SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

KANNUR UNIVERSITY

A Self Instructional Course Material on

COMMON COURSE I
SDE 1 A 01 ENG
CRITICAL REASONING AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Prepared by
Rafseena M
Assistant Professor
Department of English
Sir Syed College
Taliparamba

SDE-SYLLABI FOR COMMON COURSES: 2011 ADMISSION ONWARDS

COMMON COURSE I: CRITICAL REASONING AND COMMUNICATION

SKILLS

COURSE CODE

SDE 1 A 01 ENG

TITLE OF THE COURSE CRITICAL REASONING AND COMMUNICATION

SKILLS
YEAR

CREDITS

CORE TEXT

Critical Reasoning & Academic Presentation

Skills by Marilyn Anderson, Pramod K Nayar
et al, Pearson 2009

AIM OF THE COURSE

To develop analytical and critical thinking skills in students in order to prepare
them to logically analyze and critically evaluate a variety of texts and to speak
and write and make presentations effectively
General improvement of the students ability in vocal and written modes of
expression and reading.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE: On completion of this course, student will be able:

To differentiate between facts and opinions and to identify fallacies in
arguments
To appreciate the value of looking at an issue from various points of view and
to develop the habit of questioning ones own views and possible biases
To successfully manage academic writing and presentation.

 To communicate better vocally as well in writing in formal, semi-formal and

informal situations.
To speak, listen and read better

COURSE OUTLINE

PART A: CRITICAL REASONING AND P RESENTATION SKILLS

MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING

A. Introduction to Critical Thinking: Benefits of Critical Thinking - Barriers to

Critical Thinking
B. Arguments: What is and what is not of argument - Recognizing Argument
Evaluation of Arguments - Deductive and Inductive argument C. What are fallacies: Fallacies of relevance appeal to emotion the appeal to
pity the appeal to force the argument against the person irrelevant
conclusion
D. Critical thinking and evaluation of sources social influence and critical
thinking Persuasion, conformity and Critical Thinking Critical thinking and
Prejudices.
MODULE 2: THINKING AND WRITING CRITICALLY

Characteristics of Critical and Analytical Thinking language of critical

thinking strategies and steps for critical thinking Sense of audience
Precision and Clarity, Selection of Relevance Sequencing of arguments Sign posting, Conventions in Critical Thinking - Evaluating Critical Writing
Note: Lectures should be complemented by appropriate activities mentioned in
the core text.

MODULE - III: THE PROCESS OF WRITING:

A. Researching Resources for writing: collection of Data Print resources Library, Net sources, Individuals
B. Reading for writing: Strategies for active writing Dictionary use
Annotate
C. Mechanics of Writing: Develop a plan from title Evaluating a text - notemaking and Note taking, paraphrasing, summary-writing Planning a text:
organizing
D. paragraphs, main body, introduction, conclusion, rewriting, proof reading
Elements of writing: cause and effect, cohesion, comparison, definition,
discussion, examples, generalization, statistical data, references, quotations,
style-synonyms, visual information: Charts, tables etc
E. Accuracy in writing: Abbreviation, Articles: singular and Plural,
determiners and nouns, Irregular plurals - propositions phrasal verbs
Modal verbs Conveying ability, necessity, advisability, possibility,
probability etc - Tenses Voice adverbs and adjectives, conjunctions,
formality in verbs, - nationality-language, time words nouns and adjectives,
prefixes, suffixes.
MODULE IV: Writing models: formal letters, Curriculum Vitae, Job
application, Reports - Designing and Reporting Surveys, Seminar Reports Project reports, Documentation

MODULE V: Presentation Skills

A. Soft Skills for Academic Presentations: Theory - The audience - primary

and secondary and their knowledge and expectations - the objective of the
presentation - choosing the appropriate medium for presentation techniques of effective presentation - Structuring the presentation - visual

presentation aids, handouts, Power point presentation, L.C.D - Clarity and

persuasion - Non verbal communication - Opening and Closing Time
Management.
READING LIST:
A. CORE READING: CRITICAL REASONING & Academic

Presentation Skills by Marilyn

Anderson, Pramod K Nayar et al. Pearson Longman, 2009.

B. REFERENCE TEXTS

Sl.No

Title

Author

Publisher & Year

Critical Reasoning &

Marilyn Anderson, Pramod Pearson Longman, 2009

Academic Presentation

K Nayar et al.

Skills (CORE TEXT)

Critical Thinking: A

Gregory Bassham, William

Students Introduction,

Irwin, Henry Nardone,

2nd Edition

James M.Wallace

Critical Thinking Skills

Stella Cottrell

McGraw-Hill, 2006

Palgrave Macmillan,
2005

Critical Thinking:

Richard Paul and Linda

Pearson Education,

Learn the Tools the

Elder

2006

John Butterworth & Geoff

Cambridge University

Thwaites

Press, 2006

Marilyn Anderson

Pearson Longman

Mary and Russell Lynn.

Pearson education Ltd.,

Best Thinkers Use

5

Thinking Skills

Keys to Successful
Writing

Guide to Presentations

London, 2007)
8

Study Writing: A

Liz-Hamp-Lyons & Ben

Cambridge University

Course in Writing Skills Heasly

Press, 2007

for Academic Purposes

9

10

Presentation Skills for

Joan Van Emden &

Palgrave Macmillan,

Students

Lucinda Becker

2004

Academic Writing

Stephen Bailey

Routledge, London,
2004.

WEB RESOURCES
www.criticalthinking.org
http://www.ou.edu/ouphil/faculty/chris/crmscreen.pdf
www.thinkersway.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/olib.html
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing
http://www.uni-magdeburg.de/sprz/migalk/academic_writing.htm

PART B: Communication Skills

MODULE I: Pronunciation and Naturalization of Language: Phonemic

Notations: Vowels, Diphthongs, Triphthongs Consonants - Stress: Syllables
Word Stress: in Monosyllables, Polysyllables, Stress in words used as both
nouns and verbs - Stress in compound words Sentence Stress - Strong, Weak
and Contracted forms - Intonation: Falling and Rising Intonation Different
accents influence of Mother Tongue .

MODULE II: Listening Skills: Barriers to Listening: Listening and hearing,

active listening, barriers Academic Listening: Listening and note-taking
Listening to announcements Listening to News on the Radio and Television:
Listening for specific information, overall information.

MODULE- III: Speaking Skills: Theory and Practice: Recall the

foundational phonetic insights provided Module 1.1 Rules of word stress,
stress and rhythm, pauses and sense groups falling and rising tones fluency
and pace of delivery Small talk Conversations Formal speech
Descriptions Group Discussions Telephone Communication
Appointments.

IV: Reading Skills: Reading with a purpose Scanning Surveying a text

with index Making predictions in reading Text Structure Inferences
Reading Graphics Reading Critically - Reading for Research.

Note: Speaking and listening skill to be promoted using the CD provided with the text

CORE TEXT: COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH, Sasikumar V.,Kiranmai Dutt and

Geetha Rajeevan, Cambridge University Press. New Delhi. 2009.

B) TEXTS FOR CORE READING AND REFERENCE:

Sl.
No

Title

Author

Publication details

Sasikumar
1

COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN

V.,Kiranmai Dutt

Cambridge University

ENGLISH

and Geetha

Press. New Delhi. 2009

Rajeevan
2

Study Listening: A Course

Tony Lynch

Cambridge University

in Listening to Lectures and

Press (2008)

Note-taking
3

Study Speaking: A Course

Anderson,

Cambridge University

in Spoken English for

Kenneth, Joan

Press, 2008

Academic Purposes

Maclean and Tony

Lynch

Study Reading: A Course in

4

Glendinning, Eric

Reading Skills for Academic H. and Beverly

Cambridge University
Press. 2008

Purposes

Holmstrom

Spoken English Part I & II:

Kamlesh

Orient Longman Pvt Ltd

A Foundation Course for

Sadanand, &

(2008)

Speakers of Malayalam

Susheela Punitha

Oxford Guide to Effective

John Sealy

OUP, New Delhi, 2007

Communication Studies

Sky Massan

Palgrave, Macmillan

Effective Communication

Joan Van Emden

for Arts & Humanities

and Lucinda

Students

Becker

Writing and Speaking

7

Palgrave, Macmillan

5. Web Resources: A significant number of sites can be accessed on search with

keywords like: Reading Skill, Writing Skill, speaking Skill and Communication Skill.

Module 1

Introduction to Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It makes one a
good philosopher. In other words, it makes one a wise person. Critical thinking makes
a person an intellectually responsible adult- a person who is able to think through
things to come up with a judicious evaluation of circumstances. Critical thinking
includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.
The critical thinker may face many circumstances in his or her life. For
instance, it might be a circumstance where one has to decide which course to be
pursued, or which political ideology to be followed, or it might be a circumstance
where one has to find a convincing solution from detaining ones friends from using
drugs. Whatever be the circumstances, what is required is a kind of intellectual
integrity. Critical thinking helps us in achieving this intellectual integrity.
Any student who asks the question Why should I think critically? or to be
specific- Why am I required to do a course on critical thinking?- is a critical thinker
already. Whenever we demand for an answer, we are thinking critically. But this
doesnt mean that one has to be intelligent or gifted or a logician or argumentative
lawyers. Whenever someone tries to find out answers to the questions raised by others
towards them or by oneself, the person who is asking these questions is also
demanding justifications- justifications for doing something or not doing something,
justifications for believing something or not believing something.
Like every human action, thought is also a human action. So we should take
responsibility for our thought process also. One may be praised when he or she thinks
in a way which reflects sense and intellectual responsibility or may be blamed when
he or she is wrong in his or her judgment. One must always remember that as
intellectually responsible adult, one must think things through for ourselves and think
them well. One cannot escape from the responsibilities.

Benefits of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking makes a person an intellectually responsible adult. When a
person becomes a critical thinker, one is able to
Reflect (become rational), that is, become sensible or be able to give a reason;
Follow certain standards of critical thinking (learn to exercise good rational
judgment);
Think through things for ourselves (develop a sense of rational responsibility);
Focus (learn to select relevant and important matters);
Come to believe or do things on the basis of reason rather than emotion or
prejudices (become reasonable and open-minded).
Critical thinking process can be developed by adopting certain practices and
measures. First and foremost, one should develop a questioning attitude. This
questioning attitude may be either self-directed or directed towards others. When we
are self-critical, each belief is tested on the basis of evidence and makes a judgment
whether what we believe follows rationally from the evidence we have. In this
manner, one forms a belief which one is ready to defend with the help of reason.
Some guidelines are set which must be followed if one has to examine a
problem. The guidelines are as follows:
S: State it
E: Elaborate (explain it more fully, preferably in ones own words)
E: Exemplify (give a good example)
I: Illustrate (give an illustration such as a metaphor, a simile, an analogy,
a diagram, a concept map etc.)
The above guidelines will help one to become clear, accurate, precise and
enables one to come up with a view that is relevant, adequately deep and broad, and
also logical. In addition to this, it provides a special strength of mind which is free
from bias and prejudices. It also helps in developing a mind which is liberal and which
cannot be easily be fooled or over-powered by cunning cajoling.
A person with good critical thinking skills will also make a good decision
maker. The people who are trained in critical thinking skills have the rare quality of
being intellectually responsible. In addition to this, they are fair, reasonable, rationally

and intellectually self-sufficient, not easily corrupted, not easily brain-washed, more
or less free from biases and prejudices, and are able to take right decision by
themselves by making the right kind of evaluation of a circumstance. Critical thinking
can be applied not only in the evaluation of certain circumstances, but also in
academic matters where students get the benefit by applying the skills in learning their
subject effectively.

Barriers to Critical Thinking

Though critical thinking is a good enriching process for any person, sometimes
some serious barriers arise which becomes a problem to critical thinking. Some of
these barriers when identified are sociological as well as psychological in nature.
Though many such barriers can be traced out, for the time being a few may be
discussed in detail. The barriers to critical thinking are as follows:

1. Social brainwashing and our view of the world

A critical thinker is a person who works his or her way through the world in a
reflective way. But for this, one needs to have a clear idea about the world around him
or her. One usually forms a view about the world around him or her from his or her
surroundings which in turn is influenced by the views of their parents. This view may
not be always unbiased. There are may be many influences upon the lives of people at
different stages of their life. But, the strongest of all influences turns out to be that of
electronic and print media. We believe we live in a world that the newspapers and
news channels make us believe we live in. This hidden and indirect control of the
various media upon our lives and thought process hinders a free and reflective thought
process. This sort of control can be considered to be the greatest barrier to critical
thinking.

2. Tendencies to think in binaries

Every human being, whether male or female, always has the tendency to think
in binaries, like bad or good, just or unjust, we or they, liberal or conservative, black

or white, absolute or relative, objective or subjective etc. This thought process of

thinking in binaries is common to the common man. But the world and worldly
phenomena that we face are not to be judged in terms of binaries. The tendency to
think in terms of binaries often leads to bad philosophy and often results in the
breakdown of personal relations. For a critical thinker, the tendency to think in
binaries may create problem in their judicious evaluation of circumstances.

3. Fears regarding free thinking

Yet another important barrier to critical thinking is the fear regarding free
thinking. It often happens that one often follows the path of others in expressing their
ideas, in spite of realizing that they are wrong. One often follows the path of others
mainly because one is scared to be the first to make a new opinion. This fear has its
roots in the fear of making mistakes, or the fear of making oneself a fool before
others. This is a result of a kind of intellectual diffidence. The reason behind this
intellectual diffidence may be traced to a sociological one where the societies often
discourage free thinking. Ironically, we may also find our educational system to be a
victim of a patronizing spirit which discourages free thinking. Therefore, a free
thinker finds himself or herself at odds to come up with new ideas as he or she feels
cornered and they require enough courage and self-will to come out and express what
he or she thinks is right.

4. Egocentrism
Egocentrism is another barrier which produces a serious threat to critical
thinking. All of us think that we are the centre of the universe. Some are
megalomaniacs and some are not. Yet, everything is viewed from our own
perspective. But for a critical thinker, one has to overcome such attitude and be able to
appreciate other ways of looking at things.

5. Personal interests and personal experience

In every persons life, there are certain commitments that determine the path
we take in our life. The past experience of an individual determines the allegiances,

emotional and social commitment. So, one often finds it difficult to come up with
reasonable views and opinions in situations where there is tremendous pressure
exercised by our past experiences and commitments.

What is and what is not an argument?

Critical thinking is a process where one applies logic and reasoning especially
when one is concerned with inferences and arguments. A critical thinker recognizes an
argument and evaluates it. We are making arguments daily to our parents, siblings,
friends, teachers, peers and work-mates in support of what we believe, why we do and
what we think. Many arguments are raised often during sessions like debates where
contenders often try to resolve or dissolve the debate. But, one has to remember that
arguments are always backed by reason or evidence. It is in this respect that an
argument differs from an opinion.
The difference between an argument and an opinion can be shown using the
example given below.
The BJP was doing a better job in running the country than the Congress Party
is doing now.
Logicians are humourless people.
The above given examples are instances of opinions and not of arguments.

The BJP was doing a better job in running the country than the Congress Party
is doing now because during their tenure there was less unemployment and the
inflation was lesser.

Logicians are constantly engaged in exercise of reason, which has no place for
emotions. An emotionless person is incapable of humour. So, all logicians are
humourless people.
The above given examples are instances of bad arguments but they are arguments and
cannot be considered as mere opinions. In some cases, we form opinions by following
rational deliberation, which in turn is based on arguments and these again are based
upon reason or evidence. But we must also remember that not all opinions are based
on arguments. At different levels of analysis, be it the political level or the personal
level, one comes to form opinion which may not be at par. Critical thinking helps one

in forming opinions on the basis of evidence and arguments because opinions on

serious and controversial matters have to be defended by rational arguments.
Let us now study what is an argument and how can we recognize an argument
in detail.

Recognizing an argument
An argument is a string of connected statements of which some are premises on
the basis of which one of them, i.e., the conclusion is established. In other words, an
argument consists of two parts, viz., the premise and the conclusion. The principal
claim that an argument is trying to persuade us to accept is the conclusion. The claim
used to support the principal claim is called the premise. The premise can be more
than one. For instance,
All Kathakali dancers are from Kerala. Raghu is a Kathakali dancer. So Raghu
is from Kerala.
In this example, the following points have to be noted:
The principal claim is that Raghu is from Kerala.
So the conclusion is Raghu is from Kerala.
In order to support this principal claim, two supporting claims are made from which
the conclusion follows. These are premises. The premises are:
All Kathakali dancers are from Kerala
Raghu is a Kathakali dancer.
In an argument, we can have just one premise also. Not all arguments need more than
that.
Let us now try how to recognize an argument. To recognize an argument, there
should be the following features:
1. Find a string of statements.
2. These statements have to be related.
3. The relation should be such that some of the statements give support to one of
the statements.
4. The supporting statements are premises.

5. The supported statement is the conclusion, which usually follows words like
therefore or so.
In order to recognize the premises and conclusion of an argument in a better
manner, there are certain words that may be regarded as indicator words for premises
and conclusion respectively. These indicator words not only point out that an
argument is being made, but it also helps to identify premises and conclusion of an
argument effectively. The indicator words for premises and conclusion are given
below.

Indicator words for premises

since
because
for
it follows from
as is indicated by
given that
is established by the fact that
is implied by

Indicator words for conclusions

therefore
thus
so
hence
it follows that
then
in conclusion
accordingly
consequently
as a result

 implies
shows
establishes
Premises are also known as supporting statements .Conclusion is also known as
the principal claim and the supported statement.

Evaluating an Argument
When we are trying to understand what an argument is, we realize that it is an
attempt at establishing a claim on the basis of other claims. If I give an argument for
the claim A by giving it a support by claim B and claim C, then what I am saying is
that if you accept claim B and claim C, then you also have to accept claim A. I say
this because claim A follows from claim B and claim C. It is as if claim A is hidden
inside claim B and claim C and we have to bring out that claim. But, one thing to be
kept in mind is that at no point do I suggest or accept that the claims A, B and C are
true. Let us now try to understand and evaluate an argument through an example.
Argument 1:
Mahatma Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi.
Rajiv Gandhi is the father of Varun Gandhi.
So, Mahatma Gandhi is the grandfather of Varun Gandhi.
The argument discussed above is an extremely good one though its premises and
conclusion are false. The falsity of premises and conclusion does not make this
argument a bad one.
What we have to keep in mind when analyzing and evaluating an argument is
the truth content of a statement and the logical content of a statement. In the above
example, let us try to apply the truth content and logical content of the statement.
Consider the statement Mahatma Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi. In this
statement, we may ask whether it is true or not. Here we are trying to find out the truth
content of the statement. If both the premises are true then we can conclude that the
conclusion is also true applying the logical content of the statement. If there is any
error with the logical content of the statement, then the argument made is an invalid

one. So the most important point to be remembered is that validity is an important

concept in logic.

Argument 2:
Firoze Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi.
Rajiv Gandhi is the father of Rahul Gandhi.
So, Firoze Gandhi is the grandfather of Rahul Gandhi.
Here, all the statements in the argument (both the premises and the conclusion) are
true. So the argument is a valid one.

Argument 3:
Mahatma Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi.
Rajiv Gandhi is the father of Gopal Gandhi.
So, Mahatma Gandhi is the grandfather of Gopal Gandhi.
This argument contains two false premises but there is a true conclusion.

Argument 4:
Mahatma Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi.
Rajiv Gandhi is the father of Rahul Gandhi.
So, Mahatma Gandhi is the grandfather of Rahul Gandhi.
In this argument there is one false premise and a false conclusion.
So, the main point to be noted is that one cannot find out an argument which
has two true premises and a false conclusion.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Normally we classify all arguments into one of two types: deductive and
inductive. A deductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the
premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument,
the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if
the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.
An inductive argument is an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide

reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the
premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that
the conclusion is false.
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument is an inference in which it is claimed that the
conclusion is guaranteed to be true if the premises are true. However, two important
things about deductive arguments need to be understood.
1. There is a strict relation between the premises and the conclusion. It is
impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true. This happens
so because the conclusion is contained within the premises. The premises make
the conclusion certain rather than probable.
2. The very pattern of a deductive argument ensures its validity.
Let us take a few examples to study the nature of a deductive argument in detail.
Example1:
Firoze Gandhi is the father of Rajiv Gandhi.
Rajiv Gandhi is the father of Rahul Gandhi.
So, Firoze Gandhi is the grandfather of Rahul Gandhi.
Here, the premises strictly guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
Example 2:
If Kolkata Knight Riders win the IPL, then Shah Rukh Kan will be happy
Kolkata Knight Riders win the IPL.
So, Shah Rukh Kan is happy.
The pattern or form of the argument is If X, then Y or
X.
So Y.

Some other examples which are deductive in nature are cited below.
Example 3:
There are 32 books on the top-shelf of the bookcase, and 12 on the lower shelf
of the bookcase. There are no books anywhere else in my bookcase. Therefore,
there are 44 books in the bookcase.
Example 4:
Bergen is either in Norway or Sweden. If Bergen is in Norway, then Bergen is
in Scandinavia. If Bergen is in Sweden, the Bergen is in Scandinavia.
Therefore, Bergen is in Scandinavia.
Example 5:
Smith owns only blue pants and brown pants. Smith is wearing a pair of his
pants today. So Smith is wearing either blue or brown pants today.
Example 6:
The soccer game is on either Thursday or Friday. I just found out that the game
is not on Thursday, so the game must be on Friday.
This is an instance of a deductive argument. We can tell that the argument is deductive
because the two premises (that is, the first two sentences) guarantee the truth of the
conclusion. If the two premises really are true, then there is no possible way that the
conclusion could be false.
Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is an argument where it is claimed that the conclusion
has a high probability of being true given that the premises are true. Sometimes we
need to assess one argument against another and the best way of doing it is by
determining which of the conclusions are more probable.

Example 1:
Premise 1: Most American cats are domestic house cats.
Premise 2: Bill is an American cat.
Conclusion: Bill is domestic house cat.
Example 2:
January has always been cold here in Siberia. Today is January 14, so it is
going to be another cold day in Siberia.
Example 3:
It has snowed in Massachusetts every December in recorded history.
Therefore, it will snow in Massachusetts this coming December.
Example 4:
Most Indians are fond of Cricket.
Preity Zinta is an Indian.
So, Preity Zinta is fond of Cricket.
These arguments are inductive. The premises make the conclusion likely, but they do
not guarantee that the conclusion is true. To put the point in another manner, it is
possible that the premises of this argument could be true and the conclusion could still
be false.

Fallacies
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look for them in
your own and others' writing, you can strengthen your ability to evaluate the
arguments you make, read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about
fallacies: First, fallacious arguments are very, very common and can be quite
persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. You can find dozens of examples
of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is

sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious. An argument might be

very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has
several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. In short,
fallacies are those elements that show how we may go wrong in our arguments. In
other words, they are mistaken beliefs or arguments.
But logical fallacy is different from factual errors. A fallacious argument is
made when a set of premises fails to support its conclusion logically. Sometimes it is
hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious or not.
Formal fallacies are those fallacies in the form of the arguments. Informal
fallacies are not generated due to some strangeness in the form of an argument. They
may be produced due to linguistic reasons. Informal fallacies can be divided into the
following kinds; Fallacy of Ambiguity, Fallacy of Unwarranted Assumption and
Fallacy of Relevance. Since we need to study only the fallacy of relevance in detail let
us discuss it in the next section.

The Fallacy of Relevance

When an argument is made, a critical thinker must be extremely careful in
considering whether relevant details are included or not. A critical thinker cannot
afford irrelevance. When we fail to provide adequate reason for believing in the truth
of the conclusions we want to make, then fallacy of relevance occurs. Many of the
fallacy of relevance were identified by medieval and renaissance logicians and so
many of them have Latin names. Let us look at the different types of fallacy relevance
in detail one by one.

(a) Appeal to emotion (argumentum ad populum)

Example 1:
Suppose an advertisement for diamond jewellery says: if you do not give your
wife a diamond ring for your wedding, you dont love her.

This advertisement is appealing to ones emotional weakness to make one buy a

diamond ring. But it is neither necessary nor a sufficient condition that one has to
show his love through presenting a diamond ring to the lover.
Example 2:
Mothers often say: Eat another chapatti; otherwise I will be very angry.

(b) Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)

If while persuading, one appeals to his or her sense of pity, then the fallacy of
appeal to pity is committed. Suppose an applicant for a job who gives a bad interview
says to the experts in the interview that I am the poorest and the neediest of all the
applicants and if I dont get this job my entire family will starve to death; so you
ought to give me this job.
Sometimes such an appeal may lead one to make wrong judgments. A critical thinker
has to keep emotions and thoughts apart from each other.

(c) Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum)

The appeal to force is just the opposite of appeal to pity. Suppose in interview
the candidate says to the experts.
Example:
You better give me this job or else you will get into trouble because I am the
son of the local MLA.
Here, the candidate is trying to force the experts to accept what he wants them to
accept.

(d) Irrelevant Conclusion (ignoratio elenchi)

Sometimes in an argument we give evidence that is not exactly relevant for the
particular conclusion under consideration.
Example:
All children should get ample attention from their parents.
Parents who work full-time cannot give ample attention to their children.
Therefore, mothers should not work full-time.

Here, the premises do not support the conclusion.

(d) Argument against the person
The ad hominem and tu qouque fallacies focus the attention on people rather
than on arguments or evidence. In both of these arguments, the conclusion is usually
"You shouldn't believe So-and-So's argument." The reason for not believing So-andSo is that So-and-So is either a bad person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque).
(1) Ad hominem
Ad hominem is the exact mirror image of the fallacy of inappropriate authority.
While judging the truth of a persons words and if you are biased and think that their
words cannot be taken as true because they have some sort of character flaws, then
one would be committing the ad hominem fallacy.
Example:
Suppose someone says: why should we accept what Max Muller said about
Indian Philosophy? He was not even an Indian. This would be inappropriate
because there is absolutely no reason to think only Indians can be experts in
Indian Philosophy.
(2) tu quoque
Tu quoque literally means look whos talking fallacy. Suppose your father
who has been a smoker all his life tells you: Dont smoke because smoking is bad for
your health and you say, look whos talking and continue smoking, then you commit
the fallacy of tu quoque. In spite of the fact that a smoker does not have the right to
give advice to others about smoking, what he says might be true. So by saying look
whos talking you cannot escape from the wrong you are doing.

