s v i e w s

i. U r b a n e k d i s c u s s e s

on them i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

roles

character

masks a n d e m p h a s i s e s t h e i r t e m p o r a r i n e s s , d e c e i t f u l n e s s
and

unreality

e.g.

'The S o c i e t y o f f i n a n c e ... t h e w o r l d o f
monetory m a r k e t i n g r e l a t i o n s , i s i n Marx's
c o n c e p t i o n a u n i v e r s a l c o n f u s i o n and d i s order of everything, i . e . a reversed world,
a c o n f u s i o n a n d a mess o f a l l n a t u r a l a n d
human q u a l i t i e s .
I t i s a w o r l d where
" i n d i v i d u a l behaviour r e t u r n s t o i t s
a n t i t h e s i s , t o m a t e r i a l behaviour".
I t is
the supremacy o f s o c i a l o v e r p e r s o n a l m i g h t ,
the r u l e o f r e i f i e d r e l a t i o n s over t h e i n d i v i d u a l , oppression o f the i n d i v i d u a l by
accidental character.
The p r o c e s s i n w h i c h
p r i v a t e persons a p p r o p r i a t e a l i e n a t e d s o c i a l
p o w e r s , p e r s o n i f y them a n d p l a y a c e r t a i n
p a r t w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a r a c t e r masks
i s l a w f u l l y determined by a g i v e n s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e , a l t h o u g h chance o c c u p i e s a considerable place i n i t . '
p. 1 8 8 .
H e r e r o l e s a r e s e e n as e p i p h e n o m e n a o f s t r u c t u r e
r a t h e r t h a n , as i n w e s t e r n

sociology,

constitutive

4 1 9 .

of i t .

Urbanek agrees i\rith Goffman however, i n

believing

t h a t t h e h u m a n i t y o f man i s n o t t o be

f o u n d i n h i s r o l e s b u t i n h i s a t t i t u d e s t o them
and

the significance

t h e y have f o r h i m .

Man

c a n n o t be ' r e d u c e d ' t o t h e r o l e s he p l a y s .
for

Urbanek t h i s

ascertainable

significance

by reference

But

i s an o b j e c t i v e

to structural

fact

conditions,

w h e r e a s f o r G o f f m a n i t i s a m a t t e r t o be d i s c u s s e d
with
23.

the actor.

I gather that

there

i s some d i s p u t e

as t o who d r a w s

u p o n whom.
1

2k,

' Theoiretical aspects o f Ethnomethodology

25=

I s h o u l d make i t c l e a r
itself

as a n i n t e l l e c t u a l

sociology,

enterprise

I t i s therefore

features.

from
social

irrelevant to criticise

as n o t s t r u c t u r a l i n i t s a p p r o a c h o r as

structural

regards

distinct

a n d as s u c h i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h

structure.
it

t h a t ethnomethodology

ignoring

However, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t s

e a r l y y e a r s , ethnomethodology has p r o v i d e d a c r i t i q u e
of c o n v e n t i o n a l sociology.

I t i s with

this

that I

am c o n c e r n e d .
26.

I do n o t w i s h t o i m p l y h e r e t h a t a s o l u t i o n t o t h e
problem o f meaningful order which G a r f i n k e l
implies

one t o t h a t o f p o l i t i c a l

order.

27<>

S t u d i e s i n Ethnome t h o d o l o g y , p p .

28.

Method and Measurement i n S o c i o l o g y , p. 186.

1 0

discusses,

4 2 0 .

29.

L. T a y l o r - 'The C o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l a b e l l i n g a n d
interactionist

30.

school t o c r i m i n o l o g i c a l

An e x a m p l e w h i c h

amply d e m o n s t r a t e s

thought'.

t h e dangers

of pursuing the a n t i s t r u c t u r a l i s t s u b j e c t i v i s t
critique

t o o f a r may be f o u n d

i n Atkinson's

Consensus and R a d i c a l A l t e r n a t i v e .
initially

p r e s e n t s t h e same k i n d

Orthodox

The a u t h o r

o f arguments I have

u s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a t l e n g t h and \<;ith some c o g e n c y ,

b u t when f a c e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e
copes w i t h

t h e whole o f i n d i v i d u a l v a r i e t y and i n -

c o n s i s t e n c y and s t i l l
of

t o give a general

set o f neologisms,

placement o f t h e term
kaleidoscopes'
nature
31.

tries

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , i s unable

a painful

'social

to indicate

of social reality

I n his article
i n Sociology*
Life.

that

'Normative

account

t o provide anything but

culminating i n the re=

structure'

t h e changing

as e x p e r i e n c e d

by

'social

and v a r i a b l e
situationally.

and I n t e r p r e t i o Paradigms

i n Douglas ed. Understanding

Everyday

4 2 1 .

