C

H A P T E R

Magnetization1

Volker Deutsch, Karl Deutsch and Company,

Wuppertal-Elberfeld, Germany
Roderic K. Stanley, NDEIC, Houston, Texas

PART 1. Description of Magnetic Fields

The magnetic particle testing method

uses magnetic fields to reveal material
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
The common horseshoe magnet attracts
most ferritic materials to its ends or poles.
Magnetic lines of flux flow from the south
pole through the magnet to the north
pole as illustrated in Fig. 1a.
Magnets attract certain materials at the
poles, where the lines of flux leave or
enter the magnet. When magnetic

FIGURE 1. Magnetism in various shapes:

(a) horseshoe magnet; (b) ring magnet with
air gap; (c) closed magnetized ring;
(d) magnetic particles attracted to radial
crack in circularly magnetized object.
(a)

(b)

material is placed across the poles of a

horseshoe magnet, the lines of flux flow
from the north pole of the magnet
through the material to the south pole.
Magnetic lines of flux flow preferentially
through magnetic material rather than
nonmagnetic material or air.

Magnetized Ring
If a horseshoe magnet is bent so that its
poles are close together (Fig. 1b), the poles
still attract magnetic materials. Iron filings
or other magnetic materials cling to the
poles and bridge the gap between them.
In the absence of a slot, the magnetic flux
lines are enclosed within the ring (Fig. 1c).
No external poles exist, and magnetic
particles dusted over the ring are not
attracted to the ring even though there
are magnetic flux lines through it.
Magnetized materials attract externally
only when poles exist. A ring magnetized
in this manner is said to contain a circular
magnetic field which is wholly within the
object.
Small changes in the cross section of
the ring or in the permeability of its
material may cause external flux and the
attraction of magnetic particles.

Effect of Cracks

Magnetic particles

(c)

Magnetic particles

(d)
S

Legend
N = north pole
S = south pole

110

Magnetic Testing

A radial crack in a circularly

magnetized object creates north and
south magnetic poles at the edges of the
crack. This forces some of the magnetic
lines of force out of the metal path. These
disrupted lines of force are called magnetic
flux leakage. Magnetic particles are
attracted to the poles created by such a
crack, forming an indication of the
discontinuity in the metal test object
(Fig. 1d).

Bar Magnet
When a horseshoe magnet is straightened,
it becomes a bar magnet with poles at
each end. Magnetic flux lines exist
through the bar from the south pole to
the north pole but the flux density is not
uniform along the bar. Magnetic particles
are attracted to any location where flux
emerges and particularly to the ends of
the magnet where the concentration of

external flux lines is greatest. Since the

magnetic flux within a bar magnet may
run the length of the bar, it is said to be
longitudinally magnetized or to contain a
longitudinal field.

Effect of Cracks in Magnetized Bar

A crack in a bar magnet (Fig. 2) distorts
the magnetic flux lines of force and
creates poles on either side of the crack.
These poles attract magnetic particles to
form an indication of the crack. The
intensity of poles formed at a crack
depends on the number of magnetic flux
lines interrupted. A crack at right angles
to the magnetic lines of force interrupts
more flux lines and creates stronger poles
than a crack more nearly parallel to the
flux lines. Test indications of maximum
size are formed when discontinuities are
at right angles to the magnetic lines of
flux and the discontinuity is at the
surface.

FIGURE 2. Straightening horseshoe magnet

results in bar magnet: crack in bar magnet
creates magnetic poles that attract magnetic
particles outside the bar.
Magnetic
particles

Crack

Magnetization

111

PART 2. Magnetization with Electric Current

Electric currents are used to create or

induce magnetic fields in electrically
conducting materials. Since it is possible
to alter the directions of magnetic fields
by controlling the direction of the
electrical magnetizing current, the
arrangement of current paths is used to
induce magnetic flux lines at right angles
to expected discontinuities in the test
object.

prods and into the area of the object in

contact with the prods. This establishes a
circular magnetic field in the test object
around and between each prod electrode.
The use of alternating current limits
the prod technique to the detection of

FIGURE 3. Circumferential magnetic field

surrounding straight conductor carrying
electric current.

