CHAPTER 1

Introduction
An increase in the individual ownership of motorized vehicles has led to an exponential
increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in commercial areas and urban
establishments and an increase in the number of long distance highways connecting
remote corners of the country. While this has significantly improved the quality of life it
has also come with a host of problems- increase in traffic cause increase in travel time for
small distances, concentration of traffic in certain routes that cause traffic jams, increase
in the number of accidents between cars and increase in vehicular collation with animals,
constructions and inanimate obstacles. This had put human life, animal life and
infrastructure in jeopardy. A solution that integrates the different mitigating factors and
remains constantly vigilant against the possibility of collision is required.
The three key areas in which improvement is called for are sensing, prevention and
mapping. Sensing involves real-time sensing and relaying of information about which
portions of the road are occupied, what is the speed of the objects that are on the road,
what are the conditions of the road in terms of wear and tear, humidity etc. Prevention is
the use of the sensed information to predict calamity and prevent it, either by warning the
participants involved of the impending catastrophe or by activating systems that have
been implemented to prevent the sensed calamity. Mapping involves that placement,
nature and distribution of the legends- like electrical traffic signs and inanimate painted
STOP signs, lane demarcation, distributions etc that allow the road to communicate with
the traffic and direct it.
Furthermore, we need a smart system that reduces that possibility of accidents by
relaying real-time information about traffic, the conditions of the road. Such a system
needs to be capable of communicating and relaying information with a computer, be easy
to repair and be capable of change.
On the other hand, with an increase in demand for energy and the rapid depletion of nonrenewable energy sources, there is an urgent need to develop technologies that are
capable of harnessing the natural resources that we have in a manner that is lucrative and
effective. With electricity being a universally needed resource- whether it be in the
domestic field with household appliances and artificial climate control, the social spherefor the lighting and operation of public spaces [roadways, stations], commercial
endeavors- in large and small scale factories to run machinery, or medical establishments
like large and small scale hospitals.
The leaders of both developing and developed nations have been calling for a large scale
overhaul in our power production systems with an increasing social awareness of the
impeding energy crisis and the impact of conventional energy sources on the
environment. Individual entrepreneurs, social reformers and small scale industry has
1

responded to this need with a wide array of solutions that address small scale individual
needs- like lighting for domestic purposes, powering of daily use gadgets etc.
Though this exodus towards alternate sources is not entirely unprecedented, it differs
from its predecessors in one major way- it not only seeks to find a sustainable alternate
energy source, it seeks minimize the environmental impact of such a move. It has now
become important not only to find a source of energy that will be sufficient to reliably
meet the energy needs of this and the next generation, but for this source not be
antagonistic to the environment. While there are quite a few such sources to be found in
nature, one source that has risen quickly to prominence as a plausible solution to our
needs is solar energy.
Solar energy aims to harness the power of the global incident sunlight and channel this to
perform work. While traditional methodologies have used this energy since ancient times
to perform small scale domestic tasks, it has only been recently that solar technology has
become a viable solution- after technology to covert solar energy to electricity has been
developed and improved.
Large scale solar projects, while not at the pace required to address the energy crisis, are
slowly being undertaken by corporations and governments that recognize their value.
Countries like China already derive a significant portion of their domestic energy from
solar powered power stations and are looking to expand their solar power production
capacities. This project looks into a way to address the energy demands using solar
technology.

1.1

Objective and goal of the project

This project is a study, proposal and prototyping of a solar powered intelligent highway
that is made up of solar cells and has [through an array of sensors] the capacity of sense,
prevent and map. This is inspired by the work of a startup in Idaho that is striving to do
the same for a small community in its state.

1.1.1 Objective
The objective of this project is to propose a solution that will simultaneously address two
urgent problems and open up the field of possibilities for in intelligent and eco-friendly
system. The key objectives are to study the needs, constraints and advantages of different
possible solutions and create a proposal accordingly.
In the following pages, I will outline the need for an alternate resource of energy, the
constraints and advantages of solar energy. I will also outline the features of an intelligent
highway and the aspects that I intend to prototype.

