S.NO.

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATES
ABSTRACT
1

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION

01

INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT
PROJECT OVERVIEW
THESIS
2

CHAPTER2:HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

07

INTRODUCTION WITH BLOCK DIAGRAM

MICROCONTROLLER
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
LED INDICATOR
POTENTIOMETER(POT)
3

CHAPTER3:SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

35

PIC C COMPILER
PROTEUS SOFTWARE
PROCEDURAL STEPS FOR COMPILATION
SIMULATION AND DUMPING
4

CHAPTER4:PROJECT DESCRIPTION

41

CHAPTER5:ADVANTAGES,DISADVANTAGE

43

AND APPLICATIONS
6

CHAPTER6:RESLTS,CONCLUSION,FUTURE
PROSPECTS
REFERENCES

44

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the project is to design a Micro controller based heart beat monitor, it is used to
give the signs and symptoms of heart disease which is very useful in early detection. It is a micro
controller based device, which gives the heart rate of any person at various time and various
conditions, which indicates the sign of every prospects of heart disease.
Early diagnosis for heart disease is typically based on tape recording of Electrocardiogram
(ECG) signal which is then studied and analyzed using a microcomputer. This paper however,
presents the design and implementation of a compact microcontroller-based portable system used
for control of heart rate on real time. Diagnosis of heart disease using ECG signals, may be
achieved by either correlating the pattern of the ECG signal with a typical healthy signal,
characterizing the typical ECG signal using basic logical decisions, or more complicated
algorithms to process in depth the heart disease. The first approach requires complicated
mathematical analysis to obtain the required diagnosis, while the second one involves only
simple analysis in most cases. A long-term study of ECG signal during everyday activity is
required to obtain a broad spectrum of heart disease categories based on heart rate changing.

Many techniques have been implemented, such as the use of a minicomputer in intensive care to
observe patients,or microprocessor-based card in portable system. In this case, the disadvantage
is the restriction of patient movement. A wire-free system connected to a hospital minicomputer
allows patient mobility within restricted area in the hospital. Tape systems for recording ECG
signals are bulky, heavy and prone to mechanical failure. In addition, these systems need large
batteries. In order to reduce the size, weight and power consumption of the system, a single chip
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture microcontroller was chosen. To keep the
patient free of movement at home a data transmission protocol using e-mail is implemented in
the system. Aspects that have been carefully considered are:

The logic and arithmetic involved in the data acquisition and the analysis of the ECG
signals.

The nature of the information to be stored.

Most single-chip microcontrollers are characterized by the limitations of the arithmetic

instruction.

It is therefore advantageous to use a simple mathematical analysis of the ECG signal. Regarding
memory, representation of the complete ECG signal by an equivalent diagnostic word
appreciably reduces the memory size required. Figure 1 shows the P, Q, R, S and T waves on an
electrocardiogram tracing (lead 1) illustrating the three normally recognizable deflection waves
and the important intervals. The method in storing information related to the ECG signal is
considered in this paper. In this method, only the time and type of variation compared to the
reference heart rate are registered. At the same time, the rate is processed to detect any disease,
such as, bradycardia or tachycardia either for adult or children. The system connected to the
parallel port of a microcomputer is able to transmit the information or the collected data to the
cardiologist by e-mail every end of the day. Further on, provision for storing number of ECG
signals assists the cardiologist to formulate his personal analysis and to be more confident of
system performance.

The main features of this project are:

1. User-friendly interaction with the user.
2. Highly sensitive.
3. Reliable
4. Easy to operate.

1.2 Project Overview: embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to

perform a dedicated task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they simply accept
the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the data
as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data and
thus finally gives the result.

The Heart rate monitor with display on LCD using PIC16F876 microcontroller is an
exclusive project which is used to help the people to know the heart rate whenever they want.
The main aim of the project is to provide a user-friendly interaction for the people.

1.3 Thesis:
The thesis explains the implementation of Micro Controller based heart rate monitor
with display on LCD using PIC16F876microcontroller.

