CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ABHINAV SHARMA (0719221001), student of 20072011 Batch of Electrical & Electronics Branch in 3rd Year of G.L. BAJAJ
Institute of Technology, Greater Noida has successfully completed his
industrial training at Badarpur Thermal Power Station- NTPC, New Delhi for
four weeks from 5th July to 31st July 2010. He has completed the whole
training as per the training report submitted by him.

Training In-charge
Badarpur Thermal Power Station
NTPC, Badarpur New Delhi.

Table of Contents
1.

Acknowledgement

2.

About the Company

3.

Thermal Power Plant

Introduction
Operation

4. Electricity Generation Process

CORE VALUES:
BCOMIT
B- Business ethics
C- Customer focus
O- Organizational & professional pride
M- Mutual respect & trust
I- Innovation & speed
T- Total quality for excellence

NTPC Limited is the largest thermal power generating company of India, Public
Sector Company. It was incorporated in the year 1975 to accelerate power
development in the country as a wholly owned company of the Government of
India. At present, Government of India holds 89.5% of the total equity shares of
the company and the balance 10.5% is held by FIIs, Domestic Banks, Public and
others. Within a span of 31 years, NTPC has emerged as a truly national power
company, with power generating facilities in all the major regions of the country.

NTPC's core business is engineering, construction and operation of power

generating plants and providing consultancy to power utilities in India and abroad.
The total installed capacity of the company is 31134 MW (including JVs) with 15
coal based and 7 gas based stations, located across the country. In addition under
JVs, 3 stations are coal based & another station uses naphtha/LNG as fuel. By
2017, the power generation portfolio is expected to have a diversified fuel mix
with coal based capacity of around 53000 MW, 10000 MW through gas, 9000 MW
through Hydro generation, about 2000 MW from nuclear sources and around 1000
MW from Renewable Energy Sources (RES). NTPC has adopted a multi-pronged
growth strategy which includes capacity addition through green field projects,
expansion of existing stations, joint ventures, subsidiaries and takeover of stations.
NTPC has been operating its plants at high efficiency levels. Although the
company has 18.79% of the total national capacity it contributes 28.60% of total
power generation due to its focus on high efficiency. NTPCs share at 31 Mar 2001
of the total installed capacity of the country was 24.51% and it generated 29.68%
of the power of the country in 2008-09. Every fourth home in India is lit by NTPC.
170.88BU of electricity was produced by its stations in the financial year 20052006. The Net Profit after Tax on March 31, 2006 was INR 58,202 million. Net
Profit after Tax for the quarter ended June 30, 2006 was INR 15528 million, which
is 18.65% more than for the same quarter in the previous financial year. 2005).
Pursuant to a special resolution passed by the Shareholders at the Companys
Annual General Meeting on September 23, 2005 and the approval of the Central
Government under section 21 of the Companies Act, 1956, the name of the
Company "National Thermal Power Corporation Limited" has been changed to
"NTPC Limited" with effect from October 28, 2005. The primary reason for this is
the company's foray into hydro and nuclear based power generation along with
backward integration by coal mining.

A graphical overview

Key people
Industry
Products
Revenue
Net income
Employees

R S Sharma, Chairman & Managing Director

Electricity generation
Electricity
INR 416.37 billion (2008)
INR 70.47 billion (2008)
23867 (2006)

STRATEGIES

Technological Initiatives

 Introduction of steam generators (boilers) of the size of 800 MW

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Technology

Launch of Energy Technology Centre -A new initiative for development of

technologies with focus on fundamental R&D

The company sets aside up to 0.5% of the profits for R&D

Roadmap developed for adopting Clean Development
Mechanism to help get / earn Certified Emission Reduction

Corporate Social Responsibility

As a responsible corporate citizen NTPC has taken up number of CSR
initiatives

NTPC Foundation formed to address Social issues at national level

NTPC has framed Corporate Social Responsibility Guidelines committing

up to 0.5% of net profit annually for Community Welfare

The welfare of project affected persons and the local population around
NTPC projects are taken care of through well drawn Rehabilitation and
Resettlement policies

The company has also taken up distributed generation for remote rural areas

Partnering government in various initiatives

 Consultant role to modernize and improvise several plants across the country
Disseminate technologies to other players in the sector

Consultant role Partnership in Excellence Programme for improvement of

PLF of 15 Power Stations of SEBs.

Rural Electrification work under Rajiv Gandhi Garmin Vidyutikaran

Environment Management
All stations of NTPC are ISO 14001 certified
Various groups to care of environmental issues
The Environment Management Group
Ash Utilization Division
Afforestation Group
Centre for Power Efficiency & Environment Protection
Group on Clean Development Mechanism

NTPC is the second largest owner of trees in the country after the Forest
department.

JOURNEY OF NTPC

1975

NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the

Government of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has grown
into the largest power utility in India.

1997

In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status of

Navratna being one of the nine jewels of India, enhancing
the powers to the Board of Directors.

2004

NTPC became a listed company with majority Government

ownership of 89.5%.
NTPC becomes third largest by Market Capitalization of
listed companies

2005

The company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with its

changing business portfolio and transforms itself from a
thermal power utility to an integrated power utility.

2008

National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power

generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2008
ranked it 411th in the world.

2009

National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power

generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2008
ranked it 317th in the world.

2012

NTPC has also set up a plan to achieve a target of 50,000

MW generation capacity.

2017

NTPC has embarked on plans to become a 75,000 MW

company by 2017.

NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about 20% of Indias
installed capacity.

THEMAL POWER PLANT

INTRODUCTION
Power Station (also referred to as generating station or power plant) is an industrial
facility for the generation of electric power. Power plant is also used to refer to the
engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because it more accurately describes what the plants do, which is the
conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy, gravitational potential
energy or heat energy into electrical energy. However, power plant is the most
common term in the U.S., while elsewhere power station and power plant are both
widely used, power station prevailing in many Commonwealth countries and
especially in the United Kingdom.

A coal-fired Thermal Power Plant

At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that
converts Mechanical energy into Electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn the

generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available and
the types of technology that the power company has access to.
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine, which
transforms Thermal energy (often from combustion of a fuel) into rotational
energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes
called steam power stations. About 80% of all electric power is generated by use of
steam turbines. Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power,
according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat
lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial
processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power
plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating
is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stations. An
important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product heat for
desalination of water.

CLASSIFICATION
By fuel
Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine
generator.
Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case
of natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine.
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.
Renewable energy plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal
solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although lowenergy density, fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use
for power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.

By prime mover

 Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to
turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system.
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to directly
operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled turbine plants can start rapidly and so are
used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost
than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes
completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the
UK, Prince town being the world's first, commissioned in 1959.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam
boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce
electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and many new
base load power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.
Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated
communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals,
office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to
provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by
diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.
Micro turbines, Sterling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are
low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas
from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

FUNCTIONING

In a thermal power plant, one of coal, oil or natural gas is used to heat the boiler to
convert the water into steam. The steam is used to turn a turbine, which is
connected to a generator. When the turbine turns, electricity is generated and given
as output by the generator, which is then supplied to the consumers through highvoltage power lines.

Process of a Thermal Power Plant

Detailed process of power generation in a thermal power

plant:
1) Water intake: Firstly, water is taken into the boiler through a water source. If
water is available in a plenty in the region, then the source is an open pond or river.
If water is scarce, then it is recycled and the same water is used over and over
again.

2) Boiler heating: The boiler is heated with the help of oil, coal or natural gas.
A furnace is used to heat the fuel and supply the heat produced to the boiler. The
increase in temperature helps in the transformation of water into steam.

3) Steam Turbine: The steam generated in the boiler is sent through a steam
turbine. The turbine has blades that rotate when high velocity steam flows across
them. This rotation of turbine blades is used to generate electricity.

4) Generator: A generator is connected to the steam turbine. When the turbine

rotates, the generator produces electricity which is then passed on to the power
distribution systems.

5) Special mountings: There is some other equipment like the economizer and
air pre-heater.
An economizer uses the heat from the exhaust gases to heat the feed water. An air
pre-heater heats the air sent into the combustion chamber to improve the efficiency
of the combustion process.
6) Ash collection system: There is a separate residue and ash collection system in
place to collect all the waste materials from the combustion process and to prevent
them from escaping into the atmosphere.
Apart from this, there are various other monitoring systems and instruments in
place to keep track of the functioning of all the devices. This prevents any hazards
from taking place in the plant.