1.1.1.1- Requirements of an energy source- the key needs that must be

satisfied by an energy source if it is to be viable.
For any solution to be viable for large scale use I needs to fulfill the following
criteria Continuity- It needs to provide energy continuously throughout the day
whenever there is a demand for it. This can be done by focusing the
production to certain parts of the day and storing the produced
electricity in storage devices.
Reliability- The source needs to produce energy without being
susceptible to failure due to small changes in the physical environment
or operation
Sustainability- The source needs to last long term without needing fuel
whose availability might compromise the production of energy or being
susceptible to some other factor that might be likely to change and
disrupt production
Environmental impact- The source needs to be eco-friendly and not
cause any short or long term damage to the environment during its
implementation and operation.

1.1.1.2- Why solar technology? The need for a switch to solar

technology and the shortcomings of conventional technology.
Of all the available renewable eco-friendly sources of energy that are
available for harnessing the most promising right now for immediate
implementation is solar energy. The following are the reasons why Universality- Sunlight is available almost everywhere and for a major
portion of the year [if not the whole year round] unlike tidal/wind/hot
springs etc.
Cost of implementation- The main requirement for production of solar
energy is a solar cell. Individual cells and panels while expensive, are
not nearly as expensive to be effective as wind farms and tidal power
plants.
Efficiency of technology- due to the commercial interest and viability
of solar technology there is a lot of scientific research in the field of
solar energy that has led to the creation of solar technology that is
effective.

1.1.1.3- Constraints in application and practical problems

There are certain constraints with the commercial applications of solar
technology. They are the following

Space requirement The space required to put up a working power

solar power plant is much larger that the space required for other
technologies as the solar plant. This is because the solar plant converts
incident solar radiation into energy and to do so it needs maximize
incident radiation.
Conversion efficiency While there have been great strides in solar
technology the maximum efficiency of conversion is still quite low [4154% for high grade specialized industrial applications]

1.1.1.4- Intelligent highways- what they entail, ways in which they can
be used.
Highways have become a common feature of the urban landscape and
highways and roadways occupy a large portion of the landscape. The current
system of highways and road has a few inherent problems they are
susceptible to wear and tear but not easy to replace, they are not environment
friendly, and they need to be monitored externally. An intelligent highway
circumvents these problems and has the following features

Sensing -Real-time sensing and relaying of information about which

portions of the road are occupied, what is the speed of the objects that
are on the road, what are the conditions of the road in terms of wear
and tear, humidity
Prediction and prevention- sensing information to predict calamity and
prevent it, either by warning the participants involved of the
impending catastrophe or by activating systems that have been
implemented to prevent the sensed calamity.
Mapping- placement, nature and distribution of the legends- like
electrical traffic signs and inanimate painted STOP signs, lane
demarcation, distributions etc that allow the road to communicate with
the traffic and direct it.

1.2

Goals

The goals of this project are the following

1.3

Application of solar technology- an analysis and comparison of the existing solar

technology and proposal on the ideal choice for implementation of the same.
Implementation of smart highway
o Creation of obstacle detection system to detect of objects on the road
o Creation of speed detection system to detect the speed at which obstacles
are moving.
o Creation of accident prevention system- to predict based on the speed of
obstacles and the direction in which obstacles are moving
o Warning system- to activate a system of road lights to ensure that if a
collision has been detected the road will glow red to warn the vehicle.
o Creation of road humidity sensing system
o Intelligent marking system to make changeable markings on the road
using LED lights.
o Neural networks based prediction system to analyze road traffic.

Literature survey

Since the idea of a solar roadway is relatively new and only being attempted one other
research team, there are only a few papers relating directly to this topic. Most of the
relevant literature is theoretical or pertaining to solar power production.

WCECS (2008) Development of Generalized Photovoltaic Model Using

MATLAB/SIMULINK This paper suggests a plan for the matlab
implementation of a PV panel that will be useful for all the simulations of PV
panels that are done in the project for testing of commercial PV panels.
Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (2011)- Analysis of
Road Traffic Fatality Data for Asia- This provides a study centered in Asia that
concentrates on the WHO report for accidents and checks its statistics for the
Asian countries. It provides useful insights into the causes of accidents.
ScienceDirect (2009) Economic Feasibility of solar-powered led roadway
lighting- This is a study on the feasibility of the LED roadway and it is useful to
see the comparison between traditional systems of lighting and this proposed
alternative.