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1.1:

Microcontroller
system(saving and
diagnosis the heart
rate)

The main blocks of this project are:

1. Micro controller (16F876)
2. Reset button
3. Crystal oscillator
4. Regulated power supply (RPS)
5. LED indicator.
6. Switch.
7. control button

ICST
Attached to
pc parallel
port

PC/LCD
DISPLAY

8. Potentiometer
9. Switch mode power supply

2.1.2 Micro controller:

Introduction to Microcontrollers:
Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had their
beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made
it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a prerequisite for
production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding external peripherals
such as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of the volume of the
package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits contained both
processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer, or what would
later be known as a microcontroller came about.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products.
Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed
amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount
of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.
The microcontroller used in this project is PIC16F876. The PIC families of
microcontrollers are developed by Microchip Technology Inc. Currently they are some of the

most popular microcontrollers, selling over 120 million devices each year. There are basically
four families of PIC microcontrollers:
PIC12CXXX 12/14-bit program word
PIC 16C5X 12-bit program word
PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX 14-bit program word
PIC17CXXX and PIC18CXXX 16-bit program word
The features, pin description of the microcontroller used are discussed in the following sections.

2.2.2 Description:
Introduction to PIC Microcontrollers:
PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller given by Microchip Technology to identify its
single-chip microcontrollers. These devices have been very successful in 8-bit microcontrollers.
The main reason is that Microchip Technology has continuously upgraded the device
architecture and added needed peripherals to the microcontroller to suit customers' requirements.

Low - end PIC Architectures:

Microchip PIC microcontrollers are available in various types. When PIC microcontroller MCU
was first available from General Instruments in early 1980's, the microcontroller consisted of a
simple processor executing 12-bit wide instructions with basic I/O functions. These devices are
known as low-end architectures. They have limited program memory and are meant for
applications requiring simple interface functions and small program & data memories. Some of
the low-end device numbers are
12C5XX
16C5X
16C505

Mid range PIC Architectures:

Mid range PIC architectures are built by upgrading low-end architectures with more number of
peripherals, more number of registers and more data/program memory. Some of the mid-range
devices are
16C6X
16C7X
16F87X
Program memory type is indicated by an alphabet.
C = EPROM, F = Flash, RC = Mask ROM
Popularity of the PIC microcontrollers is due to the following factors.
Speed: Harvard Architecture, RISC architecture, 1 instruction cycle = 4 clock cycles.
Instruction set simplicity: The instruction set consists of just 35 instructions (as opposed to 111
instructions for 8051).
Power-on-reset and brown-out reset. Brown-out-reset means when the power supply goes below
a specified voltage (say 4V), it causes PIC to reset; hence malfunction is avoided. A watch dog
timer (user programmable) resets the processor if the software/program ever malfunctions and
deviates from its normal operation.
PIC microcontroller has four optional clock sources.

Low power crystal

Mid range crystal

High range crystal

RC oscillator (low cost).

Programmable timers and on-chip ADC.

1. Up to 12 independent interrupt sources.
2. Powerful output pin control (25 mA (max.) current sourcing capability per pin.)
3. EPROM/OTP/ROM/Flash memory option.
4. I/O port expansion capability.

CPU Architecture:
The CPU uses Harvard architecture with separate Program and Variable (data) memory
interface. This facilitates instruction fetch and the operation on data/accessing of variables
simultaneously. Architecture of PIC microcontroller

Fig.2.3.Architecture of PIC microcontroller

Microcontroller Core Features:
High performance RISC CPU
Only 35 single word instructions to learn
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory
(RAM)
Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory

 Pinout compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77

Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Power-on Reset (POR)
Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation
Programmable code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable oscillator options
Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology
Fully static design
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins
Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability
In-Circuit Debugging via two pins
Processor read/write access to program memory
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V

Pin Diagram:

Peripheral Features:
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during SLEEP via external
Crystal/clock
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
- Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns
- PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter

mode) and I2C (Master/Slave)

Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address
Detection
Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8-bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only)
Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

2.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

2.3.1 Introduction:
Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other
types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The
term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and
rarely to others.
A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or secondary
sources of energy such as

Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic
devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the
devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics.

Batteries.

Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

Solar power.

Generators or alternators.

2.3.2 Block Diagram:

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as load is
shown in fig: 2.3.3.

Fig 2.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

The components mainly used in above figure are

230V AC MAINS

TRANSFORMER

BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)

CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)

RESISTOR

LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar magnet.
If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the current is
reduced, the lines of force move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in, the moving
lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is induced in the

second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called
MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.
The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the SECONDARY
WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 2.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have half the
primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns,
then the turns ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller
= 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the
power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt
secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.
To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on
a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this

core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from
each other. Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing
current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be
no induction.
Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary.
This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains
supply, or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE
MATCHING.
We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:
In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to
secondary winding.
Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it
releases more voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it
accepts less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional
line-operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of
multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows HiWatt 9V battery.