Critical thinking and evaluation of sources

Critical thinking is learning to think for yourself and to develop your own
independent opinions, backed by sound reasoning and support. One has to take up the
role of an active participant and become a self-reliant thinker and researcher. Critical
thinking is an idea which describes the deliberate thinking that helps you to decide on

what to believe and how to act. It helps you examine a problem or issue from many
angles to arrive at the best possible solution.
When we face certain problems in academic matters, critical thinking comes to
our help. For instance, when doing research for college courses, one can apply critical
thinking techniques to design the search and evaluate the materials that have been
collected related to the research undertaken. But, students are often taught where and
how to find the information, but they are not taught how the materials collected can be
utilized effectively. Students must learn how to evaluate the various sources of
information and organize it into a research paper which is a balanced in terms of
scholarly articles and general interest articles. Scholarly articles are those articles
which focus on particular subject matter and can include such titles as the Economic
and Political Weekly, Journal of the Indian Medical Association, Social Theory, etc.
General interest titles might include Newsweek, Time, Outlook and Economist, etc.
Scholarly articles are written by those authors who are experts in a particular
field of study and generally write articles in one subject area. General interest article
writers are those writers who write on various topic but they need not be experts in a
particular field. Whenever one is reading a book or an article, several points have to
be focused.
1) Is the article or book biased? This mean does the article try to influence the
reader in thinking one way or another.
2) Does the background of the author lead to conclusions concerning the article?
3) What is the authority of the author? Is the author an expert in this particular
field of study? Does the article or book give any background information on
the author? Does the author a PhD in a subject; is she or he a physician or
researcher?
4) Is the article or of general interest? A scholarly article should include research
findings, statistics, a bibliography or references. It should be written by experts
in a particular subject. General interest titles are usually not written by subject
experts.

5) How are articles accepted for publication? Most scholarly journals have an
editorial board that comprises experts in different subject areas who determine
which articles to accept for publication.
6) Is there an abstract at the beginning of the article? An abstract is a summary of
the article. Most scholarly articles have an abstract at the beginning.
7) When looking at books, keep in mind the following questions:
Do you need books that cover new technologies; for example, in
computers or nursing?
Do you need a book with up-to-date statistics?
Do you need sources that cover new trends in a particular area?
If your answer to any of the above questions is yes, pay particular attention to the
publication date of the books.
8) When reading books, you may want to look for book reviews or a critical
analysis. Also, you could look for background information on the author that
may give you insight into what inspired that person to write the book.
Another benefit of critical thinking is the ability to narrow a research topic into
smaller pieces. For example, if an assignment is given on the topic partition of India,
it would be a very wide and big topic. So, in order to make the research focused a little
bit, one will have to narrow the topic to something like the role freedom fighters and
the role partition.
Sequencing of arguments
The step which comes after the recognition of an argument is its organization.
Judicious arrangement of the arguments is as necessary as the arguments themselves.
So, according to the opinion of critical thinking experts, there are five parts of
discourse: introduction, statement of fact, confirmation, refutation, and conclusion.
Let us discuss these five parts separately.
Introduction
The introductory part has two functions to be fulfilled. The two functions are it
informs the audience of the subject of the discourse and it renders the audience
amenable to the speakers argument one more important point to be remembered here
is the speakers ethos. Various types of introduction can be found. They are:

1. Introduction inquisitive: Does history repeat itself?(Arnold Toynbee)

2. Introduction paradoxical: As I type this, highly civilized men are flying above,
trying to kill me.(George Orwell)
3. Introduction corrective: The peanut is, in fact, a fruit.
4. Introduction preparatory: Beginnings are apt to be shadowy, and so it is with
the beginnings of that great mother of life, the sea.(Rachel Carson)
5. Introduction narrative: This also means reciting an anecdote. Long, long time
ago there lived a king and there lived a beggar. The sky was blue and the land
green.
Statement of fact
The audience is informed of the circumstances that must be known before the
formal argument is presented.
Confirmation
This is the most important section of discourse in which the argument is
presented and proven. The proper sequencing of arguments is necessary and it
depends on the particular nature of the audience, the subject, the occasion and the
subjective tastes of the speaker.
Refutation
Refutation can be achieved in various ways, including logical appeal,
emotional appeal, ethical appeal, wit, etc. sometimes it is best to present a refutation
before ones confirmation. For example, if an opposing speaker is well received, it
will be valuable to refute his arguments before offering ones own.
Conclusion
According to Aristotle, conclusion ought to do four things:
1) Restate the facts and arguments
2) Amplify the force of ones points and diminish that of ones opponents
3) Inspire through ones character(ethos)
4) Rouse appropriate emotions(pathos)
Selection or Relevance in Critical Thinking
A person, who thinks about things that are irrelevant to the issue under
consideration or speaks such irrelevant things, cannot move forward in the process of

critical thinking. When one is trying to find a solution to a problem, one must try to
find out what is relevant or important for that problem. We must find out the relevant
information. For example, if we are trying to find out the causes of global warming,
one must analyze all the possible solutions for the problem. For this, we must look
into all the environmental changes and their causes that lead to global warming. There
may be economic issues that are relevant to this problem. But if we think that some
very technical micro-economic formula is equally relevant for it, we may be wrong.
Even if we consider that the fashion trends of 1980s or1990s are relevant for the
problem of global warming, then we may be wrong in analyzing the problem. So what
is important is the selection of relevant matters for the solution of an issue.
When we are trying to find out what is relevant for a particular question under
consideration, try to keep away those issues which may be personally very important
but not at all relevant for the problem under discussion. We must be able to set aside
what is important for us and concentrate on those issues which are directly or
indirectly related to the question at hand. Suppose your ancestors were displaced from
their homeland and you have inherited strong feeling about it. When you examine the
issue of refugee problem in Eastern European countries if you bring in your personal
feelings then that would be absolutely irrelevant for the issue at hand. This is so
because the socio-political situation of Eastern Europe is quite different from the one
that resulted in your ancestors migration.
Let us look into the measures that we may take in order to find out what is
relevant to the problem or question under consideration with respect to our own
thinking and also with respect to others.
In our own case, we must reflect on the following issues:
In order to find out which are the relevant issues to the problem at hand we
need to be thorough about the problem and in considering each possible related
issue we need to question, How is this connected with my main problem?
At no point of the enquiry should we lose sight of the main problem under
scrutiny.
In order to achieve all this, we must always review our course of thinking.
We must write down all the important points and sub-points.

 We must summarize and outline.

We must try to figure out what relations the concepts that are involved in the
enquiry have with each other. For this we may take help of what is known as
concept maps.
We must sift out (separate) the relevant issue out of all the peripheral ones,
even if the peripheral issues are more interesting to us.

In the case of others, we will have to remember the following points:

We must consider seriously what the audience takes to be relevant to the
enquiry.
We must clearly indicate what we consider as important and also make it clear
what the audience takes as important by asking questions and summarizing and
analyzing.

Difficulties often arise when one is trying to solve a problem because we are
often unable to point out what is relevant. This happens because we consider a
problem in isolation whereas it should be always put in its actual context.

Language of critical thinking

Signposting
In arguments, there are certain words that may be regarded as indicator words
or signposts for premises and conclusions. These indicator words not only indicate
that an argument is being given, but also indicate which of the statements in the
argument are premises and which are conclusions.
Let us try to use the indicator words to identify the premises and conclusion of
an argument through an example.
If Susan is leaving for New Delhi early tomorrow morning then she will be
back home by 8 p.m. she is back home by 8 p.m. So she must be leaving for
New Delhi early tomorrow morning.
If we analyze this argument carefully using the indicator words for premises and
conclusion then we can identify that

The conclusion indicator in the argument is the word so.

The conclusion is: Susan must be leaving for New Delhi early tomorrow
morning.
The rest of the statements of the argument are premises.
The premises are as follows:
1. If Susan is leaving for New Delhi early tomorrow morning then she will be
back home by 8 p.m.
2. Susan is back home by 8 p.m.
Now the argument may be rewritten as follows:
Premise 1: If Susan is leaving for New Delhi early tomorrow morning then she will be
back home by 8 p.m.
Premise 2: Susan is back home by 8 p.m.
Conclusion: Therefore, Susan must be leaving for New Delhi early tomorrow
morning.

Strategies for critical thinking

Critical thinking skill development involves the following steps:
Step1: Restraining emotions
Emotions play an important role in our lives. They help us feel comparison,
help others and reach out in times of need and they help us relate to others. On the
other hand, emotions can also cause some problems in critical thinking process. For
example: consider the question Should mobile phones be banned in campus? did you
immediately form an opinion? If the answer is yes then it shows that your emotions
are not under your control. If you cannot control your emotions and you fail to use
logic, research and evidence then you are unable to examine the issue critically.
The following tips can be considered when you are faced with an emotional
decision.
Listen to all sides of argument or statement before you make your decision.
Try to understand which emotions are causing you to lose objectivity.
Dont allow your emotions to withdraw you or turn off from the situation.
Do not allow yourself to get engaged in Im right you are wrong situations.

 Try to understand why others feel their side is the correct one.
Physiological reactions to emotions such as increased heart rate and blood
pressure and an increase in adrenaline flow should be recognized as an
emotional checklist. If you begin to experience these reactions, relax, take a
deep breath and concentrate on being open minded.
Control your negative self talk towards other persons or situations.
Determine whether your emotions are essential.
Step 2: Looking at things differently
Critical thinking involves looking at an issue from many different angles. It
encourages you to understand the issue in a deeper way.
Step 3: Analyzing information
Critical thinking also involves analyzing information. To analyze, break a
topic, statement or problem into parts to understand it clearly. To do this in a better
way, you can create a chart of information using right and left hand columns which
represents good/right and bad/wrong sides of an issue or problem. After analyzing an
issue the next level is to synthesize your information which you got after analysis.
Step 4: Asking questions
Questioning is not a new thing but it may be a new technique for acquiring new
knowledge. Questioning helps to promote knowledge, solve problems, create strong
relationships and critically analyze difficult situations.
Step 5: Solving problems
One faces many types of problems in ones life. To solve a problem by
reaching at the correct conclusion is sometimes very difficult. But to make it easier
first put the problem in writing. Chalk (write) down all the aspects of the problem like
why it is a problem. Once you have identified and narrowed the problem, you can start
to find out the solution.
Another method to solve problem is by brainstorming where you can gather
ideas, formulate questions and solve problems. Brainstorming is a session where
people are gathered into a group and are asked to tell their ideas. For effective
brainstorming session, there are certain guidelines.
Identify the topic, problem or statement to be discussed.

 Set a time limit for the session.

Write all ideas on a board or a chart.
Let everyone speak.
Dont criticize people for their remarks.
Concentrate on the issue, let ideas flow.
Suspend judgment till all have given their ideas.
If the session is used for generating questions rather than solutions, each
participant should ask questions rather than make statements. Then the final
stage of this step comes where you analyze the different opinions of different
people. You are able to distinguish the strong point from the weak point.
Eliminate the weaker arguments so that you are left with only the stronger
arguments. Then you can come to a good conclusion.
Step 6: Distinguishing fact from opinion
Out of the different views of different people some may be facts and some may
be opinions. Try to make a distinction between them.
Step 7: Seeking truth in arguments and persuasion
Daily you are persuaded or forced by many methods such as the T.V,
newspaper editorials, news commentaries, political statements and religious sermons
and so on. So in this condition where you are being forced through advice or argument
to accept a view, a critical thinker should try to find out the truth in the arguments and
persuasion.
Persuasion, Conformity and Critical Thinking
Human action is grounded in human motives which in turn is grounded in
human desire and perceived interest. We daily categorize, make certain assumptions,
interpret and infer from within a viewpoint. In other words, we are naturally
prejudiced. We ponder on those things which justify and satisfy our desires. It is not
enough that one is taught to be ethical, honest, kind, generous, thoughtful, concerned
with others and respectful of human rights. The human mind creates certain situations
so that it can understand selfish desire as self-defense, cruelty as discipline,
domination as love, intolerance as conviction, evil as good.

In order to overcome or remove prejudices, one must develop critical thinking

in a special direction. For this, one requires intellectual skills as well as intellectual
character. Indeed, one must develop and refine their intellectual skills as one develops
and refines their intellectual character, to embed the skills in their character and shape
their character through the skills.
Persuasion
Persuasive discourse has the following types:
Deliberative: that which seeks to persuade someone to do something he
otherwise would not do or to accept a point of view he otherwise would not
hold. It is concerned with the future.
Example: if you do not support the Zionist party, the minorities are going to
overtake the nation.
It is a threat based on the presumption that if the minorities do take over the
nation it is going to be bad for the Zionists. In other words, this persuasive
discourse is rooted in Xenophobia- the fear of the foreign community.
Forensic: that which seeks to defend or condemn ones actions. It is concerned
with the past.
Example: Caesar was not ambitious because he had refused the crown thrice.
Ceremonial: that which celebrates or denounces. It is usually associated with
the present.
Example: Oxford is the Mecca of learning; it has the most stringent admission
policies.

Conformity
People often do create an illusion of moral character in a variety of ways. For
instance, we systematically confuse group mores with universal moral standards.
When people act in accordance with the orders and taboos of their groups, they
naturally feel right. They receive much praise in moral terms. They may be even
treated as moral leaders. Sometimes, people often cannot distinguish between moral
and religious conformity.

Prejudices
Prejudice is one of the most important problems one often encounters in
applying the tenets of critical thinking effectively. The best way to avoid prejudice is
to identify it and point it out. In a sense, people are animals whose minds are tailormade for close-mindedness and hence for bias. When we are brought up naturally
based on the circumstances and situations around us, we have many experiences,
fears, friendships, relationships and develop some sort of prejudice slowly and
steadily. Another factor which contributes to the creation of prejudices and bias is the
emotional turmoil one undergoes. But, this sort of bias and prejudice may create
hindrance in effective thinking process.
Social Influence on Critical Thinking
Society and the different social classes have a strong influence on critical
thinking. Critical belief may include consciousness of social inequality, of a dominant
ideology and of discrimination. Though there have been many opinions and views
being given by many philosophers and ideologists, critical thinking is often class and
community driven. Modern thinking lead by many modern thinkers like Althusser,
Foucault, Freud and Habermas tends to question any singular claim to being logical.
According to Habermas, three things must be kept in mind:
1) First, the logical level of presupposition concerns the production of cogent,
consistent arguments. It requires that speakers avoid contradicting themselves
and employ the meanings of expressions consistently.
2) Second, the procedural level of presupposition requires that people engaged in
discussion about a problematic claim adopt a hypothetical attitude through
which they consider the validity of claims regardless of their immediate needs
in the situation. This hypothetical attitude requires that the participants in the
argument step back from their personal perspective and consider the relevant
issues critically.
3) Finally, the rhetorical or process level of presupposition requires that the
structures of the speech situation [be] immune to repression and inequality.
Hence, in such a condition where repression and hegemony persists, one cannot have
rational argument.

Standards of critical thinking

The criteria by which we evaluate whether or not ones thinking process or
reasoning process is critical are the standards of critical thinking. These help us to
write, think and evaluate issues in a way that shows our intellectual responsibility. The
major criteria of critical thinking are as follows:
Clarity
In thinking critically, the first and foremost standard that one needs to achieve
is clarity. To any exercise that requires critical thinking, one should be able to speak
and write clearly. If one is not clear in stating his or her view clearly, others will not
be able to evaluate your view in a correct way.
For effective communication also, clarity is essential. If one wants clarity in
expression, he or she should remember the audience (to whom you are talking to or
writing to). For example, the political leaders use different words and different
examples when they address the daily workers and the businessmen based on the
context of the audience. So, clarity is context sensitive.
Conceptual clarity is also another factor essential to a critical thinker. For
example, the concept of secularism in Indian context. When someone is asked about
the meaning of secular that one becomes aware of the concept secular and tries to
analyze what it means.
Teachers are people who must be good at being clear. Experts on critical
thinking say that your thinking is clear only if one is able to state his or her meaning
clearly, elaborate it, explain it and try to give good examples and illustrations of it.
Good orators, speakers and teachers try to do this. To be clear, there are two ways: the
first way is that one should be clear about what one thinks, believes or means. The
second way is that one should find a clear way of expressing what one has in mind so
that the audience is able to understand the meaning of what one wants to convey. So
clarity should be exercised both for oneself and for others. Both these aspects are
related because if one wants to express ones thoughts clearly to others, one need to be
clear in ones mind.
There are certain methods to make it sure how one can be clear in ones own
mind and how one can express his ideas clearly to others.

In ones own case

One must be able to clearly say what one exactly means.
If asked, one must be able to elaborate any point he or she makes.
One must be able to come up with illustrations if needed.
One must re-evaluate the words and modes of explanation one uses to clarify
things further in our mind.
One must think about his or her audience and accordingly face the difficulties
that the audience may have in understanding things that one says.
One must be able to analyze any concept that one uses.
One must be able to rephrase whatever one says.
One must be able to judge hypothetical cases.
In case of others
One must say things that s\he or him\ herself have understood clearly.
One must always encourage questions from the audience and try to answer
them.
One must ask the audience from time to time what they have understood from
his or her speech; this will indicate whether one has succeeded in
communicating what one wants to communicate.
One must ask the audience to reflect on the issue in their own way and be open
to new ways of looking at any issue.
Problems or Impediments to Clarity
There are many problems in being clear. One of the greatest problems is the
lack of clarity of thought, which is the cause of the lack of clarity in articulation. This
is why when one is asked for clarifications, one is unable to make others understand
his or her idea. This is because one did not think about that thing in a deeper way.
Another reason for the unclearness in the mind is the lack of sense of intellectual
responsibility and casual approach to issues. Another important problem to clarity in
thought is the prejudices that blocks ones thought process so that ones thoughts and
speech becomes vague and obscure. If one is overcome by emotions then one is
unable to think or talk clearly.

Accuracy
To be accurate means to be true to facts. When we are making quantitative
judgments in science, accuracy is important.
Clarity and accuracy are not the same. One can be clear without being accurate.
For instance, we may say Dogs generally live up to the age of fifteen. This is a clear
statement but not an accurate one. A statement is accurate if it is true, confirmed by
evidence, defended by justifications, supported by facts, authenticated by testimony
and is guaranteed and established.
There are statements that can be declared as true or false whereas there are
some statements for which we cannot make straightforward claims of truth. In such
cases, we speak of accuracy. For example, the statement London is the capital of UK
is a factual statement which is true. Consider another example 7+5=12. This is not a
factual statement but it is true and it can be proved by reason. But consider another
example, Globalization is destroying regional cultures. This is not a factual
statement nor can we prove it to be true or false. In such cases where we cannot decide
whether it is true or not, the point of accuracy comes.
In the case of accuracy, certain measures have to be taken by ourselves to be
accurate in our thinking and also when we speak it to others.
In our own case
We must be critical before taking any information. We must judge the
credibility of the source of the information before taking it to be true or
accurate.
We must review all our beliefs with the eye of a sceptic (a person who doubts
the truth of a particular belief). We must not take the beliefs as to be true right
from the beginning, rather consider them as working hypothesis, which is open
to doubt and which is waiting for confirmation.
We may, sometimes, begin to believe what we wish for as something true.
We must examine the accuracy of what we believe, of what we read, of what
we hear and also of what is usually accepted by all. For this, we have to
continuously question the source of particular information, try to judge the
reliability of the source, and try not to accept anything without checking or

evaluating it. Try to find goods of evaluation and always try to find out counter
examples.
In case of others
We must be open to the doubts of the audience.
We must ask our audience to point out which parts of our explanation they
think is inaccurate or doubtful.
We must find out which of our statements was not understood by the audience
and try to support the statements.
Impediments to Thinking Accurately
There are many problems in thinking accurately. The first one is the lack of
enough resources which results in the difficulty to scrutinize or evaluate our resources.
Due to the lack of resources, we are unable to compare the resources with other
resources. Moreover, there are certain areas of knowledge where we have to depend
on just a single expert or resource. In such cases, it is very difficult to judge whether
the statement is accurate or not.
Another problem is caused due to our long-held beliefs which we dare not
question. This often leads us to believe what we wish to be true and we are made blind
to other alternatives.
Due to some earlier experience that we had in our life we are often tempted to
do hasty generalization. For example, if you had a very bad experience in a foreign
country, you are tempted to believe that all the people of that country are bad, which
may not be true. You are forced to do this because of xenophobia (the fear of a foreign
country).
Sometimes we believe in certain folk beliefs. Even though there may be new
facts we are not ready to think in another way though there may be facts to support the
new idea. But we dare not question our old beliefs and thereby we find it hard to judge
the accuracy of such beliefs. The same is of the influence of media. Media has
displaced old beliefs and it has taken its position. Media has an influencing power
over us, which we are not able to overcome. Media presents only those news or facts
that we wish to hear or see by which we are unable to judge its accuracy. All these
factors make it difficult for one to become an accurate thinker.

Precision
Precision is a standard of critical thinking closely connected with clarity and
accuracy. Precision means to become more specific and not to omit any details which
are relevant to the topic. If you want to convince people about your idea, you have to
be precise (specific) so that you can communicate your exact message.
The need for precision is very important. To be precise you have to take certain
measures with respect to your own thinking and also with respect to how precisely
you can communicate your thoughts to others.
In our own case
We must be able to see if our statements are supported by details or not. If not,
try to find way to gather those details.
Try to provide as much information on a particular issue as possible.
Gather detailed information from resourceful persons, from texts, from any
credible source. But you have to do cautious scrutiny.
Be comfortable in moving from the general to the specific idea as we are in
moving from the specific to the general.
In case of others
We must be open to suggestions regarding the lack of details in our own
statement.
Take help of fellow enquirers and audience to find out the area/ place which
requires further details.
Impediments to Precision
There are many problems to think and speak precisely. First of all, we are
unaware and often untrained to speak and think precisely. Often, the case that we are
discussing is so complicated that it is very difficult to think and speak precisely.
Relevance
A person who thinks about things that are irrelevant to the issue under enquiry
or speaks about such irrelevant things cannot go far in the business of thinking
critically. While thinking through some problem, we must find out what is relevant or
important for that problem. We must find and enquire into all and only those things
that are relevant to the problem.

Suppose, you are trying to find out the causes of global warming, then it would
be better if you look into the causes for environmental changes and the issues that lead
to global warming. But if you think that some very technical micro-economic formula
is equally relevant for it, you may be wrong.
So, whenever you are trying to find out what is relevant or irrelevant for an
issue, one has to keep in mind that there may be many personal issues but those issues
must not be considered as a relevant issue for the problem under consideration. We
must be able to set aside what is important for us, and concentrate only on issues that
are directly or indirectly related to the question at hand. Suppose your ancestors were
displaced from their homeland and you have inherited strong feeling about it. When
you examine the issue of refugee problem in Eastern European countries if you bring
in your personal feelings then that would be absolutely irrelevant for the issue at hand.
This is so because the socio-political situation of Eastern Europe is quite different
from the one that resulted in your ancestors migration.
Let us look into the measures that we may take in order to find out what is
relevant to the problem or question under consideration with respect to our own
thinking and also with respect to others.
In our own case, we must reflect on the following issues:
In order to find out which are the relevant issues to the problem at hand we
need to be thorough about the problem and in considering each possible related
issue we need to question, How is this connected with my main problem?
At no point of the enquiry should we lose sight of the main problem under
scrutiny.
In order to achieve all this, we must always review our course of thinking.
We must write down all the important points and sub-points.
We must summarize and outline.
We must try to figure out what relations the concepts that are involved in the
enquiry have with each other. For this we may take help of what is known as
concept maps.
We must sift out (separate) the relevant issue out of all the peripheral ones,
even if the peripheral issues are more interesting to us.

In the case of others, we will have to remember the following points:

We must consider seriously what the audience takes to be relevant to the
enquiry.
We must clearly indicate what we consider as important and also make it clear
what the audience takes as important by asking questions and summarizing and
analyzing.
Impediments to Focusing on the Relevant
The greatest impediment to thinking in a relevant way is that we feel that the
more we say or the more we write, the better is our handling of the problem. However,
this is a misunderstanding. We often lose sight of the main problem when we focus on
the length of the material we produce and the result is that we forget the more critical
issue. We must not attach importance to all the details indiscriminately, which
happens because we state whatever comes to hand without reflecting on it properly.
Our emotional attachment also proves to be a problem in missing the relevant points.
We are often unable to point out relevant details because we discuss a problem in
isolation from its actual context. In spite of all these problems, we are often able to
solve any problem.
Depth
When we follow the standards of critical thinking like clarity, accuracy,
precision and relevance in critical thinking, we achieve a certain amount of depth in
handling a problem. For this we have to go to the core of the problem and make a
threadbare analysis of it.
In order to achieve depth in our approach to a problem, we need to get to the
centre of the problem. For example, we commonly believe that floods and famines are
natural calamities. But with the help of economists and sociologists, we find that some
floods and famines are man-made. Every problem has its complexities but only a
critical mind can analyze those and such a mind has achieved the desired depth.
In our own case
We must look into the underlying structures of a thing.

 We must not ignore any lead as irrelevant without making a thorough

examination of it.
We must be prepared for complexities that may arise during our investigation
into the phenomenon under scrutiny.
We must employ our analytical ability to master the complex concepts that are
involved in the case.
In case of others
We must always give a detailed analysis of the problem to our audience before
coming up with our own solution.
We must also explain the other points or those opposing our points with the
same amount of depth and clarity.
We must take the opinion of our audience about the lack of details in our own
exposition.
The human mind gets comfort in simplicity. This is why we are hasty and
superficial in dealing with problems. In addition to being lazy, we are afraid of
complexities related to the problem and have a fear of losing control over it. This
makes us shut our eyes to such complexities. But a critical thinker can face any
problem however challenging it may be.
Breadth
A problem must be investigated not only in a deeper way but also in a broader
way. If you consider all the relevant aspects of a problem without leaving any detail
unattended then you will achieve the desired breadth. Looking into different aspects of
the issue and taking alternative approaches to it also helps us achieve the desired
broadness. Having the ability to see a problem from different perspectives is the virtue
of a critical mind.
In our own case
We must at each point ask ourselves the question whether we have considered
all the aspects of the problem.
We must at each point try to think of alternative standpoints that may be taken
on the same point that we are discussing.
We must be as exhaustive as possible.