CHAPTER 2

The principles behind solar power production and accident

prevention
Solar cells covert the energy from the rays of the sun into usable electricity.
Based on the way this conversion is done to achieve the goal of electricity, solar
technology is divided into two types- solar thermal energy and photovoltaic
energy [PV]. The type that I will be using in this project is PV. In the following
pages, the methods for conversion and considerations are discussed in brief.
A majority of road accidents are preventable occurrences that have been caused
by an error in human response and judgment. In the following, I have briefed the
statistical evidence related to the same and demonstrated the need for an
intelligent highway.

2.1

Solar power generation

The generation of a current of inducement of a voltage in a material upon exposure to light is

known as photovoltaic effect. PV cells ae units of silicon based semiconductor substance
that use the photovoltaic effect to turn the suns energy directly into electricity.
To generate as much electricity as possible, PV panels need to spend as much time as
possible in direct sunlight. The semiconductor is also coated in an antireflective
substance, which makes sure that it absorbs the sunlight it needs instead of scattering it
uselessly away.
When sunlight strikes the panel and is absorbed, it displaces valence electrons from some
of the atoms in the semiconductor. The electric field applied on the semiconductor acts
on the loose electrons and a force is developed on them, creating an electric current. The
current produced from PV panels is DC. Before it can be used, it has to be changed into
AC current using an inverter.

2.2

Solar resource

Reliable solar resource data are essential for the development of a solar project. While
these data at a site can be defined in different ways, the Global Horizontal Irradiation (the
total solar energy received on a unit area of horizontal surface) is generally of most
interest. A high long term average annual GHI is desired.
There are two main sources of solar resource data: satellite derived data and land-based
measurement. Since both sources have particular merits, the choice will depend on the
specific site. Land based site measurement can be used to calibrate resource data from
other sources (satellites or meteorological stations) in order to improve accuracy and
certainty.
As solar resource is inherently intermittent, an understanding of inter-annual variability is
important. At least 10 years of data are usually required to give the variation to a
reasonable degree of confidence.
A computer simulated rendition of the total area required based on the solar resource of
the location is attached at the end of this chapter- Image 2.1.

Image 2.1: A rendition of the surface area required to power global energy needs.

2.3
7

Road accident causes and the need for a smart system

The majority of road crashes are caused by human error. Research has shown that driver
error accounts for over 80% of all fatal and injury crashes on roads.
In 2004 The World Health Organization pointed out Without new or improved
interventions, road traffic injuries will be the third leading cause of death by the
year 2020 in the World Report On Road Traffic Injury Prevention.
In order to address this problem, we need to create a system that not only senses and
predicts the possibility of human error leading to accidents but also works proactively
with the drivers to ensure that the possibility of human error is significantly reduc

2.4

Solar power highways

The surface area of land mass that is covered by highways in India is 4,689,842
kilometers which makes it the second largest network of roadways in the world. The
quantitative density of India's road network (0.66) is similar to that of the United States
(0.65) and far higher than that of China (0.16) or Brazil (0.20).
The major roadway in India- the national superhighways, the golden quadrilateral- are
used by freight traffic that transports goods across state lines.
While the overall number of such users is high, the density of traffic in many regions is
low due to the expansiveness of the roadways. This leaves several thousands of miles of
highway that is exposed to incident sunlight on a daily basis with little to no interruption.
The second major factor in the consideration of the solar roadways is the fact that a
massive proportion of freight traffic that uses highways to transport goods, enters the
major cities only at night.
The trucks are high weight vehicles that move at speeds exceeding 80kmph which
increases drastically the risk of fatal accidents. Furthermore, the drivers of freight traffic
are predominantly hired contractors who work on a shipment basis and often travel long
periods of time without sleep or rest, which decreases their alertness and increases their
response time.
This dramatically increases the risk of accident due to human error. It is to address this
risk that a system needs to be developed.

CHAPTER 3
Design of intelligent highway
There are several aspects to consider in the implementation of the solar roadway which
deal with both the problems faced by design for conventional roads and the unique
implications of a solar powered smart road. In the following pages, I will discuss the key
considerations to take into account, the solutions for the same.