OPERATION
Introduction
The operating performance of NTPC has been considerably above the national
average. The availability factor for coal stations has increased from 85.03 % in
1997-98 to 90.09 % in 2006-07, which compares favourably with international
standards. The PLF has increased from 75.2% in 1997-98 to 89.4% during the year
2006-07 which is the highest since the inception of NTPC.

Operation Room of Power Plant

In Badarpur Thermal Power Station, steam is produced and used to spin a turbine
that operates a generator. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam
turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the
steam is condensed in a condenser; this is known as a Rankine cycle. Shown here
is a diagram of a conventional thermal power plant, which uses coal, oil, or natural
gas as fuel to boil water to produce the steam. The electricity generated at the plant
is sent to consumers through high-voltage power lines.
The Badarpur Thermal Power Plant has Steam Turbine-Driven Generators which
has a collective capacity of 705MW.
The fuel being used is Coal which is supplied from the Jharia Coal Field in
Jharkhand.
Water supply is given from the Agra Canal.

Table: Capacity of Badarpur Thermal Power Station, (BTPS) New Delhi

There are basically three main units of a thermal power plant:

1. Steam Generator or Boiler
2. Steam Turbine
3.Electric Generator

The description of some of the components written above is

described as follows:
1. Cooling towers
Cooling Towers are evaporative coolers used for cooling water or other working
medium to near the ambivalent web-bulb air temperature. Cooling tower use
evaporation of water to reject heat from processes such as cooling the circulating
water used in oil refineries, Chemical plants, power plants and building cooling,
for example. The tower vary in size from small roof-top units to very large
hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 meters tall and 100 meters in diameter,
or rectangular structure that can be over 40 meters tall and 80 meters long. Smaller
towers are normally factory built, while larger ones are constructed on site.
The primary use of large , industrial cooling tower system is to remove the heat
absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power plants , petroleum
refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and
other industrial facilities . The absorbed heat is rejected to the atmosphere by the
evaporation of some of the cooling water in mechanical forced-draft or induced
draft towers or in natural draft hyperbolic shaped cooling towers as seen at most
nuclear power plants.
2.Three phase transmission line
Three phase electric power is a common method of electric power transmission. It
is a type of polyphase system mainly used to power motors and many other
devices. A Three phase system uses less conductor material to transmit electric
power than equivalent single phase, two phase, or direct current system at the same
voltage. In a three phase system, three circuits reach their instantaneous peak
values at different times. Taking one conductor as the reference, the other two
current are delayed in time by one-third and two-third of one cycle of the electrical
current. This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power
transfer over each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a
rotating magnetic field in an electric motor.
At the power station, an electric generator converts mechanical power into a set of
electric currents, one from each electromagnetic coil or winding of the generator.
The current are sinusoidal functions of time, all at the same frequency but offset in
time to give different phases. In a three phase system the phases are spaced
equally, giving a phase separation of one-third one cycle. Generators output is at a

voltage that ranges from hundreds of volts to 30,000 volts. At the power station,
transformers: step-up this voltage to one more suitable for transmission.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network
the power is finally transformed to the standard mains voltage (i.e. the household
voltage).
The power may already have been split into single phase at this point or it may still
be three phase. Where the step-down is 3 phase, the output of this transformer is
usually star connected with the standard mains voltage being the phase-neutral
voltage.
3.Electrical generator
An Electrical generator is a device that converts kinetic energy to electrical energy
generally using electromagnetic induction. The task of converting the electrical
energy into mechanical energy is accomplished by using a motor. The source of
mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine,water falling
through the turbine are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75
kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft
driven equipment , to 2,000,000 hp(1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate
electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
Steam turbines are used in all of our major coal fired power stations to drive the
generators or alternators, which produce electricity. The turbines themselves are
driven by steam generated in Boilers or steam generators as they are sometimes
called.
Energy in the steam after it leaves the boiler is converted into rotational energy as
it passes through the turbine. The turbine normally consists of several stage with
each stages consisting of a stationary blade (or nozzle) and a rotating blade.
Stationary blades convert the potential energy of the steam into kinetic energy into
forces, caused by pressure drop, which results in the rotation of the turbine shaft.
The turbine shaft is connected to a generator, which produces the electrical energy.
4.Boiler feed water pump
A Boiler feed water pump is a specific type of pump used to pump water into a
steam boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or retuning condensation of the
steam produced by the boiler. These pumps are normally high pressure units that
use suction from a condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal pump
type or positive displacement type.

Construction and operation:

Feed water pumps range in size up to many horsepower and the electric motor is
usually separated from the pump body by some form of mechanical coupling.
Large industrial condensate pumps may also serve as the feed water pump. In
either case, to force the water into the boiler; the pump must generate sufficient
pressure to overcome the steam pressure developed by the boiler. This is usually
accomplished through the use of a centrifugal pump.
Feed water pumps usually run intermittently and are controlled by a float switch or
other similar level-sensing device energizing the pump when it detects a lowered
liquid level in the boiler is substantially increased. Some pumps contain a twostage switch. As liquid lowers to the trigger point of the first stage, the pump is
activated. I f the liquid continues to drop (perhaps because the pump has failed, its
supply has been cut off or exhausted, or its discharge is blocked); the second stage
will be triggered. This stage may switch off the boiler equipment (preventing the
boiler from running dry and overheating), trigger an alarm, or both.
5. Steam-powered pumps
Steam locomotives and the steam engines used on ships and stationary applications
such as power plants also required feed water pumps. In this situation, though, the
pump was often powered using a small steam engine that ran using the steam
produced by the boiler. A means had to be provided, of course, to put the initial
charge of water into the boiler(before steam power was available to operate the
steam-powered feed water pump).The pump was often a positive displacement
pump that had steam valves and cylinders at one end and feed water cylinders at
the other end; no crankshaft was required.
In thermal plants, the primary purpose of surface condenser is to condense the
exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain maximum efficiency and also to
convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water so that it may be reused in the
steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water. By condensing the exhaust steam of
a turbine at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, the steam pressure drop
between the inlet and exhaust of the turbine is increased, which increases the
amount heat available for conversion to mechanical power. Most of the heat
liberated due to condensation of the exhaust steam is carried away by the cooling
medium (water or air) used by the surface condenser.

6. Control valves
Control valves are valves used within industrial plants and elsewhere to control
operating conditions such as temperature,pressure,flow,and liquid Level by fully
partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that
compares a set point to a process variable whose value is provided by sensors
that monitor changes in such conditions. The opening or closing of control valves
is done by means of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic systems
7. Deaerator
A Dearator is a device for air removal and used to remove dissolved gases (an
alternate would be the use of water treatment chemicals) from boiler feed water to
make it non-corrosive. A dearator typically includes a vertical domed deaeration
section as the deaeration boiler feed water tank. A Steam generating boiler requires
that the circulating steam, condensate, and feed water should be devoid of
dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones and dissolved or suspended solids. The
gases will give rise to corrosion of the metal. The solids will deposit on the heating
surfaces giving rise to localized heating and tube ruptures due to overheating.
Under some conditions it may give to stress corrosion cracking.
Deaerator level and pressure must be controlled by adjusting control valves- the
level by regulating condensate flow and the pressure by regulating steam flow. If
operated properly, most deaerator vendors will guarantee that oxygen in the
deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm3/L)
8. Feed water heater
A Feed water heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered
to a steam generating boiler. Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversible
involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency
of the system.[4] This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal
shock to the boiler metal when the feed water is introduces back into the steam
cycle.
In a steam power (usually modeled as a modified Ranking cycle), feed water
heaters allow the feed water to be brought up to the saturation temperature very
gradually. This minimizes the inevitable irreversibilitys associated with heat
transfer to the working fluid (water). A belt conveyor consists of two pulleys, with
a continuous loop of material- the conveyor Belt that rotates about them. The
pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward.

