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H A P T E R
Magnetic Leakage
Field Measurements1
140
Magnetic Testing
Magnetizing Current
To induce flux leakage, magnetizing
current can be passed through the test
object by direct contact. This is
commonly done but because of the
danger of arc burns, it is not always
recommended (Fig. 2). Insulated current
carrying rods or cables may be used, by
passing them through holes in the test
object. Other alternatives are the use of
coils to carry the current around the test
object and the use of electromagnets or
permanent magnets applied to the test
object.5
When current is present, there is an
associated field intensity H(t) that raises
localized areas to various flux density B(t)
values, based on the BH properties of the
test material. Figure 1 shows a computer
simulation of field lines in and above a
material at some value below magnetic
saturation, as can be seen from the
bending of the field lines under the
discontinuity.4
FIGURE 1. Field lines around, through and
above discontinuity (an oblique slot), as
computed by finite element computer
model. The magnetic flux leakage field is
asymmetric.4
Discontinuity Parameters
The discontinuity characteristics that are
critical to the formation of magnetic
particle indications include depth, width,
and angle to the object surface. The
effects of discontinuity width on the
topography of the magnetic flux leakage
field have been described in what might
be termed classical approaches68 where
the discontinuity may be replaced by
arrays of poles. Higher ambient field
intensities or flux densities are included
within such models by increasing the pole
densities that give rise to the magnetic
flux leakage fields. More recently,
computer models have been developed4,9
to explain how magnetic flux leakage
fields are related to discontinuity
parameters (Fig. 1 is an example of such
work).
In cases where the discontinuity is
narrow and surface breaking (seams, laps,
quench cracks and grind tears), the
magnetic flux leakage field near the
mouth of the discontinuity is highly
curved (Fig. 4). The activating field
intensity may be quite small (a few
amperes per meter) or, after saturating the
test object, inspection can be performed
with the resulting residual induction.
In the case of subsurface
discontinuities (inclusions and
C
D
Legend
A. Air.
B. Molten metal, solidified.
C. Steel, burnt and recrystallized.
D. Steel not burnt.
141
(b)
142
Magnetic Testing
Flux leakage
= m H
0.5 mm
(0.02 in.)
Fm
Fm
K ( H H )
Voltage Developed
between Ends of Straight
Wire
As shown in Fig. 6, two conducting wires
PQ and RS are placed at right angles to a
magnetic field (shaded area) of constant
flux density B directed toward the reader.
Let another free wire AA' be moved to
position CC', a distance x away. The area
swept out by the wire is then:
(2)
dA =
A
= B nd
= LB nx
e =
d
dt
dx
dt
Finally, since dxdt 1 is actually the
velocity v of the wire, the induced
electromotive force becomes:
(6)
e = BL
(7a) e = B Lv
P
v = dx(dt)1
Lx
x
S
A
143
3 10 5 Wb m 2
) (2 m)
100 000
m s 2
60 60
= 1.7 10 3 V
This example indicates the magnitude
of voltages induced when metal objects
move in relatively small magnetic fields.
As another example, compute the
electromotive force generated between the
ends of a 10 mm long wire when moving
at 500 mms1 through a field of
1.6 103 Wbm2 (16 kG).