3.1

Design considerations in the implementation of a solar roadway

In the design and implementation of any roadway there are some aspects to be taken into
consideration for the roadway design to be commercially viable and fiscally responsible.
They include but are not limited to

Durability perhaps the most important consideration in the design of a highway

is its ability to withstand the mechanical load without sustaining too much
damage. The highway must be capable of handling very heavy loads [upwards of
4000kgs for class2/class3 trucks] for long durations without developing
mechanical issues.

Ease of repair- Since all forms of roadways, no matter the material of

constructions, are eventually likely to sustain damage, it is important that they are
easy to repair- spot replacements of segments of the road as compared to
complete reconstructions of entire sections of roadway. This will become all the
more important in an economically distressed world where countries cannot
afford the regular and large scale maintenance of roadways.
Usage- In any system of roadways it is important to consider whether the cost of
construction is justified by the regularity of use. In a conventional system where
the only use of the roadway is to convey traffic, this calculation is done based on
the average vehicular traffic for that segment of the road and the estimated need
for connectivity. In a solar highway, because the highway is being productive
even when there is not vehicular traffic, such an analysis would have to consider
the profit from power production and solar capacity.

3.2
A basic classification of roadways based on the estimated
incident radiation on that segment of the road and use

The different segments of a proposed solar highway can be classified based on

the potential applications of that segment. By demarcating different segments of
the road to address different needs we can better maximize the use and reduce the
costs that will be associated with wastage of potential. Such a classification can
be done by gathering data about incoming solar radiation, incident traffic and
use. It can also be improved upon by using a neural network based algorithm to
use real time information and compute the changes accordingly. The types of
roads based on such a classification could be

Power production units- Will consist of pv cell only and will be used
predominantly for the purpose of power production. Ideally this will be
units that will receive maximum sunlight and minimum traffic so long
stretches of national highway that are away from commercial areas.
Dual roadway lighting/intelligent pathway and power production For
suburban areas where the traffic is only limited to certain times of the day
[like the morning and evening between 7-9AM and 5-7PM] the roads are
exposed to sunlight for most of the day. Further, in domestic settings
there is an increased risk of accidents between pedestrian traffic and
vehicles. Hence these areas can be calibrated to perform dual function.
Intelligent pathway units [connected to gird]- In the portions of the road
that see heavy traffic throughout the day, there isnt much scope for solar
power production but there is a great need for relaying real time
information and for directing traffic safely. These sections can draw
power from the power production sections of the road and utilize the
energy.

The most important feature of this classification as demonstrated is the incident solar
radiation available to the road. Using the governmental classification of roadways we can
compare it to the aforementioned to see which road will be useful for which purpose

3.3

10

Express highways- They are divided highways with at least 4 lanes, usually
interstate- Ideal for production of power because the incoming solar radiation is
never blocked for sustained periods of time
Partial Access Highways: A highway that allows access at other streets, probably
at a stop light- there are some chances of a traffic jam at peak hours but during
rest of the day, power can be produced.
Domestic/County roadways-Need smart roadways as they are most accident
prone/Due to high occurrence of traffic jams/parked cars, not optimal for power
production

Design challenges

Due to the regulatory restrictions that have been imposed by the government, industry
standards and equipment compatibility, there arise certain design challenges that need to
be addressed. In the following pages they have been described.

3.3.1

Maximum number of modules in a string

The maximum number of modules in a string is defined by the maximum DC input

voltage of the inverter to which the string will be connected to (Maximum voltage of
inverter DC). Crossing the limit can decrease the inverters operational lifetime or render
the device inoperable.
Highest module voltage that can occur in operation is the open-circuit voltage in the
coldest daytime temperatures at the site location.
Therefore for different parts of a national [longer] highway this will be different but for a
domestic environment it is not needed to change the string length.
The commercial norm for string length is 36 modules and the simulations have been done
with this string length.