CHAPTER

1.
2.

SIX.

See

The

'The

Coming C r i s i s of Western

Sociological

Study of I d e o l o g y

3.

Embattled

4.

The

U n c o n s c i o u s , p.

5.

See

T. P a r s o n s -

'The
p.

'The

Sociology

Role o f Ideas

i n Social

the Problem of

Truth',

1 1 4 - 5 .

8.

I n I d e o l o g y and

9.

I t i s a m u s i n g t h a t so

S o c i o l o g i e de

state

and

D.

Epistemologie'.

Apter.

i s Geertz of the

i d e o l o g y t h a t he
rather

difference

persists i n trying

than e x p l o i t i n g the

by a s k i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t h i s opponent

wishes t o regard

science

as

e n t i r e l y epiphenomenal

relations - f o r surely

culture, practised
r e v e r e d by

points

ed.

sure

i t analytically,

differences

social

l a connaissance e t

Discontent

between science

i t i s part

i n p r i v i l e g e d s e t t i n g s by

them a l m o s t

as a r e l i g i o n ,

r e l a t e d t o economic g r o w t h .

essential

to the establishment

and

c o n t e x t o f d i s c o v e r y and

perhaps to the

o f t h e autonomy o f s c i e n c e , b u t
reached,

i t is relatively

bourgeois
a t many

This attack

of a

might

conditions

scientific
developmient

once t h i s

independent

of

of high

prompt a response t o the e f f e c t t h a t s o c i a l

are

Action

Theory.

o f K n o w l e d g e and

'La

and

1 1 6 .

7.

to

p.

1 9 4 0 - 6 0 ' ,

Reason, p. 1 1 5 .

i n Essays i n S o c i o l o g i c a l
6.

Sociology.

stage

i n the

is

validity

4-22.

of

i t s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s from

which i t i s sustained;

and

the s o c i a l
that

b e t w e e n an i d e o l o g y o f s c i e n c e
for

o t h e r p u r p o s e s , and

knowledge.

As

I will

approach provides
fruitfully

an

conditions i n

there i s a difference

w h i c h i s a use

science

itself

show l a t e r

as

t h i s ad

i m p o r t a n t opening,

explored.

Geertz

because o f h i s b e l i e f

ignores

t h a t he

can

of

science

a body

of

hominen

w h i c h can
this

provide

be

strategy
c u t and

dried

answers.
10.

The

American Business

11.

In

12.

Man

13

I will

'Situated Actions
and

S o c i e t y , The

Creed.
and

Vocabularies

Open S o c i e t y and

n o t r e f e r t o E n g e l s as w e l l

views are

relevantly different

lk

'Some R e f l e c t i o n s on

15.

The

S o c i a l and

16.

The

Sociology

17.

L u k a c s , p.

18.

I need h a r d l y p o i n t out

from

the Sociology

of Motive',
i t s Enemies,

except

when h i s

those

o f Marx.

of Knowledge',

P o l i t i c a l Thought o f K a r l Marx.
o f K n o w l e d g e , p.

l46.

61.
that

i f m a t e r i a l i s m i s reduced

to

an o n t o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n , i t can be

no

b e t t e r t h a n i t s opposite.

can

be r e a s o n a b l y

working

held
of

The

consistently, rule

4 2 9 - 3 0 .

be

preference
i s by

implications for theories

consequences o f m a t e r i a l i s m , i f
out the

human m i n d s a l t o g e t h e r .

M a r c u s e p.

o n l y way

e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e two

out t h e i r d i f f e r e n t

b a s e d u p o n them.

The

shown t o

See

significant

operation

the q u o t a t i o n

from

4 2 3 o

See

f o r example h i s D i a l e c t i c s

of Nature

and h i s

later

Letters.
It

is interesting

contemporary
process
The

t o compare t h e s t a t e m e n t s

E a s t E u r o p e a n M a r x i s t s t o see

t h a t E n g e l s and

L e n i n b e g a n has

f o l l o w i n g r e p r e s e n t s the dogmatic

of

where

now

view

two
the

reached.
that

the

g e n e r a l method o f Marxism i s deduced from g e n e r a l

laws.

' 1 The l a w o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s o c i a l
b a s e and t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .
Economic r e l a t i o n s
i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a t e r i a l
goods d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e t h e
c r e a t i o n of s p i r i t u a l achievements - p o l i t i c a l ,
r e g u l a t o r y , e t h i c a l , c u l t u r a l and i d e o l o g i c a l i n a concrete s o c i e t y , which are m u t u a l l y i n
s u p p o r t and i n t e r a c t w i t h e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s
as w e l l as t h e m s e l v e s .
1

0 . M a n d i c i n M a r x i s m and

S o c i o l o g y ed.