In case of others
We must encourage our audience to offer an alternative approach on the issue
that we are discussing.
We must give all the details to the audience and be ready to give as many
illustrations and come up with as many examples as we can.
We must also be open to counter-examples that the audience might come up
with.

Module III
The Process of Writing
Academic writing is a process where one has to do a lot of research work in
order to present information, datas and facts. So basically it is thesis driven, where
thesis is the main idea or the perspective of the chosen topic. Essay writing
assignments are in away a form of academic writing where if not extensive but enough
research work has to be done on a particular topic under study. It is through the essay
that one shares his or her understanding, perception and standpoint regarding that
topic.
A. Researching resources for writing
Before one begins with the process of writing, one must be having a clear idea
about the topic on which he or she is going to write and the audience you are
targeting. First ask a question to yourself what is it that you would like to prove or
disprove, and based on that, the thesis can be developed. Select the material after
becoming certain for whom you are writing. The information can be collected after
doing a thorough research on any or all of the following sources: people, books,
magazines, indexes, newspapers, surveys and electronic sources. Once the information
is collected, sift through the data and organize it into a comprehensive matter so that
your standpoint or recommendation is articulated clearly.
Collect data from appropriate sources
Once you have found out the question to be investigated and identified the
audience, the next step is to collect the necessary information related to your topic of
research. Source based materials can be found in interviews, print sources and
electronic sources.
Interviews
A good way to gather first hand information is to conduct personal interviews
which are prearranged meeting with a person in which particular questions are asked.
Print sources
Printed sources can be found in college libraries or common reading rooms and
libraries of your locality. The printed sources include books, magazines, newspaper

articles, articles in scholarly journals, book reviews, pamphlets, encyclopaedias,

special interest encyclopaedias and various kinds of dictionaries and reference books.
Electronic sources
The articles which are published in magazines, newspapers and journals can be
found in computerized indexes. Information can also be availed through the internet
using various search engines. But, when the internet sources are used, one must be
very cautious about the authenticity of the source and it must be a reliable source. This
is because, unlike printed books which are error free to an extent and which are proof
read, the reliability of the sources from the internet cannot be assessed easily. One
more flaw in the internet sources is it is seldom been edited or reviewed by
knowledgeable readers.
B. Reading for writing
The process after the selection of materials is the reading process which is an
important stage in academic writing. A thorough reading of all the materials collected
has to be done. Though it is time consuming one must take the pains to go through all
the materials so that one will have relevant knowledge about the selected topic. This
will help in forming an idea about the topic under consideration. It is active and alert
readers who make better writers.
Strategies for Active Reading
In order to make reading an extremely enriching exercise, there are some strategies
which may be followed. The strategies are:
Preview the reading.
Use a dictionary and contextual definitions.
Annotate your text.
Summarize what you have read.
Use critical thinking to evaluate what you have read.
Preview the reading
A quick look into the various parts of the book, or any piece of writing, you are
about to read will give you a rough idea about the content and its extent. It will help
one in understanding the text better.
Use dictionary definitions and contextual definitions

In order to understand the material you are reading clearly a good dictionary
will become useful as the meaning of difficult words can be found out using
dictionary.
Annotate
When you are reading a material, you can annotate or highlight what you are
reading in many ways, thereby making notes on the margins of the textbook or the
material under study. Annotation can be done in many ways. It can be done either by
asking a number of questions or underlining important points, inserting definitions, or
indicating your agreement or disagreement through your notes.
Summarize
Summarizing what one has read is another way to read actively. A summary is
a statement of the main points or the most important ideas of the text. One point to be
kept in mind is that summarizing should be done in ones own words so that a
condensed version of the original can be created. Summarizing also tests whether one
has been able to understand the text clearly.
C. Mechanics of Writing
Once you have read enough and collected the relevant materials on the topic
you are going to write, you can start with the process of writing. Writing is a process
because it involves distinct steps beginning from developing a concept to expanding
on the basic idea to revising and polishing the final piece. There are some key points
like purpose, focus, material, structure and style.
Purpose
The writer must be clear about the purpose of writing and should do the
following things.
Express
Inform
Persuade
Focus
It refers to the main point one is wishing to make about the subject.

Material
This is the content of your writing and may include details, facts and
supporting evidence. The sources that one can use to collect the information can be:
personal experience, observation, imagination, interviews, outside readings or
research.
Structure
The order in which you arrange the material to support the main point clearly
and completely is the structure of the writing.
Style
Style involves three separate parts:
First, style refers to the way a writer puts words together to form sentences and
then groups of sentences to form longer passages.
Second, style refers to the correctness of a piece of writing.
Third, style involves conforming to format, or the proper appearance of a piece
of finished writing.
Create a captivating title
A title is a very important part of an essay. Some writers like to give a title
right from the beginning stages itself while some prefer to finish the essay, polish it
and then create a suitable title. Titles cannot function as thesis statements, but try to
create a title from one to several words long.
Check for correct manuscript format
Manuscript format refers to the general layout of a final draft, including name
and title placement, margins and page numbers. The most common format can be
followed: double space the essay on 8.5 by 11-inch white bond paper, set 1-inch
margins on the top, bottom and sides of the page, indent paragraphs, centre-align the
title, and put your name, class name and your assignment number or description in the
upper-right corner.
Develop a plan from a title
In every academic essay, there is a plan that needs to be developed from the
title. It is called the thesis statement and the purpose of the thesis. It contains the main
point, idea or opinion the writer wants to convey about a subject. It also enables the

audience to identify what a writer is going to focus on, usually before the end of the
first paragraph of the essay. An effective thesis or essay has four characteristics:
1. It states the subject of the essay clearly.
2. It includes a controlling idea about the subject.
3. It uses specific language rather than vague words.
4. It establishes a tone that is appropriate for the subject and the intended
audience.
If any of these four qualities is missing, the essay will not provide the needed focus
and the essay will not have a strong foundation.
Evaluating a text
The materials that have been collected have to be evaluated so that the relevant
points may be used effectively. Once the basic information for each source is
recorded, one can proceed with taking notes from those sources. There are three ways
in which this can be done.
1. Summary
2. Paraphrase
3. Direct quotes
1. Summary
A summary is a statement in your own words of the most important points of a
piece of writing. A summary note can be used when it is important to get only the
main ideas of the source.
Strategies for summary note taking:
After mentioning the source by title and name of the author, write the authors
complete thesis in your own words.
Proceed by writing, in your own words, the main points in the order in which
they are developed in the source. Delete less important ideas or examples.
Remain objective; do not pass judgment on any of the authors ideas or
opinions. A summary is not an evaluation or critique.
Keep the summary short- it should be substantially shorter than the source you
are using.

 Do not plagiarize by using the exact words in the source. Examine an original
source and then contrast an unacceptable summary with an acceptable one.
2. Paraphrase
Paraphrasing is a method of note taking where you take the information from a
source and put it in your own words without condensing it. Paraphrasing can be used
when all the data, specific facts and details have to be communicated to the readers.
Although you are communicating the facts in your own words, you must still credit
the source of information.
3. Direct quote
In some cases, the exact words of the source are dramatic, or the language is as
important as the sources ideas. In such cases, youll want to use a direct quote- the
exact words of a source without omissions, changes or additions, and set them off
from the rest of the text by quotation marks or indentation. If you want to omit words
because they are not important, you must signal this to your reader using ellipsis
points; if you add words, you must enclose them in brackets. Never use quotation as
the thesis statement or as a topic sentence in a body paragraph- these main points
should be in your own words.
Planning a text
An essay has three distinct parts: introduction, body paragraph and a
conclusion. First introduce your topic by stating what you are going to talk about.
Thus, the first paragraph has the thesis and some preliminary information about the
topic. Then you move on to the body paragraphs, which can be any number,
depending on the number and extent of aspects that you wish to discuss to support
your thesis. Finally, you come to the conclusion of your essay.
Characteristics of Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs vary in purpose, length, style and subject matter. But effective
body paragraph contains the following characteristics.
It makes one main point.
It contains sufficient support, using from one to many kinds of evidence to
develop its main point.
It proceeds according to a clear organizational plan.

 It contains no material that does not relate to its point.

It employs precise language.
In addition, the separate body paragraphs work effectively together within an essay if
they possess the following traits:
Each moves clearly and smoothly from one main point to the next.
Each makes use of the organizational plan that suits the writers purpose,
logically follows the previous paragraph, and clearly leads to the next
paragraph.
Strategies for writing body paragraphs
Use Topic Sentence
Every body paragraph should have a topic sentence stating the point that one
wants to make in that paragraph. The topic sentence should contain the controlling
idea and also reveal your attitude or view regarding that idea.
Signal Shifts in Thought
Cue words or transitions are words that allow readers to anticipate (guess) what
is to come in the body paragraphs of an essay. If you use cue words effectively, the
audience will be able follow your thought process more easily from one detail or main
point to the next. Cue words are useful not only within the body paragraphs but
throughout the entire essay.
Avoid the unclear this and it
Even though we use the word this to substitute for a noun, one has to remember
that this usage of pronoun may lead to reader confusion. Try to use this with a noun to
show clearly what you mean.
Example:
Problem:
She placed her notebook on the desk. It toppled to the ground moments later.
Solution:
She placed her notebook on the desk. Her notebook toppled to the ground
moments later.

Repeat important words

You can keep your body paragraphs focused on the main point by using
appropriate repetition of important words and phrases. To avoid becoming
monotonous in your writing and to make your repetitions more interesting, use
synonyms- substitute words that have the same or almost the same meaning as the
original word.
Use parallel sentence structures
Similar ideas can be effectively, and sometimes quite dramatically, linked by
using parallel sentence structures. Parallel sentence structures repeat a sentence
pattern for dramatic effect.
Characteristics of introduction
A catchy introduction is crucial to the success of an essay. Therefore the essay
should begin in such a manner that it captures the attention of the readers and guides
them smoothly into the subject. An effective introduction has the following
characteristics:
It captures the attention of the reading audience through the use of a particular
strategy.
It guides the audience smoothly into the subject.
It sets the tone for the entire essay.
It either states or moves towards the thesis.
Strategies for writing introductions
Some of the strategies which will be helpful in writing good introductions are
as follows:
1. Hook your audience
The first sentence of the introductory paragraph should hook the attention of
the audience. It should attract them to the subject. There should be reasons for the
audience to read your essay and for that there are many introductory strategies which
can be used. There are in total seven introductory strategies as discussed below.
Background information

Almost all college level essays benefit from a brief historical overview or some
concise background information on the topic to be discussed. The strategy here is to
explain background information so that the readers can learn more about the subject.
Example:
Up until the 1960s, African- Americans, Latinos and other people of color
as well as women were blatantly discriminated against in the American
workplace and college admissions for no other reason than their gender or
the color of their skin. When affirmative action was implemented, it was
designed to help minorities and women gain greater representation in jobs,
promotions, college admissions and business contracts. Today, however,
because affirmative action has resulted in misunderstanding, bitterness and
verbal warfare, the program should be reviewed and revised.
Question
Asking the readers a provocative question or a series of questions is another
introductory strategy.
Example:
Are you one of many people who dream of becoming a recording artist?
Are you stymied because you have the talent but not the first idea of how to
get started in the recording business?
Story or incident
The essay can be opened with a story or anecdote that directly illustrates the
main idea. But, one point to be kept in mind is that the length of the story must be
under control as the purpose of the essay is to heighten the interest and curiosity of the
audience in the topic and not to divert their attention through a lengthy narration.
Example:
I was eight years old when my parents moved to a new apartment located in
Bourj-Hamoud, Lebanon, a beautiful city that used to be called Little
Paris. When I first saw this big building, I thought we were going to live on
a boat, so much did the building resemble a boat. What I remember most
was our two- hundred-foot-long

balcony,

wrapping all

around

our

apartment. The first few days after we moved in, I was afraid to venture out

on this balcony because it was so large. As the days passed by, the
balcony became the place where I spent all my time and where I learned
about the outside world.
Statistic, fact, or statement
The speaker can often begin with a startling statistic or fact and then gain the
attention of the readers.
Example:
Last year over half of the nations computer users spent 50 dollars or
more on phone calls and books for technical support related to problems
installing or running computer programs. This money could have been
saved if computer users had a better knowledge of how to install a
program. And, program installation is not as complicated as many people
believe. Most programs require three fairly simple steps, each
accompanied by a few precautions.
Quotation
One can also use the technique of beginning an essay using quotation. But
when one is using this technique, one has to be very careful in identifying the source
of the quotation unless it is a known proverb or saying. If you are writing an essay
about a particular book, story, or article, you may choose to begin your introductory
paragraph with a quotation from the source you are discussing, just as in the following
example.
A stranger blocked her path, but she passed him blindly. He had to touch
her arm before she would look up. The woman was Mrs Ardavi, arriving
from Iran, and the stranger was Hassan, her son, whom she had not son in
over ten years. Both Ardavi and Hassan are characters in the short story
Your Place Is Empty by Anne Tyler. Both Mrs Ardavi and her son
Hassan must come to terms with differences in culture, personality,
religion and age.
Definition
If some difficult and confusing terms or ideas are used in the essay, it would be
better if the audience is given a complete and clear definition of those terms and ideas

in order to make them understand them in n easier manner. But try to avoid frequent
references like according to Websters Dictionary or the dictionary defines usages.
Example:
Look how an author tries to define artificial bait which is an uncommon
term to the readers.
If you enjoy prime fishing, you should know that the northern states have
excellent fishing lakes. And if you do plan a visit, it will help you to be
familiar with Rapalas and their use in game fishing. What exactly is a
Rapala? It is an artificial bait that is tied to the end of a fishing line in
place of a basic fishing hook. It is handcrafted of either cedar or balsa
wood with two sets of hooks attached to its cigar-shaped body. If you
want to take home a freezer-full of the best largemouth bass, northern
pike, walleye, or the highly valued muskellunge, you should learn how
and when to use Rapalas.
Examples or details
You can also rouse the interest of the audience in your subject by giving a
series of examples or details associated with that subject.
Example:
Unless you have felt like an outsider, been singled out by resident
advisors, stayed up for hours studying for finals, been denied financial
loans, failed a test, sat in the wrong class by mistake, read the wrong
pages for homework, become sick from cafeteria food on campus,
experienced writers block, paid over three hundred dollars for books,
bought the wrong books and could not return them- unless you have
experienced at least some of these situations, you have not known the
joys of being a college student. But though college may be one big pain
and one of the greatest challenges youll ever face, without a college
education you are dead.
2. Introduce the subject
The essays introduction should also introduce the subject.
3. Establish a voice and tone

Every effective introductory paragraph sets up the voice and tone for the rest of
the essay. Voice refers to the writers personality and the way this personality comes
through in the essay. Tone refers to the writers attitude toward a subject and to the
writers perception of an audience and relationship with them.
4. State the thesis
After capturing the attention of the audience and indicating the subject, the
introduction should either state the thesis for the essay or move toward a more focused
subject. The thesis is most often found within the introductory paragraph.
Characteristics of Conclusions
If the introduction to an essay is important because it determines whether the
reader will read further, the conclusion is also important as it is the final and most
important part of the essay. It conveys a feeling of completion. Do not bring up any
new steps, but try signaling the reader that you have communicated all necessary
information. A conclusion frames the essay by tying together all the main points and
wrapping up any loose ends for the reader.
Strategies for Writing Conclusions
Some strategies are there for good conclusions. They are as follows:
1. Offer Closure
The essay should not end abruptly. One must conclude the essay with a few
sentences that signal the reader that the essay is ending.
2. Frame the Essay
Just like a frame forms a finite border for a painting, an effective conclusion
brings together the contents of an essay for the audience. A number of concluding
strategies are there for the successful framing of an essay. The concluding strategies
are five in number and are as follows:
Summary
This is the most common strategy which is useful for essays which are longer
than three typewritten pages. If the essay is shorter, summarizing is unnecessary as the
audience may feel insulted about their ability to remember the amount of material. On
the other hand, if the essay deals with complex or technical material, or if the essay is
a longer one, then it would be appreciative if the summary of the essay is given.

Recommendation
Another effective way to end the essay is by making a recommendation to the
audience.
Prediction or warning
A memorable way to end the essay would be by using a prediction or issuing a
warning.
Call to action
This strategy challenges the audience to become involved by doing something
about a situation or problem.
Reference to introductory strategy
An interesting and satisfying concluding strategy involves referring back to the
introductory example, story, statistic, quote, or other device and elaborating or
connecting the information, tying the end to the beginning of the essay.
3. Avoid Pitfalls
Whatever concluding strategy you apply, the three potential pitfalls have to be
avoided.
New material
Do not have an urge to introduce a new material, such as another main point or
another detail, in your conclusion. It is not the time of discussion but summing up your
ideas that you have to concentrate on.
Apology
Never weaken your position by apologizing.
Moralizing
Try to avoid preaching in the concluding paragraph. It is the readers or the
audience who have to moralize.
Revising and Polishing the Essay
The composing process does not end with the process of drafting but it extends
beyond that. In the revising stage of the composing process, you re-evaluate your
essay draft in order to make both major and minor adjustments.
Strategies for revising

Try to be objective and detached. The following strategies will help you in
creating a good essay.
1. Allow time for reflection
Once you finish the final draft of your essay, dont be hasty to come to a
conclusion that the essay looks pretty good. Provide sufficient time for reflection so
that you can come up with a better draft of the essay.
2. Use audience response: peer and instructing editing
An important and helpful tool in the revising stage is that of peer or instructor
editing and response. Sometimes you may feel that the points in the essay are well
coordinated and presented according to the degree of importance. But, it is advisable
that you consult a peer editor, who is an unbiased reading audience, so that you can get
a true and effective feedback from an objective view. Based on the feedback, you can
make the necessary changes for your essay.
3. Rethink the draft
Rethinking the draft is the next strategy that can be applied by anyone for
making their essay a fairly good one. After the peer or instructor response, the strategy
of rethinking the draft helps one in making a threadbare revising process of the essay
so that the final draft would be better than the initial copy. Rethinking involves
significant adjustments done from the part of the writer. The adjustments during the
rethinking process include procedures like adding, cutting, substituting and
rearranging.
4. Add to the draft
You must be ready to make alterations in your essay if the peer or instructor
reader feels that some vital points have been left by you or if any part of the essay
needs clarification.
5. Cut what is not working
In some cases, you may find that some parts of the essay needs to be cut, that is,
to delete words, sentences, or even large sections because they do not suit to the
purpose of the essay or they repeat what has been already stated. Irrelevant details
should be cut whatever be the level of effort you had put in the generation of the essay.
6. Make substitutions

When you delete certain words or sentences or even large sections of an essay,
the space which was occupied earlier by these materials has to be filled in through
replacement or substitution. Sometimes, you will have to introduce words, sentences
or even paragraphs in order to make up the blank space.
7. Rearrange material
After rethinking your draft, sometimes the peer editor or the instructor may feel
that your material has to be rearranged so that the final draft of the essay appears
logically coordinated for the free flow of ideas.
Strategies for polishing
Revising the essay should always be followed by another round of reading,
when you actually clean and polish the essay. The following strategies will help you in
achieving the desired amount of perfection in your essay.
1. Re-read your revised draft
Even after you have finished revising you essay once or twice, read out the
essay again loudly so that you may be able find out the minute mistakes which has not
been identified by you.
2. Use your tools to improve weak spots
If you have a recognized weakness, be on the look-out for this weakness and
take the precautionary measures to avoid it. You can also make use of the computer
spell checker to correct any spelling mistake in the essay. Computer spell checkers can
be used only to identify spelling errors and not misspellings caused by word confusion.
3. Use peer editing and instructor response
For polishing the essay also, peer editing and instructor response can be made
use of effectively.
4. Trim and clarify
One important method used to polish your essay is that of making certain every
word used is necessary, specific and clearly understood by the reader.
5. Eliminate wordiness
Wordiness occurs when we insert lots of unnecessary and sometimes
meaningless words or phrases into the essay. The passages including such wordiness
has to be reread and necessary changes be made.

6. Insert cue words

When the right cue word is used in an essay, it shows the transition of ideas
clearly and smoothly from one passage to the other.
7. Proofreading
Proofreading is the process where the material is read once more for any sort of
mistakes and the necessary corrections being made before it is presented to the
intended audience. Proofreading involves the ability to solve various kinds of
punctuation and mechanic problems.
Elements of Writing

To develop an essay, a suitable pattern must be chosen to fit the purpose of the
written essay. A few formats are useful which shall be discussed one by one in the
following sections.
Definition
This is a writing pattern that relies on the ability of the writer to observe
something- notice it carefully- and then clearly communicate that observation to an
audience. This pattern is invaluable in developing sentences, paragraphs, and entire
essays. Definition is a statement of the exact nature of a subject, including what the
subject is and what is not. Defining involves detailing the distinguishing characteristics
clearly. Definitions can be longer, but they include only the essential features required
to help the reader understand what it is you are talking about.
Cause and Effect
Suppose you are asked to write about how you propose to accomplish a
particular project. This will require you to describe the process (how) you intend to
adopt and explain the reason (why) for selecting the concerned process. You would
also want to mention what you hope to achieve. This will involve a process and cause
and effect pattern of writing. When you describe how something is done or happens,
you describe a process; when you describe why something is done or happens, you
describe the cause; and when you describe what happens as a result of that, you
describe the effect. Process and cause and effect allow us to understand, analyze,
investigate and make connections.

As these patterns involve closely related patterns of thought, they are often used
together to develop an essay. However, they can be used independently too, when the
subject of the essay involves only one of these aspects. The process pattern have to be
chosen when the subject of the essay requires the description of how a procedure is
performed or how a phenomenon works. The cause and effect pattern has to be chosen
if the purpose in the essay is to show connections- why something happens or what
results from a situation, occurrence, or even an attitude. The cause and effect form of
writing shows the relationship between two situations. An example of cause and effect
pattern is given below:
Causes

Effects

Too much rain

leads to

flooding

Flooding

leads to

destruction of crops

Loss of crops

leads to

shortage of product

Shortage of product

leads to

rise in market price

Comparison
Sometimes, one may want to compare or contrast two characters in a short
story, two lifestyles, two sports, two movies, or two opinions. When the comparison/
contrast pattern is used, the essays purpose is to organize information
For clear understanding,
To make choices, and
To highlight qualities of a subject in more detail.
Discussion or Argument
This pattern of writing involves persuading an audience to agree with the
speaker on a controversial issue. To persuade the readers, use evidence to support the
opinion. Try to keep the speakers expressions controlled and be reasonable in order to
be effective. When this pattern is selected to develop an essay, make sure that the
subject has the following features:

 The subject is debatable

The thesis makes a reasonable claim, a statement that can be supported by
evidence
The opposition can be acknowledged and refuted
The argument can be developed with reliable, audience- appropriate and up-todate evidence
You can put forward some logical appeals in favor of your argument.
The evidence used to support the argument can be any or all of the following:
Facts

information held to be true

Statistics

a group or list of numerical facts

Expert testimony

statement by experts in a relevant field

Charts, graphs, tables, surveys

numerical information about a subject

Detailed, documented examples

illustrations or models from life

Personal interviews

meetings with people who know about the

subject

First-hand experience

what the writer knows about the subject

Observation

what the writer has observed about the

subject

One or more of the following patterns can be employed when a discussion is written.
Definition
Comparison and contrast
Cause and effect
When the subject for an essay is selected, certain subjects are not appropriate for it
like:
1. Facts
The main purpose of the essay is to persuade the audience to agree with the
speaker: therefore facts- data that are regarded as true, rather than controversial do
not make appropriate subjects. However, although facts are not appropriate as subjects,
they provide excellent supporting evidence to convince the readers to agree with the
speaker on a controversial topic.

2. Preferences
Personal likes and dislikes- preferences- that are shaped not only by reason but
by background and emotions do not make appropriate subjects for argumentative
essays. Personal preferences usually cant be changed.
3. Beliefs
Beliefs are ideas that are held to be true for each individual but cant be proved
to others. So, usually they dont make good subjects for argument.
4. Impossibilities
Impossibilities are proposals that are not possible in the real world. Trying to
convince an audience of an unrealistic position would be futile.
Cohesion
A good understanding of the syntax and the use of visuals as a powerful tool of
communication are also essential to make academic writing more effective. The
primary requisite of a good writing is clear, unambiguous, readable and
comprehensible sentences. The writing is cohesive when the sentences link logically
and form a unified whole as a paragraph. Certain issues have to be solved to make the
writing cohesive.
Fragmentation
A fragment is an incomplete sentence. To solve a fragment problem, either
rewrite the sentence or connect the fragment to a complete sentence.
Example:
Fragment: Picked up a virus last week. (Subject is missing)
Corrected: Johns computer picked up a virus last week.
Run-ons and comma splices
A run-on is two or more sentences running together without any punctuation
between them. A comma splice is two or more sentences linked by commas instead of
being separated by periods. There are five ways to solve this problem.

1. Use a period to separate the sentences. Start the second sentence with a capital
letter. Example:

Run-on: Keplers law explains the motion of the planets around the sun most
astronomy students master the concepts early in their studies.
Comma splice: Keplers law explains the motion of the planets around the sun,
most astronomy students master the concepts early in their studies.
Corrected: Keplers law explains the motion of the planets around the sun. Most
astronomy students master the concepts early in their studies.