3.3.2

Number of strings

Maximum number of PV array depends on the maximum allowable PV array current and
the maximum inverter current. Exceeding this limit leads to premature inverter ageing
and yield loss of the inverter.
This therefore depends on the selection of the inverter

3.3.3

Leakage resistance value

Leakage resistance must be used to prevent discharge of current between the ground [at 0
potential] and the solar cell mounted onto the ground. There are two competing
parameters to be considered- The larger the resistance the lesser the leakage but larger
resistances are very expensive. So from the simulation we will find an acceptable level of
leakage resistance to be used in the system
We measure voltage values and compare the result

11

Figure 3.1:

12

Equivalent p-v system used for leakage resistance simulation

Figure 3.1: Simulation of PV module to calculate voltage at different leakage

resistances

13

From the simulations illustrated in Figure 3.2 it can be seen that for all the values of
resistance above 1000 ohms the voltage fluctuation is limited and withinan acceptable
range [between 1.81 to 1.85V] so 1000ohms is a sufficient amount of leakage reistance.

3.3.4

Inverter sizing- according to government standards

As a rule of thumb it is bent to use an inverter-to-array power ratio less than 1.

In this way the inverter manages to curtail power spikes not anticipated by the irradiance
profiles. Grid code compliances will also be met using this ratio

3.3.5

Thermal considerations- impact of heat on solar cells

The ambient environment in which a solar cell operates can affect its efficiency of power
production. To calculate the impact of temperature on the solar cell -using an ideal cell
comparing different external temperatures we find-

14

Figure 3.2: Comparision of the voltage production of an ideal solar cell under
different temperatures.

15

The productivity of the solar cell at 0 centigrade is highest for the string [21.1V at 273K]
and it progressively drops as temperature increases [20.86V at 293K, 20.72V at 303K,
20.4V at 323K, 20.1V at 353K]
The ideal temperature will be 0C but practically achieving this will require power
consumption- so in the choice of the material material must be heat resistant to maintain
the temperature in the 293-303K range

3.4

Material choices

One of the important decisions to be taken in the design of a power plant is the choice of
appropriate material. This choice is driven by the materials compliance to the following
factors
Durability- The material chosen must have the ability to withstand heavy
weights and changes in temperature and humidity.
o Thermal properties- material chosen must have resistance to heat to reduce
the temperature or maintain the temperature within the ideal range in order
to ensure that the solar cells that are operating under it can have a
conversion efficiency that is maximum.
o Transparency- The material chosen must be transparent so that the solar
cell can produce power efficiently without compromising the quality of
quantity of the incoming solar radiation.
o Cost efficiency The material chosen must be cheap in order for the
project to be viable economically and for the solar roadway to be
implemented widely.
o Environmental impact- The material chosen must not be hazardous to the
environment.
o Ease of access- The material chosen must be readily available/easy to
manufacture if this is to be implemented on a large scale.

3.4.1

Material Choice 1: Toughened glass

Toughened glass is also known as tempered glass and it is a type of safety glass that
is processed by controlled thermal or chemical treatments of ordinary glass. It is treated
to increase its strength compared with normal glass. There are certain advantages to using
toughened glass, they are

16

It is physically and thermally stronger than regular glass which makes it

very durable even with very high loads.
It does not shatter when broken-this reduced risk of injury from damaged
roads
It is highly transparent so in no way affects the incoming solar radiation to
the cells

But there are also certain disadvantages to the same a few of which are

3.4.2

There can be no structural change can be made once hardened so if there is an

improvement in the design then it can only be implemented by completely
overhauling the system
It has a high price
It must be custom forged so it takes longer to get and is only supplied by a few
suppliers.

Material Choice 2: Polycarbonate

Polycarbonates, are a particular group of thermoplastic polymers that are easily worked,
molded, and thermoformed. This makes them useful for a wide array of different
applications. The advantages of this material are the following

It has excellent toughness so in terms of durability it is a viable option for high

traffic heavy load carrying regions of the road.
It has a very good heat resistance so it can maintain the solar cells at the ideal
temperature.
Its transparency is almost equal to glass
It has excellent dimensional and color stability
Can be made flame resistant so there is no possibility of damage in case of an
explosion on the road the cells will be protected

The only disadvantages of this material is that it is moderately expensive and does not
have the chemical resistance of toughened glass.