Circular Magnetization
Electric current passing through a straight
conductor (a wire or bar, for example)
creates a circumferential magnetic field
around that conductor (Fig. 3). The
magnetic lines of force are always at right
angles to the direction of the current that
induces the magnetic field.
To determine the direction taken by
magnetic lines of force around a
conductor, imagine that the conductor is
grasped with the right hand so that the
thumb points in the direction of the
electric current. The fingers then point in
the direction taken by the magnetic field
lines, surrounding the conductor. This is
known as Flemings right hand rule.
The passage of current induces a
magnetic field intensity in the conductor
as well as in surrounding space. An object
magnetized in this manner is said to have
a circular field or to be circularly magnetized
(Fig. 3).

Circular Magnetization of
Solid Test Objects
To induce a circular magnetic field in a
solid test object, current may be passed
through the object. This creates poles on
both sides of discontinuities that are
parallel to the length of the test object.
These poles attract fine magnetic particles
and form an indication of the
discontinuity (Fig. 4a). It is also possible
to generate a circular field in localized
areas of the object using prods to pass
current through the area being tested
(Fig. 4b).
The prod electrodes (generally solid
copper or braided copper tips) are first
pressed firmly against the test object. The
magnetizing current is passed through the

112

Magnetic Testing

Magnetic field

Magnetizing
current

Test object

FIGURE 4. Circular magnetization of typical

test objects: (a) circular magnetization
caused by passing electric current from
contact plates through test object;
(b) production of localized circular field by
passing electric current between contact
prods.
(a)

Contact plate

Magnetic field

Magnetic
particles

Contact
plate

Crack

Magnetizing
current

(b)

Switch

Weld

Magnetizing
current

Magnetic lines of force

surface discontinuities. Half-wave rectified

direct current is more desirable here
because its greater depth of penetration
helps indicate near surface discontinuities.
The prod technique generally is used
with dry magnetic particle materials
because of increased particle mobility on
rough surfaces and better penetration. In
the United States, wet magnetic particles
are not normally used with the prod
technique because of electrical and fire
hazards. In Europe, wet particles are
regularly used with prods to achieve
higher sensitivity. Care should be taken
to maintain clean prod tips, to minimize
heating at the point of contact and to
prevent arc strikes and local heating of
the test surface. Aluminum or copper
braided tip prods or pads (rather than
solid copper tips) are recommended
because of the possibility of copper
penetration if arcing occurs.
A remote control switch should be
built into the prod handles to permit
control of the current after positioning
and before removing, to minimize arcing.
Additional magnets, called leeches, can be
attached to prod electrodes for the same
purpose.

Circular Magnetization with Prods

In circular magnetization with prods, the
field intensity is proportional to the
current used but varies with prod spacing
and the thickness of the section being
tested. A magnetizing current of 90 to
110 A for each 25 mm (1 in.) of prod
spacing is recommended for material
under 20 mm (0.75 in.) thick. A
magnetizing current of 100 to 125 A for
each 25 mm (1 in.) of prod spacing is
recommended for material over 20 mm
(0.75 in.) in thickness. Prolonged
energizing cycles may cause localized
overheating. Prod spacing should not
exceed 200 mm (8 in.).
Prod spacing less than 75 mm (3 in.) is
usually not practical because the particles
tend to band around the prods, making
interpretation difficult.

Circular Magnetization with Direct

Contact
Figure 5 shows the direct contact
technique for producing circular fields in
a ring to indicate circumferential cracks.
To achieve a reliable examination of the
entire cylindrical surface, two
magnetizations are required.
This is done because the points of
contact (where the current enters and
leaves the ring) are not adequately
magnetized for discontinuity indication.
The ring must therefore be turned
90 degrees and then retested.