H e r e on t h e o t h e r h a n d i s t h e

P.

'reasonable'

Berger,

p.

view.

' M a r x i s t monism s h o u l d n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
v u l g a r economism w h i c h ... c h a r a c t e r i s e s a l l
s o c i a l change as t h e p a s s i v e p r o d u c t o f t h e
economic f a c t o r .
C o n t r a r y t o mechanic economism, M a r x i s m c o n s i d e r s e v e r y s o c i a l phenomena
as r e l a t i v e l y a u t o n o m o u s as a s t r u c t u r e w i t h
i t s own immanent s o u r c e s o f movement, i t s own
i n n e r d i a l e c t i c s , and s p e c i f i c d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
environment.'
M

K a l a b , op. c i t . ,

still
will

p.

6 6 .

I t i s clear that

o n l y economic r e l a t i o n s
be

that really

count.

I t

a measure o f t h e self~a\tfareness o f M a r x i s m

when a M a r x i s t p u b l i s h e s a s t u d y o f t h e
o f m a t e r i a l i s m f r o m M a r x ' s own
t h r o u g h E n g e l s and
in

i t is

S t a l i n and

so

development

r e j e c t i o n of Hegel

L e n i n t o i t s most e x t r e m e

t o contemporary

revisionism.

form

40

4 2 4 .

21.

What t h e ' F r i e n d s
XI

22.

pp.

o f t h e People

are.

Selected

Economy

to a critique

of Political

p. 1 8 2 i n Lawrence and W i s h a r t

( p u b s . ) Marx

Engels Selected

Works.

23.

Man a n d S o c i e t y , c h .

5.

24.

The German I d e o l o g y ,

p.

2 5 .

Op. C i t . Ch.

26.

Reason and R e v o l u t i o n , p.

27o

Thus one m i g h t f a c e t i o u s l y

39

3 .

317.
suggest t h a t , i n t h e words

of a non-Marxist p o l i t i c i a n ,

the l i m i t s

consciousness are t h a t you cannot f o o l

all

works,Vol,

4 2 0 - 2 1 .

Preface t o A c o n t r i b u t i o n

and

on f a l s e
a l l the people

the time.

28.

The M o d e r n P r i n c e , p p .

29.

'The S o c i o l o g y o f k n o w l e d g e ;

30.

E c o n o m i c a n d P h i l o s o p h i c a l M a n u s c r i p t s o f 1 8 4 4 , p.

3 1 .

M a r c u s e , Reason a n d R e v o l u t i o n ,

p.

32o

M a r c u s e , Reason a n d R e v o l u t i o n ,

p. 2 7 5 q u o t i n g M a r x

op.

c i t , pp.

1 0 6 - 7 ,

New

Perspectives.'
107.

2 7 3

8 7 - 8 .

33

M a r c u s e , op. c i t . p. 2 7 6

q u o t i n g M a r x op. c i t , p .

34.

M a r c u s e , op. c i t . p.

35.

M a r c u s e , op. c i t . q u o t i n g M a r x op. c i t . p. 8 9 .

36.

I . Meszaros.

37.

idem, p.

38.

The German I d e o l o g y ,

39.

'The C o n c e p t o f I d e o l o g y ' ,

83.

2 7 7 .

Marx's T h e o r y o f A l i e n a t i o n ,

2 8 4 .
p. 8 6 .
p.

1 7 0 .

p.

1 9 2 .

4 2 5 .

40

Aspects of H i s t o r y
pp.

41.

and

C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s ed. Meszaros,

53-4.

Lukacs most e x p l i c i t

recognition

o f i t i s as

follows

The M a r x i s t m e t h o d , t h e d i a l e c t i c a l m a t e r i a l
k n o w l e d g e o f r e a l i t y can a r i s e o n l y f r o m t h e
p o i n t of view of a c l a s s , from the p o i n t of
view of the s t r u g g l e of the p r o l e t a r i a t .
To a b a n d o n t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i s t o move
away f r o m h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m , j u s t as
to adopt i t leads d i r e c t l y i n t o the t h i c k
of the s t r u g g l e of the p r o l e t a r i a t . '
p.
What i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e
of view, but

42.

t h a t he

the

only h i s t o r i c a l l y

Les

A v e n t u r e s de

i s not
g o e s on

21.

t h a t L u k a c s has
t o say

r a t i o n a l point

l a D i a l e c t i q u e , p.

that i t i s
of
53

point
'correct'

view.
Rough

translation:
'When one s a y s t h a t M a r x i s m f i n d s a m e a n i n g
i n h i s t o r y , t h a t s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n t o
i m p l y an i r r e s t i b l e o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s
c e r t a i n e n d s , b u t r a t h e r t h e immanence o f
a problem or question i n h i s t o r y , i n r e l a t i o n t o w h i c h w h a t h a p p e n s f r o m moment
t o moment can be c l a s s i f i e d , l o c a t e d
and
c o m p a r e d as p r o g r e s s o r r e a c t i o n .. i n
s h o r t how t h i n g s c u m u l a t e t o g e t h e r w i t h
the events of the past t o c o n s t i t u t e a
s i n g l e r e l e v a n t whole.'
43.