9. Pulverizer
A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a fossil
fuel power plant.
10. Boiler Steam Drum
Steam Drums are a regular feature of water tube boilers. It is reservoir of
water/steam at the top end of the water tubes in the water-tube boiler. They store
the steam generated in the water tubes and act as a phase separator for the
steam/water mixture. The difference in densities between hot and cold water helps
in the accumulation of the hotter-water/and saturated steam into steam drum.
Made from high-grade steel (probably stainless) and its working involves
temperatures 390C and pressure well above 350psi (2.4MPa). The separated
steam is drawn out from the top section of the drum. Saturated steam is drawn off
the top of the drum. The steam will re-enter the furnace in through a super heater,
while the saturated water at the bottom of steam drum flows down to the muddrum /feed water drum by down comer tubes accessories include a safety valve,
water level indicator and fuse plug. A steam drum is used in the company of a
mud-drum/feed water drum which is located at a lower level. So that it acts as a
sump for the sludge or sediments which have a tendency to the bottom.
11. Super Heater
A Super heater is a device in a steam engine that heats the steam generated by the
boiler again increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will
condense inside the engine. Super heaters increase the efficiency of the steam
engine, and were widely adopted. Steam which has been superheated is logically
known as superheated steam; non-superheated steam is called saturated steam or
wet steam; Super heaters were applied to steam locomotives in quantity from the
early 20th century, to most steam vehicles, and so stationary steam engines
including power stations.
12. Economizers
Economizer, or in the UK economizer, are mechanical devices intended to reduce
energy consumption, or to perform another useful function like preheating a fluid.
The term economizer is used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, and
heating, ventilating and air conditioning. In boilers, economizer are heat exchange
devices that heat fluids , usually water, up to but not normally beyond the boiling

point of the fluid. Economizers are so named because they can make use of the
enthalpy and improving the boilers efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler
which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold
water used the fill it (the feed water). Modern day boilers, such as those in cold
fired power stations, are still fitted with economizer which is decedents of Greens
original design. In this context they are turbines before it is pumped to the boilers.
A common application of economizer is steam power plants is to capture the waste
hit from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer thus it to the boiler feed water
thus lowering the needed energy input , in turn reducing the firing rates to
accomplish the rated boiler output . Economizer lower stack temperatures which
may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases and serious equipment
corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and material selection.
13. Air Preheater
Air preheater is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air before
another process (for example, combustion in a boiler). The purpose of the air
preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal
efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the fuel gas. As a
consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a
lower temperature allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack.
It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack.
14. Precipitator
An Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate
device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such As air) using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient
filtration devices, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and
smoke from the air steam.
ESPs continue to be excellent devices for control of many industrial particulate
emissions, including smoke from electricity-generating utilities (coal and oil fired),
salt cake collection from black liquor boilers in pump mills, and catalyst collection
from fluidized bed catalytic crackers from several hundred thousand ACFM in the
largest coal-fired boiler application.
The original parallel plate-Weighted wire design (described above) has evolved as
more efficient ( and robust) discharge electrode designs were developed, today
focusing on rigid discharge electrodes to which many sharpened spikes are
attached , maximizing corona production. Transformer rectifier systems apply

voltages of 50-100 Kilovolts at relatively high current densities. Modern controls

minimize sparking and prevent arcing, avoiding damage to the components.
Automatic rapping systems and hopper evacuation systems remove the collected
particulate matter while on line allowing ESPs to stay in operation for years at a
time.
15. Fuel gas stack
A Fuel gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure
through which combustion product gases called fuel gases are exhausted to the
outside air. Fuel gases are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other
large combustion device. Fuel gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake
combustion air. It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as
particulates matter, carbon mono oxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. The flue
gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 meters (1300 feet) or more, so as to
disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater aria and thereby reduce the
concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental
environmental policies and regulations.
When the fuel gases exhausted from stoves, ovens, fireplaces or other small
sources within residential abodes, restaurants , hotels or other stacks are referred to
as chimneys.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION PROCESS

Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to a very fine powder by
large metal spheres in the pulverised fuel mill (16). There it is mixed with
preheated air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20). The hot air-fuel mixture is
forced at high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high
purity flows vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into
steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is separated from any
remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the drum into
the pendant super heater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly
to around 200 bar and 540C,sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The
steam is piped to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine
process. A steam governor valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine
and automatic set-point following. The steam is exhausted from the high pressure
turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature, is returned to the boiler
reheater (21). The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate pressure
turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set (6). The
exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact
with cold water (pumped in from theCooling tower) in the condenser (8), where it
condenses rapidly back into water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the
condensor chest. The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump (7) through a
deaerator (12), and pre-warmed, first in a feed heater (13) powered by steam drawn
from the high pressure set, and then in the economiser (23), before being returned
to the boiler drum. The cooling water from the condensor is sprayed inside a
cooling tower (1), creating a highly visible plume of water vapour, before being
pumped back to the condensor (8) in cooling water cycle. The three turbine sets are
sometimes coupled on the same shaft as the three-phase electrical generator (5)
which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV). This is stepped
up by the unit transformer (4) to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically
250-500 kV) and is sent out onto the three-phase transmission system (3). Exhaust
gas from the boiler is drawn by the induced draft fan (26) through an electrostatic
precipitator (25) and is then vented through the chimney stack (27).

ELECTRICITY GENERATION PROCESS

(A BASIC OVERVIEW)
HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED?
Thermal power station burns fuel and uses the resultant heat to raise steam which
drives the TURBO GENERATOR. The fuel may be fossil(coal,oil,natural gas) or
it may be fissionable, whichever fuel is used, the objective is same to convert the
mechanical energy into electricity by rotating a magnet inside a set of winding.
COAL TO STAEM
Its other raw materials are air and water. The coal brought to the station by trains
or by other means, travels handling plant by conveyer belts, travels from
pulverizing mills, which grind it as fine as the face powder of size upto 20 microns.
The finely produced coal mixed with preheated air is then blown into the boiler by
a fan called primary air fan where it burns more like a gas than as a solid, in the
conventional domestic or industrial grate, with additional amount of air, called
secondary air supply, by forced draft fan.
As coal is ground so finally the resultant ash is also a fine powder. Some of it binds
together to form pumps, which falls into ash pits at the bottom of the furnace. The
water-quenched ash from the bottom is conveyed to pits for subsequent disposal or
sale. Most of ash, still in fine partical form is carried out of boilers to the
precipitator as dust, where electrodes charged with high voltage electricity trap it.
The dust is then conveyed to water to disposal area or to bunker for sale while the
clean flue gases are passed on through IP fans to be discharged through chimneys.
The heat released from the coal has been absorbed by the many kilometers tubing
which line the boiler walls. Inside the tubes the boiler feed water, which is
transformed by heat into staemat high temperature and pressure.. The steam
superheated in further tubes (superheaters) passes to turbine where it is discharged
through the nozzle on the turbine blades. Just as the energy of wind turns the sail of
the windmill, the energy of steam striking the blade makes the turbine rotate.

Coupled to the end of the turbine is the rotor of the generator. The rotor is housed
inside the stator having heavy coils of the bars in which electricity is produced
through the movement of magnetic field created by the rotor. Electricity passes
from stator windings to step-up transformer which increases its voltage so that it
can be transmited efficiently over lines of grid.
The staem which has given up its heat energy is cahnged back into water in a
condenser so that it is ready for re-use. The condenser contains many kilometers of
tubing through which cold water is constantly pumped. The staem passing around
the tubes looses heat.Thus it is rapidly changed back into water.
But, the two lots of water, that is, the boiler feed and cooling water must never
mix. Cooling water is drawn from river- bed, but the boiler feed water must be
absolutely pure, far purer than the water we drink (de-mineralized water),
otherwise it may damage the boiler tubes.

SUMMER TRAINING SCHEDULE

EMD-I (Electrical Maintenance Department-I)--- 1 week

EMD-II (Electrical Maintenance Department-II)--- 1 week

EMD I

In EMD-I we went through following 4 sectors:

Coal Handling Plant

Motors
Switchgear
High Tension Switchgear

Coal Handling Plant

Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge or collier ship. Some plants are even
built near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A large coal train called a
"unit train" may be a kilometres (over a mile) long, containing 60 cars with 100
tons of coal in each one, for a total load of 6,000 tons. A large plant under full load
requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may get as many as
three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season", during the summer months
when power consumption is high. A large thermal power plant such as the
Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi stores several million tons of coal for
use when there is no wagon supply.

Coal Handling Plant Layout

Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which eliminate problems with coal
freezing in bottom dump cars. The unloader includes a train positioner arm that
pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal hopper. The dumper clamps an
individual car against a platform that swivels the car upside down to dump the
coal. Swivelling couplers enable the entire operation to occur while the cars are
still coupled together. Unloading a unit train takes about three hours.

Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump", which relies on air pressure
from the engine plus a "hot shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes into
contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge through
the air dump apparatus and causes the doors on the bottom of the car to open,
dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of these trains
takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders may still use
manually operated bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached to dump the coal.
Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive coal by conveyor belt or
massive diesel electric-drive trucks.
Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 2 inches (50
mm) in size. The coal is then transported from the storage yard to in-plant storage
silos by rubberized conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 tons/hour. In plants that
burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal pulverisers (coal mill) that take the larger 2
inch pieces grind them into the consistency of face powder, classify them, and
mixes them with primary combustion air which transports the coal to the furnace
and preheats the coal to drive off excess moisture content. In plants that do not
burn pulverized coal, the larger 2 inch pieces may be directly fed into the silos
which then feed the cyclone burners, a specific kind of combust or that can
efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.

Run-Of-Mine (ROM) Coal

The coal delivered from the mine that reports to the Coal Handling Plant is called
Run-of-mine, or ROM, coal. This is the raw material for the CHP, and consists of
coal, rocks, middlings, minerals and contamination. Contamination is usually
introduced by the mining process and may include machine parts, used
consumables and parts of ground engaging tools. ROM coal can have a large
variability of moisture and maximum particle size.

Coal Handling
Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and conveyed
around the CHP facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of bulk material
handling, and is a complex and vital part of the CHP.

Stockpiles
Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CHP. ROM coal is
delivered with large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour (tph). A ROM
stockpile is used to allow the wash plant to be fed coal at lower, constant rate.

Coal Handling Division of BTPS, New Delhi

A simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from
dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More
controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of a
conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal when required for product loading,
etc. Taller and wider stockpiles reduce the land area required to store a set tonnage
of coal. Larger coal stockpiles have a reduced rate of heat lost, leading to a higher
risk of spontaneous combustion.

Stacking
Travelling, lugging boom stackers that straddle a feed conveyor are commonly
used to create coal stockpiles. Stackers are nominally rated in tph (tonnes per hour)
for capacity and normally travel on a rail between stockpiles in the stockyard. A
stacker can usually move in at least two directions typically: horizontally along the
rail and vertically by luffing its boom. Luffing of the boom minimises dust by
reducing the height that the coal needs to fall to the top of the stockpile. The boom
is luffed upwards as the stockpile height grows.

Wagon Tripler at Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

Some stackers are able to rotate by slewing the boom. This allows a single stacker
to form two stockpiles, one on either side of the conveyor. Stackers are used to
stack into different patterns, such as cone stacking and chevron stacking. Stacking
in a single cone tends to cause size segregation, with coarser material moving out
towards the base. Raw cone ply stacking is when additional cones are added next
to the first cone. Chevron stacking is when the stacker travels along the length of
the stockpile adding layer upon layer of material. Stackers and Reclaimers were

originally manually controlled manned machines with no remote control. Modern

machines are typically semi-automatic or fully automated, with parameters
remotely set.

Reclaiming
Tunnel conveyors can be fed by a continuous slot hopper or bunker beneath the
stockpile to reclaim material. Front-end loaders and bulldozers can be used to push
the coal into feeders. Sometimes front-end loaders are the only means of
reclaiming coal from the stockpile. This has a low up-front capital cost, but much
higher operating costs, measured in dollars per tonne handled.

Coal Storage Area of the Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi

High-capacity stockpiles are commonly reclaimed using bucket-wheel reclaimers.

These can achieve very high rates.

Coal Sampling
Sampling of coal is an important part of the process control in the CHP. A grab
sample is a one off sample of the coal at a point in the process stream, and tends
not to be very representative. A routine sample is taken at a set frequency, either
over a period of time or per shipment.

Screening
Screens are used to group process particles into ranges by size. These size ranges
are also called grades. Dewatering screens are used to remove water from the
product. Screens can be static, or mechanically vibrated. Screen decks can be made
from different materials such as high tensile steel, stainless steel, or polyethylene.

Screening and Separation Unit of Coal Handling Division

Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separators shall be used in coal conveying systems to separate tramp iron
(including steel) from the coal. Basically, two types are available. One type
incorporates permanent or electromagnets into the head pulley of a belt conveyor.
The tramp iron clings to the belt as it goes around the pulley drum and falls off into
a collection hopper or trough after the point at which coal is charged from the belt.
The other type consists of permanent or electromagnets incorporated into a belt
conveyor that is suspended above a belt conveyor carrying coal. The tramp iron is
pulled from the moving coal to the face of the separating conveyor, which in turn
holds and carries the tramp iron to a collection hopper or trough. Magnetic
separators shall be used just ahead of the coal crusher, if any, and/or just prior to
coal discharge to the in-plant bunker or silo fill system.

Coal Crusher
Before the coal is sent to the plant it has to be ensured that the coal is of uniform
size, and so it is passed through coal crushers. Also power plants using pulverized
coal specify a maximum coal size that can be fed into the pulverizer and so the
coal has to be crushed to the specified size using the coal crusher. Rotary crushers
are very commonly used for this purpose as they can provide a continuous flow of
coal to the pulverizer.

Pulverizer
Most commonly used pulverizer is the Boul Mill. The arrangement consists of 2
stationary rollers and a power driven boul in which pulverization takes place as the
coal passes through the sides of the rollers and the boul. A primary air induced
draught fan draws a stream of heated air through the mill carrying the pulverized
coal into a stationary classifier at the top of the pulverizer. The classifier separates
the pulverized coal from the unpulverized coal.

An external view of a Coal Pulverizer

Tangential Burners
The tangential burners are arranged such that they discharge the fuel air mixture
tangentially to an imaginary circle in the center of the furnace. The swirling action
produces sufficient turbulence in the furnace to complete the combustion in a short
period of time and avoid the necessity of producing high turbulence at the burner
itself. High heat release rates are possible with this method of firing. The burners
are placed at the four corners of the furnace. At the Badarpur Thermal Power
Station five sets of such burners are placed one above the other to form six firing
zones. These burners are constructed with tips that can be angled through a small
vertical arc. By adjusting the angle of the burners the position of the fire ball can
be adjusted so as to raise or lower the position of the turbulent combustion region.
When the burners are tilted downward the furnace gets filled completely with the
flame and the furnace exit gas temperature gets reduced. When the burners are
tiled upward the furnace exit gas temperature increases. A difference of
100 degrees can be achieved by tilting the burners.

Ash Handling
The ever increasing capacities of boiler units together with their ability to use low
grade high ash content coal have been responsible for the development of modern
day ash handling systems. The widely used ash handling systems are
1. Mechanical Handling System
2. Hydraulic System
3. Pneumatic System
4. Steam Jet System
The Hydraulic Ash handling system is used at the Badarpur Thermal Power
Station.

Hydraulic Ash Handling System

The hydraulic system carried the ash with the flow of water with high velocity
through a channel and finally dumps into a sump. The hydraulic system is divided
into a low velocity and high velocity system. In the low velocity system the ash
from the boilers falls into a stream of water flowing into the sump. The ash is
carried along with the water and they are separated at the sump. In the high
velocity system a jet of water is sprayed to quench the hot ash. Two other jets force
the ash into a trough in which they are washed away by the water into the sump,
where they are separated. The molten slag formed in the pulverized fuel system
can also be quenched and washed by using the high velocity system. The
advantages of this system are that its clean, large ash handling capacity,
considerable distance can be traversed, absence of working parts in contact with
ash.

ELECTRIC MOTORS
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is
accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and
some electric and hybrid automobiles often performs both tasks if the vehicle is
equipped with dynamic brakes.

A High Power Electric Motor

Categorization of Electric Motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Direct Current (DC) type vs
Alternating Current (AC) types. The ongoing trend toward electronic control
further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out
of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to
generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation of. The two best
examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being

polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control. There is a clearer

distinction between a synchronous motor and asynchronous types. In the
synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or
current (eg. permanent magnet motors). In contrast, an asynchronous motor is
designed to slip; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction
motor which must slip in order to generate torque.

Comparison of Motor Types

At Badarpur Thermal Power Station, New Delhi, mostly AC motors are employed
for various purposes. We had to study the two types of AC Motors viz.
Synchronous Motors and Induction Motor. The motors have been explained
further.

AC Motor

Internal View of AC Motors

An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It
consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the
output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first is
the synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a sub
multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either
generated by current delivered through slip rings or a by a permanent magnet.
The second type is the induction motor, which turns slightly slower than the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced
current.

Synchronous Motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning
with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting
magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip
under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which
must slip in order to produce torque.
Sometimes a synchronous motor is used, not to drive a load, but to improve the
power factor on the local grid it's connected to. It does this by providing reactive
power to or consuming reactive power from the grid. In this case the synchronous
motor is called a Synchronous condenser. Electrical power plants almost always
use synchronous generators because it's very important to keep the frequency
constant at which the generator is connected.

