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H A P T E R
Magnetism1
Coulombs Law
The nature of electromagnetism can be
summarized by four vector quantities,
their interaction, their relations with each
other and with matter. These four time
dependent vector quantities are referred to
as electromagnetic fields and include:
electric field intensity E, electric flux
density D, magnetic field intensity H and
magnetic flux density B.
The study of electromagnetic fields
begins with the study of basic laws of
electricity and magnetism and with the
use of some basic postulates. In particular,
it is customary to start with Coulombs
law. This law states that the force between
two stationary charges is directly proportional
to the size of the charges and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Adding Gauss and Amperes laws
provides a complete set of relations
describing all electrostatic, magnetostatic
and induction phenomena, but not wave
propagation. To include wave propagation
in electromagnetic field equations, the
displacement current (continuity
equation) is added to Amperes law. Doing
so obtains Maxwells equations.
Alternatively, Maxwells equations may
serve as the basic postulates and, because
they form a complete set describing all
electromagnetic phenomena, the required
relations may be deduced. By choosing
Maxwells equations as the starting point,
an assumption of the equations accuracy
is implicitly made. This is not more
troublesome than assuming that
Coulombs law applies or that
displacement currents exist. In either case,
the proof of correctness is experimental.
This is an important consideration: it
specifically states that Maxwells equations
and therefore the electromagnetic field
relations cannot be proven
mathematically.
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Measurement Units
One major source of confusion when
applying electromagnetic field theory has
been the units for measurement.
Centimeter gram second (CGS) units, the
electromagnetic system of units (EMU)
and meter kilogram second ampere units
(MKSA) are the most familiar, but other
systems such as the absolute magnetic, the
absolute electric and the so-called
normalized system have also been used.
More disturbing is the fact that mixed
units have also been used. For example,
practitioners used to use MKSA units such
as the ampere for electrical quantities and
EMU units such as the gauss for magnetic
quantities.
Only the International System (SI) of
Units is used in this section. The benefit
gained in consistency far outweighs any
inconvenience.
Another problem encountered in
practice is the confusion between magnetic
field intensity H, sometimes called field
strength, and magnetic flux density B. The
term magnetic field is often used for H or B
or both, depending on the situation. To
avoid such confusion, the quantity B is
used consistently for the magnetic flux
density while H is the magnetic field
intensity. Similarly, E is the electric field
intensity and D is the electric flux density.
B
t
(1)
E =
(2)
(3)
D =
(10) B = H
(4)
B = 0
(11) D = E
(5)
J +
E d =
(6)
(7)
(12)
d
dt
H d
= I +
D ds
= Q
B ds
= 0
D
t
Dt ds
S
(8)
(9)
= q ( E + v B)
= E
Magnetism
87
Static Fields
By setting to zero all time derivatives in
Maxwells equations, the equations for the
static electric and magnetic fields are
obtained. The four equations become:
(13) E = 0
(14) H
(15)
= J
D =
(16) B = 0
(17)
E d
= 0
H d
= I
D d s
= Q
(18)
(19)
(20)
B ds
= qv B
B = A
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R
I
(24)
1
( A) = J
(25)
A = ( A) 2 A
Biot-Savart Law
The purpose of field relations is to solve
field problems. Any of the relations
obtained previously may be used for this
purpose. In particular, Eq. 14 can be used
for general field problems while Eq. 18 is
useful for solution of highly symmetric
problems. In problems where no such
symmetry can be found but which are
simple enough not to require the solution
of the general Eq. 26, another method can
be used. For these types of problems, the
magnetic vector potential is used in still
another form. Considering the current in
a straight wire in Fig. 2, the following can
be written at point P:
(27)
A =
dA =
I
4
d
R
c
(29)
B =
I
4
d R
R2
R
d
I d
4 R
Magnetism
89
= J + j A
2
A