Compare t h e

second t h e s i s

on

Feuerbach.

'The q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r o b j e c t i v e t r u t h
can. be a t t r i b u t e d t o human t h i n k i n g i s
not a question of theory, but i s a
p r a c t i c a l question.
Man m u s t p r o v e
t h e t r u t h i . e . t h e r e a l i t y and p o w e r ,
the t h i s - s i d e d n e s s of h i s t h i n k i n g i n
practice.
The d i s p u t e o v e r t h e r e a l i t y
or n o n - r e a l i t y of t h i n k i n g t h a t i s i s o l a t e d
from p r a c t i c e i s a purely s c h o l a s t i c
question.'

4 2 6 .

The

second sentence

that

suggests

t h a t M a r x was w e l l

aware

t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t r u t h i n t h i s sense i s a

purely p o l i t i c a l
I devote

question,

no more space t o a t t e m p t s

p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n from which
that

t o create a

t o analyse

reality =

t h i s i s a f u n d a m e n t a l l y mis-conceived

s h o u l d b y now be o b v i o u s .
imagine

that

t h i s problem

Lest

enterprise

the reader

should

i s now a t h i n g o f t h e p a s t

h o w e v e r , G o u l d n e r ' s c o n c l u s i o n s i n The Coming C r i s i s

of Western Sociology are w o r t h n o t i n g ,
seeming i n e v i t a b i l i t y w i t h w h i c h

i f only f o r the

a M a r x i s t o r semi-

M a r x i s t mode o f a n a l y s i s l e a d s i n t o p a r a d o x o f t h i s
kind,

Gouldner's book c o n s i s t s o f a l e n g t h y unmasking

of contemporary
techniques

sociology, using both the respectable

o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge and t h e l e s s

r e p u t a b l e ones o f p o l i t i c a l
snide remarks.
pressive.
conscience

d i a t r i b e , m u d s l i n g i n g and

The r e s u l t i s e n t e r t a i n i n g

A t t h e end o f i t a l l however, G o u l d n e r ' s

pricks

him s u f f i c i e n t l y

as a x ^ e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t e m p o r a r y
same t r e a t m e n t m i g h t

sociologist, the

i t isdifficult

b u t he

t r y , a n d t h a t , y e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t he h a s

been l e d t o t h e views
his

t o ask whether,

n o t be g i v e n t o h i m s e l f .

His response t o t h i s i s t h a t
will

and i m -

experience

he h a s o n s o c i o l o g y b e c a u s e o f

and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n .

However

427.

' S u r e l y men may be l e d t o t r u t h no l e s s

t h a n t o f a l s e h o o d by t h e i r s o c i a l l y shaped
personal experience i n the world.
Indeed
t h e r e i s no o t h e r way i n w h i c h t h e y c a n
approach the t r u t h .
S u r e l y t r u t h , no
l e s s t h a n e r r o r , i s b o r n o f human e x p e r i e n c e
( N o t e t h e ad hominem ' s u r e l y ' , a g a i n ) .
W h e t h e r o r n o t any w o r k p r e s e n t s us w i t h
r e a l i t y o r i l l u s i o n c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d
by k n o w i n g t h e l i f e t h a t t h e t h i n k e r has
led.
I n t h e end t h i s c a n be a p p r a i s e d
o n l y b y l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r k a l o n e and
not the l i f e :
t h e w o r k c a n be j u d g e d
o n l y i n t e r m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o i t , and b y
s e e i n g how w e l l i t b e a r s up u n d e r c r i t i c i s m . '
p.
If

Gouldner

had n o t s p e n t

d o i n g p r e c i s e l y w h a t he

4 8 2 .

the preceding 4 5 0

contends

pages

i s inappropriate

t o h i m s e l f I w o u l d be more d i s p o s e d t o a c c e p t
view here.

I am

prone

his

t o s c e p t i c i s m when he

concludes;
'Whether o r n o t my t h e o r y i s t h e p r o d u c t
o f my s i t u a t i o n i t i s n o t m e r e l y t h e
product.
I t i s th'e p r o d u c t o f my r e f l e c t i o n u p o n my s i t u a t i o n and t h u s
c o n s t i t u t e s a development of t h a t
situation.
The q u e s t i o n i s , does i t
work i n p r a c t i c e ?
1

Gouldner

i s o n l y too pleased

reflections
bed

i f they are conducted

every morning.