Advantages
Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors:
Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied.
Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, eg. Stepper
motors.
They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and
the rotor windings.
Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current
relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage
phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve
a better power factor correction for the whole installation.
Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is
required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus).

Examples:
Brushless permanent magnet DC motor.
Stepper motor.
Slow speed AC synchronous motor.
Switched reluctance motor.

Induction Motor
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is
supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction.

Three Phase Induction Motors

An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor
(rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor
this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an AC
motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is
sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor
(rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially
polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives.
Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their
rugged construction, lack of brushes (which are needed in most DC Motors) and
thanks to modern power electronics the ability to control the speed of the motor.

Construction
The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current that induces a
magnetic field in the conductor. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor
types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6 etc). There are two types of
rotor:
1. Squirrel-cage rotor
2. Slip ring rotor
The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either
solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are
connected through a ring at each end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction
motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.
The motor's phase type is one of two types:
1. Single-phase induction motor
2. 3-phase induction motor

Principle of Operation
The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is
that in the latter a current is supplied onto the rotor. This then creates a magnetic
field which, through magnetic interaction, links to the rotating magnetic field in the
stator which in turn causes the rotor to turn. It is called synchronous because at
steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the speed of the rotating magnetic
field in the stator. By way of contrast, the induction motor does not have any direct
supply onto the rotor; instead, a secondary current is induced in the rotor. To
achieve this, stator windings are arranged around the rotor so that when energised
with a polyphase supply they create a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps
past the rotor. This changing magnetic field pattern can induce currents in the rotor
conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the
stator and the rotor will turn. However, for these currents to be induced, the speed
of the physical rotor and the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator must
be different, or else the magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor
conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some chance this happens, the
rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re-induced and then the rotor
continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the
rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It has no unit and the ratio
between the relative speeds of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor to the speed
of the rotating field. Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an
asynchronous machine.

SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid,
refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers
used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize
equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream.
The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted
on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly
escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for
anything other than isolation of a deenergized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed
arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a
switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with electrically-operated
switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has
largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large
currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment
incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications.

A View of Switchgear at a Power Plant

Types

A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be

insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of
switchgear is "gas insulated switchgear" (GIS), where the conductors and contacts
are insulated by pressurized (SF6) sulphur hexafluoride gas. Other common types
are oil [or vacuum] insulated switchgear. Circuit breakers are a special type of
switchgear that are able to interrupt fault currents. Their construction allows them
to interrupt fault currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps. The quenching
of the arc when the contacts open requires careful design, and falls into four types:
Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil
through the arc.
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and
then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.
Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other
than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small
amount (<2-3 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern
medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts.
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively,
the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the
displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly:
typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of
the device.

Classification
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:

By the current rating:

By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can
safely interrupt)
Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents
Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current
is very small.

By voltage class:
Low Tension (less than 440 volts AC)
High Tension (more than 6.6 kV AC)

By insulating medium:
Air
Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
Oil
Vacuum

By construction type:
Indoor
Outdoor
Industrial
Utility
Marine
Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
Live-front
Dead-front
Metal-enclosed
Metal-clad
Metal enclose & Metal clad

Arc-resistant

High Tension Switchgear at Thermal Power Plant

By IEC degree of internal separation:

No Separation
Bus bars separated from functional units
Terminals for external conductors separated from bus bars
Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not
from each other

Functional units separated from each other

Terminals for external conductors separated from each other
Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional
unit

By interrupting device:
Fuses
Air Blast Circuit Breaker
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
Oil Circuit Breaker
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker

By operating method:

Manually-operated
Motor-operated
Solenoid/stored energy operated

By type of current:
Alternating current
Direct current

By application:
Distribution.
Transmission system

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example,
air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated switches may all
exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of
standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of
the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives
or variations.

Functions
One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of
short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected
circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies.
Switchgear also is used to enhance system availability by allowing more than one
source to feed a load.

Safety
To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key interlocking
provides predefined scenarios of operation. James Harry Castell invented this
technique in 1922. For example, if only one of two sources of supply is permitted
to be connected at a given time, the interlock scheme may require that the first
switch must be opened to release a key that will allow closing the second switch.
Complex schemes are possible.

HIGH TENSION SWITCHGEAR

High voltage switchgear is any switchgear and switchgear assembly of rated
voltage higher than 1000 volts. High voltage switchgear is any switchgear used to
connect or to disconnect a part of a high voltage power system.
These switchgears are essential elements for the protection and for a safety
operating mode without interruption of a high voltage power system. This type of
equipment is really important because it is directly linked to the quality of the
electricity supply. The high voltage is a voltage above 1000 V for alternating
current and above 1500 V for direct current.

High Tension Switchgear of a Thermal Power Plant

The high voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for
operating the motors and others electric machines. It has been improved and it can
be used in the whole range of high voltage until 1100 kV.

Functional Classification
Disconnectors and Earthing Switches
They are above all safety devices used to open or to close a circuit when there is no
current through them. They are used to isolate a part of a circuit, a machine, a part
of an overhead-line or an underground line for the operating staff to access it
without any danger. The opening of the line isolator or busbar section isolator is
necessary for the safety but it is not enough. Grounding must be done at the
upstream sector and the downstream sector on the device which they want to
intervene thanks to the earthing switches. In principle, disconnecting switches do
not have to interrupt currents, but some of them can interrupt currents (up to 1600
A under 10 to 300V) and some earthing switches must interrupt induced currents
which are generated in a non-current-carrying line by inductive and capacitive
coupling with nearby lines (up to 160 A under 20 kV).

A Vacuum Circuit Breaker (High Tension Switchgear)

High-Current Switching Mechanism

They can open or close a circuit in normal load. Some of them can be used as a
disconnecting switch. But if they can create a short-circuit current, they can not
interrupt it.

Contactor
Their functions are similar to the high-current switching mechanism, but they can
be used at higher rates. They have a high electrical endurance and a high
mechanical endurance. Contactors are used to frequently operate device like
electric furnaces, high voltage motors. They cannot be used as a disconnecting
switch. They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.

Fuses
The fuses can interrupt automatically a circuit with an over current flowing in it for
a fixed time. The current interrupting is got by the fusion of an electrical conductor
which is graded. They are mainly used to protect against the short-circuits. They
limit the peak value of the fault current. In three-phase electric power, they only
eliminate the phases where the fault current is flowing, which is a risk for the
devices and the people. Against this trouble, the fuses can be associated with highcurrent switches or contactors.
They are used only in the band 30 kV to 100 kV.

Circuit Breaker
A high voltage circuit breaker is capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under the rated voltage (the maximal voltage of the power system which it is
protecting): Under normal circuit conditions, for example to connect or disconnect
a line in a power system; Underspecified abnormal circuit conditions especially to
eliminate a short circuit. From its characteristics, a circuit breaker is the protection
device essential for a high voltage power system, because it is the only one able to
interrupt a short circuit current and so to avoid the others devices to be damaged by
this short circuit.

EMD II
In EMD-II went through following 2 sectors:

Generator
Transformer

GENERATORS
The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from
the shaft of the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore a generator is actually a
rotating mechanical energy converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is
converted by means of a rotating magnetic field produced by direct current in the
copper winding of the rotor or field, which generates three-phase alternating
currents and voltages in the copper winding of the stator (armature). The stator
winding is connected to terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system
for delivery of the output power to the system.

A 210 MW Turbine Generator at BTPS, New Delhi

The class of generator under consideration is steam turbine-driven generators,

commonly called turbo generators. These machines are generally used in nuclear
and fossil fuelled power plants, co-generation plants, and combustion turbine units.
They range from relatively small machines of a few Megawatts (MW) to very
large generators with ratings up to 1900 MW. The generators particular to this
category are of the two- and four-pole design employing round-rotors, with
rotational operating speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm in North America, parts of
Japan, and Asia (3000 and 1500 rpm in Europe, Africa, Australia, Asia, and South
America). At Badarpur Thermal Power Station 3000 rpm, 50 Hz generators are
used of capacities 210 MW and 95 MW. As the system load demands more active
power from the generator, more steam (or fuel in a combustion turbine) needs to be
admitted to the turbine to increase power output. Hence more energy is transmitted
to the generator from the turbine, in the form of a torque. This torque is mechanical
in nature, but electromagnetically coupled to the power system through the
generator. The higher the power output, the higher the torque between turbine and
generator. The power output of the generator generally follows the load demand
from the system. Therefore the voltages and currents in the generator are
continually changing based on the load demand. The generator design must be able
to cope with large and fast load changes, which show up inside the machine as

changes in mechanical forces and temperatures. The design must therefore

incorporate electrical current-carrying materials (i.e., copper), magnetic fluxcarrying materials (i.e., highly permeable steels), insulating materials (i.e.,
organic), structural members (i.e., steel and organic), and cooling media (i.e., gases
and liquids), all working together under the operating conditions of a turbo
generator.