2. Use a semicolon to break one long sentence into two parts. Begin with a
lowercase letter after the semicolon. Example:
Run-on: A float rolled slowly toward the middle of the field it was circled by
cheerleaders and a marching band.
Comma splice: A float rolled slowly toward the middle of the field, it was
circled by cheerleaders and a marching band.
Corrected: A float rolled slowly toward the middle of the field; it was circled by
cheerleaders and a marching band.
3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Example:
Run-on: The tenants sent many letters to the landlord about the lack of heat he
did not reply.
Comma splice: The tenants sent many letters to the landlord about the lack of
heat, he did not reply.
Corrected: The tenants sent many letters to the landlord about the lack of heat,
but he did not reply.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction, such as after, although, because, before, if,
since, when, where, while. The subordinating conjunction turns one of the
sentences into a dependent clause. Example:
Run-on: I returned home from work last night someone had already made
dinner.
Comma splice: I returned home from work last night, someone had already
made dinner.

Corrected: When I returned home from work last night, someone had already
made dinner.
5. Use a relative pronoun, such as that, which, who, whose. Example:
Run-on: Computer experts refer to Moores Law it says that the speed of
personal computers doubles every 18 months.
Comma splice: Computer experts refer to Moores Law, it says that the speed of
personal computers doubles every 18 months.
Corrected: Computer experts refer to Moores Law, which says that the speed
of personal computers doubles every 18 months.
Faulty Parallelism
When similar thoughts are expressed in dissimilar ways, it results in faulty
parallelism. To make the sentences flow smoothly, use parallel constructions whenever
possible.
Example: The marathon went along the avenue, over the suspension bridge, and then it
turned into the park.
Corrected: The marathon went along the avenue, over the suspension bridge, and into
the park.
Mixed Construction
When the writing process and thinking process dont quite match, it results in
mixed constructions. To solve this problem, rethink and then rephrase the sentence for
clarity.
Example:
Mixed construction: I wondered was she the right girl for me.
Corrected: I wondered if she was the right girl for me.
Was she the right girl for me?
Synonyms
A synonym is a word which has the same (or almost the same) meaning as
another word. In order to avoid monotony in academic writing one might use
synonyms. Example:
The government

introduced

the policy

in 1992.

The authorities

initiated

the plan

more than ten years ago.

The administration

implemented the scheme

in the early 1990s.

The Education Department adopted

the strategy

over a decade ago.

The Director of Education

the initiative

on 12 January 1992.

launched

Writing with Visuals

Visuals provide the audience with snapshots that convey information more
quickly and effectively than a series of sentences would. Pictures, tables, maps,
graphs, pie-charts, flowcharts and diagrams are the various kinds of visuals that can be
used to show large amount data in an easy-to-understand format. They help illustrate
and explain the key points of concepts and processes more efficiently.
Figures and tables summarize information. A pie-chart shows relative
percentage or proportions, whereas graphs reveal a pattern or a relationship between
two variables, example, inflation and salaries, or income and female literacy. A bar
diagram reveals and summarizes comparative data and maps show locations. All forms
of visual description of information, except tables are referred to as figures. In an
academic essay, the figures and tables must be suitably numbered and captions also
must be provided.

Example of a bar chart, with 'Country' as the discrete data set.

A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to
the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.

Pie chart of populations of English native speakers

A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating
proportion.

A line chart or line graph is a type of graph, which displays information as a series of
data points connected by straight line segments. It is a basic type of chart common in
many fields. It is an extension of a scatter graph, and is created by connecting a series
of points that represent individual measurements with line segments. A line chart is
often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time a time series thus the
line is often drawn chronologically.

Accuracy in writing
Abbreviation
English language makes considerable and good use of abbreviation. They
increase convenience and save time. Some of the main types of abbreviations are:
a) Shortened words
b) Acronyms

c) Others
Shortened words
Shortening is a form of abbreviation where the abbreviated form has become
common vocabulary. Examples are bus for omnibus, taxi for taximeter-cabriolet, fax
for facsimile etc.
Acronyms
Acronym means the word that is formed from the first letters of the words that
make up the name of organization. Example, NABARD is an acronym for National
bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. In most cases, these words are used for
convenience and seldom replace the original form. But, there are some exceptions like
yuppie, which is an acronym for young upwardly mobile individual, which has
replaced the vocabulary existence of the original form. However, most dictionaries
tend to provide a list of commonly used acronyms. In academic writing it is advisable
to use the full form on the occasion of first mention with the acronym in parentheses.
In some cases, the letters do not sound like an individual word and we
pronounce each letter separately. Examples are IBM (International Business
Machines), the USA (United States of America), or NDTV (New Delhi Television).
Others
The third common category of abbreviation is shortened Latin phrases, for
example, N.B. (nota bene, note well or simply note), i.e. (id est, that is) and etc.
(et cetera, and the rest or and others). These are used frequently in academic
writing.

Common business abbreviations

CEO Chief Executive Officer
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
VP Vice President
MNC Multi-national Corporations
WTO World Trade Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
BPO Business Process Outsourcing

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

Abbreviations common to academic writing

cf.

compare

e.g.

for example

et al. and others (used in giving names of multiple authors)

fig.

figure ( for labeling charts and multiple authors)

ibid.

in the same place (to refer to source mentioned immediately before)

i.e.

that is

op.cit. short for opus citatum / opera citato meaning the work cited/
from the cited work
p.a.

yearly

pp.

pages

re

with reference to

Ph.D Doctor of Philosophy, generally the highest qualification in a certain

discipline
M.Phil. Master of Philosophy, the research degree that leads to a Ph.D
ff.

the referred page number and a few pages ahead

Abbreviations should be used carefully. Some acronyms can be expanded into

two or three forms. Example, STD stands for Subscriber Trunk Dialing, also for
Sexually Transmitted Disease and also as the shortened form of the word standard.
When unfamiliar abbreviations and acronyms are used, write the words in full for the
first time. Example, NREGA for National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
Articles
In English, there are three articles, the indefinite article a or an and the
indefinite article the. The indefinite article a is used before a consonant sound and
an is used before a vowel sound. Example: - the blue sky, the Himalayas, a table, a
boy, a university, an apple, an umbrella, an elephant etc.

1. The is called the definite article because it is used with a specific noun.
Example: - the stars, the lion, the sea etc.
2. A and An are the indefinite articles. A is used before nouns that start with a
consonant sound. An is used with nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
Example: - a cat, a mountain, an ice-cream, an hour etc.
3. The non-native speakers of English makes a mistake when they use the
indefinite articles a and an with plural or uncountable nouns (a papers and a
research). The correct usage will be to use one before such nouns.
Determiners
Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called
determiners. They indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. The determiner
the is known as the definite article. It is used before both singular and plural nouns.

Singular

Plural

the taxi

the taxis

the paper

the papers

the apple

the apples

The determiner (a or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the
indefinite article. It is used when the noun is singular.
Example:- a taxi
a paper
an apple
The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many
others.
Example: any taxi
that question
those apples

this paper
some apple
whatever taxi
whichever taxi
Many determiners express quantity.
Example:all examples
both parents
many people
each person
every night
several computers
few excuses
enough water
no escape
Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a numeral. We
look at numerals as determiners in the next section.

Numerals and Determiners

Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position,
cardinal numerals express quantity.
Example:one book
two books
twenty books
In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence.
Example:first impressions
second chance
third prize

The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related
to numbers (as first is related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called
general ordinals, and they include last, latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These
words also function as determiners.
Example:next week
last orders
previous engagement
subsequent developments
When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a
subclass of nouns. And like nouns, they can take determiners.
Example:the two of us
the first of many
They can even have numerals as determiners before them.
Example:five twos are ten
In this example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.
Nouns
A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states,
events and feelings. Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by
an adjective and can take an article or determiner.
For example:
Table, Pencil, the dog, a white house
Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts.
For example:
Birth, happiness, evolution, technology, etc.

Noun: - Plurals.
The general rule to form the plural forms of the nouns is to add "-s" to the noun in
singular.
For example:
Book - Books
House - Houses
Chair - Chairs
When the singular noun ends in: -sh, -ch, -s, -ss, -x, -o we form their plural form by
adding "-es".
For example:
sandwich - sandwiches
brush - brushes
bus - buses
box - boxes
potato - potatoes
When the singular noun ends in "y", we change the "y" for "i" and then add "-es" to
form the plural form. But do not change the "y" for "ies" to form the plural when the
singular noun ends in "y" preceded by a vowel.
For example:
nappy - nappies
day - days
toy - toys
However, there are many Irregular Nouns which do not form the plural in this way:
For example:
Woman - Women

Child - Children
Sheep - Sheep
Nouns may take an s " ("apostrophe s") or "Genitive marker" to indicate possession.
If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker
appears only as an apostrophe after the plural form.
For example:
My girlfriend's brother
John's house
The Browns' house
The boys' pens
The genitive marker should not be confused with the s " form of contracted verbs, as
in John's a good student = John is a good student.
Gender in Nouns
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher", can refer to men or women.
Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender. For
example: A man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress".
For example:

Types of Nouns

Masculine
Boy

Feminine
Girl

Father

Mother

Hero

Heroine

Husband

Wife

Monk

Nun

Prince

Princess

Proper nouns are the names of specific things, people, or places, such as John,
France. They usually begin with a capital letter.
Common nouns are general names such as person, mansion, and book. They
can be either concrete or abstract.
Concrete nouns refer to things which you can sense such as clock and
telephone.
Abstract nouns refer to ideas or qualities such as liberty and truth.
Countable nouns refer to things which can be counted (can be singular or
plural).
Uncountable nouns refer to some groups of countable nouns, substances,
feelings and types of activity (can only be singular).
Irregular Plurals
Although most nouns have plurals formed according to regular rules, some
nouns have unusual or irregular plurals.
Types of irregular plural
There are many types of irregular plural, but these are the most common.
Noun type

Forming the plural

Change

to

Ends with -fe then

Ends with -f then

Add -es
Ends with -o Add -es

v knife

knives

life

Add -s
Change

Example

wife
f

to

lives
wives

v half

halves

wolf

wolves

loaf
potato

loaves
potatoes

Noun type

Forming the plural

Example
tomato
volcano

ends with -us Change -us to -i

tomatoes
volcanoes

cactus

cacti

nucleus

nuclei

focus

foci

analysis
ends with -is Change -is to -es

crisis
thesis

criterion

the

vowel

the

word

or
ALL KINDS Change
or
Add a different ending

Unchanging

Singular and plural

are the same

crises
theses

phenomenon

ends with -on Change -on to -a

Change

analyses

phenomena

criteria

man

men

foot

feet

child

children

person

people

tooth
mouse

teeth
mice

sheep
deer
fish (sometimes)

Prepositions
Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns,
pronouns and other words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They
never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the word they are
referring
Some common prepositions are

to.

about

by

outside

above

despite

over

across

down

past

after

during

since

against

except

through

along

for

throughout

among

from

till

around

in

to

at

inside

toward

before

into

under

behind

like

underneath

below

near

until

beneath

of

up

beside

off

upon

between

on

with

beyond

onto

within

but

out

without.

Prepositions typically come before a noun.

For example,
after class , at home , before Tuesday , in London , on fire , with pleasure etc.
Prepositions are classified as simple or compound.
Simple

prepositions

Simple prepositions are single word prepositions. These are all showed above.
For example,
The book is on the table.

Compound prepositions
Compound prepositions are more than one word. in between and because of
are prepositions made up of two words - in front of, on behalf of are prepositions
made up of three words.
For example,
The book is in between War and Peace and The Lord of the Rings.
The book is in front of the clock.
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions
in English
Prepositions of Time
English
on

in

at

since

Usage

days of the week

months / seasons
time of day
year
after a certain period of
time (when?)

for night
for weekend
a certain point of time
(when?)

from a certain point of

time (past till now)

Example
on Monday

in August / in winter
in the morning
in 2006
in an hour

at night
at the weekend
at half past nine

since 1980

English

Usage

Example

over a certain period of

time (past till now)

for 2 years

a certain time in the past

2 years ago

earlier than a certain

point of time

before 2004

to

telling the time

ten to six (5:50)

past

telling the time

ten past six (6:10)

to / till /
until

marking the beginning

and end of a period of
time

from Monday
Friday

till / until

in the sense of how long

something is going to
last

He is on holiday until
Friday.

in the sense of at the

latest
up to a certain time

I will be back by 6
oclock.
By 11 o'clock, I had read
five pages.

for

ago

before

by

to/till

Prepositions of Place

English

Usage

in

at

Example
in
the kitchen, in
room, building, street,
London
town, country
in the book
book, paper etc.
in the car, in a taxi
car, taxi
in the picture, in the
picture, world
world
meaning next to, by an
object
for table
for events

at the door, at the

station
at the table
at a concert, at the party

English

Usage

on

attached
for a place with a river
being on a surface
for a certain side (left,
right)
for a floor in a house
for public transport
for television, radio

left
or
right
of
somebody or something

Jane is standing by /
next to / beside the car.

on the ground, lower

than (or covered by)
something else

the bag is under the

table

lower than something

else but above ground

the fish are below the

surface

covered by something
else
meaning more than
getting to the other side
(also across)
overcoming an obstacle

put a jacket over your

shirt
over 16 years of age
walk over the bridge
climb over the wall

a path above the lake

walk across the bridge

swim across the lake

drive through the tunnel

by,
next
to, beside

under

below

over

above

across

through

Example
place where you are to
at the cinema, at school,
do something typical
at work
(watch a film, study,
work)

higher than something

else, but not directly
over it
getting to the other side
(also over)
getting to the other side
something with limits
on top, bottom and the
sides

the picture on the wall

London lies on the
Thames.
on the table
on the left
on the first floor
on the bus, on a plane
on TV, on the radio

English

Usage

to

into

Example
movement to person or
building
movement to a place or
country
for bed
enter a
building

room /

go to the cinema
go to London / Ireland
go to bed

go into the kitchen / the

house

The relations that prepositions express can be

(i) time relation,
(ii) place relation,
(iii)

position relation,

(iv)

state relation,

(v) cause relation,

(vi)

purpose relation, etc.

Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and preposition, a verb and an
adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition. A phrasal verb has a meaning
which is different from the original verb. The adverb or preposition that follows the
verb is sometimes called a particle. The particle changes the meaning of the phrasal
verb in idiomatic ways. Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in everyday speech
as opposed to the more formal Latinate verbs, such as to get together rather than to
congregate, to put off rather than to postpone, or to get out rather than to
exit. They should be avoided in academic writing.
Phrasal verbs are of two kinds:

(a) Those combinations of verbs and particles keeping their own basic meanings:
Example: - go in, walk away, come out etc.
The boy went in.
The man walked away.
(b) Those combinations of verbs and particles which give an idiomatic meaning:
Example:-bring up, give in, take off, blow up etc.
The mother brought up the child.
The plane took off.
A preposition is closely tied to the noun or pronoun it controls.
Example: He looked at the boys.
He spoke to them.
An adverbial particle is closely tied up to its verb:
Example:Put out the light.
He blew up the bridge.
An adverbial particle is always placed after the pronoun object. It is usually placed
after the object even when this is a noun, unless the object is a long one.
Look the word up.
He couldnt get across the river.
A few phrasal verbs are given below.
ask for = request, demand
The workers asked for more wages.
blow up = explode
The terrorists blew up the bridge.

come off = succeed

The experiment came off well.
get away = distribute
The minister gave away the prizes.
Hold off = keep at a distance
I hope the rain is held off till the end of the match.
look forward to = expect with pleasure
I am looking forward to your arrival.
put up with = tolerate
It is very difficult to put up with an eccentric.
run out = to be finished, exhausted
Tina told her husband that their provisions had run out.
run after = pursue
The police ran after the thief in vain.
work out = find, calculate
The minister asked his secretary to work out the details of the project.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs and modal
auxiliaries. Modal verbs are not complete verbs, and they can only be used with a
verb.
The usage of modal verbs:
Modal verbs stay in the base form - bare infinitive - the bare infinitive is the infinitive
without "to" before the verb.
The following modal verbs are used to with the present tense:
I, can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may

The following modal verbs are used in the past tense:

would, should, could, might
Modal verbs are used to answer questions in the short form
Yes, I do.
Yes, we can.
No, I don't.
Modal verbs can be used as part of the grammar structure of the sentence, such as
when used with the perfect tenses.
Modals help conveying ability, necessity, advisability, possibility and probability.
Conveying ability
The modal can conveys ability now (in the present) and could conveys ability before
(in the past). These words deliver the meaning able to.
Example:
We can work late tonight. [Can conveys present ability]
I could work late last night. [Could conveys past ability]
Exception
When not is added between the modal and the main verb makes the clause
negative.
Example:
We cannot work late tonight.
Conveying necessity

Modals convey necessity. Must and have to convey a need to do something. These
modals are followed by a simple form of the main verb.
Example:
You must leave before midnight.
She has to leave when I leave.
Exception
Never use must to express necessity if the past tense is used. Instead, use had to.
Present Tense

We must study today

Past Tense

We had to take a test yesterday.

Conveying advisability
The modal should and ought to convey regret. The modal had gives the meaning of
warning or threat. Need to is often used to express strong advice. Its past tense form is
needed to.
Example:
Good advice
You should go to class tomorrow morning.
You should have gone to class yesterday.
You ought to have come to class yesterday.
Warning
You had better see the doctor before your clod gets worse.

Strong advice
You need to take better care of yourself.
Conveying possibility
The modals may, might and could convey an idea of possibility or likelihood.
Example:
We may become hungry before long.
We could eat at the restaurant next door.
The modals may, might and could are followed by have and the past participle of the
main verb is used in the past tense form.
Example:
I could have studied Sanskrit in high school, but I studied Hindi instead.
Conveying probability
The modal must also convey probability or likelihood.
Example:
John must be a talented actor. He has won many awards.

Tenses
The verb forms which show differences in time are called tenses. There are
three basic verb tenses.
Present: Sasha enjoys tennis.
Past: Sasha enjoyed tennis.

Future: Sasha will enjoy tennis.

Present Tense
In the present tense, most verbs take s endings (third person singular) or no
endings (first and second person singular; all plural forms).
Singular

Plural

First person

I succeed

We succeed

Second person

You succeed

You succeed

Third person

He, she, it succeeds

They succeed

Forms of Be, Have and Do

The irregular verbs be, have and do have more forms than other verbs. Instead
of just adding an s ending, be have these forms in the present tense:
Singular

Plural

First person

I am

We are

Second person

You are

You are

Third person

He, she, it is

They are

Have has two forms in the present: has for third person singular and have for
all other subjects.
Do has two forms: does for third person singular and do for all others. In the
past tense, verb fall into two categories: regular verbs, which take d endings and
irregular verbs, which change their spelling and do not take d endings.
Past Tense
Regular verbs

A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed (or in
some cases -t) to the base form. The majority of English verbs are regular. They have
four different forms:
1. base form: the form found in a dictionary
2. -s form: used in the singular third person, present tense
3. -ed form: used for the past tense and past participle
4. -ing form: used for the present participle
Irregular verbs
A verb in which the past tense is not formed by adding the usual -ed ending.
Examples of irregular verbs are sing (past tense sang); feel (felt); and go (went).

Future Tense
All verbs form the future tense by adding the helping verb will to the main verb
with no ending. Will be, will register, will deliver, will spend etc are examples.

Voice
Voice is a particular form of the verb. There are Active and Passive voice.
Passive voice means that the subject of the sentence does not perform the action of the
sentence. Active voice means that the subject carries out the action.
Example:
Active

Passive

The cat chases the rat.

The rat is chased by the cat.

The cat is chasing the rat.

The rat is being chased by the rat.

The cat has chased the rat.

The rat has been chased by the art.

The cat chased the rat.

The rat was chased by the rat.

The cat was chasing the rat.

The rat was being chased by the rat.

The cat will chase the rat.

The rat will be chased by the rat.

Active voice is normally used for strong writing.

Example:
1. Loud rock music was heard on the bus. (weak)
2. Everyone on the bus heard the loud rock music. (stronger)
3. Much dissatisfaction is being felt over the new city tax. (weak)
4. Citizens feel much dissatisfaction over the new city tax. (stronger)
Sometimes, the person(s) or thing(s) performing the action is not as important as the
person(s) or thing(s) acted upon. In such a case, the passive voice is used for
emphasis.
1. Weaker (active voice): the police took three suspects to police headquarters for
questioning.
2. Stronger (passive voice): three suspects were taken to police headquarters for
questioning.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words which modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. They
also modify a whole sentence.
Examples: played well, fought bravely, performed satisfactorily (here the adverbs
modify the verbs)
Very good, extremely happy, immediately preceding (here the adverbs very,
extremely and immediately modify the adjectives good, happy and preceding)
Luckily, he passed the examination. (Here the adverb luckily modifies the whole
sentence)
Consider the following two sentences:
1. The fielder picked up the ball.

2. The fielder picked up the ball quickly.

In the second sentence, the word quickly is an adverb as it affects the verb picked.
It points out the way the action is performed. In the same way, an adverb modifies an
adjective and even another adverb.
1. Raj is a highly skilled painter. (skilled= adjective)
2. Very slowly, he opened the door. (very=adverb, slowly=adverb)
Normally, an adverb is formed by adding the suffix ly to an adjective. Example:
Quick- quickly
High highly
Slow- slowly
But some adverbs do not take the suffix ly. Examples:
Very, fast, too, up, down, late etc.
Adverbs provide some significant details about
1. The manner in which something is done/ takes place ( she spoke clearly)
2. The time when an action takes place (father had warned him previously)
3. The degree to which an effect is felt/ exhibited (the rates fell considerably)
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing,
identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the
pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a
sentence.
Here are some examples of conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:

Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although

Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are
grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for
example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause

to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that

they join.

Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate

clause.

Formality in Verbs
A feature of most academic writing is a tendency to use rather formal verbs to
express the writers meaning accurately:
supply of energy required to accelerate the growth
the development that is envisaged here needs to be not only sustainable
In spoken English we would be more likely to use speed up and imagined.

to adapt

the health system has been adapted from France

to arise

a similar situation arises when we look at younger children

to carry out

the largest study was carried out in Finland

to characterise

developing countries are characterised by .

to clarify

the project was designed to clarify these contradictions

to concentrate on

that study concentrated on older children

to be concerned with the programme is concerned primarily with

to demonstrate

further research has demonstrated that few factors

to determine

the water content was experimentally determined

to discriminate

a failure to discriminate between the two species

to emphasise

the 1987 report emphasised energy efficiency

to establish

the northern boundary was established first

to exhibit

half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement

to focus on

her work focused on female managers

to generate

a question which has generated a range of responses

to hold

Newtons second Law, F=ma, holds everywhere

to identify

three main areas have been identified

to imply

previous research implies that size is a good predictor

to indicate

all the surveys indicate that employees prefer pay rises

to interact

understand how the two systems interact

to interpret

the conclusion can be interpreted as a limited success

to manifest

as manifested in anti-social behaviour

to overcome

both difficulties were overcome in the first week

to predict

the study predicts that productivity will decline next year

to propose

they propose that social class is the main factor

to prove

the use of solar power is proving successful

to recognise

he is now recognised as a leading expert

to relate to

the pattern was related to both social and physical factors

to supplement

the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine

to undergo

the system underwent major changes in the 1980s

to yield

both surveys yielded mixed results

Nationality- Language
The word 'Nationality' is not often used in spoken English. It is a formal and
official word and it appears more frequently in written English.
Country

Language

Nationality

People

Italy

Italian

Italian

Italians

Hungary

Hungarian

Hungarian

Hungarians

Korea

Korean

Korean

Koreans

Russia

Russian

Russian

Russians

China

Chinese

Chinese

Chinese

Japan

Japanese

Japanese

Japanese

Portugal

Portuguese

Portuguese

Portuguese

France

French

French

French

Greece

Greek

Greek

Greek

Britain

English

British

British

Denmark

Danish

Danish

Danes

Finland

Finnish

Finnish

Finns

Poland

Polish

Polish

Poles

Spain

Spanish

Spanish

Spaniards

Sweden

Swedish

Swedish

Swedes

Turkey

Turkish

Turkish

Turks

Germany

German

German

Germans

Mexico

Spanish

Mexican

Mexicans

The United States

English

American

Americans

Australia

English

Australian

Australians

Brazil

Portuguese

Brazilian

Brazilians

Egypt

Arabic

Egyptian

Egyptians

Holland/The

Dutch

Dutch

Dutch

New Zealand

English

New Zealanders

Netherlands
New Zealand

Time Words and Phrases

Study the use of the following:
1. Sam has been on leave for three weeks.(number)
2. The board must select the players before 30 May. (on or before)
3. He has been president since 1998. (usually with present perfect)
4. They are studying in Delhi till July. (end of a period)
5. The library was opened two years ago. (usually with past)
6. The hotel is closed during the winter. (with noun)
Tenses are also time words. Consider the following examples:
Recently, there has been a sharp fall in the price of shares. (Present perfect)
Currently, there is a vigorous debate about the right to information. (Present)

Prefixes and Suffixes

A prefix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that
partly indicates its meaning. For example, the word prefix itself begins with a prefix-pre-, which generally means "before."
The table below defines and illustrates 35 common prefixes.
Common Prefixes
Prefix

Meaning

Example

a-, an-

without

amoral

ante-

before

antecedent

anti-

against

anticlimax

auto-

self

autopilot

circum-

around

circumvent

co-

with

copilot

com-, con- with

companion, contact

contra-

contradict

de-

against
off,

away

from

devalue

dis-

not

disappear

en-

put into

enclose

ex-

out of, former extract, ex-president

extra-

beyond, more
than

extracurricular

hetero-

different

heterosexual

homo-

same

homonym

hyper-

over, more

hyperactive

il-, im-, in-,

ir-

not, without

illegal, immoral, inconsiderate,

irresponsible

in-

into

insert

inter-

between

intersect

intra-

between

intravenous

macro-

large

macroeconomics

micro-

small

microscope

mono-

one

monocle

non-

not, without

nonentity

omni-

all, every

omniscient

post-

after

postmortem

pre-, pro-

before,
forward

precede, project

sub-

under

submarine

syn-

same time

synchronize

trans-

across

transmit

tri-

three

tricycle

un-

not

unfinished

uni-

one

unicorn

Suffixes
A suffix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a
new word or to alter the grammatical function of the original word. For example, the
verb read can be made into the noun reader by adding the suffix -er; read can be
made into the adjective readable by adding the suffix -able.
The table below defines and illustrates 26 common suffixes.
Common Suffixes
Noun Suffixes
Suffix

Meaning

Example

-acy

state or quality

privacy

-al

act or process of

refusal

-ance, -ence state or quality of

maintenance, eminence

-dom

place or state of being freedom, kingdom

-er, -or

one who

trainer, protector

-ism

doctrine, belief

communism

-ist

one who

chemist

-ity, -ty

quality of

veracity

-ment

condition of

argument

-ness

state of being

heaviness

-ship

position held

fellowship

-sion, -tion state of being

concession, transition

Verb Suffixes
-ate

become

eradicate

-en

become

enlighten

-ify, -fy

make or become

terrify

-ize, -ise

become

civilize

Adjective Suffixes
-able, -ible capable of being

edible, presentable

-al

pertaining to

regional

-esque

reminiscent of

picturesque

-ful

notable for

fanciful

-ic, -ical

pertaining to

musical, mythic

-ious, -ous

characterized by

nutritious, portentous

-ish

having the quality of

fiendish

-ive

having the nature of

creative

-less

without

endless

-y

characterized by

sleazy

Module IV
Writing Models
Formal Letters

Formal letters are letters that you write to people other than your friends and
family. Through formal letters you communicate with professional organizations,
educational institutions and other such public bodies. Since these letters are written for
specific purposes and to people in specific positions, you should be able to identify
that govern formal written communication. Most formal letters have the following
parts:

1. Senders Address/ Letterhead

The address must be added at the top left of the letter. Institutions will use their
official letterheads, which include their name, address and contact details such
as telephone and fax numbers, e-mail or web site address.