Circular Magnetization with

Induced Current
A current flowing circumferentially
around the ring can be induced by
making the ring a single-turn, short
circuited secondary transformer (Fig. 6
illustrates this effect). To accomplish this
effect, a standard magnetizing coil can be
used.
The ring is placed inside the coil with
its axis parallel to that of the coil. When
the coil is energized with alternating
current, the arrangement constitutes an
air core transformer. The magnetizing
coil is the primary circuit and the ring is
the single-turn secondary circuit. The
total current induced in the ring is greatly
increased by inserting a laminated core of
ferromagnetic material through the ring.
For materials with high magnetic
retentivity, direct current can be applied
in the technique known as quick break and
the objects may then be tested by the
residual technique. Quick break is when a
direct current field is caused to collapse
suddenly due to an abruptly interrupted
magnetizing current. The circular field
generated by the induced current leaves
the test object with a strong residual
induction. A bearing race is a good
example of the type of object that can be
tested advantageously by this technique.
For test objects made of soft material,
with little retentivity, the continuous
technique must be used and the
collapsing direct current field technique is
not applicable. By using alternating
current (or half-wave direct current) in the
magnetizing coil, the current may be
left on and an alternating current (or
half-wave direct current) of the same
frequency as the magnetizing current is
induced in the ring. This current should
be allowed to flow long enough to
produce indications by the continuous
technique.

FIGURE 5. Direct contact method of

magnetizing ring shaped test objects to
locate circumferential discontinuities.
Circular magnetic field

Discontinuities

Magnetizing current

Magnetization

113

Circular Magnetization of
Hollow Test Objects
With hollow objects or tubes, the inside
surfaces may be as important for testing as
the outside surfaces. When such an object
is circularly magnetized (by passing the
magnetizing current through it), no
magnetic flux is produced on the inside
surface.
Since a magnetic field surrounds a
current carrying conductor, it is possible
to induce a satisfactory magnetic field by
sliding the test object onto an internal
conducting bar (Fig. 7a). Passing current
through the bar induces a circular
magnetic field throughout the volume
of the test object.
When a conducting bar is not
available, an electrical cable may be

FIGURE 6. Magnetizing with induced current

method to locate circular discontinuities in
ring shaped objects: (a) magnetizing core;
(b) magnetizing coil.
(a)

passed through the test object and

connected to receptacles in the magnetic
particle unit (Fig. 7b). For large diameter
cylinders, the cable can be brought back
on the outside of the test object, then
threaded through again the second
pass through increases the effective field
by a factor of two. For long finished tubes,
uninsulated conductors are not permitted
because of arc burns.

Longitudinal
Magnetization
Electrical current can be used to create a
longitudinal magnetic field in magnetic
materials. When electric current is passed
through a coil, a magnetic field is
established lengthwise or longitudinally
within the coil (Fig. 8).
The nature and direction of this field
are the result of the field around the
conductor which forms the turns of the
coil. Application of the right hand rule to
the conductor at any point in the coil
(Fig. 8a) shows that the field within the
coil is longitudinal.

Test object
Line of flux
Discontinuity

FIGURE 7. Circular magnetization of

cylindrical objects by using an internal
current carrying conductor: (a) internal bar
conductor; (b) internal cable conductor.
(a)
Head
Bar conductor (copper bar)
Magnetic field

Laminated
iron core
Alternating
current

Alternating
current

Magnetizing current
Outside or inside diameter cracks

(b)

Cable

(b)
Magnetic
field

Magnetizing coil

Discontinuity

Ring shaped object

Current

Induced current path

Flux lines

Circumferential
discontinuity

Laminated
core

114

Magnetic Testing

Current

Coil Magnetization
When ferromagnetic material is placed
within a coil, most of the magnetic lines
of force created by the electric current
concentrate themselves in the test object
and induce longitudinal magnetization
(Fig. 8b).
Testing of a long cylindrical object with
longitudinal magnetization is shown in
Fig. 8c. With a transverse discontinuity in
the test object, magnetic poles are formed
on both sides of the crack. These poles
attract magnetic particles to form an
indication of the discontinuity. Figure 8c
shows that a magnetic field has been
induced at right angles to the
discontinuity.