G o u l d n e r ' s own
factory

t o sneer a t o t h e r

One

wonders about

reflections.

criteria

sitting

He

the status

their

f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n i d e o l o g y and
his
if

theory i s 'reflective
one

i s not w i l l i n g

about' i s only

to treat

regally i n

o f f e r s us no

for distinguishing

peoples

of

satis-

superiority

theory.

That

significant

a l l aspects

of a

person

428.

life

and s i t u a t i o n ,

as G o u l d n e r p e r s i s t e n t l y

does,

as e q u a l l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r
ideas about s o c i a l r e a l i t y .
his

But whether or n o t

t h e o r y works i n p r a c t i c e

i s a matter o f judge-

ment - o n w h a t g r o u n d s w o u l d he r e j e c t r a t h e r

than

elaborate i t ?
T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t
is

I d i s a g r e e w i t h what G o u l d n e r

s a y i n g h e r e - I s a y t h e same m y s e l f .

agree w i t h i s h i s r i g h t
has done

b e c a u s e w h a t he

i s t o spend t h e b o o k u s i n g a d e t e r m i n i s t

assumption about s o c i a l
alternative

situations

i d e a s and t h e n p r o v i d e d an

assumption - the p a r t i a l

men i n t h e i r

minist

t o say i t ,

What I d i s -

independence o f

t h o u g h t s and a c t i o n s from t h e i r

- f o r himself.

The m a t e r i a l i s t

social
deter-

a s s u m p t i o n i s used as a c o n v e n i e n t b a s i s f o r

a n a l y s i s and exposure b u t i t i n e v i t a b l y leads t o

e m b a r r a s s m e n t as s o o n as t h e q u e r y i s r a i s e d ;

t u quoque?
1

45.

'The S o c i o l o g y o f K n o w l e d g e

and M o r a l P h i l o s o p h y .

46.

S o c i a l T h e o r y a n d S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e , Ch. 1 2 ,

47.

'Some R e f l e c t i o n s on t h e S o c i o l o g y o f K n o w l e d g e ' s
Many w r i t e r s make t h e same p o i n t

c f . M e r t o n op. c i t .

' I t appears t h a t i n drawing e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

consequences from t h e s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge,
Mannheim h a s b e e n l e d i n t o v a r i o u s u n r e s o l v e d
antinomie s .
1

p.
48.

'Towards

508,
1

a Theory o f S o c i a l Knowledge .

h29 .

k9.

The S o c i o l o g y o f K n o w l e d g e , Ch. 1 .

50.

The r e l e v a n c e
relative

o f my e a r l i e r

a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f correspondence and

coherence t h e o r i e s o f t r u t h
Stark f i n d s h i m s e l f unable
verificationist
practise

position,

s h o u l d be e v i d e n t
totally

realisable.

here.

to reject the

since ideas are p u t i n t o

i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d as e v e n t s

partially
and

a r g u m e n t s as t o t h e

are only

B u t t h e meaning o f t h e i d e a s

a s u c c e s s f u l account

o f t h e i r development

cannot

be b a s e d o n l y o n t h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e i r
realisation
effective

(Weber's n o t i o n o f w h i c h m o t i v e s a r e

i n producing successful social

actions),

b u t must i n v o l v e an awareness o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n i n
a cultural

context,

51.

The S o c i o l o g y o f K n o w l e d g e , Gh

52.

Marcuse p u t s t h e problem

well

7,

i n h i s discussion of the

p h i l o s o p h i c a l background o f t h e s o c i o l o g y o f knowledge.
Reason a n d R e v o l u t i o n , p p .

3 3 4 - 5

' I t had been t h e fundamental c o n v i c t i o n

of i d e a l i s m that t r u t h i s n o t given t o
man f r o m some e x t e r n a l s o u r c e b u t o r i g i n ates i n t h e process o f i n t e r a c t i o n between
t h o u g h t and r e a l i t y , t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
The f u n c t i o n o f t h o u g h t was n o t m e r e l y t o
c o l l e c t , comprehend, and o r d e r f a c t s , b u t
also t o contribute a q u a l i t y that rendered
such a c t i v i t y p o s s i b l e , a q u a l i t y which
was t h u s a p r i o r i t o f a c t s .
A decisive
p o r t i o n o f t h e human w o r l d t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s t e d , the i d e a l i s t s h e l d , o f elements
t h a t c o u l d n o t be v e r i f i e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n .
Positivism repudiated this doctrine, slowly
r e p l a c i n g the free spontaneity o f thought

4 3 0 .

w i t h predominantly receptive functions.