2. Date
This will be followed by the date on which the letter is being written or sent. It
is better to use one date format consistently in all your correspondence. For the
sake of simplicity and clarity it is recommended to use the alphanumeric format
as in 1 January 2011.

3. Reference Number (if any)

Companies and institutions use this alphanumeric notation to file the letter. It is
advisable to quote it in continuing correspondence. In the letter it will be
usually labeled as Ref: which is followed by actual reference number.

4. Receivers Address
The name and address of the receiver or the addressee of the letter is included.
If the addressee is a specific individual, you must include the name and
designation of the person.

5. Subject Line
Labeled usually as Sub: the subject line is a short description, not more than
one line that highlights the purpose of your letter.

6. Salutation
Use Dear followed by the title9Dr, Professor, Mr., Ms) and the surname of
the person you are writing to; for example, Dear Dr Bhatt, or Dear Ms Verma.
In case you do not know the name of the addressee, you can write Dear
Director or Dear Manager.

7. Body
The text constitutes the body.

8. Closing
Normally you close your letter with Your truly or Yours sincerely. It is
wrong to use Yours. Try to avoid it.

9. Signature Area
After the complementary close, you have to sign the letter followed by your
name either written or printed in upper case.

10. Enclosure Notation

Next to the label Encl. you will list the additional documents being sent with
the letter.

Centre for South Asian Studies

25, Lodhi Road
New Delhi 110 003
Tel. +91-11-27634564 Fax +91-11-27634565
E-mail: csas@mail.org
2) 16 June 2009
3) Ref: CSAS/DEL/09/221
4) Mr Raj Kumar
Plot No. 40, Neetikhand I
Indirapuram
Ghaziabad 201 012
5) Sub: Publishing a paper in CSAS journal
6) Dear Mr Kumar,
7) Your request to contribute a paper in the Centres quarterly journal has been
accepted. You are required to submit an abstract by 26 June and the complete paper
by 15 August 2009, so that it may be considered for publication in the September
issue of the journal. The writing guidelines are enclosed.
Please let me know if you will be able to meet the deadlines.
8) Yours sincerely,
9) Chitra Menon
(CHITRA MENON)
Communication Secretary, CSAS
10) Encl: Writing Guidelines

Curriculum Vitae and Covering Letter

Curriculum Vitae
CV stands for curriculum vitae. It is also known as rsum, personal profile,
bio data, personal data sheet, qualification sheet, and summary. A CV or rsum is a
self introduction to promote yourself. To be able to sell yourself successfully, you
need to know how to prepare a good rsum. A rsum is usually attached to an
application letter. It is therefore read only after the application letter, but it is
something you should prepare first.
A CV should be written specifically in terms of the jobs requirements. The
basic question you should consider while preparing your rsum is what qualification
or experience or achievement you should highlight for a particular position. The
whole idea underlying the arrangement of CV is to emphasise your strengths.
However, there is no set order in which a rsum is written. All rsums, whether
short or long, cover the same points regarding an individuals background,
achievements, and experience. In long rsums, the details regarding each point
increase significantly. But basic points remain the same.
Before dealing with the technique of writing a rsum, we should understand
the relation between a rsum and an application letter (also known as covering letter).
Categories of information
1. Personal details
2. Education
3. Experience
4. References
Conventional style
The conventional method is to begin with personal details and end with
references. But a more practical method followed these days is to begin with the

category which needs to be emphasised most. Suppose, you have little work
experience but a good education profile then you should begin with education which
is your strong point that needs to be emphasised. Personal details will then appear as
the last category, to be placed before references. This presentation of information
meets the employers requirements. Your employer will be more interested in your
qualifications and experience than in your biographical details. The category of
references includes names of at least two persons with their full contact addresses.
They are expected to honestly speak about you to the employer confidentially.
To begin with work experience
If you have a strong work experience, then you should begin your rsum with
work experience. Then, highlight your educational qualifications.
In work experience, you should include your total experience, part-time as well
as full-time, if your experience is not very long. But, in case you have been working
for long, you should not include part-time work experience. Never write no
experience.
As a fresh graduate, you may have little opportunity to acquire professional
work experience. But every graduate student can gain some experience by organizing
functions, running clubs, associations, societies, or managing events, undertaking
visits to industries, and so on. Graduates at management or technological institutes
undertake some projects or some industrial training. All such exposures form a fresh
graduates experience. So, instead of writing no experience, it would be better if the
student mentions those activities.
In mentioning your experience as a student, you should emphasize what
qualifies you best for the job you are applying for.
The highest qualification is the most important qualification. It should be
therefore given more prominence than the others and so it should be placed at the top.
Then the other qualifications can be mentioned.

The rsum written by a new graduate

The new graduates rsum is generally one page long. It includes his or her
career objective, education, work experience and school or college activities. It is
attached with the application letter. Because it is a fresh graduates rsum, education
is placed first, a position of prominence. You should give information under bold and
clear headings, so that a reader can easily go to the desired point.
The sequence
There are several styles for writing a student rsum. The one given here is a
generally used chronological format.
Length
The CV of a fresh graduate should be neither too brief nor too long. One page
would be sufficient. Since experienced candidates have more details to be added in
their CV, their CV can be 2 to 3 pages.
AKSHITA MEHRA
21/A, AMRITA SHERGIL MARGNEW DELHI - 110 003
Phone (011) 24620980/ 24692993, 9810455654
E-mail: akshita81@yahoo.com

JOB OBJECTIVE
Initially I want to work as a management trainee in an industry where my education in
management, with a major in marketing, may be developed. My ultimate goal is to be
a senior executive in marketing.

PERSONAL PROFILE
Date of Birth

7 June 1981

Marital Status

Single

SPECIALIZATION
Marketing and Sales
Human Resource Management
EDUCATION
Postgraduate Diploma in Business Management from XLRI, Jamshedpur
2004
Bachelor of Arts Sociology Honors, Lady Shri Ram College (LSR), New
Delhi 1999
Senior Secondary (XII) CBSE Humanities, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New
Delhi 1999
Higher Secondary (X) CBSE, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New Delhi 1997
SCHOLARSHIPS/AWARDS
Shri Ram Swaroop Ahuja Award for Outstanding Performance in Sports
1998
Shri Jaswant S Pandaya Award for Outstanding Performance in Athletics
1996
Govt. of India Sports Talent Search Scholarship Scheme 1994-95.
INTERESTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS
President of National Sports Organization 2001-02 at Lady Shri Ram
College
Awarded certificate of merit for Contribution to Sports

First Degree International Black Belt in Tae-Kwon-Do (Korean Martial Art)

Won 62 Gold Medals in Domestic Championships and 4 Bronze Medals as an

International Player

Held Merit Positions in Basketball, Volleyball, Badminton, Table Tennis and

Judo

Organized sponsorships worth Rs 1 Lakh for LSR Sports Festival 2001

Organized a Cross-Country run for Green & Clean Delhi on 24 August
2001, LSR and other events in Capacity as the President
Participant and Member of Organizing committee of Sangthan 2003 (Amity
Inter- Institute Annual Sports Meet
Won 9 medals including 7 Golds
Master of Ceremony for the following events organized by Amity Business
School
Alumni Meet
Mentor Meet
Corporate Meet
Acumen 2003, Organized by Business Today
PERSONAL OBJECTIVE
My desire is to create a truly competitive arena whenever I work. I want to bring my
enthusiasm and sense of confidence to the organization and to the people I work with.
My involvement in various areas of activities at college has taught me crucial lessons
on leadership and teamwork.
STRENGTHS
Team Player
Self Confident and Goal Oriented
Fast Learner with an ability to excel

WORK EXPERIENCE
Worked as a Trainee in Enterprise Nexus, Ad Agency in the Research and
Planning Department
Conducted research for General Motors undertaken by Enterprise Nexus
REFERENCES
Available on request

Application letter
An application letter is planned like a sales letter to gain attention and interest
and ask for action. It shows your communication skills to your potential employer. It
functions as an interview request by impressing the potential employer with your
abilities and education. It needs to be written very skillfully.
Planning an application letter
First paragraph:
Identify your objective or goal exactly. Say specifically the job you are
applying for and how you came to know it- through an advertisement or someone
known to you. Sometimes you may apply without knowing that a position exists or is
available. Use the opening paragraph to show what kind of position you are qualified
for. Also state the reasons for your interest to work in that particular company.
Second paragraph:
Give enough evidence of your ability or qualifications for the position. Explain
why you are qualified for the position or job. Do not repeat what you have written in
the rsum. But mention briefly your education or work experience and indicate the
particular points relevant to the position applied for. As a pass-out graduate, mention
in your education important courses or special projects that have enriched your

preparation and enhanced your suitability for the position you are seeking for. Give
here your extra-curricular activities, if any, that show your qualities of leadership or
abilities to organize and co-ordinate. Show how your project work or industrial visit or
work experience is related to the position you want.
Third paragraph:
Ask for an interview opportunity. At the end, suggest that you would like to
come for an interview at the employers convenience. The purpose of your letter is to
make the prospective employer decide to meet you.
In writing an application letter, we should remember that we are selling out
those merits which the employer needs. We shall be able to write the application letter
effectively if we remember the important principles of writing such as
Coherence
Concreteness
Simplicity
Emphasis
Originality
Sincerity
Empathy
Convention
Try to keep your letter brief. Like the rsum, it should be spotless, nicely
typed and centred on a white page of about 21cm by 29.5cm. Address your letter to a
specific person by name, if possible. If the advertisement does not give the name of
the concerned person and mentions only post box number or e-mail ID, then mail it
according to the address given in the advertisement. Sign your letter properly.

Some donts for you as a writer of application letter

Dont use your present employers stationery.
Dont beg or ask for a favor.

 Dont be unduly humble.

Dont write too many I, me, my.
Dont sound casual.
Dont boast about yourself.
Dont criticize your present employer.
Dont repeat rsum information.
Dont use vague or general terms.
Dont say you are qualified for the job/ position; instead give evidence.
Dont use hackneyed and worn out expressions.
Dont copy a letter written by any other applicant.
On the positive side, show confidence.
6/102 East End Aptts
Mayur Vihar Phase I
Delhi 110096

6 April 2004

Shri N.K.Varma
Sales and Marketing
LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd
Surajpur, Kasna Road
Greater Noida (UP)

Sub: Application for the post of Assistant Marketing Manager

Dear Shri Varma,

Please consider me as a candidate for the position of Assistant Marketing Manager,
advertised in Times of India, 1 April 2004. The position is especially attractive to me
for I know that LG offers a wide variety of household durables for which my
education and work experience have prepared me.
As my rsum shows, I received my MBA, with a major in marketing, from Bombay
university, last year. During my summer term and end term I have performed various
duties in the marketing department of Samsung including consumer research work for
the new products.
In June 2003, I joined Samsung as a management trainee.
While at Samsung, I gained a lot of experience in marketing/research and product
designing under excellent supervision.
I am a hardworking person who enjoys the challenges of marketing. I love travelling.
Enclosed is my rsum for your consideration. I do hope that I shall have an
opportunity of an interview for the position of Assistant Marketing Manager at LG
Electronics India Pvt. Ltd.

Yours truly,
Abhinav Chaturvedi
ABHINAV CHATURVEDI
Encl.

Designing and Reporting Surveys

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE) defines survey as
a set of questions that you ask a large number of people in order to find out about
their opinions and behaviour. In social science, especially in psychology, sociology,
political science, surveys are indispensable. It is through the surveys that researchers
often obtain the facts and the data they need for their studies. Research conducted in
scientific manner involves the following process of investigations:
1. Defining the problem
2. Formulating hypothesis
3. Selecting or proposing a method
4. Collecting, organizing and analysing data
5. Making deductions and arriving at conclusions
Survey method is used to know the actual status of the thing at the time of our
study. It uses survey tools: questionnaires, interviews, checklists and opinionnaires to
obtain information that may add to information already collected through secondary
sources or validate the finding obtained from the library research.
The limitations of this method is that the findings through such surveys are to
be considered valid only for the present and not for the future, because the state of
mind, attitude, or situation of.
For example, suppose we want to conduct a study of the attitude of
employments towards the voluntary retirement scheme (VRS) in a company. The only
way to do this is to conduct a survey (through personal interviews or questionnaires)
of all those employees, who, at the time of study, fall within the age group indicated
for VRS eligibility.
Instruments of survey
The survey is usually done with the instruments of written questionnaire or
personal interview.

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a set of questions that are written in order to collect
maximum factual information from the respondents about their habits, attitudes,
views, rating, liking, and so on of the object under study. The questions may be
grouped and sequenced according to the nature of the data. For example, if personal
data is important for the analysis of the information gathered, then questions an age,
sex, family, size, number of earning members, and number of dependents may be
grouped together for easy analysis of the data. A questionnaire is generally treated as
anonymous.
Questions should be worded in simple, clear and exact language. Enough space
should be left between the questions if we ask open-ended questions. The questions
can be objective type with a number of options given in which case the respondent has
just to write yes or no or just put marks as directed. For example, a question can be
put in the following formYour company should have a five-day week for all its Yes

No

No opinion

employees to motivate them for better production.

Guidelines for creating an effective questionnaire
Ask objective and factual information. Opinions, likes, and so on cannot be
avoided, but they should be inferred from the objective information. Do not base your
conclusions on opinions, because they often change from time to time. Rely on facts,
not opinions.
1. Do not ask questions that would embarrass or bother the respondent either to
answer or to recall.
2. Do not ask contradictory questions.
3. Avoid loaded questions which suggest built-in answers. For example, would
you like your wages to be increased? Obviously, the answer cannot be No.

4. Keep the number of questions which suggest to a reasonable limit. Normally,

10-15 questions should be set. Long questionnaires are usually ignored as they
take the respondents time.
5. Assure the respondent that the information given by him or her will be treated
confidential if you are asking questions on secretive matters.
6. Sequence the questions from simple to difficult. Put easy-to-answer questions
before the difficult ones.
7. Write a brief letter to be sent with the questionnaire. The respondent should
know why he or she is selected to answer the questionnaire. Also he or she
should be persuaded to answer each question freely. Instructions for answering
the questions may also be given in the covering letter itself. Otherwise, the
instructions may be briefly written on top of the questionnaire.
8. If the questionnaire is mailed, it should be accompanied with a self-addressed
duly stamped envelope. This would communicate your serious desire to receive
the filled-up questionnaire.
9. Promise the respondents that the findings of the survey research will be shared
with them.
10. Mention the probable date by which you have to submit your study report or
indicate the date by which the questionnaire may be returned. Remember that
normally it takes time to respond and often the questionnaire remains
unanswered. Hence, choose your respondents carefully and wisely.
Sample questionnaire and letter
1

Definitely would

Probably would Probably would

Definitely would

Order

order

not order

1. Great Music Greatest Hits

2. Indian Film Song Collection

not order

3. Melodies, Moods, and Memories

4. The Worlds Greatest love Songs

About You and Your Family

For purpose of tabulation, kindly indicate the following
Q1. The following is a list of types of Music available. Please indicate which types of
Music you are interested in buying in the next 12 months. (Please tick as many boxes
as apply)
Broadway Shows/Movie Soundtracks (13.1)

Jazz (13.11)

Seminar Paper
A seminar, according to LDOCE, is a class at a university or a college for a
small group of students and a teacher to study or discuss a particular topic. In most
cases, a seminar paper is the first time a student attempts academic writing. A typical
seminar paper will have the following components:
1. Title
2. Your name
3. Abstract
4. Text
5. References
Title:
The title of your paper should be brief and exact.
Your name:

Below the title, you should write your full name, your roll number, academic
session and the name of your department and / or university/ college.
Abstract:
An abstract is a short written statement containing only the most important
ideas in a speech, article etc. (LDOCE). An abstract is a summary given and hence in
a brief manner includes the following:
1. The statement of purpose/ problem
2. Methodology/ theoretical base
3. Results
4. Conclusion
An abstract should ideally be about 200 words-long. It is recommended that you write
the abstract after you have finished writing the paper, so that you have all the
information to be included in the abstract.
Text:
Just like any good essay, your seminar paper will also have a beginning,
middle, and an end. For better organisation, you may want to divide your essay in
sections and subsections, each of which may have a distinct heading. A seminar paper
is a well-researched document, which simply means that you are required to use your
library to do a background reading while preparing the paper. You must acknowledge
the sources that you use while writing your paper. Do not just copy, but comment on
the material that you are quoting. Be careful about unacknowledged citations, as that
amounts to plagiarism. Always revise your paper before the final presentation.
References:
You must document all the sources you have used in your paper. Use a
consistent format. Make sure every reference is also used in the introduction/ main
text. Avoid citing from Wikipedia.

Project Reports
A project report is an academic requirement and is written on a project
completed in an industry/ business company under the joint supervision of an industry
expert and faculty of the concerned institute. It is submitted for evaluation under the
guidance of the project supervisor (from the industry) and the faculty (from the
concerned institution). The project report is generally written at the end of the
academic term during which a live project is done and successfully completed. For
supervising and guiding the summer project, you would be consulting two guides-one
from your faculty and the other from the sponsoring organization. You have to
develop the project from the proposal stage onwards to the final report writing in
regular consultation with the faculty. You should initially discuss the nature of the
project, as far as possible, before leaving for placement.
The purpose of the project proposal is to allow the student to place the
proposed study within a coherent, organized framework, which is also standardized.
The proposal should be based on the topic/ scope of work assigned by the
organization. Project proposal will enhance the students understanding, grasp and
clarity of the subject matter, the context of the problem and the research problem. This
is necessary for the direction and procedure of the study to be brought within the
required scope, coverage and rigour, and also for enhancing the quality of the research
effort, with the inputs of the expert panel to identify and suggest rectification of
possible problems in the proposal.
The project report should appear in the following order:
Page i: Cover page
Page ii: Second title page
Page iii: Certificate of approval
Page iv: Approval of organizational and faculty guides
Page v-vi: Abstract

Page vii: Acknowledgement

Page viii: Table of contents
Page ix: List of figures
Page x: List of tables
Page xi: List of appendices
Page xii: Abbreviations
Page 1: Chapter I
Page ...: Last chapter
Page ...: References
Page ...: Appendices
Cover page: The format for the cover page of a project report is given below.

Project Title
A Project Proposal for
Course Title
by
Your name
under the guidance of
Shri [Name of the industry supervisor]

Dr/Prof. [Name of the faculty]

Designation

Designation

Organization

Institution

Second title page: See the format below

Project Title
by
Your name
under the guidance of
Shri [Name of the industry supervisor]

Dr/Prof. [Name of the faculty]

Designation

Designation

Organization

Institution

Certificate of approval: See the format below

Certificate of Approval
The following project report titled ABC is hereby approved as a certified
study in [discipline: Languages, sociology, management studies etc.] carried
out and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a
prerequisite for the award of [Course Title: Post-graduate Programme in
Management] for which it has been submitted. It is understood that by this
approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve any statement
made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein but approve the Project
Report only for the purpose it is submitted.
Project Report Examination Committee for evaluation of Project Report
Name

Signature

1. Faculty Examiner
2. Project Co-ordinator

_______________
_______________

_____________
_____________

Approval of organizational and faculty guides: See the format below

Certificate from Summer Project Guides
This is to certify that Mr/Ms [Students Name], a student of the [Course Title],
has worked under our guidance and supervision. This project report has the
requisite standard and to the best of our knowledge no part of it has been
reproduced from any other summer project, monograph, report or book.
Institute Faculty Guide

Organizational Faculty Guide

Designation

Designation

MDI Gurgaon

Organization
Address

Date

Date

Documentation
Documentation or citing sources is a writers indication in an accepted format
that he or she has used the words, ideas or information from another source or sources.
It is an exercise that must be carefully carried out and requires the writer to be patient
and focused. Documentation establishes the credibility of the writer. The reader also
tends to respect the writers opinions and consider his or her findings seriously.
Since source- based essays are written for English and other humanities classes,
the MLA format is the recommended one.
In-text citation
To cite a source in text using MLA style, you will have to insert the last name of the
author from whose writing you are quoting or reporting followed by the page
number(s). This information will appear in parentheses immediately after the citation.
As the author tells readers, her father was a writer, and she became a
voracious reader as a result of watching her parents read (Lamott 22).

Here, in this citation, the author mentioned is Lamott and the reference is to the
information on page22 of her book. If the authors name has already been mentioned
in the text, the parentheses will only have the page number.
As Anne Lamott tells readers, her father was a writer, and she became a
voracious reader as a result of watching her parents read (22).
This citation shows that the reference comes from the page 22 of Lamotts book. The
reader can get additional information about the book in the reference list, which is
arranged alphabetically at the end of the report.
List of Works Cited
Further information will be found in the list of the works cited or the references
at the end of the report/paper. For example, the work that as cited in the above
example will appear in the References as given below:
Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird. New York: Doubleday, 1994.
Some rule are there which should be kept in mind during documentation of
your research paper/ report. The rules are as follows:
1. Reference list is alphabetically arranged.
2. The authors name appears in reverse order, that is, last name first followed by
a comma and then the first name. Name of additional authors appear in normal
order, that is, first name first.
3. Use hanging indents for the entries.
4. Names of the books, newspapers, journals are italicized. Main words in the
names are capitalized.
5. Titles of articles from newspapers, journals and magazines are involved within
quotation marks. Main words in the titles are capitalized.
6. If the reference is to a journal, the volume and issue number are included. Year
of publication appears in parentheses and is followed by a colon and the page
range of the article.

7. Electronic sources require more comprehensive details in the reference list,

since they may not remain online, or readily available. The date assigned in the
source and the date of last access by the writer/ researcher should be included.
Referencing Style
Book with multiple authors (two or three)
In-text:
According to Nicolas Bentley, Michael Slater, and Nina Burgis, Dickens was
always observant of detail (82)
Or
According to three critics, Dickens was always observant of detail (Bentley,
Slator, and Burgis 82)
End-text:
Bentley, Nicolas, Michael Slater and Nina Burgis. The Dickens Index. New
York: OUP, 2002.
More than three authors
Use either the first authors last name followed by the term et al. (standing in Latin for
and others) or all of the authors last names:
In-text:
As Jones et al. Contend... (142).
Or
As several journalists contend... (Jones et al. 142).
End-text:

Jones, William et al. The Psychology of Love. New York: Penguin, 2003.
Article in a magazine
In-text:
John Ellis conveys to his readers that Franklin was unpredictable (89).
Or
One expert conveys to his readers that Franklin was unpredictable (Ellis 89).
End-text:
Ellis, John. Franklins Cop-Out. Time 15 June 1997: 89-93.
Unknown author
In-text:
According to the essay Pros and Cons of Lethal Injection,... (58).
Or
According to one source,... (Pros and Cons58).
End-text:
Pros and Cons of Lethal Injection. Newsweek. 12 January 1999: 54-61.
Work within an analogy
In-text:
As Ernest Gaines asserts,... (213).
Or

As one famous African-American writer tells us, _____ (Gaines 213).

End-text:
Gaines, Ernest. Why I Write. Gaines, Angelou, and other African-American
Writers. Ed. Charles Winston. San Francisco: Riverdale Press, 1996. 213-23.
Indirect sources
In-text:
According to Reseka (qtd. In Bray 21) ....
Or
According to one controversial leader, ... (Reseka qtd. In Bray 21).
End-text:
Bray, Marcus. The Global Warming Crisis. Sierra. 18 May 2003: 47-58.
Electronic and non-print sources
In-text:
As stated in the site Planning Trips through the Net, major deals can be made
if one logs on early and often.
End-text:
Planning Trips through the Net. Los Angeles Times. 23 Apr. 200. 12 May
2002 <http://www.latimestravel.com>.
E-mail
in-text:

As Doctor Jamison discussed,...

Or
As one prominent doctor discussed, ______ (Jamison).
End-text:
Jamison, Dr.Anne. Answers to Back Pain. E-mail to John Sweetzer. 1 July
2003.
Material from a CD-ROM database
In-text:
Clarissa Netherland admits in Union Issues that these problems have been
magnified.
End-text:
Netherland, Clarissa. Union Issues on 23 Campuses. EPSCO Host. CD-ROM.
Los Angeles: University of Californis Press, 2003.
Personal interview
In-text:
As Hironi Saigusa indicates, ...
End-text:
Saigusa, Hironi. Personal interview. 3 February 2003.
Film or Video in-text:
As one can see in the courtroom scene from Mr Smith Goes to Washington....