An open Electric Generator at Power Plant

Since the turbo generator is a synchronous machine, it operates at one very specific
speed to produce a constant system frequency of 50 Hz, depending on the
frequency of the grid to which it is connected. As a synchronous machine, a
turbine generator employs a steady magnetic flux passing radially across an air gap
that exists between the rotor and the stator. (The term air gap is commonly used
for air- and gas-cooled machines). For the machines in this discussion, this means a
magnetic flux distribution of two or four poles on the rotor. This flux pattern
rotates with the rotor, as it spins at its synchronous speed. The rotating magnetic
field moves past a three-phase symmetrically distributed winding installed in the
stator core, generating an alternating voltage in the stator winding. The voltage
waveform created in each of the three phases of the stator winding is very nearly
sinusoidal. The output of the stator winding is the three-phase power, delivered to
the power system at the voltage generated in the stator winding.
In addition to the normal flux distribution in the main body of the generator, there
are stray fluxes at the extreme ends of the generator that create fringing flux
patterns and induce stray losses in the generator. The stray fluxes must be

accounted for in the overall design. Generators are made up of two basic members,
the stator and the rotor, but the stator and rotor are each constructed from
numerous parts themselves. Rotors are the high-speed rotating member of the two,
and they undergo severe dynamic mechanical loading as well as the
electromagnetic and thermal loads. The most critical component in the generator is
the retaining rings, mounted on the rotor.
These components are very carefully designed for high-stress operation. The stator
is stationary, as the term suggests, but it also sees significant dynamic forces in
terms of vibration and torsional loads, as well as the electromagnetic, thermal, and
high-voltage loading. The most critical component of the stator is arguably the
stator winding because it is a very high cost item and it must be designed to handle
all of the harsh effects described above. Most stator problems occur with the
winding.

STATOR
The stator winding is made up of insulated copper conductor bars that are
distributed around the inside diameter of the stator core, commonly called the
stator bore, in equally spaced slots in the core to ensure symmetrical flux linkage
with the field produced by the rotor. Each slot contains two conductor bars, one on
top of the other. These are generally referred to as top and bottom bars. Top bars
are the ones nearest the slot opening (just under the wedge) and the bottom bars are
the ones at the slot bottom. The core area between slots is generally called a core
tooth.

Stator of a Turbo Generator

The stator winding is then divided into three phases, which are almost always wye
connected. Wye connection is done to allow a neural grounding point and for relay
protection of the winding. The three phases are connected to create symmetry
between them in the 360 degree arc of the stator bore. The distribution of the
winding is done in such a way as to produce a 120
degree difference in voltage peaks from one phase to the other, hence the term
three-phase voltage. Each of the three phases may have one or more parallel
circuits within the phase. The parallels can be connected in series or parallel, or a
combination of both if it is a four-pole generator. This will be discussed in the next
section. The parallels in all of the phases are essentially equal on average, in their
performance in the machine. Therefore, they each see equal voltage and current,
magnitudes and phase angles, when averaged over one alternating cycle. The stator
bars in any particular phase group are arranged such that there are parallel paths,
which overlap between top and bottom bars. The overlap is staggered between top
and bottom bars. The top bars on one side of the stator bore are connected to the
bottom bars on the other side of the bore in one direction while the bottom bars are
connected in the other direction on the opposite side of the stator. This connection
with the bars on the other side of the stator creates a reach or pitch of a certain
number of slots. The pitch is therefore the number slots that the stator bars have to
reach in the stator bore arc, separating the two bars to be connected. This is always
less than 180 degrees. Once connected, the stator bars form a single coil or turn.
The total width of the overlapping parallels is called the breadth. The
combination of the pitch and breadth create a winding or distribution factor. The

distribution factor is used to minimize the harmonic content of the generated

voltage. In the case of a two parallel path winding, these may be connected in
series or parallel outside the stator bore, at the termination end of the generator.
The connection type will depend on a number of other design issues regarding
current-carrying ability of the copper in the winding. In a two-parallel path, threephase winding, alternating voltage is created by the action of the rotor field as it
moves past these windings. Since there is a plus and minus, or north and south, to
the rotating magnetic field, opposite polarity currents flow on each side of the
stator bore in the distributed winding. The currents normally flowing in large turbo
generators can be in the order of thousands of amperes. Due to the very high
currents, the conductor bars in a turbo generator have a large cross-sectional area.
In addition they are usually one single turn per bar, as opposed to motors or small
generators that have multiple turn bars or coils. These stator or conductor bars are
also very rigid and do not bend unless significant force is exerted on them.

ROTOR
The rotor winding is installed in the slots machined in the forging main body and is
distributed symmetrically around the rotor between the poles. The winding itself is
made up of many turns of copper to form the entire series connected winding. All
of the turns associated with a single slot are generally called a coil. The coils are
wound into the winding slots in the forging, concentrically in corresponding
positions on opposite sides of a pole. The series connection essentially creates a
single multi-turn coil overall, that develops the total ampere-turns of the rotor
(which is the total current flowing in the rotor winding times the total number of
turns). There are numerous copper-winding designs employed in generator rotors,
but all rotor windings function basically in the same way. They are configured
differently for different methods of heat removal during operation. In addition
almost all large turbo generators have directly cooled copper windings by air or
hydrogen cooling gas.

Rotor of a Turbo Generator

Cooling passages are provided within the conductors themselves to eliminate the
temperature drop across the ground insulation and preserve the life of the
insulation material. In an axially cooled winding, the gas passes through axial
passages in the conductors, being fed from both ends, and exhausted to the air gap
at the axial center of the rotor. In other designs, radial passages in the stack of
conductors are fed from sub slots machined along the length of the rotor at the
bottom of each slot. In the air gap pickup method, the cooling gas is picked up
from the air gap, and cooling is accomplished over a relatively short length of the
rotor, and then discharged back to the air gap. The cooling of the end-regions of
the winding varies from design to design, as much as that of the slot section. In
smaller turbine generators the indirect cooling method is used (similar to indirectly
cooled stator windings), where the heat is removed by conduction through the
ground insulation to the rotor body. The winding is held in place in the slots by
wedges, in a similar manner as the stator windings. The difference is that the rotor
winding loading on the wedges is far greater due to centrifugal forces at speed. The
wedges therefore are subjected to a tremendous static load from these forces
and bending stresses because of the rotation effects. The wedges in the rotor are
not generally a tight fit in order to accommodate the axial thermal expansion of the

rotor winding during operation. There are also many available designs and
configurations for the end-winding construction and
ventilation methods. As in the rotor slots, the copper turns in the end-winding must
be isolated from one another so that they do not touch and create shorts between
turns. Therefore packing and blocking are used to keep the coils separated, and in
their relative position as the rotor winding expands from thermal effects during
operation. To restrain the end winding portion of the rotor winding during highspeed operation, retaining-rings are employed to keep the copper coils in place.

BEARINGS
All turbo generators require bearings to rotate freely with minimal friction and
vibration. The main rotor body must be supported by a bearing at each end of the
generator for this purpose. In some cases where the rotor shaft is very long at the
excitation end of the machine to accommodate the slip/collector rings, a steady
bearing is installed outboard of the slipcollector rings. This ensures that the
excitation end of the rotor shaft does not create a wobble that transmits through the
shaft and stimulates excessive vibration in the overall generator rotor or the turbo
generator line. There are generally two common types of bearings employed in
large generators, journal and tilting pad bearings. Journal bearings are the most
common. Both require lubricating and jacking oil systems, which will be discussed
later in the book, under auxiliary systems. When installing the bearings, they must
be aligned in terms of height and angle to ensure that the rotor sits in the bearing
correctly. Such things as shaft catinery must be considered and
pre-loading or shimming of the bearings to account for the difference when the
rotor is at standstill and at speed. Getting any of these things wrong in the
assembly can cause the rotor to vibrate excessively and damage either the rotor
shaft or the bearing itself. Generally, a wipe of the bearing running surface or
babbitt results.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
All large generators require auxiliary systems to handle such things as lubricating
oil for the rotor bearings, hydrogen cooling apparatus, hydrogen sealing oil, demineralized water for stator winding cooling, and excitation systems for fieldcurrent application. Not all generators require all these systems and the
requirement depends on the size and nature of the machine. For instance, air cooled
turbo generators do not require hydrogen for cooling and therefore no sealing oil as
well. On the other hand, large generators with high outputs, generally above 400
MVA, have water-cooled stator windings, hydrogen for cooling the stator core and
rotor, seal oil to contain the hydrogen cooling gas under high pressure, lubricating
oil for the bearings, and of course, an excitation system for field current. There are
five major auxiliary systems that may be used in a generator. They are given as
follows:
1. Lubricating Oil System
2. Hydrogen Cooling System
3. Seal Oil System
4. Stator Cooling Water System
5. Excitation System
Each system has numerous variations to accommodate the hundreds of different
generator configurations that may be found in operation. But regardless of the
generator design and which variation of a system is in use, they all individually
have the same basic function as described before.