FIGURE 8. Longitudinal or coil

magnetization: (a) longitudinal magnetic
flux within current carrying magnetizing
coil; (b) longitudinal magnetization with
coil; (c) typical arrangement of coil and test
object for longitudinal magnetization.
(a)

Wire coil
Magnetic field

Magnetizing current

(b)

Wire coil
Test object

Magnetizing current

(c)

Magnetizing
current

Test objects too large to fit in a fixed

coil can be magnetized longitudinally by
making a coil from several turns of
flexible cable (Fig. 8b). The use of portable
magnetizing equipment with cables and
prods or clamps has broadened the use of
magnetic particle testing there is no
theoretical limit to the size of the object
that can be tested in this manner.

Field Flow Magnetization

Another means of producing a
longitudinal field in a test object is the
field flow technique. Here, the field is
produced by electromagnets and passed
through objects as if they were the
keepers in a yoke. (A keeper is magnetic
filler put next to a pole to reduce the air
gap.) The field is almost wholly contained
within the test object.2
While there is theoretically no limit to
the length of a test object that can be
magnetized this way, as a practical matter
with an alternating current source, power
requirements limit the effective length to
about 1.3 m (4 ft). However, special
techniques using direct current have
accomplished longitudinal magnetization
in one step for lengths over 3 m (10 ft).
The field flow (or yoke) technique may
have some advantages over the current
flow (coil) technique in some production
applications because: (1) moving a
magnetizing coil several times may be
impractical and time consuming, (2) test
objects with length-to-diameter ratios less
than 3:1 require no special handling and
(3) a consistent field wholly contained
within a test object may be required.
Frequently the field flow technique is
indicated in multidirectional
magnetization.
A reference standard called a quantitive
quality indicator containing known
artificial discontinuities should be located
in the center of the test object during
setup to ensure adequate field intensity
along its entire length.

Coil

Crack
N
S

N
S

Legend
N = north pole
S = south pole

Magnetization

115

PART 3. Factors Controlling Magnetization

Factors that should be considered when

selecting a technique of magnetization
include: (1) alloy, shape and condition of
the test object, (2) type of magnetizing
current, (3) direction of the magnetic
field, (4) sequence of operations,
(5) value of the flux density, (6) desired
throughput and (7) type of discontinuities
anticipated. Material properties, current
type and direction of the magnetic field
are covered below.

Material Properties
The alloy, its heat treatment, cold working
and other conditioning treatments
determine the magnetic permeability of
a test object. It is necessary to consider
these when selecting the sequence of
operations, the value of flux density or
the magnetic field intensity. They, in turn,
affect selection of the magnetization
means.
The size and shape of the test object
determine the most practical technique
of magnetization with the available
equipment. The surface condition of the
test object influences the selection of
particles as well as the magnetization
means. Surface coatings such as paint,
chemical conversion or lacquer coatings
are poor electrical conductors and affect
testing because it is difficult or impossible
to pass magnetizing current through such
coatings. Whenever a test object can be
properly magnetized with an induced
technique, coating thickness is a concern
for the inspector.

Types of Magnetizing
Current
Many types of magnetizing current can be
used for each type of testing (Fig. 9).1
Most magnetizing equipment since 1990
is solid state, controlled by thermistors.2,3
Full-wave rectified alternating current
with three-phase bridge circuitry is shown
in Fig. 9a. With a ripple of 5 percent,
nearly the entire cross section can be
magnetically saturated. This means that
the probability of detecting subsurface
discontinuities may be improved over
other forms of current. Because only
ohmic resistance is involved, large lengths
can be tested at high current values.

116

Magnetic Testing

Half-wave rectified alternating current

with a single-phase circuit is shown in
Fig. 9b. The direct current proportion
amounts to about 30 percent of the peak
value.
Figure 9c shows full-wave rectified
alternating current with a single-phase
bridge circuit. The direct current
proportion amounts to about 64 percent
of peak value.
Alternating current with a frequency of
50 to 60 Hz (Fig. 9d) shows excellent
uniform magnetization of the surface
even with large changes of cross section.
Penetration depth is frequency dependent
and equals about 2 mm at 50 Hz (skin
effect). There is rapid reduction in
indication sensitivity with increasing
depth when using alternating current
magnetization.
Pulsed current is illustrated in Fig. 9e.
Because of the pulse train at
predetermined intervals, the danger of
heating from current flow at the contact
points is minimized. Thin walled test
objects can therefore be tested using
higher currents.
Impulse current is normally used
with the residual technique (Fig. 9f). The
magnetization effect results from a high
intensity single-current pulse of short
duration (millisecond range).