Fig 2.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Drycell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate
alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have
one of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbonzinc battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide
is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.
The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists
of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this
type of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During
discharge, the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When
the battery is charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickelcadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed
and rechargeable. The electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage
constant over the span of the batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel
oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickelcadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They
have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and the ability to be
recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig 2.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is
called as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC),A process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solidstate diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is
known as an inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC.
Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently
converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon
semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks
were used.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig: 3.3.7, which converts an ac voltage
to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown
in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is
applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between
the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input

Output

Fig 2.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our
project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig:
3.3.8.

Features:

Good for automation insertion

Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

Ideal for printed circuit board

Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

Glass passivated device

Polarity symbols molded on body

Mounting position: Any

Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig 2.3.8: DB107

Filtration:
The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using filters is called
as filtration.

Filters:
Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing functions, specifically
to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:
The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one which stores
energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage) across its
plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not
connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called
the Dielectric.When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates
with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite
negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and
continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the
applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated
below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9 and
3.3.10 respectively.

Fig 2.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor

Fig 2.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:
Microfarad (F) 1F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
Nano farad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Operation of Capacitor:
Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage tank with an
inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic capacitor works.
First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used to connect a
signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to flow.

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a

maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the
current waves to pass through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short

burst will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and
stops further flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball valve
doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current quickly
fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not pass d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is

to "smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of
current are passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

Regulation:
The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is called as
regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator (also called a regulator) with only three terminals appears to be a simple
device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage into
a constant regulated output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs
like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for
positive input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a
pair of voltage-divider resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a 12V regulator
to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand overcurrent draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off
before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its
input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows voltage
regulator.

Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that
is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation
limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate
power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic
unit is ohms.

Theory of operation:
Ohm's law: The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's
law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:
The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:

Fig 3.3.12: Resistor

Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor

2.4. LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The
internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 respectively.

Fig 2.4.1: Inside a LED

Fig 2.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:
The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb. Amazingly, the
LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor material is what
determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.
When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap

of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management
than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more expensive to
buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in applications as
diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly
indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video
displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.

Fig 2.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

High-levels of brightness and intensity

High-efficiency

Low-voltage and current requirements

Low radiated heat

High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

No UV Rays

Long source life

Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.

Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these
objects.

Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the
human visual system.

2.6 Potentiometer (POT):

A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only two terminals are used (one side and the
wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control
electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a
mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt). Instead
they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and
as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to
control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.

Fig: Diagram of potentiometer

Theory of operation:

The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output
voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the pot.
This is the most common use of pots.
The voltage across RL can be calculated by:

If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational

amplifier), the output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:

As an example, assume
,

, and

Since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output voltage VL
will be approximately:

Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower: 6.623 V.
One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series with the
source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some current will
always flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero
volts) as the wiper moves from one end of the pot to the other. There is, however, always a small
amount of contact resistance.
In addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore simply placing a variable
resistor in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an excessive effect, depending on
the load.
3.6.1 Potentiometer construction:

Fig: Diagram of internal construction of potentiometer

Construction of a wire-wound circular potentiometer:

The resistive element (1) of the shown device is trapezoidal, giving a non-linear
relationship between resistance and turn angle. The wiper (3) rotates with the axis (4), providing
the changeable resistance between the wiper contact (6) and the fixed contacts (5) and (9). The
vertical position of the axis is fixed in the body (2) with the ring (7) (below) and the bolt (8)
(above).