T h i s was n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f e p i s t e mology.
The i d e a l i s t i c i d e a o f r e a s o n ,
we r e c a l l , h a d b e e n i n t r i n s i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f freedom, and had
opposed any n o t i o n o f a n a t u r a l n e c e s s i t y
r u l i n g over s o c i e t y .
Positive philosophy
tended i n s t e a d t o equate the study o f
s o c i e t y w i t h t h e s t u d y o f n a t u r e , so t h a t
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y b i o l o g y , became t h e a r c h e t y p e o f s o c i a l t h e o r y .
S o c i a l s t u d y was t o be a s c i e n c e s e e k i n g
s o c i a l l a w s , t h e v a l i d i t y o f w h i c h was t o
be a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t o f p h y s i c a l l a w s .
Social p r a c t i c e , especially the matter of
c h a n g i n g t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m , was h e r e w i t h
t h r o t t l e d by t h e i n e x o r a b l e .
Society
was v i e w e d as g o v e r n e d b y r a t i o n a l l a w s
t h a t moved w i t h a n a t u r a l n e c e s s i t y .
This position d i r e c t l y contradicted the
view h e l d by t h e d i a l e c t i c a l s o c i a l t h e o r y ,
that society i s i r r a t i o n a l precisely i n
t h a t i t i s governed by n a t u r a l laws,
1

A r a d i c a l and p e r h a p s u n f a i r c o n t r a s t
in
the

showing the i n t e l l e c t u a l

but illuminatin

and p h i l o s o p h i c a l

roots

problem.

I n Essays i n t h e s o c i o l o g y

o f knowledge.

I d e o l o g y and U t o p i a , p. 1 7 3 .
Compare h i s s i m i l a r comment i n D i a g n o s i s o f Our T i m e ,
p.

22.
'Whereas t h e most i m p o r t a n t v a l u e s g o v e r n i n g a s o c i e t y based upon t h e r u l e o f custom
were b l i n d l y a c c e p t e d , t h e c r e a t i o n o f
s p e c i f i c a l l y new v a l u e s a n d t h e i r a c c e p t ance i s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t b a s e d o n a c o n s c i o u s and r a t i o n a l v a l u e a p p r e c i a t i o n ' .

Mannheim's p o i n t

i s t h a t t h e s u b v e r s i v e n e s s o f t h e ne

i d e a s makes f o r g r e a t e r

awareness and u n d e r s t a n d i n g -

a recognition o f the very existence of the ' b l i n d l y

accepted'
See

ones.

'The L i s t e n e r ' ,

l 6 . v i i i . 7 0 .

4 3 1 o

CHAPTER SEVEN.

li

Methodology o f the S o c i a l Sciences, pp.

2.

Idem p. 5 8 .

3.

Idem p . 8 4 ,

4.

Idem p.

5.

The S o c i o l o g i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n , p . 1 1 7 .

6.

Op. c i t . ,

7.

" S c i e n c e as a V o c a t i o n " i n From Max Weber, p p .

8.

Ramarks a t t h e A.S.A. C o n v e n t i o n 1 9 6 8 .

9.

Op. c i t . ,

10.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f The T h e o r y o f S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i c

5 3 = 4 .

6 0 .

p.

p.

2 2 .

l 4 5

1 4 6 .

1 1 7 .

Organisation,
11.

See H S , B e c k e r ,
0

Gouldner,

'hose s i d e a r e we o n ? , a n d A .

'The S o c i o l o g i s t

as P a r t i s a n ,

12.

I n D e u t s c h a n d H o w a r d , Where i t ' s

13.

See K. D a v i s , 'The M y t h o f F u n c t i o n a l A n a l y s i s as a
s p e c i a l Method

a t , pp. 6 4 - 5 .

i n S o c i o l o g y ' , A.S.R. V o l . 2 4 ,

1959.

14.

See e . g . An A s i a n Drama, P r o l o g u e a n d C h a p t e r 1 .

1 5 .

Methodology o f the S o c i a l Sciences, pp.

16.

Idem p . 5 7

17.

The R e l e v a n c e o f S o c i o l o g y , p . 2 3 1 .

1 8 .

A Short H i s t o r y o f E t h i c s , pp.

19.

R. Norman - Reasons f o r A c t i o n , p p . 3 4 - 5 .

20.

A.W. G o u l d n e r - The Coming C r i s i s

p.

4 7 ,

5 4 = 5

2 6 6 - 8 ,

o f Western

Sociology,

21.