Direct Current Magnetization

Direct current obtained from storage
batteries was first believed to be the most
desirable current to use for magnetic
particle testing because direct current
penetrates more deeply into test
specimens than alternating current. The
big disadvantage of storage batteries as a
source of current is that there is a definite
limit to the magnitude and duration of
current that can be drawn from a battery
before recharging. Battery maintenance is
costly and can be a source of trouble.
Today, direct current is generally
produced with silicon diode rectification.
Current obtained by passing three-phase
alternating current through special
rectifiers is called simply rectified current.
A three-phase circuit demands lower
power consumption to achieve an
equivalent current density.

Half-Wave Rectified Magnetizing

Current
Half-wave rectified current is the most
effective current to use for the detection
of subsurface and surface discontinuities
when dry magnetic particles are used.
This type of current is produced by
putting single-phase alternating current
through a rectifier. The rectifier is a
nonlinear electronic component that
permits unimpeded current flow in one
direction and thus simulates direct
current characteristics for purposes of
testing. Half-wave rectified current
imparts a very noticeable pulse to the
particles. This gives them mobility, aids in
the formation of indications and helps
prevent the formation of nonrelevant
indications.

section is much greater in the case of

direct current magnetization.
For the same value of direct current,
the field intensity is inversely
proportional to the square of the
diameter: an alternating current field is

FIGURE 9. Theoretical types of current used

for magnetic particle testing: (a) full-wave
rectified alternating current with three-phase
bridge circuit; (b) half-wave rectified
alternating current with single-phase circuit;
(c) full-wave rectified alternating current and
single-phase bridge circuit; (d) alternating
current at frequency of 50 to 60 Hz;
(e) pulsed current; (f) impulse current.

(a)

Waveforms

Alternating Current
Magnetization
Alternating current at line frequency is
the most effective current to use for the
detection of surface discontinuities,
particularly fatigue cracks.
An advantage of alternating current
testing is the ease with which test objects
can be demagnetized.
It is important that alternating current
testing equipment be built to include
proper current controls.

Choosing Alternating or Direct

Current2,3
A direct current is distributed uniformly
across the entire cross section of the test
object. The field and flux density it
creates are maximum at the outer surface
and zero along the objects central axis, as
required by Amperes law. An alternating
current field is forced to the surface
because of the skin effect. This fact has
technical consequences for the current
flow in a billet of square cross section, for
example. Figure 10 shows the difference
in field intensity distribution along the
test object surface in cases of alternating
and direct current.
For direct current flow, the magnetic
field near the billet corners is considerably
lower than in the middle of each side;
it is nearly constant in the case of an
alternating current field. For corner
cracks to be accurately indicated by direct
current fields, an overmagnetization in
the center area of each side may be
unavoidable. With the alternating current
technique, the same field intensity is
obtained across the surface of the billet
at half the current density.
Figure 11 shows the distribution of
field intensity on the surface of a stepped
sample. The difference in magnetic field
intensity for the largest and smallest cross

t
Five percent ripple

(b)

(c)

(d)
t

(e)

(f)

Magnetization

117

FIGURE 10. Tangential magnetic field

intensity (kAm1) on surface of current flow
in square billets (f = 50 Hz). Current flow is
through length of billet.
HDC (HAC)
7.4 (5.2)
5.2 (5.2)
2.7 (5.2)

also on the cracks shape, size and its

relations to the test object dimensions.
The indications from subsurface cracks are
relatively blurred and indefinite and can
be recognized reliably only on a
sufficiently smooth surface.
Direct current field magnetization
cannot guarantee the ability to indicate
all subsurface discontinuities, particularly
as depth increases. Magnetic particle
testing should be for detecting surface or
near surface discontinuities. Wet
technique indications of discontinuities
deeper than 0.2 mm (0.01 in.) should be
relied on only when other nondestructive
testing techniques cannot be used.