A potentiometer is constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a circle, and a
sliding contact (wiper) traveling over that arc. The resistive element, with a terminal at one or
both ends, is flat or angled, and is commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be
used. The wiper is connected through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel pots,
the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn pots, this wiper typically travels
just under one revolution around the contact. "Multi turn" potentiometers also exist, where the
resistor element may be helical and the wiper may move 10, 20, or more complete revolutions,
though multi turn pots are usually constructed of a conventional resistive element wiped via a
worm gear. Besides graphite, materials used to make the resistive element include resistance
wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermets.
One form of rotary potentiometer is called a String potentiometer. It is a multi-turn potentiometer
operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a spring. It is used as a position transducer.
In a linear slider pot, a sliding control is provided instead of a dial control. The resistive element
is a rectangular strip, not semi-circular as in a rotary potentiometer. Due to the large opening slot
or the wiper, this type of pot has a greater potential for getting contaminated.
Potentiometers can be obtained with either linear or logarithmic relations between the slider
position and the resistance (potentiometer laws or "tapers"). A letter code ("A" taper, "B" taper,
etc.) may be used to identify which taper is intended, but the letter code definitions are variable
over time and between manufacturers.
Manufacturers of conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that
contain hard wearing resins and polymers, solvents, lubricant and carbon the constituent that
provides the conductive/resistive properties. The tracks are made by screen printing the paste
onto a paper based phenolic substrate and then curing it in an oven. The curing process removes
all solvents and allows the conductive polymer to polymerize and cross link. This produces a
durable track with stable electrical resistance throughout its working life.

2.6.2 Types of potentiometers:

PCB mount trimmer potentiometers, or "trimpots", intended for infrequent adjustment.

1. Linear taper potentiometer

A linear taper potentiometer has a resistive element of constant cross-section, resulting in a
device where the resistance between the contact (wiper) and one end terminal is proportional to
the distance between them. Linear taper describes the electrical characteristic of the device, not
the geometry of the resistive element. Linear taper potentiometers are used when an
approximately proportional relation is desired between shaft rotation and the division ratio of the
potentiometer; for example, controls used for adjusting the centering of (an analog) cathode-ray
oscilloscope.

2. Logarithmic potentiometer
A logarithmic taper potentiometer has a resistive element that either 'tapers' in from one end to
the other, or is made from a material whose resistivity varies from one end to the other. This

results in a device where output voltage is a logarithmic function of the mechanical angle of the
pot.
Most (cheaper) "log" pots are actually not logarithmic, but use two regions of different resistance
(but constant resistivity) to approximate a logarithmic law. A log pot can also be simulated with
a linear pot and an external resistor. True log pots are significantly more expensive.
Logarithmic taper potentiometers are often used in
connection with audio amplifiers.

A high power wire wound potentiometer. Any potentiometer may be connected as a rheostat.

3. Rheostat:
The most common way to vary the resistance in a circuit is to use a variable resistor or a rheostat.
A rheostat is a two-terminal variable resistor. Often these are designed to handle much higher
voltage and current. Typically these are constructed as a resistive wire wrapped to form a toroid
coil with the wiper moving over the upper surface of the toroid, sliding from one turn of the wire
to the next. Sometimes a rheostat is made from resistance wire wound on a heat-resisting
cylinder with the slider made from a number of metal fingers that grip lightly onto a small
portion of the turns of resistance wire. The "fingers" can be moved along the coil of resistance
wire by a sliding knob thus changing the "tapping" point. They are usually used as variable
resistors rather than variable potential dividers.

Any three-terminal potentiometer can be used as a two-terminal variable resistor by not

connecting to the third terminal. It is common practice to connect the wiper terminal to the
unused end of the resistance track to reduce the amount of resistance variation caused by dirt on
the track.

4. Digital potentiometer
A digital potentiometer is an electronic component that mimics the functions of analog
potentiometers. Through digital input signals, the resistance between two terminals can be
adjusted, just as in an analog potentiometer.

5. Membrane Potentiometer
A membrane potentiometer uses a conductive membrane that is deformed by a sliding element to
contact a resistor voltage divider. Linearity can range from 0.5% to 5% depending on the
material, design and manufacturing process. The repeat accuracy is typically between 0.1mm and
1.0mm with a theoretically infinite resolution. The service life of these types of potentiometers is
typically 1 million to 20 million cycles depending on the materials used during manufacturing
and the actuation method; contact and contactless (magnetic) methods are available. Many
different material variations are available such as PET(foil), FR4, and Kapton. Membrane
potentiometer manuafacturers offer linear, rotary, and application-specific variations. The linear
versions can range from 9mm to 1000mm in length and the rotary versions range from 0 to
360(multi-turn), with each having a height of 0.5mm. Membrane potentiometers can be used for
position sensing.

2.6.3 Applications of Potentiometer:

Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide variety of
equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics has declined
in the 1990s, with digital controls now more common. However they remain in many
applications, such as volume controls and as position sensors.