Or
As one can see in the film, ______ (Mr Smith).
End-text:
Mr Smith Goes to Washington. Dir. Frank Capra. Perf. James Stewart, Claude
Raines. MGM, 1946.

Module-V
Presentation Skills
Soft Skills for Academic Presentations
Presentations are made daily to someone for some purpose. But often it is
found that one is at a loss when effective presentation comes into the forefront. What
happens normally is that we end up arguing over something, becoming emotional,
instead of becoming logical and reasonable. We also fail to identify the reality that we
need to have different kinds of attitude for different kinds of presentations. According
to the context, we may vary our presentation using the visual aids like Power Point,
OHP slides etc. The mere acquisition of these visual aids will not be sufficient. One
has to develop effective presentation skills.
The Audience
The audience is the key part for the beginning of your presentation. When you
are preparing yourself to do a presentation, make it sure who is your audience? If you
are presenting yourself before an audience who have studied English as a second
language, then they expect you to be fluent but not fast, and will prefer an English
vocabulary which is not loaded with jargons. However, if you are making a
presentation to a group of business managers, then you will prefer to make your
speech sound with a lot of business jargons so that you may be able to make a good
impression upon the audience as well as to gain their confidence. It is important that
you need to develop a rapport with the audience effectively. They should feel and treat
you as being one of them.
Primary Audience
Primary audience are the formal audience who participate in the room where
you are presenting. They listen to you actively. These are the people whose age,
education, culture and economics become vital for you. But be careful to avoid any
such usage which may be sensitive at various levels like caste, race, gender etc.

Secondary Audience
The people who listen to you are not always the decision makers. In a political
or business presentation, they are the ones who carry your message to a larger group.
So before you begin your presentation, try to find out who the opinion leaders are and
who are the decision makers. Opinion leaders are those people who are responsible for
the political, cultural or religious opinion that your primary audience ahs. Similarly,
decision makers are those people to whom your presentation is going to travel. They
can be the directors of a company who will use your product or service, or they can be
people who decide if you deserve a scholarship or not.
The Objective of Presentation
One must be clear about the objective of presentation. It would be appropriate
if the following questions are viewed:
o Are you speaking to persuade?
o Are you speaking to inform?
An academic presentation is generally a mix of informative and persuasive
speaking. Decide upon the following areas before you begin delivering your
presentation.
Language
The presenter should try to avoid sensitive words and usage. The language you
use in your presentation must clearly reveal what you want your audience to
know because of your presentation.
Trimming your presentation
Delete unnecessary information.
Ice breaking

A good way to identify the objective of your presentation is to begin with an

ice breaking session where you gather information about your audience by
asking them to participate in a group activity. Presenters often circulate
handouts and questionnaires to gather information. Once you know who your
audience is, you can define your desired outcome better.
Choosing the Appropriate Medium
The choice of medium of presentation will depend on the outcome you expect.
The following table will help you decide what the most appropriate medium for your
presentation is.
Medium
Handouts

Outcome
They clarify complex theoretical issues,
provide source materials on which the
presenter elucidates (if you are talking of
Gandhis Satyagraha then, quotes from The
Harijan and The Hind Swaraj could come in
the handouts, and activity instructions (very
popular in workshops).

Workshop Activities

The saying goes that You tell me and I

remember; you show me and I shall learn.
Instead of preparing pulpit presentations, it
is often a good idea to become interactive
and trying out your ideas live!

Video Presentation

If you are trying to address a global audience

spread across different geographical regions,
a good option is to use video conferencing
technology. Remember, that your voice and
gait will change during such presentations.

Hence, you need not depend on personal

charisma as much on slides, visual aids, and
video clips. Listening to one person speak,
on an audio-visual screen; can be boring
because it is a very passive exercise.
Techniques of Effective Presentation
An effective technique used for effective presentation is to surprise and grab
the attention of the audience. Look at how William Shakespeare makes use of this
technique in one of his famous play.
Friends, Romans, countrymen lend me your ears
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him
Note how Shakespeare begins the speech. The Romans had formal training in
speaking well-balanced rhythmic lines, making rhetorical questions and in being
persuasive. Antony speaks after Brutus had presented a balanced speech justifying the
murder of Caesar and had won over the Romans. Faced with the uphill task of
winning over a hostile crowd, jeering and rowdy, Antony employs rhetorical strategies
that are exemplary. The opening line with its heavy stresses on words like friends,
Romans, lend, countrymen and ears makes a heavy impact and cuts across the
audience (the unruly Romans and Shakespeares own audience at the Globe were a lot
similar; they were often drunk and fresh from bear- baiting carnivals). While Brutus
had begun Romans, countrymen and lovers, Antonys speech begins with friends.
He is trying to be familiar by addressing them as friends. His call is direct and sharp.
It is by far the best way to gain attention when nobody is offering you any.
The point is to grab attention with a fantastic opener. A rhetorical question is
an excellent idea. You can also be anecdotal.
Beginning

You can begin your presentation either by asking a question or with a quote.
Stating a surprising fact can also be a good strategy for devising an opening line. This
is also called the Von Restorff effect.
Repetition
Repetition is a good idea for making the audience sit up and take notes. Keep
reminding the audience of your central claim.
Summarizing
Summarizing and flagging are also effective presentation strategies.
Summarize each part of the presentation and use it as a linkage with the following
part. Just as we flag pages of our diaries and books, with colour post-its to be able to
locate important sections, we need to draw the attention of the audience to our
presentation by using attention-drawing expressions like the main idea is . Or this is
to suggest that ., or in other words, etc.
Here is an effective presentation diagram:

Open- surprise, narrate, quote

Transition by summarizing and flagging

Repeat your main ideas in the presentation

Effective conclusions- quote, ask rhetorical questions, summarize

Structuring the Presentation

A significant aspect is to know how to start your presentation. It does not
include how you greet the audience. It means with what point you should begin your
delivery. The normal order of exposition is to first list the main ideas and then
elaborate your points. This is the pattern that all reports follow. This sequence would
form the order of your presentation and timing of each part too.
Introduction

3 minutes

Main body

15 minutes

Conclusion

2 minutes

Questions and Answers

10 minutes

Logical Ordering of your Presentation

The structure of the presentation can be designed in such a way that it is
logical, clear and complete in 30 minutes.
Introduction

3 minutes

In your academic presentation, you may begin immediately with the main idea
of presentation. It does only that, without giving details of what is to follow. This
helps the audience to know the subject and the focus of presentation.
Main Body

15 minutes

This part is mainly set for informing the audience about the topic of your
presentation. This part will also include findings of your survey and analysis of your
data to convince your audience. This section can be divided into sub-sections, but it
should not exceed more than three sub-sections under the main point.
Conclusion

2 minutes

Your presentation needs to be concluded effectively. You may use the

technique of giving an overall analysis of your presentation supporting your main
topic.
Questions and Answers

10 minutes

This is an important opportunity for audience interaction. Encourage questions.

Answer each question seriously and with honesty. Do not try to bluff. If you do not
know, be frank.
Prepare a logical sequence of your presentation. This will make the flow of
arguments clear. It will also help keep to the main argument, as you deliver the
presentation to your audience, in the form of face-to-face communication. While
speaking to the audience, do not drift. Keep the presentation simple so as to make the
presentation effective.
Visual Presentation Aids
A presentation of statistical data, figures, and diagrams and so on is made vivid
by the use of visual aids. Through visual display of our ideas, we make see what they
hear. It helps the listeners receive the message effortlessly. This also helps in keeping
the audience absorbed fully in the presentation.
The visual aids should be used to
Present numerical and statistical data.
Present topics related to art, design, or any subject which involves display of
material.
Present new data or plan of which the audience is not aware. The new
information will be better understood when seen.
Present comparative statements of facts and figures, specifically graphic and
diagrammatic forms. Visual presentation of comparisons always helps
comprehension. Suppose you want to compare two structures, the point of
comparison can be better appreciated when shown rather than described.

 Present new interpretations of old data. If you have discovered or enunciated

something new as a fresh interpretation of an existing phenomenon, showing it
makes the information look concrete. By projecting the old information sideby-side how you have gone beyond it.
Advantages of Visual Aids
We respond easily to what we see. A good amount of information can be
communicated with the aid of visual projections of facts, statistical data,
figures, diagrams, pictures, numerical data, objects, and handouts within the
given time.
Visual image of message heard is an attention getter. It promotes interest and
arrests attention of the audience.
Visual presentation saves time spent in discussing various ideas.
It increases the effectiveness of communicating information by an analytical
presentation of main points and sub-points in a visible form.
How to Use Visual Aids
Do not use too many visuals. That will lessen their impact.
Plan the use of visuals by determining the main points. Make one visual for the
main points.
Prepare the visuals in bold, clear letters that can be seen even by the person
sitting at the other end of the room.
Do not fill a slide with too many words. As far as possible, write single words
or short phrases to summarize concepts.
Use different colours to distinguish different points.
Use the technique of revealing only one point at a time. You can do so by
progressively exposing the hidden portion of the slide.
Number the sequence of your slides and rehearse the presentation with them, to
ensure that the slides change in accordance with what you speak. Your
speaking and slide projection must be correctly related to each other.

 Explain the purpose and content of the slide when you show it. Keep it
displayed for sufficient time to allow the audience to read it and if required,
note it down.
Different Kinds of Visual Aids
Board Black/ White
Flipcharts
Overhead projectors
Power point
Board
The board can be black/ white. A board is a primary aid used in classrooms.
The use of a Board helps listeners attend with concentration. It can be used for noting
important words and concepts, or for doing calculations.
The board should be skilfully used. It is better to divide the board into parts for
noting down points and doing calculations and drawing figures. The writing should be
in bold and clear letters. Words should be written in white chalk on a black board in
such a way that they are visible at a distance too. Rubbing the board is like changing
the slide or transparency. On a white board, use dark marker to make the writing clear
and visible. Do not leave the board written over, when the talk or lecture comes to an
end.
Flip Chart
A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand used as a visual aid for presenting
information to a small group of 15 to 20 persons. It is used for many purposes
advantages of using flip charts are in terms of their being readily generated and added
during the talk. They can be prepared in advance for presenting well-drawn diagrams,
bar charts and all kinds of graphs. You can faintly sketch outlines of a diagram in the
presence of your audience. You can also use them for prompting you by writing

faintly in pencil points which will be visible only to you, not to your listeners. Flip
charts are of great use for creating and presenting audiences feedback, suggestions,
comments, or any other kind of observation, at the end of the talk. Flip charts , which
can be written over in water soluble ink, are of perpetual use.
Overhead projectors
The most often used visual aid in presentation is an overhead projector (OHP).
By using it, the presenter is able to speak while looking at the audience and have a
prepared transparency projected on the screen. The image projected is bright, large
and colourful. It holds the audiences attention.
An OHP can be used for typed or hand-written matter. The best impact is made
when the content is neatly and clearly typed.
How to prepare transparencies
Make the transparencies clear and visible.
Try to prepare the best possible transparencies whether they are handwritten or
typed.
Put only one main point on one transparency.
Do not crowd the visual with too much information packed in a single
transparency.
Write not more than eight lines of the message on one transparency. Use only
six words in each line. Thus, there can be a maximum of 48 words neatly
written or typed on a transparency.
Use a variety of bullets to mark sub-points.
Place information at the centre.
Points for using OHP
Check that the projectors switches are working.
See if the projector lens and projection surface are clean.

 Adjust the focus for obtaining the brightest and the largest image on the screen
by adjusting the position of the projector.
Place transparency on the projection surface properly.
Switch off the projector between the visuals.
Keep the fan inside the projector on when you are showing the visuals.
Locate the switches on the OHP using it.
The projection screen should be clean. If the projection is made on the white
board or wall, see that there is nothing written on the board or wall.
Use a pointer to emphasise a certain point. Use a pen or pencil to point to the
transparency.
Unfold the points one by one. You may hide the rest of the matter with the
tracing paper that is usually there with each new transparency.
Finally, remember that the visuals are your aids to communicate with your
audience. So, look at the audience for the most part. Avoid turning again and
again towards the OHP projection. Do so only to ensure that your speech
relates to the slides.
Power point Projection
In making impressive professional or academic presentations, the computerbased Power Point presentation can be used as a tool. This is projected with the help
of multimedia projector.
Usually an enlarged computer screen displays the information to a large
audience. Pictures, photographs are all displayed as part of the presentation with
cinematic effect. The entire presentation is fed into a floppy disk or computed directly
in a laptop. The LCD projector is switched on. The presenter or someone else operates
the laptop by pressing a button or sliding the mouse to move the presentation slides in
the pre-set order. The whole operation is automatic and simple. The visual impact is
impressive and absorbing.
Place of Presentation

Before presenting, check the size, ventilation, and seating arrangement of the
room for the audience. You may not set the place of your presentation yourself, still,
before starting, ensure the comfort of the audience. Place the screen according to the
number to indicate the points on the screen with a pointer. Stand as close to the
audience as possible.
Clarity and Persuasion
A clear presentation is an effective presentation. The audience must be able to
follow the arguments and not feel lost. Following are the ways to ensure that a velar
presentation is made.
1. There must be an in depth knowledge of the topic. Spend time learning about
the topic in detail. The success of presentation depends on the familiarity in the
subject.
2. Use language appropriate for the audience. Dont use difficult words. Avoid
jargon.
3. The rapport between the audience and the presenter is crucial. Treat them as
persons and not as mechanical recording devices.
4. A well-structured presentation will lead to clarity of thought and expression.
5. The examples and illustrations that are meaningful for the audience will help
effectively clarifying the concepts for the audience.
6. Effective use of audio-visual tools will enhance the impact and clarity of your
presentation.
The following additional points may be considered to make the presentation
persuasive.
1. Precise statement of the topic or problem.
2. Logical explanations.
3. Relevant information.
4. Emotional appeal of the topic and explanation.
5. Real-life examples.

Non-Verbal Communication
Body language
Since a presentation is a live performance, the non-verbal communication skills
while speaking will influence the audience. The following aspects of non-verbal
behaviour should be given attention:
Appearance
Maintaining good/ positive posture
Eye contact
Gesture- use positive gesture and hand movements to reinforce the argument
Do not stand fixed like a statue. Move with ease and freedom between the
screen and the audience. Signal moving to a new point by changing the posture
or place of standing.
Smile and look relaxed while answering questions.
Rehearsal
To give a good presentation, rehearse the full performance to be able to:
Coordinate speech and visual projections
Know if the information has been properly edited
Check if the duration is as allowed and specified
Minimize the stage fright
How to rehearse
Rehearse before an auditor
Rehearse before a listener, preferably before an auditor who can evaluate the
material in terms of its technical accuracy
The auditor should be able to provide objective criticism

 The auditor should be willing to spare time to critically listen to your

presentation
Use the microphone while rehearsing
Use the visual aids to coordinate delivery and visual projection
Observe the time limit
Use eye contact. Lift the eyes from the notes. Face the audience and make eye
contact with the audience for as long as possible.
Practice voice modulation, proper intonation, correct pronunciation of the
words and proper variation in volume.
Rehearse by recording the speech and listening to it for recognising voice and
manner of delivery. After analysing the performance, necessary change or
improvement in performance can be done.
Some guidelines for an effective presentation
Do all those things which involve the audience and encourage their
participation.
Avoid doing things which would reduce audience involvement.
Visualize the successful end of the presentation. Prepare well. Perform well.
The presentation is bound to end well.
Accordingly, dont do the following:
Speak too low in a feeble voice that cannot be heard.
Shout which makes you sound angry and jarring.
To arouse and sustain audience interest, do the following positive things:
Maintain eye contact with the whole group throughout the delivery.
Be simple and clear.
Put interesting questions to the audience.
Invite volunteers to role-play.
Stand close to the audience in a way that they are able to see the presenter.

 Make the presentation sound well researched and enthusiastically presented.

Two final tips for effective presentation:
1. Stage fright-treat stage fright to be a natural experience of all presenters. Use it
as a positive source of nervous energy essential for performing well.
2. Visualise the successful end of presentation. Prepare well. Perform well. The
presentation is bond to end well.
Opening and Closing
Opening
Very short time is available for a presenter to grab the attention of the audience
and create interest in them for the topic. Within 30 to 45 seconds, this has to be done.
During this short period, the audience must be made aware of the credibility of the
presenter. A pleasant expression on the face, a confident posture, definite eye contact
will help to connect with the audience. A brief opening statement uttered with
conviction and enthusiasm is all needed. Some of the tips discussed below will be
helpful to begin the presentation:
1. Pose a question to the audience.
2. An incident that arouses curiosity.
3. Use some interesting statistics.
4. Challenge a popular notion.
5. Use an anecdote.
Closing
In order to make the presentation a memorable incident for the audience,
something that was informative as well as delightful, there are few ways through
which the presentation can be closed.
1. A summary statement that captures the gist of the presentation

2. A positive ending that makes the audience feel elevated

3. An appeal for action
Time Management
In a presentation, the speaker should always keep in mind the time taken to
communicate. The time limits announced in formal oral activities should be strictly
observed. The audience should not feel rushed through any part of the presentation.
The pace of presentation should not exceed 110-120 words per minute. You should
not speak too fast to reach that part that deals with solution. The discussion of the
problem is equally important. The audience or listener should never be made to feel to
be a passive captive listener. There should be time for questions and answers at the
end of the presentation. Do not spend too much time in making or refuting others. It is
important that you conclude your argument.
Organize the argument well in advance.
Make swift transitions.
Do audience research to anticipate queries and refutations.
Make an impressive introduction so that people want to hear the presentation.
Be objective do not be carried away by the subject or the oratory.

Part-B: Communication Skills

Module I:
Pronunciation and Naturalization of Language
Phonemic Notations
Vowels, Diphthongs, Triphthongs
Vowels
Vowels are voiced sounds during the production of which the air escapes
through the mouth freely and continuously unaccompanied by any audible frictional
noise. The vowels that do not change their quality are called pure vowels. There are
12 pure vowels or monophthongs in English. The pure vowels are as follows.

fleece, sea, machine

kit, bid, hymn, minute

dress, bed, head, many

trap, bad
start, father
lot, odd, wash
thought, law, north, war
foot, good, put

goose, two, blue, group

strut, mud, love, blood
nurse, stir, learn, refer

about, common, standard

Diphthongs
Diphthongs are the sounds of vocalic quality during the production of which
the tongue starts in the position of a particular vowel and moves in the direction of the
position of another vowel, within a single syllable. The vowels that change their
quality are called diphthongs. There are 8 diphthongs in English. They are as follows.

face, day, break

goat, show, no

price, high, try

mouth, now
choice, boy
near, here, weary

e square, fair, various

poor, jury, cure

Triphthongs
According to Oxford Reference Dictionary, a triphthong is a union of three
vowels (letters or sounds) pronounced in one syllable (as in fire). Examples of
triphthongs are eye, -ieu in adieu, -eau in beau.

Consonants
Consonants are the sounds during the production of which the air escapes
through the mouth or nose with friction. Consonants include all breathed (voiceless)
sounds. But there are some consonants like /l/, /j/ /w/ etc that are produced without
friction. The consonant sounds in English are:
Consonants

p pen, copy, happen

b back, baby, job

t tea, tight, button
d day, ladder, odd
k key, clock, school
g get, giggle, ghost
t

church, match, nature

judge, age, soldier

f fat, coffee, rough, photo

v view, heavy, move
thing, author, path
this, other, smooth
s soon, cease, sister
z zero, music, roses, buzz
ship, sure, national
pleasure, vision
h hot, whole, ahead
m more, hammer, sum
n nice, know, funny, sun
ring, anger, thanks, sung
l

light, valley, feel

r right, wrong, sorry, arrange

j yet, use, beauty, few
w wet, one, when, queen

Stress
Syllables
A syllable is a word or a part of a word which contains a vowel or a consonant
acting as a vowel. A word can be made up of one or more syllables. The words like
boy /b

/, girl / g

l/ etc have one syllable each and they are called

monosyllabic words. The words like doctor /d kt/, father/f

/ etc has two

syllables each and they are called disyllabic words. Again there are a number of words
in English with three syllables, example remember/r memb/, four syllables,
example- population, five syllables, examples-examination/ gzm ne

n/ and so

on. Double letters represent single sounds as in summer/s m/ and rubber/r b/.

Word Stress
Stress may be described as the degree of force with which a sound or syllable is
pronounced. Every syllable is uttered with a certain degree of force and the one
uttered with the greatest degree of force is called the stressed or accented syllable.
Example
Look at the words important and impotent. An important person is a person
with a lot of power. An impotent person is a powerless, helpless person. In writing,
they are spelt differently. Though they may sound alike, but when it is pronounced
there is a difference. The difference is im POR tant and IM potent. Both the words
have three syllables. The second syllable in important is said with more force than
the other two syllables. In the case of impotent, the first syllable is said with more
force than the other two syllables. A mark ( ) is placed before the stressed syllable to
indicate stress.
The stressed syllable is said to receive primary stress or accent and the syllable
next to that in the degree of force of utterance is said to receive secondary stress or
accent. We mark the stressed syllable or primary accent with a short vertical stroke on
top at the beginning of the syllable. Secondary stress is marked with a short vertical
bar below and at the beginning of the syllable.

Stress in monosyllabic words

In the case of monosyllabic words where there is only either a vowel or a
consonant acting as a vowel; the stress is not marked as it is taken for granted that the
word itself is accented.
Example:
ant /nt/, box/b ks/ etc.
Stress in Polysyllabic words

In a polysyllabic word the syllable on which a pitch movement takes place is

said to receive primary accent. Any other prominent syllable in the same word is said
to receive secondary accent. There are a number of disyllabic words like
wisdom,

cancel, and

teacher,

doctor which receive the accent on the first syllable. There

are a number of disyllabic words like be come, can teen, re mark, and se rene
which receive the accent on the second syllable. There are trisyllabic words like
advertise,

anything,

beautiful and

customer which receive the accent on the

first syllable. There are trisyllabic words like a greement, ar tistic and de velop
which receive the accent on the second syllables and there are trisyllabic words like
ciga rette, disap point and under stand which receive the accent on the third
syllable. The accent in English words is fixed in the sense that the main accent always
falls on a particular syllable.

Stress in words used as both nouns and verbs

There are a number of disyllabic words in English in which word-accent
depends upon whether the words are used as nouns/ adjectives or as verbs.
If these words are used as nouns/ adjectives, the accent is on the first syllable and if
these are used as verbs, the accent is on the second syllable. A few of these are listed
below:
Word

Noun or Adjective

Verb

Absent

/bsnt/

/bsent/

Concert

/k nst/

/kns

t/

Conduct

/k nd kt/

/knd kt/

Contact

/k ntkt/

/kntkt/

Contract

/k ntrkt/

/kntrkt/

Contrast

/k ntr

/kntr

Convict

/k nv kt/

/knv kt/

Desert

/dezt/

/d z

Digest

/da d st/

/d d st/ or /da d st/

Export

/eksp

t/

/ ksp

t/

Import

/ mp

t/

/ mp

t/

Object

/ bd

kt/

Perfect

/p

f kt/

/pefkt/

Permit

/p

m t/

/pmit/

Present

/preznt/

/pr zent/

Produce

/pr dju s/

/prdju s/

st/

st/

t/

/bd kt/

Stress in Compound Words

By compound word we mean a word composed of two separable words. In
spelling them, there may or may not be a hyphen between the two elements forming
the compound.
In most compound words in English the primary accent falls on one of the two
elements. The most common type in English is the first of the two elements receiving
the primary accent. A few examples are given below:
air-raid

coalman

lifeboat

postman

blackbird

crossword

mailbag

rain-coat

bookshelf

footprint

offprint

school-bus

cardboard

hairbrush

pickpocket

tea-party

There are, however, a few compound words with ever and self as the second
elements in which the second element receives the primary accent. A few examples as
given below:
Herself

Himself

Myself

Themselves

However

Whatever

Whenever

Whoever

There are other compound words in which both the elements are accented, but
the primary accent falls on the second element. For example:
After-noon

Home-made

Country-house

Good-looking

Bad-tempered

Post-graduate

Sentence Stress
In connected speech some words stand out from the rest due to the stress given
to certain words. In the following examples the words that stand out from the rest are
marked with a vertical bar:
1. He came.
2. Meet me at ten.
3. Buy me a pen.
4. I lost my bunch of keys.
5. I want to buy a pen.
6. Dont talk loudly!
7. Whos turned off the fan?

The sentences listed above, when they are said neutrally, are said in such a way that
the words marked with a vertical bar above them stand out from the rest.
If in a bit of connected speech several syllables are prominent, only one will
receive the primary or tonic accent. This is usually the last prominent syllable.
The words stressed in the sentences given above are nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, negatives, question words and two-part verbs. They are important words in a
sentence. They give us most of the information.

The words that are not stressed are pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions,
articles, be-verbs, and auxiliary verbs. They are purely grammatical words. They are
not stressed. When we speak a sentence, the words which carry information are
stressed while the purely grammatical words are not stressed.

Strong, Weak and Contracted forms

There are a number of words in English which have two or more qualitative
and quantitative patterns depending upon whether they are accented or not. When
these words are accented or when they are pronounced in isolation, the strong forms
of these words are used; when they are unaccented, the weak forms of these words are
used. The weak forms exhibit reductions of the length of sounds and weakening of the
vowels in them. Given below are the most common of words with two forms. Both
strong and weak forms are given in phonemic transcription.