(37) A
= J + j A
(31) E = jB
(38)
(30)
(32)
( x, y , z ) e jt
A ( x, y , z ,t ) = real A
H
(39)
Magnetic Testing
2
1 A
1 A
+
+
2
r
r r
2 A
z
= Js
+ j Az
(34) B = 0
(35)
2 Az
1 2 Az
+
x2
y2
= J + jD
=
(33) D
90
1
A
(40)
A
= J s + j A
r 2
2 A
2 A
1 2 A
= Js + jA
+
+
x2 y 2 z 2
(41) A = J +
A
V
t
t
(42) A
2 A
(44) 2 A
t 2
V
+ A +
t
2 A
t 2
= J
2V
(45) 2V
t 2
(46) 2 H
(47) 2 E
2 H
t 2
2 E
t 2
= 0
= 0
(48)
= J
= 0
Wave Propagation
When describing wave propagation, the
time dependent form must be used. A wave
equation may be obtained by using the
definition of the magnetic vector potential
in Eq. 23. By substituting this into Eqs. 1
and 2 and using the constitutive relations
in Eqs. 10 and 11, the following equation is
obtained for linear, isotropic material
(where permeability is constant):
V
t
(43) A +
k2 H
2 H
= 0
and:
2
2
(49) E k E = 0
k =
Magnetism
91
Skin Depth
In a linear isotropic material, after
substitution of the constitutive relations
in Eqs. 10 through 12 and using the
vector identity in Eq. 25, Eqs. 1 and 2
become:
(51)
2 E
(52)
2 H
E
2 E
t
t 2
= 0
H
2 H
= 0
t
t 2
(53)
2 H
H
t
= 0
(54) =
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Electromagnetic Boundary
Conditions
Electromagnetic fields behave differently
in different materials. The constitutive
relations in Eqs. 10 through 12 are a
statement of this behavior. When
different materials are present, the fields
across the boundaries between these
materials must undergo some changes to
conform to both materials. In such cases,
the field may experience a discontinuity
at the boundary. In order to find the
necessary conditions that apply at
material boundaries, assume two different
materials as in Fig. 3 and apply Maxwells
equations at the boundary. For
convenience, the integral form is used. By
doing so, the following four conditions
are obtained:
(55)
E1 = E 2
(56)
n ( H1 H 2 ) = Js
(59)
D1
D2
1
2
(60)
B1
B2
1
2
(61) 1 E1n = 2 E 2n
(64) n ( H1 H 2 ) = J s
(65) n D1n
(63) E1 = 0
= B2n
(66) B1n
= Js
(69)
n D1n
= s
= 0
(62) 1H1n = 2 H 2n
At the interface between a good
conductor and an insulator, both surface
current densities and free charges may
exist. The electric field is zero inside a
perfect conductor and both the tangential
component of the electric field intensity
and the normal component of the electric
flux density must be zero inside the
conductor. The boundary conditions
(Eqs. 55 to 58) then become:
= s
A2
n1
2
A2
A1
A1n
1
A1
n2
1
1
Legend
A = magnetic vector potential
n = normal component of vector
= permittivity
= permeability
= conductivity
Magnetism
93
( H ) = J +
(74)
(71)
=
t
= J
(73)
94
( H ) = 0
Magnetic Testing
(75)
= 0
D
( H ) = J +
(76) H
= J +
D
t
(77)
m =
z I a2
Magnetic Material
Diamagnetic materials
Gold
Silver
Copper
Lead
Water
Mercury
Bismuth
Paramagnetic materials
Vacuum (nonmagnetic)
Air
Aluminum
Ferromagnetic materials
Cobalt (99 percent annealed)
Nickel (99 percent annealed)
Iron (99.8 percent annealed)
Iron (99.95 percent annealed in hydrogen)
Nickel alloy
Annealed nickel alloy (controlled cooling)a
Steel (0.9 percent carbon)
Iron (98.5 percent, cold rolled)
0.999964
0.99998
0.999991
0.999983
0.999991
0.999968
0.99983
1.0
1.00000036
1.000021
250
600
6000
2.0 105
1.0 106
100
2000
(78)
Hin
= M
= Nm
Materials
For the purposes of this chapter, three
types of magnetic materials are important:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic.
Magnetism
95
Diamagnetic Materials
In these materials, the internal magnetic
field due to electrons is zero under normal
conditions. In an external magnetic field,
an imbalance occurs and a net internal
field opposing the external field is
produced. Thus, M in Eq. 78 is negative
with respect to the applied field. The
magnetization is proportional to the
external field through a quantity called
the magnetic susceptibility of the
material xm:
(80)
= xm H ex
B = 0 (1 + xm ) H ex
= 0 (1 + xm )
Paramagnetic Materials
This group of materials exhibits properties
similar to diamagnetics except that the
magnetic susceptibility is positive. In the
presence of an applied magnetic field
intensity, the atomic magnetic dipole
moments can align to form a net
magnetic dipole density. The effect is still
relatively small, producing observed
relative permeabilities slightly larger than
1.0.