1. Audio control

1. Linear potentiometers ("faders")

One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as audio control devices.
Both linear pots (also known as "faders") and rotary potentiometers (commonly called knobs) are
regularly used to adjust loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio
signals.
The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers, where it is also called an "audio
taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is also logarithmic. It ensures that,
on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds half as loud as a setting
of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a log pot.
It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with a log pot, for instance, in an audio
balance control.
Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers.

2. Television
Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response. A
potentiometer was often used to adjust "vertical hold", which affected the synchronization
between the receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a multi vibrator) and the received
picture signal.

3. Transducers
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the
simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output signal.

4. Computation
In analog computers, high precision potentiometers are used to scale intermediate results by
desired constant factors, or to set initial conditions for a calculation. A motor-driven
potentiometer may be used as a function generator, using a non-linear resistance card to supply
approximations to trigonometric functions. For example, the shaft rotation might represent an
angle, and the voltage division ratio can be made proportional to the cosine of the angle.

CHAPTER 3: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

This project is implemented using following softwares:

PIC C compiler - for compilation part

Proteus 7 (Embedded C) for simulation part

3.1 PIC Compiler:

PIC compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and compiled. After
compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped into the
microcontroller for further processing. PIC compiler also supports C language code.
Its important that you know C language for microcontroller which is commonly known as
Embedded C. As we are going to use PIC Compiler, hence we also call it PIC C. The PCB,
PCM, and PCH are separate compilers. PCB is for 12-bit opcodes, PCM is for 14-bitopcodes,
and PCH is for 16-bit opcode PIC microcontrollers. Due to many similarities, all three compilers
are covered in this reference manual. Features and limitations that apply to only specific
microcontrollers are indicated within. These compilers are specifically designed to meet the
unique needs of the PIC microcontroller. This allows developers to quickly design applications
software in a more readable, high-level language. When compared to a more traditional C
compiler, PCB, PCM, and PCH have some limitations. As an example of the limitations,
function recursion is not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the PIC has no stack to push variables onto, and also because of the
way the compilers optimize the code. The compilers can efficiently implement normal C
constructs, input/output operations, and bit twiddling operations. All normal C data types are
supported along with pointers to constant arrays, fixed point decimal, and arrays of bits.
PIC C is not much different from a normal C program. If you know assembly, writing a C
program is not a crisis. In PIC, we will have a main function, in which all your application
specific work will be defined. In case of embedded C, you do not have any operating system
running in there. So you have to make sure that your program or main file should never exit. This
can be done with the help of simple while (1) or for (;;) loop as they are going to run infinitely.

We have to add header file for controller you are using, otherwise you will not be able to access
registers related to peripherals.
#include <16F72.h> // header file for PIC 16F72//

3.2 Proteus:
Proteus is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted into hex
code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the Proteus.
Proteus is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the one which is
to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it accepts
the hex file from the pic compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be
programmed. As the Proteus programmer requires power supply to be operated, this power
supply is given from the power supply circuit designed and connected to the microcontroller in
proteus. The program which is to be dumped in to the microcontroller is edited in proteus and is
compiled and executed to check any errors and hence after the successful compilation of the
program the program is dumped in to the microcontroller using a dumper.

3.3 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping:

3.3.1 Compilation and simulation steps:
For PIC microcontroller, PIC C compiler is used for compilation. The compilation steps are as
follows:

Open PIC C compiler.

You will be prompted to choose a name for the new project, so create a separate folder
where all the files of your project will be stored, choose a name and click save.

Fig 3.1: Picture of opening a new file using PIC C compiler

Click Project, New, and something the box named 'Text1' is where your code should be
written later.

Now you have to click 'File, Save as' and choose a file name for your source code ending
with the letter '.c'. You can name as 'project.c' for example and click save. Then you have
to add this file to your project work.

Fig 3.2: Picture of compiling a new file using PIC C compiler

Fig 3.3: Picture of compiling a project.c file using PIC C compiler

You can then start to write the source code in the window titled 'project.c' then before
testing your source code; you have to compile your source code, and correct eventual
syntax errors.

Fig 3.4: Picture of checking errors and warnings using PIC C compiler

By clicking on compile option .hex file is generated automatically.

This is how we compile a program for checking errors and hence the compiled program
is saved in the file where we initiated the program.