Articles

Strong Form

Weak Form

/e /

//

An

/n/

/n/

The

/i /

/ / before a vowel
// before a consonant

Auxiliary Verbs

Strong Form

Weak Form

Am

/m/

/m/, /m/

Are

//

Can

/kn/

/kn/, /kn/

Could

/k d/

/kd/

Does

/d z/

/dz/, /z/, /s/

Do

/du /

/d /,/d/,/d/

Had

/hd/

/hd/,/d/, /d/

Has

/hz/

/hz/, /z/, /z/

Have

/hv/

/hv/, /v/, /v/

Is

/ z/

/z/, /s/

Must

/m st/

/mst/, /ms/

Shall

/ l/

/ el/, / l/

Was

/w z/

/wz/

Were

/w

Will

/w l/

/l/

Would

/w d/

/d/, /d/

Prepositions

Strong Forms

Weak Forms

At

/t/

/t/

For

/f

From

/fr m/

/frm/

Of

/ v/

/v/, /v/, //

To

/tu /

/t / before a vowel

/w/

/f/

/t/ before a consonant

Conjunctions

Strong Forms

Weak Forms

And

/nd/

/nd/, /nd/, /n/, /n/

As

/z/

/z/

Than

/n/

/n/ /n/

That

/t/

/t/

But

/b t/

/ bt/

to be (am, are, is)

affirmative
negative
long form short form
long form short form
I am
I'm
I am not
I'm not

he, she, it:

he is
he's
we, you, they:
we are
we're

he is not

he isn't oder he's not

we are not

we aren't oder we're not

to be (was, were)
affirmative
long form short form
I, he, she, it:
he was
we, you, they:
we were
-

negative
long form short form
he was not he wasn't
we were not we weren't

have got
affirmative
long form
short form
I, we, you, they:

negative
long form

we have got

we've got

we have not got

we've not got oder we haven't

got

he, she, it:

he has got

he's got

he has not got

he's not got oder he hasn't got

short form

had
affirmative
negative
long form short form long form short form
every time regardless the subject (I, he, she, it, we, you, they):
I had
I'd
I had not
I hadn't

do
affirmative
negative
long form short form long form short form
I, we, you, they:
I do
I do not
I don't
he, she, it:
he does
he does not he doesn't

did
affirmative
negative
long form short form long form

short form

every time regardless the subject (I, he, she, it, we, you, they):

I did

I did not

I didn't

Modals (can, could, must, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to)
affirmative

long form
can
could
must
might
need
will
would
shall
should
ought to

negative

short form long form short form

cannot
can't
could not couldn't
must not
mustn't
might not -need not
needn't
'll
will not
won't
'd
would not wouldn't
shall not
shan't
'd
should not shouldn't
ought not to oughtn't to

The short formss andd have two different long forms:

he's = he is
Hed = he would
We seldom use short forms after names and nouns.
Peter has got a book. = Peter's got a book.
The children have visited London. = The children've visited London.
When have is a full verb, we do not use the short form.
They have breakfast at 6 o'clock.
In spoken English we use the short form a lot. We say things like: I'm / you're / didn't
etc. instead of I am / you are / did not etc.
We also use these short forms in informal written English. When we write in the short
form, we use an apostrophe (') for the missing letter(s).
Forms of the auxiliary verbs to be, to do and to have:To be - Simple Present Form

Positive Statement
Long form
I am
He is
She is
It is

Short form
I'm
He's
She's
It's

Negative Statement
Long form
I am not
He is not
She is not
It is not

You are

You're

You are not

We are

We're

We are not

They are

They're

They are not

Short form
I'm not
He isn't or He's not
She isn't or She's not
It isn't or It's not
You aren't or You're
not
We aren't or We're
not
They're not

Negative Statement
Long form
I was not
He was not
She was not
It was not
You were not
We were not
They were not

Short form
I wasn't
He wasn't
She wasn't
It wasn't
You weren't
We weren't
They weren't

Negative Statement
Long form
I do not
He does not
She does not
It does not
You do not
We do not
They do not

Short form
I don't
He doesn't
She doesn't
It doesn't
You don't
We don't
They don't

To be - Simple Past Form

Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I was
He was
She was
It was
--You were
We were
They were

To do - Simple Present Form

Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I do
He does
She does
It does
--You do
We do
They do

To do - Simple Past Form

Positive Statement
Long form

Short form

I / he / she / it / you / we / they did

---

Negative
Statement
Long Short
form form
I / he
I / he
/ she
/ she /
/ it /
it
/
you /
you /
we /
we /
they
they
did
didn't
not

To have - Simple Present Form

Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I have
I've
He has
He's
She has

She's

It has

It's

You have

You've

We have

We've

They have

They've

Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I have not
I haven't or I've not
He has not
He hasn't or He's not
She hasn't or She's
She has not
not
It has not
It hasn't or It's not
You
haven't
or
You have not
You've not
We haven't or We've
We have not
not
They haven't or
They have not
They've not

To have - Simple Past Form

Positive Statement
Long form

Short form
I'd
I / he / she / it / you / we / he'd
they had
she'd
it'd

Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I hadn't or
I / he / she / it / you he hadn't or
/ we / they had not she hadn't or
it hadn't or

I'd
he'd
she'd
it'd

not
not
not
not

you'd
we'd
they'd

you hadn't or you'd

not
we hadn't or we'd not
they hadn't or they'd
not

The long and short forms of the modal verbs can, could, shall, should, will and would
Can
Positive Statement
Negative Statement
Short
Long form
Long form
Short form
form
I / he / she / it / you / we /
I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /
--they can
they cannot
we / they can't

Could
Positive Statement
Long form

Negative Statement
Short
form

Long form

Short form

I / he / she / it / you / we /
--they could

I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

they could not
we / they couldn't

Must
Positive Statement

Negative Statement

Long form

Short
form

Long form

Short form

I / he / she / it / you / we /
--they must

I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

they must not
we / they mustn't

Shall
Positive Statement

Negative Statement

Long form

Short
form

I / he / she / it / you / we /
--they shall
Should
Positive Statement
Long form

Long form

Short form

I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

they shall not
we / they shan't

Negative Statement
Short
form

I / he / she / it / you / we /
--they should

Long form

Short form

I / he / she / it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

they should not
we / they shouldn't

Will
Positive Statement
Long form

Negative Statement
Short form Long form
Short form
I won't or I'll not
I'll
He won't or He'll not
He'll
She won't or She'll not
She'll
I / he / she / it / you / we /
I / he / she / it / you / It won't or It'll not
It'll
they will
we / they will not
You won't or You'll not
You'll
We won't or We'll not
We'll
They won't or They'll
They'll
not
Would
Positive Statement
Long form

Negative Statement
Short
form

Long form

Short form

I wouldn't or I'd
not
He wouldn't or
He'd
not
I'd
She wouldn't or
He'd
She'd
not
She'd
I / he / she / it / you / we / they
I / he / she / it / you / we It wouldn't or It'd
It'd*
/ they would not
not*
would
You'd
You wouldn't or
We'd
You'd
not
They'd
We wouldn't or
We'd
not
They wouldn't or
They'd not
* Not "good" English, but you will hear occasionally.
The Imperative
Let Us
Positive Statement
Long form - rarely used
Let us

Short
form
Let's

Negative Statement
Long form - used by
Short form
pompous people
Let us not
Let's not

Intonations
The rate at which the vocal cords vibrate is called the frequency of vibration
and this determines the pitch of the voice. The more rapidly the vocal cords vibrate,
the higher will be the pitch. When we hear someone speak, we realize that he doesnt
always speak on the same note. We hear constant variations in the level at which his
voice is pitched. Sometimes the pitch rises and sometimes it falls. At other times, it
remains level, high or low. The patterns of variation of the pitch of the voice
constitute the intonation of a language.
When the pitch of the voice falls we call it the falling tone. When the pitch of
the voice rises we call it the rising tone. We mark the falling tone with a downward
arrow ( ) before the syllable on which the pitch of the voice falls, and the rising tone
with an upward arrow ( ) before the syllable on which the pitch of the voice rises.
Functions of Intonation
Falling tone is used in the following contexts:
1. Definite remark
Example: Its raining.
2. Order
Example: Get me some

water.

3. Wh-question
Example: Whos

shouting?

Rising tone is used in the following contexts:

1. Yes- no questions(mostly used to confirm something)
Example: Are you

ready?

2. Polite commands
Example: Sit

there.

3. Questions showing concern

Example: Why are you
4. Apologies
Example: Im

Different Accents

sorry.

crying?

English is spoken as the mother tongue and as the second language in many
parts of the world. Though the English spoken in different countries is not very
different in grammar, it varies quite a bit in pronunciation. There are different
varieties of pronunciations across the globe, like, American, British, Australian etc.
So, it is necessary to understand these varieties. For convenience, we are focusing on
the two major varieties of English pronunciation- British and American and the basic
difference between the two.
The way English is spoken in one region of Britain varies, sometimes slightly
and sometimes greatly, from the way it is spoken in another region of the country. But
one type of pronunciation has come to be regarded as standard. It is spoken by most
of the news presenters on BBC TV and Radio. It is this type of pronunciation that
people have in mind when they talk about British English pronunciation.
The basic difference between British English and American English
pronunciation are discussed below:

British /

/ and American //

One of the most noticeable differences between British and American

pronunciations is that while the British use the /
(example: half is pronounced as /h

/ sound in a large number of words

lf/), the Americans use the // sound in the

words pronounced by them (example: /h lf/). A few examples are:

Word

British English

American English

Ask

sk/

/ sk/

Bath

/b

/ b/

Fast

/f

British / / and American /

st/

/fst/

The next difference between British English and American English

pronunciation can be found in the use of the sound / / in British and /
American.
Some examples are:

/ in

Word

British English

American English

Confidence

/k nf dns/

/k

nf dns/

Doctor

/d kt/

/d

kt/

Politics

/p l t ks/

/p

l t ks/

There are some other differences which can be found between the two
pronunciations. They are:
British pronounce the word news as /nju z/ with a /j/ sound before /u / and
the Americans pronounce it as /nu z/ without the /j/ sound.
In American English, the letter t is often pronounced /d/ when it comes
between two vowel sounds. The word writer is pronounced as /ra t/ in
British English and / ra dr/ in American English.
In British English laboratory is pronounced as /lb rtr / whereas in
American English it is pronounced as / lbrt

r /

Influence of Mother Tongue

Most of the speakers start learning English several years after getting used to
their mother tongue. Naturally, the speech habits formed in the mother tongue
influence the way we speak English. This has resulted in several regional varieties of
spoken English, depending on the speakers mother tongues. It takes considerable
effort to correct these accents.
In most of our languages, words are spoken as they are written. But in English,
pronunciation does not closely follow spelling. This leads to several difficulties when
we speak English. For example, a word like butter is written with a double t. But
there is only one /t/ sound in pronunciation: /b t (r)/ and not /b ttr/. Consonant
sounds are, generally speaking, not doubled in English while it is common in our
mother tongues. Other similar instances are shown in the following words.
Written is pronounced with double /t/ sound as /r tten/ and not as /r tn/.
Funny as /f nn / and not as /f n /, Silly as /s ll / and not as /s l /.

Module-II
Listening Skills
Barriers to Listening
Communication involves the skills of listening and speaking. To become a
good communicator, both the skills need to be developed. The competence in listening
contributes to the development of speaking skills.
Hearing is an involuntary act that happens automatically, but listening is a
voluntary activity and hence it is deliberate.

Active Listening
An active listener is a person who looks into the eyes of the speaker and makes
eye contact with that person. An active listener should be able to learn to
communicate through gestures and facial expressions. Try to show enthusiasm for
what the speaker is saying. Your posture communicates your enthusiasm. If you sit
relaxed, you show disinterest. If you are an active listener, you should sit leaning
forward and not backward. Learn to respond to the speakers words. Use responses
such as ... mm..., OK, all right, perhaps, certainly, no, not at all, yes, very well, etc.
Such responses help the speaker to understand whether you are with him or her.
Listening is not a passive activity during which the listener receives the
thoughts and feelings of the speaker. While listening, several thoughts run through our
mind. We think much faster than we listen. So, it is quite likely that our thinking is
interrupted by several other thoughts. One may race ahead of the speakers words or
one may drift into another world. Such things can severely hamper listening.

Barriers to Listening
Nobody is born a poor listener. Still, there are some factors which can act as
barriers to listening. The first reason for poor listening could be that the listener is not
interested in the subject or the topic being discussed. In such cases, the listener does
not make an effort to listen to and understand the content. As a result, he or she does
not understand what the speaker is talking about.

The second factor may be that of partial listening as some listeners are partial
listeners. This results in inadequate understanding. The third reason may be the fast
pace of the delivery by the speaker. In such cases, what happens is the audience listens
to the speaker for a while and when they realize that they could not cope with the
pace, then the listener gives up the attempt and stop listening. So, the listener must
remember to speak at a pace at which the listener is comfortable.
The fourth factor may be traced to that of remaining quiet or pretending that
you have understood when you have not. There you are making a mistake. Your
failure to ask for clarifications can cause inadequate comprehension. People often
dont ask for repetitions or clarifications due to shyness. Some do not ask any question
or voice their doubt as they are unsure of their language competence. It is the listener
who loses here.
The fifth barrier arises when there are enough disturbances in the physical
environment around you which makes the listening process even difficult. Finally, if
you are engaged in other activities while listening to someone, it may also create a
barrier in effective listening. If your attention is divided, it will hamper the listening
activity.
Academic Listening
Sometimes students find it hard to follow lectures in English because their
education might have been given to them in a vernacular medium. But if you have to
get a complete and accurate understanding of the lectures, one can often follow one of
them methods, viz., take notes, fill a form, a table, etc., and complete a visual, a chart,
a table etc.

Listening and note taking

When one listens to lectures, a helpful method is to take notes for future
reference. While taking notes one must remember that the same notes may be referred
by you at a later period. So the notes taken down by you should be understandable to
you later and it should contain all the important points. Based on the notes you should
be able to write an essay or a complete paragraph. It is therefore very important that

one has to learn to make systematic notes that will help you to recall the main points
and their supporting details and develop them into longer texts.
When you listen to academic lectures or talks, it is necessary to take notes for
future reference. The speaker will give some idea about what the speaker is going to
talk about right at the beginning. For example, the speaker may begin by saying,
Today we will discuss five different forms of political systems. Here, the speaker is
giving a hint about the main important idea. So, the first important step in note taking
is to identify the main ideas and their supporting details.
The second step in note taking is to express the main points is to express the
main points and their supporting details in a short or in a condensed manner. For
example, if the speaker says, Let me begin with monarchy, one of the oldest forms of
government. The same idea can be expressed in this form: Monarchy- oldest form of
govt.
The third step in note taking is to organize the main ideas and supporting
details in a systematic way using the decimal numbering system. The first level of
numbering may be such as 1, 2, 3, et cetera for main ideas and the second level of
numbering such as 1.1 and 1.2 or 2.1 and 2.2 for supporting details.

Listening to announcements
Listening is a voluntary activity and hence we listen for different purposes.
Based on the information we require, we choose to listen to certain selected details
and ignore the rest. So, we need to develop the listening ability effectively. When one
listens to a particular news item that interests one, one may listen for all the details,
while on certain occasions, one may listen for some specific information only. When
one is at a railway station or bus station or an airport, one listens to announcements for
specific information like the arrival and departure time of a train or bus or an
aeroplane.

Listening to News on the Radio and Television

We listen to news on the radio or television to gather information about the
events happening around the world. When we listen to a news bulletin in a news

channel, we do not listen to every news item for the full details. This activity is similar
to that of reading a newspaper. News items are read selectively.

Listening for overall information

In some cases like listening to a report of a discussion in the Parliament, one
may not be interested in the specific details. But, at the same time, one may be
interested to learn the final outcome. In such a case, the specific details are ignored
and only the final outcome is given importance.

Module III

Speaking Skills
Theory and Practice
Rules of Word Stress and Rhythm

Rules of Word Stress

Most words with many syllables are stressed on the third syllable from the end.
When suffixes are added to shorter words, stress is shifted to keep it on the third
syllable from the end. For example, the words like particular, geography,
psychological, thermometer, family, familiar, familiarity, democrat, democracy.
In compound words, the first part is usually stressed. But when the first part is
an adjective, the second part is stressed. Example, breakfast, toothbrush, handbag,
eyewitness, man-made, good-looking.
When the same word is used as noun and as a verb, the noun is usually stressed
on the first syllable and the verb on the second. Example, object (noun), object
(verb), present(noun), present(verb), conduct (noun), conduct(verb).
Rules of Stress and Rhythm

1. They started early for the station.

2. You will be making a big mistake.
3. Why cant you be quiet for a while?
4. Her husband is short and very fat.
5. I dont want to talk to her.
6. Who has turned off the radio?
7. Was she sad or mad?
The words that are stressed are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, negatives,
question-words, and two part verbs. These words give us the most information. The
words that are not stressed are pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, be-verbs,
and auxiliary verbs. They are purely grammatical words. Therefore, the words that
carry information are stressed, while the purely grammatical words are not normally
stressed.

Rhythm
1. It was good you told her.
2. It would have been better if you had told her.
The first sentence has six words. The second sentence has ten words. But, both the
sentences have the same number of stressed syllables- two each. The unstressed
syllables are joined to the stressed syllables and are squeezed between them. The
following things can be noticed here. They are
1. The stressed syllables come at fairly regular intervals.
2. The time intervals between stressed syllables are roughly the same.
3. When two stressed syllables come close together, the speed of utterance is
slow. When stressed syllables are separated by unstressed syllables, the
unstressed syllables are said rapidly.
4. With the stressed syllables coming at regular intervals, the utterance has a
rhythm.
Pauses and sense groups
When we talk, we dont talk in single words but in groups of words spoken
continuously. These groups of words, which are closely connected in meaning and in
grammar, are called sense groups. A sense group is a tone-group in intonation. A long
sentence can be cut up into two or more tone-groups. We may make a short pause after
each group, but not during the group. Such pauses help to make reading or speaking
easier and to convey ones ideas more clearly.
In cutting speech up into small groups, speed at which you are speaking is one of
the factors. The following sentence may be read in either way.

a) All of the students in this class study

b) All of the students in

English.

this class |study English.

You may be reading the second sentence more slowly than the first. Besides, you
may want to give some emphasis to the idea all of the students in this class.
The following sentences get progressively longer and it would be convenient to
cut up the longer ones into small groups according to their grammatical structure.

Note the single bar ( | )is used to mark the pause.

All of them study English
All of the students in this department | study English and
All of the students in this department | study English and

other subjects.
other subjects | for a

course of four years.

Short pauses may be made between tone-groups within a sentence, but they are
not always necessary.
Here are more examples:
(1) If he comes, | tell him to do it.
(2) On the table, | there were no books.
(3) I go to bed early, | as a general rule.
(4) Usually | he takes the bus to work.
(5) Last Wednesday | I wanted to get to London early. | So I caught a train|
about an hour before my usual one | and I got to work | about half
past eight.
Falling and Rising Tones
Tone is a change in the pitch of the voice. A change in the pitch occurs on a
stressed syllable. A falling tone begins with a pitch fairly high on the first syllable.
The pitch falls a little from stress to stress. Then, it finally falls at the last meaningful
syllable. The pitch remains low for the remaining unstressed syllables. In the rising
tone, the pitch rises at the last meaningful syllable. It continues to rise for the
remaining unstressed syllables.
Falling tone is used in the following contexts.
(1) Statements
In normal statements, the falling tone can be used. The tone suggests that
youre sure about what youre saying. But, if the statements have to be seen as
more friendly, soothing and encouraging, the rising tone can be used. For
example:
a. Youre

wrong. (I checked the spelling in the dictionary.)

b. Shes very

ill. (I visited her in the hospital)

c. Dont

worry.

d. Ill be

back soon.

(2) Wh- questions

Wh- questions are normally spoken in the falling tone. The questions do not
sound very friendly. If the Wh- questions must be made to sound friendly, and
to show interest and concern, the rising tone can be used. For example:
a. How did you

do it?

b. Where do you

live?

c. Why are you

crying?

d. How can I

help you?

(3) Commands
Commands are usually spoken in the falling tone. If the commands should
sound polite and more like pleading, then the rising tone can be used. For
instance:
a. Dont be a damn
b. Stop
c.

fool!

grumbling!

Sit down.

d. Turn down the

music.

(4) Apologies and Compliments

Expressions of gratitude, apologizing, complimenting are routinely said in the
falling tone. If the rising tone is used, it will sound more genuine. A few
examples are:
a.

Thats nice.

b. Im

sorry.

c. Thats
d. Im

nice.
sorry.

Rising tone is used in the following contexts.

(1) Yes No Questions
Yes-no questions are normally spoken in the rising tone. Examples:
a. Are we
b. Is dinner

late?
ready?

c. Can I

leave now?

Statements are normally spoken in the falling tone. Sometimes, in ordinary

conversations, statements are turned into questions, by speaking them in the rising
tone.
(2) Questiontags
Another way of turning statements into questions is by adding question-tags.
a. Were starting now, arent we?
b. Your brother left last night, didnt he?
If what is said is true, and the listener is asked only to agree with what is said, the
falling tone can be used in the questiontag. When you are not sure what you are
saying is true and you are asking the listener to tell you if it is true or not, the rising
tone can be used. In this sense, the question-tag is like a yes-no question.
In the following, the speaker expects the listener to agree.
a. Your sisters a
b. It looks like

doctor, isnt she? (I know she is.)

rain, doesnt it? (Im sure about it.)

In the following, the speaker is not sure of his or her statement.

a. You live in

Delhi,

dont you? (Correct me if Im wrong.)

b. I can come

later,

cant I? (Tell me if I can.)

(3) Exclamations
The falling tone is normally used in exclamations. But to express strong
feelings, the rising tone can be used.
a. Best of
b.

luck.

Yes.

Fluency and Pace of Delivery

Based upon the purpose of the presentation and the audience present there, the
speaker could vary the speed and pace of the talk. For instance,
Mutual Funds and securities investments are subject to market risks and
there can be no assurance or guarantee that the Schemes objectives will
be achieved. As with any investment in securities, the Net Asset
Value of Units issued under the Scheme may go up or down depending

on the various factors and forces affecting the capital markets.

Please

read the respective Offer Documents carefully before investing.

Here, the audience may not be able to understand what the speaker was saying
because the speaker was speaking too fast. If it is a talk as a part of an advertisement
on TV for a certain purpose, the speaker would want to do his or her job within the
time limit allotted for that particular advertisement. And this demands a faster pace in
his delivery which suited his purpose.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has not taken a view on the
suspension

of the construction of the Narmada Dam till

resettlement and rehabilitation of the affected families is

completed as per the Narmada Award and Supreme Court orders.
Here, the speaker was speaking at a slow pace as it was a report being read for
releasing a press note. Reporters were writing down what was being said, every word
being noted down. So, it demands the speaker to slow down the pace of his speech.
The tribes of India now known as adivasis or original inhabitants
lived in the remote jungles and remained outside the mainstream of
Indian life until the British came. The British, with their hatred of
bureaucratic untidiness, decide that the tribals should be administered
like anyone else.
Here, the audience were able to understand what the speaker was saying as it was
spoken at a normal speed. The speaker, here, also spoke fluently. The listeners would
have certainly understood what the speaker said.
The speaker spoke about the topic with confidence. He spoke smoothly and
without any unnatural breaks or hesitations. He emphasised a few important words.
One word flowed smoothly on to the next without a gap. But there were pauses at the
end of breath- groups and sense-groups. These are some of the features of fluent
speech.
All through Independence Day, Hindus and Muslims continued to flock
to the Mahatmas residence To a group of political leaders who had
come to seek his blessing, he said simply, Be wary of power corrupts,

for power corrupts. Dont fall into its trap. Dont forget that your
mission is to serve the poor in the villages of India.
This is a fluent speech. It had an easy, relaxed flow. It was neither too fast, nor too
slow. It was delivered at a normal pace. The speaker slowed down at places, and he
spoke a little fast at certain other stretches. That is a feature of fluent speakingslowing down and quickening the pace for a purpose.
Formal Style of Speaking
I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the
greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we
stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous
decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves
who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a
joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.
This was the beginning of a famous speech by the great American leader, Martin
Luther King Jr. on a formal occasion. The speaker is speaking at a rather high pitch.
He is also using the rising tone more often than the falling tone. He is speaking at a
slow, steady pace. The pitch is almost level throughout- there arent too many
variations. These again are features of a formal style of speaking.
Informal Style of Speaking
One day, lacking anything at all to do, I went and saw the mayor. I told
him I was a journalist, but really, I just wanted someone to talk to. He
had an undertakers face and wore blue jeans and a blue shirt. This made
him look like a prisoner, but he was a kind man.
In an informal style of speaking, the speaker does not hesitate, but pauses at the end of
sensegroups in long sentences, but there are no gaps in the middle of a sensegroup.
Computer memories are defined by the number of bytes of information
they can store. Each byte is a combination of binary numbers- usually
eight of them-and stands for an ordinary number or letter. Each of the
binary numbers-always either 1 or 0, corresponding to the presence or

absence of electric current in a section of circuitry-is known as a bit,

from the phrase binary digit.
Here, the speaker slows down when he is presenting items of information that are
important, unfamiliar, unusual or difficult.
In the 1960s, Harvard researcher Robert Rosenthal studied how you can
make people succeed simply by labelling them successful. Students
were randomly assigned to two groups, high-potentials and lowpotentials. Those singled out as more successful ...were...
Here, the speaker slowed down and paused before were. That helped him present the
fact very emphatically.
Small talk
It is often found that one finds it comfortable to talk with ones friends and
relatives very easily. But, whenever a situation comes where one has to make a
conversation with a stranger or indulge in small talk with people with whom there is
little acquaintance, one finds it very difficult how to open a conversation and what
topics to be taken so that the conversation is continued for some time.
In todays world, there is an increasing need to converse with different people
in different situations. One needs to understand how and when to switch rules from
being a listener to a speaker and vice versa. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to
interrupt the speaker in a conversation to seek a clarification, add a point to what has
been said or disagree with the speaker. It is, therefore, very important to know when
and how to interrupt a speaker and how to handle interruptions from others while one
speaks.
Initiating a Conversation
The best strategy that can be used to start a conversation with known or
unknown individuals is to follow the method of IRSF: Initiate Respond, Sustain, and
Follow-up. The next thing that you ponder upon is how to initiate a conversation with
a stranger. It can be done by greeting the stranger or by asking a question (What is the
time please?) or making a statement (I have seen you somewhere- you look familiar).
The sample conversations below illustrate how one can initiate a conversation.