Figure 3.3: Impact strength of polycarbonate

3.4.3
17

Comparison of materials

A comparison of the physical properties of the two materials is as followsProperty

Polycarbonate

Hardened glass

Refractive index

1.58

1.40006

working

115c-130c

230c-250c

thickness

1mm-2mm

6.5-8mm

Thermal resistance

Superior [0.19w/mk]

1.5w/mk

Mechanical properties

Strong, durable and high

shock resistance

Strong, susceptible to
shattering and thermal
expansion

Upper
temperature
Minimum
needed

From the table of properties of the two materials we can make the following
comparisons

Polycarbonates are cheaper than hardened glass

Hardened glass has refractive index much closer to real glass [1.40016 to 1.58 of
polycarbonate] which means its transparency is greater which means that it
doesnt interfere with power production.
Hardened glass also has better upper working temperature [230c to 130C of
polycarbonate] which means it will not respond negatively to fires.
Hardened glass very thick [6.4mm]and cannot easily be made into different
shapes to polycarbonate can be made to 1 mm
Polycarbonate though has far superior thermal resistance [0.19 to 1.5 of
polycarbonate] and is much more effective in keeping the equipment thermally
isolated
Polycarbonate is also mechanically much stronger than glass and capable of
withstanding high weights
So based on a cost/voltage/equipment fragility/mechanical load requirements the choice
can be made
Since we need the surface to mechanically durable for high loads and have very good
thermal resistivity but also be easy and cheap to make we should choose polycarbonate.
18

3.5
Choice of the PV Cell: Comparison of 36 module strings of
different manufacturers for current
In the following few pages I will compare the different commercially available solar cells
and contrast their voltage and power ratings and choose the best option.

Figure 3.5: Simulation of a PV cell used for the analysis

19

Figure 3.4: Simulations of Fraunhaufer, sharp PV response to temperature 293K

Comparing we see that thought Kyocera is most affected by the change in temperature
[not a continuous level of voltage maintained] and Kyocera produces least volatge in
ideal temperature if we can be sure that at all times in the day and all months of the year
the temperature will not be below 20C then Kyocera might be the ideal choice for solar
cell.

CHAPTER 4
For the prototype of the smart highway, the following implementations have been made.
In this chapter, I will outline in detail the method, circuit diagram and code for the same.

4.1
System for the detection of speed of obstacles and color
sensor for braking vehicles
In the following I have outlined the hardware setup and the code that has
been used to

4.1.1

Independent proximity sensing IR sensor

For applications where a control unit is not required and only detection of obstacle is
needed for example in lighting distant portions of the road if there is a pedestrian or
animal crossing- an independent IR sensor can be used to activate an LED light. The
intensity of the light is a function of the proximity of the obstacle
20

4.1.1.1

Supply voltage regulation unit

To power the module we need a source of constant power supply of 5V for which we
need a power modulation unit.

4.1.1.1.1

Parts used

9V battery
PCB
LM7805
Capacitors: 0.1uF ceramic disk (code 104), 1.0uF, 10uF electrolytic
Resistor: one 330 ohm
Red LED

4.1.1.1.2

Circuit diagram

The connections were made according to the following circuit diagram

Figure 4.1: Circuit diagram for power modulator

4.1.1.2

Independent IR sensor

An IR sensor is made up of two LEDS- one emits the IR radiation and the other is an IR
radiation sensor. When an obstacle is close by the IR radiations are reflected off it and
picked up by the IR sensor which conducts electricity as a result.
21

Figure 4.2: Working of an IR sensor

4.1.1.2.1

Parts used

Controlled voltage source

PCB
IR Led pair
Capacitors: 0.1uF ceramic disk (code 104), 1.0uF, 10uF electrolytic
Resistor: one 330 ohm
White LED

4.1.1.2.2

Circuit diagram

Figure 4.3: Circuit diagram for independent IR sensor

4.1.2
22

Speed detection using ultrasonic sensor

The ultrasonic sensor functions in much the same way as an IR sensor except instead of
sending out IR light it sends out sound beams and collects reflected sound beams.