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled
windings, with or without a magnetic core, for inducing mutual coupling between
circuits. When an alternating current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field exists
around the conductor. If another conductor is placed in the field created by the first
conductor such that the flux lines link the second conductor, then a voltage is
induced into the second conductor. The use of a magnetic field from one coil to
induce a voltage into a second coil is the principle on which transformer theory and
application is based.

A 220 kV Transformer at Power Plant

ANSI/IEEE defines a transformer as a static electrical device, involving no

continuously moving parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power
between circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction. The transformer is
one of the most reliable pieces of electrical distribution equipment. It has no
moving parts, requires minimal maintenance, and is capable of withstanding
overloads, surges, faults, and physical abuse that may damage or destroy other
items in the circuit. Often, the electrical event that burns up a motor, opens a

circuit breaker, or blows a fuse has a subtle effect on the transformer. Although the
transformer may continue to operate as before, repeat occurrences of such
damaging electrical events, or lack of even minimal maintenance can greatly
accelerate the eventual failure of the transformer. The fact that a transformer
continues to operate satisfactorily in spite of neglect and abuse is a testament to its
durability. However, this durability is no excuse for not providing the proper care.
Most of the effects of aging, faults, or abuse can be detected and corrected by a
comprehensive maintenance, inspection, and testing program. Transformers are
exclusively used in electric power systems to transfer power by electromagnetic
induction between circuits at the same frequency, usually with changed values
of voltage and current. There are numerous types of transformers used in various
applications including audio, radio, instrument, and power. In Badarpur Thermal
Power Station, we deal exclusively with power transformer applications involving
the transmission and distribution of electrical power. Power transformers are used
extensively by traditional electric utility companies, power plants, and industrial
plants. The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used
between the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at
220 kVA and above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of
generation locations, distribution points, and interconnections within the system or
with nearby systems, such as a neighbouring utility. The complexity of the system
leads to a variety of transmission and distribution voltages. Power transformers
must be used at each of these points where there is a transition between voltage
levels. Power transformers are selected based on the application, with the emphasis
toward custom design being more apparent the larger the unit. Power transformers
are available for step-up operation, primarily used at the generator and referred to
as generator step-up (GSU) transformers, and for step-down operation, mainly
used to feed distribution circuits. Power transformers are available as single-phase
or three-phase apparatus.

A Power Transformer at a Thermal Power Plant

CONSTRUCTION
A power transformer is a device that changes (transforms) an alternating voltage
and current from one level to another. Power transformers are used to step up
(transform) the voltages that are produced at generation to levels that are suitable
for transmission (higher voltage, lower current). Conversely, a transformer is used
to step down (transform) the higher transmission voltages to levels that are
suitable for use at various facilities (lower voltage, higher current). Electric power
can undergo numerous transformations between the source and the final end use
point.
Voltages must be stepped-up for transmission. Every conductor, no matter how
large, will lose an appreciable amount of power (watts) to its resistance (R) when a
current (T) passes through it. This loss is expressed as a function of the applied
current (P=I2R). Because this loss is dependent on the current, and since the power
to be transmitted is a function of the applied volts (E) times the amps (P=IE),
significant savings can be obtained by stepping the voltage up to a higher voltage
level, with the corresponding reduction of the current value. Whether 100 amps is
to be transmitted at 100 volts (P=IE, 100 amps X 100 volts = 10,000 watts) or 10
amps is to be transmitted at 1,000 volts (P=IE, 10 amps X 1,000 volts = 10,000
watts) the same 10,000 watts will be applied to the beginning of the transmission
line.
If the transmission distance is long enough to produce 0.1 ohm of resistance
across the transmission cable, P=I2R, (100 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 1,000 watts will be
lost across the transmission line at the 100 volt transmission level. The 1000 volts
transmission level will create a loss of P=I2R, (10 amp)2 X 0.1 ohm = 10 watts.
This is where transformers play an important role.
Although power can be transmitted more efficiently at higher voltage levels,
sometimes as high as 500 or 750 thousand volts (kV), the devices and networks at
the point of utilization are rarely capable of handling voltages above 32,000 volts.
Voltage must be stepped down to be utilized by the various devices available. By
adjusting the voltages to the levels necessary for the various end use and
distribution levels, electric power can be used both efficiently and safely.
All power transformers have three basic parts, a primary winding, secondary
winding, and a core. Even though little more than an air space is necessary to
insulate an ideal transformer, when higher voltages and larger amounts of power

are involved, the insulating material becomes an integral part of the transformers
operation. Because of this, the insulation system is often considered the fourth
basic part of the transformer. It is important to note that, although the windings and
core deteriorate very little with age, the insulation can be subjected to severe
stresses and chemical deterioration. The insulation deteriorates at a relatively rapid
rate, and its condition ultimately determines the service life of the transformer.

Core
The core, which provides the magnetic path to channel the flux, consists of thin
strips of high grade steel, called laminations, which are electrically separated by a
thin coating of insulating material. The strips can be stacked or wound, with the
windings either built integrally around the core or built separately and assembled
around the core sections. Core steel can be hot- or cold rolled, grain-oriented or
non grain oriented, and even laser-scribed for additional performance. Thickness
ranges from 0.23 mm to upwards of 0.36 mm. The core cross section can be
circular or rectangular, with circular cores commonly referred to as cruciform
construction. Rectangular cores are used for smaller ratings and as auxiliary
transformers used within a power transformer. Rectangular cores use a single
width of strip steel, while circular cores use a combination of different strip widths
to approximate a circular cross-section. The type of steel and arrangement depends
on the transformer rating as related to cost factors such as labour and performance.
Just like other components in the transformer, the heat generated by the core must
be adequately dissipated. While the steel and coating may be capable of
withstanding higher temperatures, it will come in contact with insulating materials
with limited temperature capabilities. In larger units, cooling ducts are used inside
the core for additional convective surface area, and sections of laminations may be
split to reduce localized losses. The core is held together by, but insulated from,
mechanical structures and is grounded to a single point in order to dissipate
electrostatic buildup. The core ground location is usually some readily accessible
point inside the tank, but it can also be brought through a bushing on the tank
wall or top for external access. This grounding point should be removable for
testing purposes, such as checking for unintentional core grounds. Multiple core
grounds, such as a case whereby the core is inadvertently making contact with
otherwise grounded internal metallic mechanical structures, can provide a path for
circulating currents induced by the main flux as well as a leakage flux, thus
creating concentrations of losses that can result in localized heating. The maximum
flux density of the core steel is normally designed as close to the knee of the

saturation curve as practical, accounting for required over excitations and

tolerances that exist due to materials and manufacturing processes. For power
transformers the flux density is typically between 1.3 T and 1.8 T, with the
saturation point for magnetic steel being around 2.03 T to 2.05 T.
There are two basic types of core construction used in power transformers: core
form and shell form.
In core-form construction, there is a single path for the magnetic circuit. For
single-phase applications, the windings are typically divided on both core legs as
shown. In three-phase applications, the windings of a particular phase are typically
on the same core leg. Windings are constructed separate of the core and placed on
their respective core legs during core assembly.

Schematic Diagram of Shell-form Construction

In shell-form construction, the core provides multiple paths for the magnetic
circuit. The core is typically stacked directly around the windings, which are
usually pancake-type windings, although some applications are such that the
core and windings are assembled similar to core form. Due to advantages in shortcircuit and transient-voltage performance, shell forms tend to be used more
frequently in the largest transformers, where conditions can be more severe.

Variations of three-phase shell-form construction include five and sevenlegged

cores, depending on size and application.