At a busy shopping place

Customer: I am looking for a nice shirt to go with mu black jeans. (Initiate)
Salesperson: Please take a look at this blue shirt. (Respond)
Customer: I have two blue shirts already. (Sustain)
Salesperson: Let me show you a few other colours to choose from. (Follow-up)

A professional meeting a well-known individual

Person 1: Im pleased to meet you. (Initiate)
Person 2: The pleasures mine. (Respond)
Person 1: Ive heard Roy speak about you often. (Sustain)
Person 2: Only good things, I hope. (Respond)

A few useful conversation openers are given below.

Conversation Openers

Response

Hows it going?

Great.

Lovely weather?

Yes, it is.

Hows work?

OK/ Fine/ Not too bad.

I havent seen you for a while. Ive been busy/ away.

Interrupting a conversation
Nobody likes being interrupted when they are indulged in some conversation. It
is usually seen as rude and creates tension. Although it is agreed that it is not nice to
interrupt someone else, people are usually not aware of when and how often they
interrupt others.
Though many people get angry when they are interrupted, there are many
assertive ways to handle interruptions. Repeat what you had said before you were
interrupted. This will ensure that you communicate what you want to say. Also avoid
criticizing and confronting the other person and at the same time get your message
across in a subtle manner.

Sometimes it happens that some people tend to talk endlessly even though you
may want convey an important point. You can signal this by using non-verbal sign
system either by raising your hand slightly, tilt your head, or raise your eyebrows
slightly to let them know that you have something important to say. Even then, if the
other person does not give you a chance, then you can give a comment that you would
like to share something when that person finishes his talk. They will realize the need to
allow you to speak and will do give you the chance to do so soon.

A few useful ways of interrupting politely in a conversation are given below.

Purpose

Interrupting / Taking turns

Calling attention

Excuse me
May I...?
I would like to share something with you.

Adding a point

Let me add to/ share...

I would like to add something to what you just said..

Adding a point/ Cutting the Its very interesting!

Conversation short
Seeking a clarification

Sorry to interrupt you, but I need a clarification.

Sustaining a Conversation
Once you begin the conversation, there should be some topic which might help
you in sustaining the conversation. Some of the common topics which help you build a
conversation are weather, food and customs, current affairs, etc.

Closing a Conversation
In order to close a conversation with someone you know well you can use
phrases such as bye, goodbye, right then or until next time. In order to close a
conversation with someone you do not know very well you can use questions such as
shall we call it a day? Or phrases such as See you then or Catch up with you later.
A few useful phrases to close the conversation with people you know well are given
below.
Phrases used to close a conversation Response
See you soon/ later.

See you soon.

I must be going.

Goodbye / Bye.

Ill be in touch.

Bye for now.

Ciao.

Ciao.

A few useful phrases to close a conversation with people you meet for the first time
Phrases used to close a conversation

Response

Im glad/ pleased to have met you.

I am glad/ pleased to have met you too.

Its really nice to meet you.

Its nice to have met you too.

Its been a pleasure talking to you.

The pleasures mine as well.

We need to meet soon to share our ideas.

I would love to do that.

Its been very interesting talking to you.

Same here.

Conversations
Conversations are both interactional (chatting with friends) and transactional
(asking for information) in nature. They play a significant role in building social
relations.

Interaction pattern

Transaction pattern

A: What did you do last night? (Initiate)

A: What would you like to have?

B: Went to the cinema (Respond)

B: Id like to order some breakfast.

A: Oh really? (Follow-up)

A: Sure. What can I bring you- South

What did you see? (Sustain)

B: Lord of the Rings (Respond)

Indian, North Indian, or Continental?

B: Id like one masala dosa, a plate of idlis,

Have you seen it yet? (Sustain)

and some filtered coffee.

A: No, its difficult with the kids (Respond) A: Shall I bring the idlis first?
B: Yeah, of course. (Follow-up)

B: Yes, and coffee last. And make it quick

Notice that both types of conversations illustrate the initiate/ open sustain respond
close/ follow-up model.
There are two kinds of conversations, depending on the relationship between
the participants in a conversation. The first kind occurs between people who are close
to each other and have a lot in common, socially and culturally. The second kind of
talk is between people who are less intimate. Most conversations have some specific
purpose. Sometimes, personal or social conversations may be just casual conversations
with no specific purpose. Seeking a clarification, extending an apology, confirming or
negating something or offering an opinion are some of the purposes of conversations.
A few useful phrases for seeking clarifications are given below.
Excuse me, please help me understand what you mean by ...
I have question for you ...
Can you tell me what is meant by...?
Please clarify ... for me.

I havent understood what you just said. Please explain.

Could you spend a moment in telling me...?
I am sorry, what did you say? / Which one?
Do you mean...?
Any particular...?
What do you mean by...?
Extending an apology
Sometimes when some mistakes occur from ones part unintentionally,
inconvenience is created for the person who suffers from your mistake. In such
situations, the first thing to be done is to apologize.
Some useful phrases for making apologies are
I am sorry.
Oops! I am sorry about that.
Sorry to bother you.
I am sorry for the inconvenience caused.
I apologize for the inconvenience caused.
My sincere apologies.
Giving an opinion
Normally, when you are part of a discussion, it may be necessary to express
your opinion on certain things. But, one is often hesitant to express ones opinion due
to many reasons. The reasons may be:
You dont have an opinion on the subject.
You have an opinion, but are worried about what others might say or think.

 You have an opinion, but dont feel you can say exactly what you mean.
You are not able to express yourself in the eloquent manner that you are
capable of in your native language.
You feel intimidated by others who are more confident about expressing their
opinions.
It is not difficult to say you opinion. But you should know how to position your
opinion in a conversation so that no one is offended nor you remain uncomfortably
silent without giving your opinion.

Some useful phrases for expressing opinions are

I think...
The way I see it...
If it were up to me...
I suppose...
It is fairly certain that...
I honestly feel that...
In my opinion...
As far as Im concerned...
If I were in your situation...
Im pretty sure that...
Im convinced that...
I believe that...

Introducing oneself to others

Few phrases used for introducing oneself to others
Id like to introduce myself...
Im...
My name is...and I am from...
Hi, I am...
Few phrases used for introducing others
This is...
Id like to introduce... from...
Heres...
I feel privileged to introduce...
Few phrases used when meeting for the first time / on being introduced
Pleased to meet you.
Nice to meet you.
Nice meeting you.
Glad to meet you.
Its a pleasure meeting you.
Some phrases used when responding to greeting
Pleased to meet you too.
Nice meeting you too.

Glad to meet you too.

Making Requests
There are occasions when one has to ask others to do something for us. So, it is
important to know how to make requests appropriately in different situations. A few
phrases normally used to make request is given below.
Request

Response

Can you shut the window?

Of course

Could you shut the window?

Certainly

Do you mind shutting the window? Right away

Would you mind shutting the In a minute
window, please?

Im sorry, I cant because...

Im afraid I cant because...

Asking for permission

For certain actions that we want to do we need the permission from someone
else. It is, therefore, very important to learn how to ask for permission in the most
appropriate way so that you get the permission,
Some useful phrases for giving permission
OK
Sure, go ahead.
Yes, I guess so.
All right.
Formal speech
A short formal speech is made in the following situations:

 To welcome a guest at a function

To bid farewell to someone leaving an institution/ organization, or
To propose a vote of thanks at the close of a formal event.
However, preparing and delivering a public speech can be challenging. One may find
it difficult to decide what one want to say, or how to say it. To some, perhaps the very
thought of speaking before an audience is frightening. With enough guidance and
practice, anyone can write and deliver a speech successfully.
Making a short formal speech involves three stages:
1. Planning
2. Writing
3. Delivery
Planning Stage
The content of the speech and how it is delivered will depend on three
important factors:
Occasion/ Situation
Audience
The purpose of the speech
Writing Stage
This stage involves the following:
Creating an outline
Collecting the material required
Preparing the first draft
Editing for correctness, cohesiveness, etc.
Delivery Stage
The following points have to be kept in mind while a speech is delivered:
The speakers appearance- the speaker must be well groomed
Clarity and audibility
Adjust the pace of delivery pause when necessary
Make eye contact with members of the audience and sustain it to win the trust
and confidence of the listeners

 Be natural in gestures and posture avoid distracting mannerisms (for example,

keeping ones hands in ones pockets)

Delivering a welcome address

While listening to the speeches note the following points:
Welcoming the guests naming them first and then giving their position/ title/
designation
Welcoming the guests the sequence, first the chief guest, then the guests of
honour and other dignitaries. The head of the college/ organization is invited
last, as he/ she is the host.
The qualifiers used before the names of dignitaries: esteemed, respected, his/
her Excellency (for the Governor/ President, etc.)
The introduction of the guests to the audience relating to the group the
significance of the guests position or his/ her achievement/ contributions
The moderate pace of delivery used; neither too fast nor too slow
Phrases used when delivering a welcome address are
Opening courtesies

Giving the background

Introducing the theme/ purpose

Good morning/

The idea took birth a

This gathering offers us a diverse

afternoon/ evening

year ago...

platform to...

Let me first welcome...

In the last meeting, we

Let us take the first step towards..

discussed the possibility of...

I feel privileged to

We were exploring the

The initiative to... will go a long

welcome...

possibility of ...

way in creating...

I would like to

There was a need felt to

Todays function marks...

welcome...

work together on...

I have great pleasure

It was felt that...

in welcoming.../ It is

This meeting/ conference stands

for...

my pleasure to
welcome...
Proposing a vote of thanks
A formal function/ occasion normally involve a formal closing with a vote of
thanks for all those who organised and participated in the event.
A few useful phrases for proposing the vote of thanks are
I have task of delivering the vote of thanks to this august gathering here.
My thanks to distinguished...
I am also grateful to....
I must also thank the other members of ...
My thanks to all...
Its a great honour to have this opportunity to thank all of you.
We are deeply indebted to...
We would like to thank...
We are very grateful to you for...
In this connection, we would like to make particular mention of...
We thank you very much for your patience...
Thank you so much...

Descriptions
Language can be used to describe people, places and events around us.
Different situations demand different kinds of descriptions. The style of description
depends on the relationship of the speaker with the listener and the person/event/
thing/ place being described.
Describing people
At some stage of a persons life, some situations may have come up where one
had to describe a person whom one knows or saw to another individual. So, one may
start with the description of his/ her appearance, the move on to personality and
demeanour. One must concentrate on the unique characteristics of the person.
Describing places
When one has to describe a place one has visited, the following details are
included:
The location
Its history
Statistical facts and figures pertaining to the place
Legends associated with the place, if any
Its popularity
Significance of the place what does it mean to people
But, it also depends on how much the listener knows about the place.
Describing an event
Description of an event can be of three types:
1. Factual
2. Impressionistic
3. Combination of factual and impressionistic
Newspaper reports and TV/ radio news reports/ programmes offer samples of a factual
description of events.
Describing an object or thing
We often describe an object when it is unfamiliar to the listener. You might
have to describe an object to a police official or to an official at a Lost and Found desk
in order to assist the person in identifying the object. It is also possible that you are

making a presentation on a product. In such a case, you may have to describe it to the
audience.
We can describe an object in terms of:
Its physical features
Size
Shape
Colour
Smell, if any
Taste, if any
Texture/ material
Functionality
Cost
Group Discussions
In the present global economic world, group discussion is now seen as a
common part of any recruitment by various companies, establishments, public
undertakings and so on. Group discussions are usually conducted because most
organizations expect their employees to cooperate and collaborate with each other and
work together as a team. Employers are keen on having team players and not
individual contributors. Cooperation, collaboration and strong team work are the three
basic fundamentals which are given priority for personal as well as professional
expertise and success. So, as part of the work culture and atmosphere, it demands that
there should be these essential people skills in each and every person striving towards
success.
Then, the question rises up regarding one point discussed above, namely, what
are people skills or what do you mean by people skills? One idea that must be clear
from the beginning is that when you are working as part of a team; remember it is
inevitable for you to work with a few others who may not always be of the
temperament, aptitude, outlook, belief etc. The people skills that one needs to work in
such a team will comprise the following:
To be pleasant in communication

 To accept criticism without taking it personally

To focus criticism on ideas and not on people
To appreciate good ideas and suggestion, remarks, comments, and observations
made by anyone in the group
To analyze and evaluate ideas objectively, without feeling biased about the
source of its origin
To be sensitive to the taste, attitude, and temperament of other members in the
group
To avoid hurting others feelings
A group discussion is the communication between members of a specific group
on a topic of common interest or concern. Such discussions commonly take place
among student groups or teacher groups in academic institutions or among employees
in organizations. Usually, they are formal discussions on a pre-determined topic.
However, informal discussions also take place when people meet informally.
Group discussions are normally held for some of the common reasons like:
To gain a better understanding of a subject or topic area
To explore ideas and exchange information
To critique proposals or new ideas
To brainstorm and explore new possibilities
To look for the best solution to a problem
To prepare new policies
There are some skills required for the effective participation in group
discussions like good communication skills, interpersonal skills, leadership skills and
problem solving skills. Let us discuss each skill in detail.
Good communication skill
First and foremost, one should be a good communicator. To be a good
communicator, one should be able to
Think clearly and logically
Express ones thoughts and ideas coherently
Speak accurately and appropriately
Listen to others and respond appropriately

 Express agreements, disagreements and reservations (full or partial) without

hurting the listeners feelings
Help others see a problem or situation from multiple perspectives.
Interpersonal skills
Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to interact with other members and carry
on a conversation in a pleasant way. This will call for the ability to
Remain focused on the objective of the discussion and not digress
Accept criticism of your ideas with a smile and not consider it an attack on you
Disagree with someone elses idea and still be pleasant
Find positive aspects in ideas put forth by someone with whom you disagree on
many issues
Recognize every member of the group as equal partners
Ensure that every member gets equal opportunity to speak.
Leadership skills
To lead the team
To inspire the team
To give the discussion a sense of direction
To initiate a discussion
To encourage passive members to express their views
To help the team arrive at a conclusion
To summarize the discussion.
Problem solving skills
To think creatively
To think out of the box
To think for innovative solutions to problems
To analyze the different dimensions of a problem.
In addition to these basic skills, one must have a positive attitude towards the
task and the people like,
Believe that a few heads together can resolve issues quicker and better.
Respect others knowledge and skills.

 If someone disagrees with your views or ideas, do not jump to the conclusion
that he/ she is your enemy.
Every individual has an ego just like you. Respect it. That shows your sense of
respect to others.
Just as much as you do not like to be insulted by anyone else, you should try
not to insult anyone else through your remarks or body language. That shows
your respect to colleagues and peers.
Refuse to be provoked. If you get provoked, you exhibit your weakness. Also
try not to provoke anyone. But show your sense of maturity.
Accept rejection of your ideas, as long as it is reasonable and logical. It shows
your humility.
Be prepared to accept amendments/ modifications to your ideas. That shows
your open-mindedness.
Wear a smile on your face when you speak. It is an effective ice breaker.
Types of group discussion
Group discussion may be of two kinds:
Topic-based
Case-based
Let us discuss the varieties in a better manner.
Topic-based group discussion
Here, the discussion is based on a topic given to the group. Look at these three
topics:
Literacy Programmes in India
Reservation in jobs is a curse
The number thirteen
They represent three different categories.
The first topic is a factual topic. In the case of a factual topic, one is expected
to show the understanding of the topic, how well informed you are on it, and whether
you are aware of the basic facts about it. The second topic is a controversial topic. It
gives scope for argument and debate. Since it is a controversial topic, there will be
different views on it. Some may support it while others may oppose it. What is

important is not what view one holds but how well one can substantiate it. It is very
important that one is able to put forth valid arguments, so that one may make
meaningful contribution to the discussion. The third topic is an abstract topic. It is
rather unlikely that one may get an abstract topic for a group discussion. The fourth
topic is an objective one.
Case-based group discussion
In a case-based discussion, information about a situation is given to you and
you are asked to resolve the situation.
Roles and functions in a group discussion
It is important that every member in a group plays productive roles with two
objectives in mind:
To achieve the immediate purpose of the discussion:
It may be to resolve an issue, to finalize a plan of action, to solve a problem, or
to make recommendations on an important topic. Such roles are typically
known as task building roles.
To strengthen and maintain the group:
If every member in the group agrees with everyone else, you, as a team, may
not produce the best. Similarly, if every member is concerned only about what
he/ she has to say, and not with what the members contribute, you may not be
playing a positive role. So, you need to play roles that help members make their
best contribution and roles that help members stay together as a cohesive
group. Such roles are known as group building and maintenance roles.
There are different roles the members could play in a group discussion like,
Task building roles
Initiating: In every group discussion, one person has to initiate the discussion. The
initiator presents the topic and puts the topic in perspective.
Inviting views, ideas, opinions, and facts: Having initiated the discussion, the
initiator should invite other members to present their views, ideas, opinions etc. Some
useful expressions for inviting are:
Can we start with Mr. Sharma?
Can we first listen to Ms. Ann?

Reacting and asking for reactions: It is inevitable that in a discussion you tend to
agree or disagree with others opinions. Do not hesitate to express your reactions but
learn to express your disagreement with someones idea or opinion and not with the
person. A member who plays an active role will also try and get every member in the
group to express his/ her reactions to an idea, argument or an opinion.
Explaining, elaborating and exemplifying: Sometimes, we notice that someone has
an interesting idea but is unable to express it well. It may be useful for another
member to pick it up and explain, elaborate and also give examples, if necessary, so
that the group has a better understanding of it.
Clarifying, synthesizing: Sometimes we do not understand a speaker well. On such
occasions, do not hesitate to seek clarification on anything that you dont understand.
You are actually giving an opportunity to the speaker to reassure himself/ herself that
her/ his message has been understood correctly by the group.
Challenging: There may be occasions when you may need to challenge an idea. Do
not hesitate to do it but learn to do it as politely as possible.
Summarizing: Towards the end of the discussion, it is necessary for one of the
members to summarize the discussion.
Group building and maintenance roles
It is essential that every member plays a constructive role with a view to
strengthening the group and also maintaining the rapport between members. Some of
the roles that you could play in this direction are:
Encouraging others
Complementing others on their useful contributions
Being supportive
Mediating
Discussion Etiquette
For conducting a group discussion, there are some rules:
Dos
Listen to other speakers. Do not assume that you are more knowledgeable than
others.
Respect the contribution made by other speakers.

 Agree with and acknowledge what you find is agreeable in others opinions and
views.
Disagree politely with ideas, not with the person.
Offer chances to silent partners.
Expect others to disagree with some or all your views. They are entitled to do
so just much as you have the right to disagree with their views. It is part of the
game and hence do not feel insulted or upset when someone does disagree with
your views.
Keep the discussion focused on the main topic. When there is a digression,
bring it back to the main point. This is the role of a good leader.
Make yourself audible to everyone in the group. Often people tend to indulge
in conversations aside because they cannot hear the speaker.
Put up right signals to indicate your responses to the discussion. Often we
communicate a lot more through our body language than through spoken
words.
Donts
Dont get into a conversation with your neighbour or a person across the table
while someone is speaking to the group.
Dont use strong expressions such as Thats absolutely wrong, to express
disagreements.
Dont try to dominate the discussion. Its not considered a positive quality.
Dont sound rude or aggressive.
Dont interrupt a speaker unless its very essential. Be courteous enough to
apologize for the interruption if you have to.
Telephone Communication
Types of calls
There are different types of calls depending upon the situation and the speakers
involved in the conversation. Depending upon the nature of the conversation and the
nature of the relationship between the speaker and the listener, we can notice that the

language used in conversation varies considerably from each other. We can classify
the calls into basically three types: formal, informal and semi-formal.

Agreeing and disagreeing

In our conversations, we express our opinion on different things. When
someone expresses an opinion, we may agree or disagree with it. While it is easy to
agree with someone, it is difficult to express disagreement. It is important to express
disagreement without hurting the listeners feelings. It is possible to express
agreement or disagreement in different ways. Here are some expressions to convey
your agreement or disagreement.

Expressing agreement
Absolutely, definitely, exactly, etc.
How true.
How right you are/ that is.
Expressing strong agreement
I couldnt agree more.
Thats exactly/ precisely my view.
Im of exactly the same opinion/ view.
My own view is just the same.
Thats quite true/ right.
Expressing mild disagreement
As a matter of fact...
Actually/ In fact
I dont know (about)...
Im not sure...
Expressing strong disagreement
No way.
Never.

 Impossible.
I entirely disagree.
I cant accept this...
Expressing disagreement bluntly
I disagree.
I cant agree with...
Thats not right/ true.
Thats wrong.
Expressing disagreement subtly
I see it very differently.
If I were you I would...
Thats not the way I see it...

Making appointments
We often meet people for different reasons. You meet a doctor when you are
ill, a lawyer when you need legal advice, a government official to discuss official
matters or a bank official if you need help with banking. Often we have to call the
person we want to meet in advance and fix an appointment to see him/ her. Usually,
appointments are made on the phone. Here are some few useful phrases used for
making appointments.

I have an appointment with Dr Reddy.

I want to make an appointment to see...
I am unable to keep the appointment. (be present)
I dont want to break the appointment. (not show up)
Im afraid I have to cancel the appointment.
She has a five oclock appointment with...
She has a dental appointment at three this afternoon.

Cancelling and rescheduling appointments

On certain occasions, you may have to miss an appointment for certain
unavoidable reasons. In such situations, it is necessary to call and either cancel the
appointment or ask for another one. There are some steps in such a call.
Step 1- Greet.
Step 2- Announce that you have an appointment.
Step 3- Express regret at inability to keep the appointment.
Step 4- Ask for a new appointment, if necessary.
Step 5- Thank and close the conversation.

Reminding
We expect people to manage their time well and do things on time. However,
very often we find it necessary to remind others to do things. You remind someone to
do things for one of these two reasons:
Because you do not want the person to forget to do something.
Because the person has forgotten to do something.

Reminding subtly
People may not appreciate reminders sometimes. It may be necessary to remind
someone of something, but he or she may not like the reminder. In such cases you
may want to remind the person in a gentle, subtle or indirect way. Some subtle ways
of reminding are:
Mentioning the time, day, date, etc to remind someone that something has not
been done.
Asking a question to remind someone that something has been forgotten.
Mentioning that something has not happened or you havent done something
for a while, thereby subtly saying that you would like to do it.
Mentioning something related to what you want to remind the other person of
something.
Some useful phrases for reminding in normal ways
May I remind you that...

 If you recall/ remember

I hope you wont mind my reminding you about...
I should remind you that I must leave in the next ten minutes.

Telephone etiquette
Etiquette is defined by Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary as the set
of rules or customs which control accepted behaviour in particular social groups or
social situations. There are rules and customs for telephoning too. Some of the
telephone manners are:
As far as possible, answer a call in the first or second ring.
Dial numbers carefully to avoid getting a wrong number.
If you end up calling a wrong number, apologize before hanging up.
Speak distinctly and clearly.
If you are calling on a mobile phone, check f its a good time to talk.
Use the callers name during the conversation.
Keep calls as short as possible.
Smile when you are talking.
Avoid giving curt replies. Be helpful to the caller.
Do not transfer the call to someone else unless it is required.
When transferring, alert the caller.

Module IV
Reading Skills
Reading with a purpose
Reading is a process of decoding information in a text. It involves your ability
to read and understand the words, phrases and sentences and other symbols or visuals
in a text. Different strategies are employed in reading a text which suits the purpose of
reading.
Purpose of reading

Example

Reading strategy

Reading to get a few

Looking up some

Do not read contents

specific items of

specific information

from cover to cover.

information

in a dictionary,

go to the specific

encyclopedia, a

page on which there

product manual, a

is information.

Name of the strategy

Scanning

brochure or other
reference resources
Reading for an

Reading a story, a

read fast, often skip

overall understanding newspaper, a film

words, sentences,

of a text

review, a description

and even paragraphs

etc

that are not important

Skimming

and try to get an overall

understanding of the text.
Reading for total

reading your textbooks read the text slowly, word

information

for study purpose, or

by word and sentence by

reading an article on a

sentence because your aim

topic of importance to

is total or near total

you

comprehension.

Reading for pleasure reading novels, short

Stories, magazines etc.

Intensive reading

may read the text selectively Extensive reading

without being bothered by
unfamiliar words.

Scanning
Scanning is looking quickly through a text in order to find a specific piece of
information. The information may be a number, a name, a figure, the meaning of a
word, the part of speech of a word, etc. To scan a text, pass you eyes over it and stop
when you locate the piece of information you are looking for. This strategy is helpful
while consulting reference books in a library, while consulting catalogue, etc.

Surveying a text using an index

When we select a book, first we want to know what the contents of the book
are. The title and blurb give you some idea about the book. The index is an
alphabetical list at the end of a book that provides the page number on which a
subject, name of an author/ scientist, etc., is found.

Making predictions in reading

When you predict, make intelligent guesses about something. As a reader, we
often make predictions about the contents of a book or a chapter or a section.

Text structure
Long texts are usually divided into sections. Most writers would use section
headings to make the reading easy. Sections may be divided into paragraphs. We
expect the writers to follow certain structures in their writing.

Inferences
Some writers use the technique of signposts in their writing very effectively.
But some writers do not use signposts effectively. So, at times it becomes necessary to
infer the message that is very explicitly stated. For that we use clues from the contextclues from words, phrases and sentences. We also use our world knowledge about
things.
Reading graphics
Just as much as you read a text, it is possible to read graphics. Graphics include
pie charts, bar diagrams, tables, etc.

Reading critically
The ability to read a text critically is an essential component of academic
reading. Critical reading involves identifying and differentiating facts, opinions and
arguments in a text. Once you have identified these, you need to test their validity in
relation to your own knowledge and viewpoint, and if necessary prepare counter
arguments. To read critically, you need to understand the main points in an argument.
Note-taking is a reliable way of doing this.

Reading for research

In order to research a specific topic, you should often look beyond your
textbooks and try to determine other sources- reference books, books on the specific
topic and research publications- in order to find information/ idea/ work done on the
topic so far. It helps to know what information you can find in each of these and how
you can find this information. When you need to use a number of references for your
research work, you need to be able to quickly determine whether you are likely to find
a specific piece of information on atopic, in a given text. You save time if you can
quickly determine that you need to move to a different source.