Depth of Penetration5
Figure 12 is a plot of threshold values for
the magnetizing currents necessary to
produce a readable indication of holes in
a tool steel ring standard. Holes parallel to
the cylindrical surface are drilled 1.8 mm
(0.07 in.) in diameter at increasing depths
below the surface. The depths vary from
1.8 to 21 mm (0.07 to 0.84 in.), in
1.8 mm (0.07 in.) increments, from hole 1
to hole 12.
The results plotted in Fig. 12 were
obtained using the dry continuous testing
technique with an internal conductor
using 60 Hz alternating current, and three
forms of direct current: (1) direct current

FIGURE 11. Distribution of field intensity on surface of

stepped sample: (a) alternating current field; (b) direct
current field.
(a)
Magnetic field
intensity (kAm1)

inversely proportional only to the

diameter. When maximum and minimum
field intensities for a specimen are given
in test specifications, a complicated test
object can often be inspected only in
sections, if the test is carried out with a
direct current magnetic field.
More obviously, this effect can be seen
on objects with sudden enlargements in
cross section. In camshafts, for example,
the alternating current field (in
accordance with the skin effect) follows
the contour; the direct current field
follows a more direct path. As a
consequence, alternating current systems
are often found at airline and automotive
overhaul stations, where surface fatigue
cracks can occur at various locations on
complex shapes such as landing gear and
actuating mechanism components.
Furthermore, the magnetic pole areas
at the ends of a test object are much
smaller with an alternating current field.
The indications of cracks near the
contacting area are much better with an
alternating current field.
An advantage of the direct current field
is its increased depth of penetration. This
provides the ability to test for subsurface
cracks with magnetic particle techniques.
Such tests are generally used to find cracks
under chromium plating, subsurface
cracks in flash welds and lack of root
penetration or lack of fusion in
weldments.
Extensive research has shown that the
depth effect not only depends on the
distance of the crack from the surface but

H 3.7
3.9
4.3
4.8
5.3

Current (relative scale)

Billet
I = 2040 A
Htheo = 0.25 a
= 6.4 kAm1

Legend
a = distance = 80 mm (3 in.)
HAC = alternating current magnetic field intensity (Am1)
HDC = direct current magnetic field intensity (Am1)
Htheo = theoretical magnetic field intensity (Am1)
I = electric current (A)

118

Magnetic Testing

Magnetic field
intensity (kAm1)

(b)
H 1.1
1.4
1.8
2.8
5.5

Current (relative scale)

Legend
H = magnetic field intensity (Am1)
I = electric current (A)

FIGURE 12. Comparison of sensitivity of alternating current,

direct current, direct current with surge and half-wave
rectified current for locating discontinuities wholly below
surface of test object. Threshold indications produced using
dry particles and continuous magnetization on unhardened
tool steel ring with artificial discontinuity diameter of
1.8 mm (0.07 in.).5
Alternating cu
rrent

Depth to center of artificial

discontinuity, mm (in.)

2 (0.08)
4 (0.16)
6 (0.24)
8 (0.32)
10 (0.40)

nt
rre
cu
e
ct
g
r
re
su
nt
Di
t
rre
ren
cu
ur
ect
tc
dir
rec
Di
ave
lf-w
Ha

from batteries, (2) three-phase rectified

alternating current with surge and
(3) half-wave rectified single-phase
alternating current.
The alternating current test required
about 475 A to indicate hole 1 and over
1000 A to indicate hole 2. Hole 3 could
not be shown at any available alternating
current value. Hole 2 was indicated with
475 A straight direct current, with 275 A
full-wave rectified alternating current
preceded by a surge of double this
amount, and by 175 A using half-wave
rectified alternating current. Half-wave
rectified alternating current of 750 A
indicated hole 12, while 975 A of direct
current from batteries was needed to
indicate hole 10.
These comparisons verify the
importance of choosing the right current
for producing the best indications. The
comparisons also show how current
should vary, depending on the nature
and location of the discontinuities.