4.1.2.1

Components and hardware setup

The components the Arduino board and the ultrasonic sesnsor [along with the
breadboard, connecting wires etc] are connected as follows-

Figure 4.4: Circuit diagram for connection of a single ultrasonic sensor

4.1.2.2

Program

In the following program I use the analog signal from the ultrasonic sensor, convert the
microsecond time measurement into a distance in cms and use the time delay to calculate speed.
int trigPin = 2;
int echoPin = 4;
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop(){
long duration;
float cm;
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);
duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);

23

cm = microsecondsToCentimeters(duration);
Serial.print(cm);
Serial.print("cm");
Serial.println();
delay(1000);
}
float microsecondsToCentimeters(long microseconds){
return (microseconds*0.034029)/2;
}

4.2
Systems for the control of an LED matrix that represents
interconnected solar cells using an IR remote control
To implement a road that is capable of intelligently mapping itself by changing the
activation of LEDs along the individual units in it.
The cells are connected in a grid with a series running through the length part of the
system and the positive end connected across the lateral.
The cell LEDs can be controlled individually by activating a specific row or column
associated with the cell or they can be controlled together by activating multiple row and
multiple columns

4.2.1

LED matrix

To implement a road that maps the following is a scheme for an LED matrix that can be
controlled by an Arduino

24

Figure 4.5: Circuit diagram for the LED matrix

4.2.2

IR remote control

The IR remote is a device that transmits a decodable number that can be read by an IR
receiver and used to develop code that responds to the activation

4.2.2.1

25

Components and hardware

IR Remote
IR Reciever TSOP4383
LEDs
Resistors- 330 Ohms
Breadboard
Ardino board

Figure 4.6: Circuit diagram for connection of IR receiver to Arduino

4.2.2.2

Code

Code for initially calibrating the IR sensor to the Arduino and getting the values of the IR
remote
#include <IRremote.h>
int IRpin = 11;
IRrecv irrecv(IRpin);
decode_results results;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
irrecv.enableIRIn();
}
void loop()
{
if (irrecv.decode(&results))
{
Serial.println(results.value, DEC); // Print the Serial 'results.value'
irrecv.resume();
}}
Code values from the remote
26

power=33441975
mute=4060080635
1 first=33444015
2nd=33478695
3th=33486855
4th=33435855
5th=33468495
6th=33452175
7th=33423615
8th=33484815
9th=33462375
0th=33480735
mode=33446055
eq=33431775
rpt=33427695
scn=33460335
volm+=33448095
volum-=33464415
paypause=33456255
rewind=33439935
forward=33472575
left0=33425655
right0=33433815
Code used for the control of the matrix
#include <IRremote.h>
int IRpin = 11; // IR sensor
int col1 = 0;
int col2 = 1;
int col3 = 2;
int rowr1= 3;
int rowr2= 4;
int rowr3= 5;
int rowr4= 6;
int rowr5= 7;
int rowr6= 8;
int rowg1= 9;
27

int rowg2= 10;

int rowg3= 12;
int rowg4= 13;
int rowg5= A0;
int rowg6= A1;
IRrecv irrecv(IRpin);
decode_results results;

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
irrecv.enableIRIn();
pinMode(col1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(col2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(col3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr4, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr5, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowr6, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg4, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg5, OUTPUT);
pinMode(rowg6, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{ if (irrecv.decode(&results))
{
irrecv.resume(); // Receive the next value
}
switch(results.value)
{
case 33441975:
digitalWrite(col1, LOW);
digitalWrite(rowg1,HIGH);
28

case 33444015:
digitalWrite(col1, LOW);
digitalWrite(rowr1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(rowr2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(rowr3,HIGH);
digitalWrite(rowr4,HIGH);
digitalWrite(rowr5,HIGH);
digitalWrite(rowr6,HIGH);
default:
digitalWrite(rowr1,LOW);}
}

29

CHAPTER 5
Results and Analysis
5.1

Physical design

It was seen that the two most important considerations in the physical design of the road
are thermal and material choice.