Fig 4.5: Picture of .hex file existing using PIC C compiler

After compilation, next step is simulation. Here first circuit is designed in Express PCB using
Proteus 7 software and then simulation takes place followed by dumping. The simulation steps
are as follows:

Open Proteus 7 and click on IS1S6.

Now it displays PCB where circuit is designed using microcontroller. To design circuit
components are required. So click on component option.

10. Now click on letter p, then under that select PIC16F72 ,other components related to the
project and click OK. The PIC 16F72 will be called your 'Target device, which is the final
destination of your source code.

3.3.2 Dumping steps:

The steps involved in dumping the program edited in proteus 7 to microcontroller are shown
below:
1. Initially before connecting the program dumper to the microcontroller kit the window is
appeared as shown below.

2. Select Tools option and click on Check Communication for establishing a connection as
shown in below window
3. After connecting the dumper properly to the microcontroller kit the window is appeared as
shown below.
4. Again by selecting the Tools option and clicking on Check Communication the
microcontroller gets recognized by the dumper and hence the window is as .
5. Import the program which is .hex file from the saved location by selecting File option and
clicking on Import Hex as shown in below window.
6. After clicking on Import Hex option we need to browse the location of our program and
click the prog.hex and click on open for dumping the program into the microcontroller.
7. After the successful dumping of program the window is as shown below.

CHAPTER 4: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of PIC16F876 microcontroller with
each module is considered.

4.1 circuit diagram of heart rate monitor:

In the above circuit diagram the interaction of led light with finger is shown to detect the heart
beat of any person for different conditions.In the above circuit diagram finger is inserted in
between the led and photo detector assembly due to the insertion of finger the variations in led
light is captured by photo detector in the form of voltage variation.

4.2Interfacing of PIC 16F876 with LCD display:

CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
1. Dynamic user input.
2. Reliable
3. Efficient and low cost design.
4. Low power consumption.

Disadvantages:
Detection of heart rate must be perform in dark room for efficient operation.

Applications:

This system can be practically implemented in real time for the early
detection of any heart disease

This system facilitates us to detect the change in heart rate in various

condition

CHAPTER 6: RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Results:
The system has been designed to incorporate the ECG signal diagnosis capability, the real-time
ECG processing, the remote control of a patient and the transportability. The diagnosis capability
of the logical algorithm used has been tested using a simulated ECG signal. In addition, the
diagnosis bytes associated with each heart signal are being verified but further statistical studies
on real ECG signals are required for more evaluation of the system validity. The processing time
required for generating and storing the diagnosis byte is 1.25 ms. This is believed to be
sufficiently short compared with typical heart signal variation. Hence the system is fast enough
to track any changes in heart condition. In this system, the microswitch (SW) is connected to the
ground (GND) for adult patient and to logic 1 (Vcc) for children. By reading the microswitch
position, the system loads the corresponding references such as normal heart beat rate,
tachycardia and bradycardia rate. Implementation of the system on a single-chip microcontroller
reduces the overall weight and power consumption of the hardware required inthe measurement,
diagnosis and storage of ECG signals. In addition, this system is quite reliable compared with
magnetic recording system. This design may also measure other human health parameters such
as temperature, and blood pressure.

Conclusions:
In this paper, the implementation of an embedded system based on a microcontroller for realtime analysis of ECG signals has been investigated. The system has been tested successfully on
simulated ECG signals for different heart diseases. In this method, a logical approach has
minimized overall memory size by storing only three bytes for each heart rate variation. Hence
the overall diagnosis time and the amount of data handled is also minimized. The time taken for
the state of any heart condition to be assessed is the time to record two successive diagnosis
bytes. The real-time decision is taken to inform the patient on his heart rhythmic conditions. It

should be noted that this system can be ported either by patient or sport-person. The
programmable methodology employed in the design also allows others biomedical signals, such
as breathing rate and patient movements to be transmitted. In summary, a new medical wearable
device has been developed as part of a study targeted to heart rate control by e-mail. Final goals
of this paper are reducing the hospitalisation and assistance costs. In addition, patients and
families quality of life are increased. Furthermore, we believe that elderly people
as well, may benefit from this system.

REFERENCES
The sites which were used while doing this project:
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.allaboutcircuits.com
3. www.microchip.com
4. www.howstuffworks.com

Books referred:
1. Raj kamal Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.
2. Mazidi and Mazidi Embedded Systems.
3. PCB Design Tutorial David.L.Jones.
4. PIC Microcontroller Manual Microchip.