The permeability of paramagnetic
materials remains constant over a large
range of applied magnetic field intensities.
Examples of materials in this group are
air, aluminum and some stainless steels.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials vary from
diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials
in two critical ways: (1) their susceptibility
is very large and (2) there is a pronounced
variation in the internal structure of their
magnetic moments. In these materials,
many atomic moments are aligned in a
certain direction within a very small
region called a magnetic domain.
Neighboring domains have a similar
structure, with the net magnetic domain
in one direction. In the demagnetized
state, the magnetic domains tend to be
aligned randomly, exhibiting a net
internal field that is either very small or
zero.
This domain model is depicted in
Fig. 5. When an external magnetic field is
applied, those domains that have a net
field aligned in the direction of the
applied field grow in size while the other
domains shrink. The internal field and the
external field H are aligned in the same
direction producing a larger total flux
(a)
(b)
B
I
I
4
8
3
2
7
5
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
I = current
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Conductivity
(Sm1)
6.1
5.8
4.1
3.5
1.8
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.5
1.4
0.9
1.0
1.0
3.0
4.0
2.3
3.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
106
106
106
105
104
104
109
1012
1013
1015
1017
Relative
Permittivity
1
1.0006
3
3
5
5
6
6
81
1200
10 000
Magnetism
97
Magnetic Circuits
The two equations that define the static
magnetic field are Eq. 14 and Eq. 16.
These are written below in differential and
integral forms in terms of B:
(83)
B = J
(88)
(84)
H
B
Hg
B
0
B = 0
and:
(85)
B d
= I
B ds
= 0
(89)
(86)
H d
= NI
Circuit Theory
A magnetomotive force Vm = NI causes a
magnetic flux to exist within the closed
contour mentioned in Eq. 87. If for any
reason this flux is contained within a
material, it may be assumed that a flux
flows within the material. This concept
allows flux to be treated much the same
way as current and therefore circuit
theory concepts may be used for the
solution of some specific field problems.
To develop this concept, it is
convenient to use a toroid (Fig. 6). The
gap is assumed to be small and the flux
densities inside the toroid and the gap are
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Magnetic Testing
(90)
B
0 NI
0 2 r g + g
A
A
Ig
o
I
r
Legend
A = reference point
Ig = gap distance
r = radius of toroid
s = cross sectional area of toroid
= permeability
= flux
NI
2 r g
g
0s
Vm
R + Rg
where:
(94)
R
Rg
i i
R
j
(97)
= 0
N I
= Bs
(96)
s
and:
(95)
Hysteresis
g
0 s
Rt
Vm
Legend
Rg = gap resistance
Rt = toroid resistance
Vm = magnetomotive force
= flux
Rg
B = (H ) H
Magnetization Curves
A plot of the relation in Eq. 98 describing
the flux density as a function of the field
intensity is a useful way to look at
Magnetism
99
H
H1
(b)
H3
B
P1
Br
Hc
Hc
Br
P2
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
H = magnetic field intensity
P = saturation point
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Magnetic Testing
H1
Hysteresis Curves
Reducing the applied field moves the
curve to the left, rather than retracing the
initial magnetization curve (Fig. 8b). The
flux density is reduced up to the point Br,
where the applied field is zero. This
residual flux is called remanence or
retentivity and is typical of all
ferromagnetic materials. Applying a
reverse magnetic field further reduces the
flux density to the point Hc, where an
applied field intensity exists without an
associated flux density. The field intensity
at this point is called the coercivity or the
coercive force of the material. Further
increase in the negative field intensity
traces the magnetization curve through
point P2 where a saturation point has
again been reached, except that in this
case the field intensity and the flux
density are negative.
If the applied field is decreased to zero,
a point symmetric to Br is reached.
Similarly, by increasing the applied field
intensity to a value equal (but positive) to
Hc, the flux density is again zero. Further
increase in the field intensity brings it
back to the point P1. Repeating the
process described above results in a
retracing of the outer curve but not that
of the initial magnetization curve. This
unique magnetization curve is called the
hysteresis curve and is typical of all
ferromagnetic materials (hysteresis curves
of different materials, including their
coercive forces and remanence, are
markedly different).