5.1.1

Thermal Considerations

The environment in which a solar cell operates affects its efficiency of power production
Based on the simulations previously presented we saw that the productivity of the PV
panel at 0 centigrade is highest for the string [21.1V at 273K] and it progressively drops
as temperature increases

5.1.2

Material Choice

It was seen that the choice of material [based on the requirements of the design] needs to
be durable, transparent, cost efficient, chemically resilient and immune to temperature
change.
A comparison of the available choices for materials was done and the significant results
wereProperty

Polycarbonate

Hardened glass

Refractive index

1.58

1.40006

115c-130c

230c-250c

Superior [0.19w/mk]

1.5w/mk

Upper
temperature

working

Thermal resistance

30

5.2

Electrical design

Electrical design of the system involved designing a system that would be capable of
accepting input from sensors and analyzing that input in order to assess the possibility of
accidents. It also involves choosing the right commercially available PV cell based on
simulations of the physical environment in which that cell will operate.

5.2.1

Choice of PV cell

The choice of PV panel depends on the response of the panel to environmental conditions
and its voltage and current levels for the given irradiance profile for the location of
implementation.
The three best commercially available brands that produce PV panels for industrial use
are Fraunhaufer, Sharp and Kyocera. A comparative analysis of them was done.
Comparing we saw that thought Kyocera is most affected by the change in temperature
[not a continuous level of voltage maintained] and Kyocera produces least volatge in
ideal temperature, if we can be sure that at all times in the day and all months of the year
the temperature will not be below 20C then Kyocera has the best productivity.

5.2.2

Implementation of applications

The applications to be implemented were sensing, prediction and mapping. They were
achieved in the following way-

5.2.2.1

Sensing

Sensing was done using three sensors- humidity sensor, ultrasonic distance sensor, IR
reader and IR sensor. The range of the sensors used in the prototype are in cms and for
the actual implementation it is recommended that sensors with much wider range are
used.
The sensors were made to work independent of a control unit [like in the case of the IR
sensor which was used to light the road only when an obstacle is in its path.
The ultrasonic sensor, IR reader and humidity sensor were used with the Arduino control
unit to constantly monitor the values on the sensor and get real-time information from the
road.

5.2.2.2

Prediction

The most important prediction function was the accident prevention system. This was
implemented using a code that reads the input from the ultrasonic sensors which was fed
into the Arduino which was then used to compute the speed and direction of obstacles
which was then used to calculate if the obstacles were on a collision path. If it was found
31

that they were then the program would, based on the calculated speed activate a portion
of the LED matrix to signal to the vehicle that it was on a collision path.

5.2.2.3

Mapping

The smart mapping was simulated by creating an RGB LED matrix that is connected to
an Arduino that is controlled by an IR remote control device. This allows us to remotely
change the markings on the road.

32

CHAPTER 6
Conclusion
The energy crisis has become a defining problem for this generation and solutions that
are implementable and beneficial must be found soon. This project is one such solution
and as demonstrated in the course of this study, aside from the benefits of energy
production, there are a lot of other applications that can be implemented in a move to an
intelligent highway system that is made up of interconnected units that are capable of
producing energy and relaying information via sensors.
In the study, we saw that polycarbonate, due to its superior thermal and mechanical
properties and its relatively cheap price and easy availability is the ideal choice for a
material. We saw that temperature is s determining factor in the power production
capacity of a cell and with ambient temperature of the subcontinent in mind the Kyocera
PV is the best commercially available option. Then, using a set of sensors that have been
linked to a control unit, an implementation of the proposed solar powered highway was
done. In conclusion, such a highway would go a long way in solving both- the issue of
shortage of clean energy and the prevention of human error based accident.

33

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Std.2363. IEEE guide for selection, charging, test, and evaluation of lead
acid batteries in stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system;2003
[2] Elvik, R. & Vaa Truls [2004] The handbook of road safety measures. Amsterdam
[3] Elsevier. Expert Committee On Auto Fuel Policy [2002] Urban road traffic and
air pollution in major cities: Volume 1. Government of India, New Delhi.
[4] Jacobs, G., Aeron-Thomas, A. & Astrop, A. [2000] Estimating Global Road
Fatalities. Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, U.K.,
[5] TRL Report 445. Kopits, E. & Cropper, M. [2005] Traffic fatalities and economic
growth. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37, [1] 169-178.
[6] Mohan, D. [2008a] Traffic Safety and City Structure: Lessons for the Future
[7] Mohan, D. [2008b] Road traffic injuries: a stocktaking. Best Practice & Research
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[8] W.H.O. (2009a) Road traffic injuries publications and resources: Related
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34