Schematic Diagram of Shell-form Construction

Windings
The windings consist of the current-carrying conductors wound around the sections
of the core, and these must be properly insulated, supported, and cooled to
withstand operational and test conditions. Copper and aluminum are the primary
materials used as conductors in power-transformer windings. While aluminum is
lighter and generally less expensive than copper, a larger cross section of Al
conductor must be used to carry a current with similar performance as copper.
Copper has higher mechanical strength and is used almost exclusively in all but the
smaller size ranges, where aluminum conductors may be perfectly acceptable. In
cases where extreme forces are encountered, materials such as silver-bearing
copper can be used for even greater strength. The conductors used in power
transformers are typically stranded with a rectangular cross section, although some
transformers at the lowest ratings may use sheet or foil conductors. Multiple
strands can be wound in parallel and joined together at the ends of the winding, in
which case it is necessary to transpose the strands at various points throughout the

winding to prevent circulating currents around the loop(s) created by joining the
strands at the ends. Individual strands may be subjected to differences in the flux
field due to their respective positions within the winding, which create differences
in voltages between the strands and drive circulating currents through the
conductor loops. Proper transposition of the strands cancels out these voltage
differences and eliminates or greatly reduces the circulating currents. A variation
of this technique, involving many rectangular conductor strands combined into a
cable, is called continuously transposed cable (CTC).
A view of Pancake Winding In core-form transformers, the windings are usually
arranged concentrically around the core leg, which shows a winding being lowered
over another winding already on the core leg of a three phase transformer. Shellform transformers use a similar concentric arrangement or an interleaved
arrangement. With an interleaved arrangement, individual coils are stacked,
separated by insulating barriers and cooling ducts. The coils are typically
connected with the inside of one coil connected to the inside of an adjacent coil
and, similarly, the outside of one coil connected to the outside of an adjacent coil.
Sets of coils are assembled into groups, which then form the primary or secondary
winding. When considering concentric windings, it is generally understood that
circular windings have inherently higher mechanical strength than rectangular
windings, whereas rectangular coils can have lower associated material and labour
costs. Rectangular windings permit a more efficient use of space, but their use is
limited to small power transformers and the lower range of medium power
transformers, where the internal forces are not extremely high. As the rating
increases, the forces significantly increase, and there is need for added strength in
the windings, so circular coils, or shell-form construction, is used. In some special
cases, elliptically shaped windings are used. Concentric coils are typically wound
over cylinders with spacers attached so as to form a duct between the conductors
and the cylinder. As previously mentioned, the flow of liquid through the windings
can be based solely on natural convection, or the flow can be somewhat controlled
through the use of strategically placed barriers within the winding. This concept is
sometimes referred to as guided liquid flow. A variety of different types of
windings have been used in power transformers through the years. Coils can be
wound in an upright, vertical orientation, as is necessary with larger, heavier coils;
or they can be wound horizontally and placed upright upon completion. As
mentioned previously, the type of winding depends on the transformer rating as
well as the core construction. Several of the more common winding types are
discussed further.

Taps-Turns Ratio Adjustment

The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to
compensate for variations in voltage that occur due to the regulation of the
transformer and loading cycles. This task can be accomplished by several means.
There is a significant difference between a transformer that is capable of changing
the ratio while the unit is on-line (a load tap changing [LTC] transformer) and one
that must be taken off-line, or de-energized, to perform a tap change. Most
transformers are provided with a means of changing the number of turns in the
high voltage circuit, whereby a part of the winding is tapped out of the circuit. In
many transformers, this is done using one of the main windings and tapping out a
section or sections. With larger units, a dedicated tap winding may be necessary to
avoid the ampere-turn voids that occur along the length of the winding. Use and
placement of tap windings vary with the application and among manufacturers. A
manually operated switching mechanism, a DETC (deenergized tap changer), is
normally provided for convenient access external to the transformer to change the
tap position. When LTC capabilities are desired, additional windings and
equipment are required, which significantly increase the size and cost of the
transformer. This option is specified on about 60% of new medium and large
power transformers. It should be recognized that there would be slight differences
in this schematic based on the specific LTC being used. It is also possible for a
transformer to have dual voltage ratings, as is popular in spare and mobile
transformers. While there is no physical limit to the ratio between the dual ratings,
even ratios (for example 24.94 X 12.47 kV or 138 X 69 kV) are easier for
manufacturers to accommodate.

MAINTENANCE AND TESTING

Heat and contamination are the two greatest enemies to the transformers
operation. Heat will break down the solid insulation and accelerate the chemical
reactions that take place when the oil is contaminated. All transformers require a
cooling method and it is important to ensure that the transformer has proper
cooling. Proper cooling usually involves cleaning the cooling surfaces, maximizing
ventilation, and monitoring loads to ensure the transformer is not producing excess
heat.
Contamination is detrimental to the transformer, both inside and out. The
importance of basic cleanliness and general housekeeping becomes evident when
long term service life is considered. Dirt builds up and grease deposits severely

limit the cooling abilities of radiators and tank surfaces. Terminal and insulation
surfaces are especially susceptible to dirt and grease build up. Such buildup will
usually affect test results. The transformers general condition should be noted
during any activity, and every effort should be made to maintain its integrity
during all operations.
The oil in the transformer should be kept as pure as possible. Dirt and moisture
will start chemical reactions in the oil that lower both its electrical strength and its
cooling capability. Contamination should be the primary concern any time the
transformer must be opened. Most transformer oil is contaminated to some degree
before it leaves the refinery. It is important to determine how contaminated the oil
is and how fast it is degenerating. Determining the degree of contamination is
accomplished by sampling and analyzing the oil on a regular basis.
Although maintenance and work practices are designed to extend the
transformers life, it is inevitable that the transformer will eventually deteriorate to
the point that it fails or must be replaced. Transformer testing allows this aging
process to be quantified and tracked, to help predict replacement intervals and
avoid failures. Historical test data is valuable for determining damage to the
transformer after a fault or failure has occurred elsewhere in the circuit. By
comparing test data taken after the fault to previous test data, damage to the
transformer can be determined.

SAFETY
Safety is of primary concern when working around a transformer. The substation
transformer is usually the highest voltage item in a facilitys electrical distribution
system. The higher voltages found at the transformer deserve the respect and
complete attention of anyone working in the area. A 6.6 kV system will arc to
ground over 1.5 to 2.5 in. However, to extinguish that same arc will require a
separation of 15 in. Therefore, working around energized conductors is not
recommended for anyone but the qualified professional. The best way to ensure
safety when working around high voltage apparatus is to make absolutely certain
that it is de-energized.
Although inspections and sampling can usually be performed while the
transformer is in service, all other service and testing functions will require that the
transformer is deenergized and locked out. This means that a thorough

understanding of the transformers circuit and the disconnecting methods should be

reviewed before any work is performed.
A properly installed transformer will usually have a means for disconnecting both
the primary and the secondary sides; ensure that they are opened before any work
is performed. Both disconnects should be opened because it is possible for
generator or induced power to back feed into the secondary and step up into the
primary. After verifying that the circuit is de-energized at the source, the area
where the work is to be performed should be checked for voltage with a hot stick
or some other voltage indicating device.
It is also important to ensure that the circuit stays de-energized until the work is
completed. This is especially important when the work area is not in plain view of
the disconnect. Red or orange lock-out tags should be applied to all breakers and
disconnects that will be opened for a service procedure. The tags should be highly
visible, and as many people as possible should be made aware of their presence
before the work begins.
Some switches are equipped with physical locking devices (a hasp or latch). This
is the best method for locking out a switch. The person performing the work should
keep the key at all times, and tags should still be applied in case other keys exist.
After verifying that all circuits are de-energized, grounds should be connected
between all items that could have a different potential. This means that all
conductors, hoses, ladders and other equipment should be grounded to the tank,
and that the tanks connection to ground should be verified before beginning any
work on the transformer. Static charges can be created by many maintenance
activities, including cleaning and filtering. The transformers inherent ability to
step up voltages and currents can create lethal quantities of electricity.
The inductive capabilities of the transformer should also be considered when
working on a de-energized unit that is close to other conductors or devices that are
energized. A deenergized transformer can be affected by these energized items,
and dangerous currents or voltages can be induced in the adjacent windings.
Most electrical measurements require the application of a potential, and these
potentials can be stored, multiplied, and discharged at the wrong time if the proper
precautions are not taken. Care should be taken during the tests to ensure that no
one comes in contact with the transformer while it is being tested. Set up safety
barriers, or appoint safety personnel to secure remote test areas.