(7c)
e =
(1.6 10
)
)
Wb m2
(0.01 m) (0.5 m s1
= 8 10 6 V
e =
( v B) dl
Bt
Bg Lg
y
=
2
x + y2
Bg Lg
x
=
2
x + y2
and:
(11)
By2
By1
By1
Parallel coil
h
v
Hc
X
(9)
e = v B dl
144
Magnetic Testing
Legend
By = leakage as measured in vertical direction
B = magnetic flux leakage (T)
E = parallel coil output, where E (By1 By2)Lv
E = perpendicular coil output, where E (By1 By2)Lv
Hc = liftoff measured to center of coil (m)
h = constant sensor liftoff (m)
L = coil length into page (m)
v = speed of coil relative to test object (ms1)
X = horizontal axis
Y = vertical axis
Bg Lg Lv
x
e =
2
x + y2
e =
Bg Lg Lv
h
Perpendicular Coil
With a one-turn coil passing at speed
through the same magnetic flux leakage
field as above, the signal electromotive
force is the difference between the two
electromotive forces developed in the
branches:
(14)
( x)
Bg Lg LN vx
1
x2 + H + b 2
( c )
2
2
x + ( Hc b)
e =
e
Small
liftoff
1
1
2
2
2
2
x + h2
x + h1
(15)
Bg Lg Lv
e =
Large liftoff
2 H c 4 ( H c b ) + b 4 H c 2 + b2
2
(16)
2xo
xo
xo
Legend
e = electromotive force signal (V)
x = lateral distance (meter)
x02
Parallel Coil
When the coil is oriented so that one set
of wires follows another, then the output
signal is the difference between the
145
2 bNBg Lg Lv
(18) e =
h 2 + b 2 x2
x + b 2 + h2 x b 2 + h2
( )
( )
= 2 h2 + b 2
b = 0.5 Hc
b = 0.25 Hc
b = 0.15 Hc
1
xHc1
1
Coil motion
4
xo
Legend
b = half of coil width (m)
e = signal (V)
Hc = liftoff (m) measured to center of coil
x = lateral distance (m)
146
Magnetic Testing
Legend
e = signal (V)
x = lateral distance (m)
xo
Ferrite
Input
fo
2f o
= e ( E + v B)
Rh IBz
b
(b)
fo
2fo
Bz
3 to 5 mm
Vh
2
F
Legend
d = depth (meter)
f = winding
= length (meter)
Z
b
Y
147
Rh
1
ne
Magnetodiodes
(a)
Aluminum holder
(b)
148
Magnetic Testing
Applications of Magnetodiodes
Magnetodiodes have been used for
detecting magnetic flux leakage from
discontinuities in tubes.3 The magnetic
flux leakage is excited by alternating
current electromagnets arranged to detect
either internal or external surface
breaking discontinuities. The system
illustrates the general principles of
magnetic flux leakage testing.1
Sensors are connected differentially to
eliminate signals from the applied field
and from relatively long range variations
in surface field intensity. This system and
magnetic flux leakage systems like it are
used to rapidly evaluate the surface
condition of tubes and can detect tight
(b)
(c)
Ferroprobes
Ferroprobes (also called foerster
microprobes) take many forms but for the
purposes of nondestructive testing they
generally consist of cylindrical or
rectangular ferrite upon which one or two
coils are wound (Fig. 11).
Flux gate magnetometers are used to
detect small changes in the Earths
magnetic field. As might be used by
geophysical prospectors, these devices
consist of ferrite rings carrying many coil
configurations.
Both of these devices are based on the
same physical laws as a tape recorder head
or any other ferrite cored magnetic field
pickup. The difference between the two is
that ferroprobes are activated at high
frequency.
Typically, one coil is excited with
alternating current at a frequency f. The
voltage induced in a second coil at
frequency 2f is then detected. This
secondary signal carries information
about the scanned magnetic flux leakage
field. Figure 17 is an example of the
tangential magnetic flux leakage field
taken with such a probe over an angle slot
in residual induction at a liftoff of 1 mm
(0.04 in.).8
Ferrite cores might be solid or hollow,
to reduce eddy currents in the ferrite.
(d)
(e)
Legend
= hall element
I = current (A)
149
0.4 (4)
0.2 (2)
B
A
0.2 (2)
Negative zone
Positive
zone
B
0.8 (8)
4
(0.16)
4
(0.16)
8
(0.32)
Distance X, mm (in.)
Recombination zone
H H+
150
Magnetic Testing
Legend
A. Experimental data at 1 mm (0.04 in.) liftoff.
B. Model with increased charge on acute face of slot.
(b)
Field indicator
Plan
view
S
(23) B =
Side
view
N
S
S
N
151
B * sin
B*
(25)
FIGURE 19. Pointer deflection in first
calibration type. B is perpendicular to B* and
tan = BB*1.
Pointers
initial/zero
position
Pointers
new position
due to B
Pointers new
position parallel to B
Sensing
magnets
initial position
B*
Sensing magnets
initial position
B*
Sensing magnets
new position due to B
152
Magnetic Testing
Sensing magnets
new position
153
154
Magnetic Testing
Bo
x2
1 +
R
3/2
NI
= o
2 R
0
(1.5)
(3.0)
(3.3)
Measured Value
________________
mT
(G)
31.0
1.0
0.14
0.1
(309.0)
(9.8)
(1.4)
(1.0)
155
References
156
Magnetic Testing