C f , R. H a r r e - The
e s p , Ch,

22o

Principles

of S c i e n t i f i c

Thinking,

8 ,

That

i s assumptions

into

practice

and

w h i c h c a n be

lead

to results i n social

which actors are pleased w i t h .

mean e m p i r i c a l l y v a l i d a t e d
"correct",

but r a t h e r

m o r a l practice

successfully

and

I do n o t o f
therefore

put
relations
course

cognitively

a successful form of p o l i t i c o -

4 3 3 .

APPENDIX.

1.

I n D. Wrong e d . Max Weber, p . 18'7.

2.

Protestant

B t h i c , p.

3.

Ibid.,

181.

4.

G e n e r a l Economic H i s t o r y , p. 2 7 0 .

5.

Protestant

6.

The M a k i n g o f t h e E n g l i s h w o r k i n g c l a s s ,

7o

R e l i g i o n and t h e R i s e o f C a p i t a l i s m ,

8.

Protestant

9.

Ibid.,

pp.

10.

Ibid.,

pp. 2 3 - 4 .

11o

Ihid.,

pp. 2 6 - 7 .

12.

Ibid.,

p.

60.

13 o

Ibid,,

p.

75

14.

Ibid.,

pp. 9 1 - 3 .

15

Ibid.,

pp. 9 7 - 8 .

l 6 o

Op.

1 7 .

I n G r e e n e d . The Weber T h e s i s a n d i t s C r i t i c s ,

1 8 .

Capitalism

19.

"The P r o t e s t a n t

p.

E t h i c , p.

76.

29.
ch 1 1 .

p.

72.

E t h i c , p. 1 8 3 .

cit.,

17-18.

p.

2 0 1 .

and Modern S o c i a l T h e o r y , pp.

Sect and t h e S p i r i t

i n G e r t h and M i l l s

e d s , From Max

2 1 3 - 4 .

Capitalism"

Weber.

20.

Thompson,

21.

See Tawney op. c i t . p a s s i m a n d e s p . I n t r o d u c t i o n f o r

this kind
rebuttal

op. c i t . , p.

of

pp.113=4.

of attack.

390.

And see H a n s e n f o r a

o f i t , "The P r o t e s t a n t

careful

j - i t h i c as a G e n e r a l

4 3 4 .

P r e c o n d i t i o n f o r E c o n o m i c Development"
22o

I t i s r e l e v a n t a t t h i s p o i n t t o comment on a p h r a s e
w h i c h o f t e n causes c o n f u s i o n i n r e l a t i o n
work, t h a t

of 'elective

affinity'.

t o Weber's

T h i s docs n o t

actually

appear i n t h e P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c essay, a t

any

i n P a r s o n s ' t r a n s l a t i o n , b u t Weber u s e s i t

rate

elsewhere i n reference
as

to h i s thesis,

Bendix

explains

follows,
'The t e r m " e l e c t i v e a f f i n i t y " was t a k e n
f r o m t h e t i t l e o f a n o v e l by Goethe.
Weber u s e d i t f r e q u e n t l y t o e x p r e s s t h e
d u a l a s p e c t o f i d e a s , i e t h a t t h e y
were c r e a t e d o r chosen by t h e i n d i v i d u a l
( " e l e c t i v e " ) a n d t h a t t h e y f i t i n x^rith
his material interests ("affinity").
0

Max Weber;

An I n t e l l e c t u a l

Portrait,

P r e s u m a b l y Weber u s e d t h e t e r m

p. 6 4 f . n .

t o demonstrate h i s

r e c o g n i t i o n o f b u t d i f f e r e n c e from

econoinism.

Ideas

were n o t e p i p h e n o m e n a l o f t h e economic b a s e , b u t n e i t h e
on t h e o t h e r h a n d w e r e t h e y
of a free

imagination.

situations

"idealistic"

- creations

They were r e s p o n s e s t o

and c o n d i t i o n s and t o changes i n them, t h e

point being

that

predictable

i n terms o f t h e a c t o r ' s i n t e r e s t

that

t h e r e s p o n s e was n o t e n t i r e l y

s i t u a t i o n or condition;

his values

and b e l i e f

relations also,
been p r e p a r e d

i t had t o f i t

about o t h e r aspects

Even g i v e n t h i s ,

to claim that

i n with

of social

Weber may h a v e

t h e changed i d e a

n o t be e n t i r e l y p r e d i c t a b l e , s i n c e

i n just

would

t h e r e w o u l d be a

4 3 5 .

number o f p o s s i b l e

developments.