The slope of this curve at any point is
the magnetic permeability. The slope is
relatively high in the lower portions of
the initial magnetization curve and is
gradually reduced to unity. At this point,
the material has reached magnetic
saturation. A curve describing the slope of
the initial magnetization curve of Fig. 8a
is shown in Fig. 9. Figure 9 shows that for
this material (iron), the initial relative
permeability is low, increases gradually
and then, as the field approaches
saturation, decreases and approaches 1.
The hysteresis curve in Fig. 8b has four
distinct sections described by the four
quadrants of the coordinate system.
Particularly important are the first and
second. The curve in the first quadrant is
created by an applied field or source and
is therefore called a magnetization curve. In
particular, the initial magnetization curve
can only be described by starting with an
unmagnetized sample of the material and
then increasing the field within the
material. This section of the curve is
referred to as the active part of the curve.
All direct current applications of magnetic
particle testing that depend on active
magnetization are governed by this
section of the curve.
Magnetization
In order to magnetize a sample, it is
necessary to apply a magnetic field to the
sample. The form in which this field is
applied may vary depending on practical
considerations but the same basic effect
must be obtained: the field in the sample
must be increased to a required value.
In general, if a sample is initially
demagnetized, the field is gradually
increased through the initial
magnetization curve to a required point.
If a residual method is being used, the
field is reduced to zero and the material
relaxes to a point in the second quadrant
of the hysteresis loop. For previously
magnetized samples, it is usually better to
demagnetize the sample first and then to
magnetize it to the required point.
Demagnetization
H
H1
H3
TABLE 4. Coercivity and remanence of some important materials. Values for Hc and Br are
approximate and strongly depend on thermoelectrical history.
Coercive
Force
Hc
(Am1)
Soft magnetic materials
Annealed nickel alloy (controlled cooling)a
Nickel zinc ferrite
Silicon iron (4 percent silicon)
Iron (pure annealed)
Steel (0.9 percent carbon, hot rolled)
Hard magnetic materials
Carbon steel (0.9 percent carbon)
Aluminum nickel alloy, type 5
Aluminum nickel alloy, type 8
Samarium cobalt
0.2
16
20
100
4000
4000
44 000
126 000
560 000
Remanent
Flux Density
Br
(Wbm2)
104
0
0.5
1.2
1.0
1
1.2
1.04
0.84
Saturation
Flux Density
Bs
(Wbm2)
0.8
0.34
1.95
2.16
2.0
Magnetism
101
B
H
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
H = magnetic field intensity
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Magnetic Testing
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
H = magnetic field intensity
(100) W
wdv
v
(101) w =
(b)
(c)
(102) W
B
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
H = magnetic field intensity
HdB
B
HdB dv
v0
Magnetism
103
(103) Pd
= Wf
1.6
= f Bmax
104
Magnetic Testing
dB
fB
dt
(107) Pd
= Nf + k
B2 f 2
(108) Pd
1.6
= k1f Bmax
+ k2 f 2
2
Bmax
Energy in Electromagnetic
Field
(113) we
(114) wm
(109) ( E H ) =
H E E H
B
D
E
EJ
t
t
(111)
H B ED
+
2
2
( E H ) s = t
v
dv E Jdv
E2
2
H 2
2
(115) Pav
1
T
P (t )dt
0
E H
Magnetism
105
(119) F
(123) F
= Nqs v d B
(117) d F
d B
(124) F = I1 I 2 ( L12 )
(120) F21
=
I I
4 1 2
d1 d 2 R
21
(125) W
(121) F12
I I
4 2 1
d 2 d 1 R
12
C2 C1
2
R12
106
Magnetic Testing
1
1
L I 2 + L12I1 I 2 + L2 I 22
2 11
2
2
R21
C1 C2
= s Is B sin
= m B
Inductance
Inductance is a property of the
arrangement of conductors in a system. It
is a measure of the flux linked within the
circuit when excited and a measure of the
magnetic energy stored in the system of
conductors. Flux linkage is defined as the
flux that links the whole system of
conductors, multiplied by the number of
conductors or turns in the system. For a
simple solenoid, this is defined as:
(129) = N = N
B ds
s
= L
(131) W
I2
2
(b)
F
N
(130) L =
B ds
s
I
Legend
B = magnetic flux density
F = mechanical force
m = magnetic movement (Eq. 127)
I = current
s = area within loop
Magnetism
107
References
Bibliography
Binns, K.J., P.J. Lawrenson and
C.W. Trowbridge. The Analytical and
Numerical Solution of Electric and
Magnetic Fields. Chichester, United
Kingdom: Wiley (1992).
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