Weber's p o s i t i o n i n s u p p o r t i n g
of materialism

t h a t i d e a s h a v e an i m p o r t a n t

terms o f m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t

protestantism

part

was

and

so on

a f t e r a l l t h a t i t was

being

impact
conditions

reinvested,

traditional

necessary,

n o t consumed.

economic r a t i o n a l i t y

with

of l i v i n g

a c c u s t o m e d l e v e l w i t h t h e minimum o f e f f o r t .
a v i e w o f human a c t i o n and
constitute
causal

one

element

explanation

of

i t s bases does o f

of the d i f f i c u l t i e s
it.

of

irrational,

Weber e m p h a s i s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s b r e a k
the

face

the c r u c i a l aspect

i n as much as i t l e d t o more w o r k t h a n was

w i t h the surplus

of

i d e a l i s m i n the

on s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s and a c t i o n s
in

I t was

at

an

Such
course

of a

B I B L I O G R A P H Y .

The f o l l o w i n g i s a n a l p h a b e t i c a l l i s t
the

text

and o t h e r s

pretense

o f works c i t e d i n

w h i c h were f o u n d u s e f u l .

I t makes no

t o comprehensiveness and i n e v i t a b l y r e f l e c t s t h e

hazards o f b i b l i o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the w r i t e r ' s p a r t i c u l a r

interests,
of

and h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r c e r t a i n s t y l e s and p o i n t s

view.
Abbreviations

have been used t h r o u g h o u t

A.J.S.

American Journal

A.P.Q.

American P h i l o s o p h i c a l

A.S.R.

American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review.

B.A.

B r i t i s h Association

B.J.S.

British

C . TJ . P .

Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

. J . S.

European J o u r n a l

F.P.

Free

J.

Journal

o f P.

Journal

as f o l l o w s ;

o f Sociology.
Quarterly.

( f o r t h e Advancement o f Science)

o f Sociology.

o f Sociology.

Press.
o f Philosophy.

N.W.U.P.

North-Western U n i v e r s i t y Press.

N. L. R.

New L e f t R e v i e w .

O.U.P.

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press.

P A. o S <

Proceedings o f the A r i s t o t o l i a n

P. P . R.

P h i l o s o p h y and 1'henomenological Research.

P.Q.

Philosophical

Quarterly.

P.R.

Philosophical

Review.

4 3 6 .

Society.

4 3 7 .

,Q

o *' o v e

Political

Science

Quarterly.

R.K.P.

R o u t l e d g e a n d Kegan

S.F.

Social

S.I.

Sociological

Inquiry.

S.Q.

Sociological

Quarterly.

S.R.

Social

Soc.Rev.Mon.
S.S.R.

Paul

Forces.

Research.

S o c i o l o g i c a l Review Monograph,

S o c i o l o g y and S o c i a l

Research.

4 3 8 o

T.

Abel

'The

operation called

A.Jo So,

Verstehen',

1 9 4 8 o

M.

Albrow

'The R o l e o f t h e S o c i o l o g i s t as a
Professional;
The Case o f P l a n n i n g ' .
Soc.ReVoMon., 1 9 7 0 ,

Mo

Albrow

' P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and S o c i o l o g i c a l
T h e o r y ' Advancement o f S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 1 .
s

G.E.M.

Ans combe

K.O. A p e l

Intention.

Blackwell,

1957.

A n a l y t i c P h i l o s o p h y o f Language and t h e
Geisteswissenschaften.
D. R e i d e l , H o l l a n d ,
1 9 6 7 .

D, A t k i n s o n

O r t h o d o x Consensus a n d R a d i c a l A l t e r n a t i v e .
Heinneraann, 1 9 7 1 .

So

The

Avineri

S o c i a l and P o l i t i c a l

COU.P.,

T h o u g h o f K. M a r x .

1 9 6 8 .

C, B a a r

'M Weber a n d t h e P r o c e s s o f S o c i a l
Understanding'.
S.S.R., 1 9 6 7 .

M.

'Problems o f E x p l a n a t i o n i n Marx and

Weber'
Durham 1 9 7 0 ? unpubl

Balintulo
Becker ed.

The

Ho So

Becker

O u t s i d e r s . F.P.,

Ho So

Becker

H o S

Other Side.

F.P

1 9 6 4

1963.

'Whose S i d e a r e we on?'

Social

Problems,

1 9 6 7 .

R
G

Bendix and
Roth

S c h o l a r s h i p and P a r t i s a n s h i p .
C a l i f o r n i a P. 1 9 7 1 .

Ro

Bendix

E m b a t t l e d Reason.

Do B e n n e t t

Univ. o f

O.U.P. 1 9 7 0 .

' A c t i o n , Reason a n d P u r p o s e ' .

J . o f P.

1 9 6 5 .

Jo

Bennet

P o L o

Berger and
Luckmarm

P L o

To

Berger ed,

Rationality.

R.K.P.

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