12 (0.48)
14 (0.56)
16 (0.64)
18 (0.72)
20 (0.80)
22 (0.88)
0

250

500

750

1000

Magnetizing current (A)

Magnetization

119

PART 4. Direction of Magnetic Field

The proper orientation of the magnetic

flux in relation to the direction of a
discontinuity is the most important factor
affecting discontinuity detection, even
more than the magnitude of the
magnetizing current.
For reliable testing, the magnetic flux
should be at right angles to the
discontinuity. If the magnetic flux is
parallel to the discontinuity, there is little
magnetic leakage: if an indication is
formed at all, it is likely to be extremely
small or indefinite. To ensure that proper
field direction exists at the desired
magnitude, reference standards
containing artificial discontinuities are
needed.

Circular Magnetization
Fundamentals of Circular
Magnetization
The magnetizing technique that is easiest
to control is circular magnetization. This
is the technique in which the
magnetizing current is passed directly
through the test object, setting up circular
magnetic field lines at right angles to the
direction of current flow (Fig. 4a).
A good way to circularly magnetize the
outer regions of a test object is to place
the object between the contact plates of a
stationary magnetic particle testing
system. Care should be taken to clamp the
test object firmly between contact plates
made of lead or copper. Copper pads are
coated with thermal rubber to reduce
arcing. Enough of the objects surface area
must contact the plates to permit passage
of the magnetizing current without
burning. As the area of the surface
decreases, the probability of burning
increases.
On irregular test objects, it may be
helpful to use copper braid contact pads
between the objects and plates to prevent
overheating. When testing objects with
irregular cross section, it may be necessary
to circularly magnetize with a low current
to inspect the thin areas. A technique
specific to the application must be devised
to pass a higher current through the
heavier sections for testing of those areas.

Prod Magnetization of Large Test

Objects
When an object is too big to fit into
available test equipment, the test object
(or areas of it) can be circularly
magnetized by either of two means.
One means is to use prod contacts with
cables to transmit the magnetizing current
from the source to the test object
(Fig. 4b). Prods are attached to the ends of
the cables so that magnetizing current can
be passed through the test object or
through an area of it. Portable equipment
should have a remote control switch on
the prods, enabling the operator to
control the current while moving the
prods or viewing the test indications.
Another means of local magnetization
is to use contact clamps with cables,
particularly when the test objects are
relatively small in diameter. Tubular
structures can be tested this way by
positioning the clamps so that the current
passes through the area of interest and
along the line of suspected discontinuities
(Fig. 13).

Internal Conductor Magnetization

In a tubular test object, a circular
magnetic field may be set up by passing
current through the tube itself; no field is
induced on the inside surface of the tube.
If the test object is hollow or has holes
through which an internal conductor can
be passed, it is best to induce a circular
magnetic field in the object by passing
the magnetizing current through the
conductor. Circular magnetization with a
FIGURE 13. Current carrying clamp electrodes used for
testing tubular objects with small diameters.

Flux lines
Clamp

Current

Current

120

Magnetic Testing

central conductor has the following

advantages over passing current through
the test object itself.
1. It induces flux at the inside diameter
of the test object, permitting testing of
inner as well as outer surfaces.
2. Direct electrical contact is not made
with the test object, thereby
eliminating the likelihood of burning.
3. Several small ring shaped test objects
(washers or nuts, for example) can be
suspended on the same conductor and
tested for transverse discontinuities in
groups (Fig. 14).

Capacitor Discharge Circular

Magnetization
Capacitor discharge techniques are used
for the circumferential magnetization of
oil field pipes. The technique is discussed
in detail elsewhere is this volume.

Limitations of Parallel
Magnetization
A circular magnetic field surrounds any
electrical conductor and this is the
magnetic principle underlying circular
magnetization with an internal conductor.
Knowing this, some operators have
assumed that they can induce a circular
field in a test object by placing it next to
instead of around a conductor. This is not
true.
Some field is induced in the test object
by such a procedure, but because a
portion of the magnetic flux path is in air,
the field in the object is greatly reduced,
distorted and unevenly distributed. This
procedure is sometimes called parallel
magnetization. It is not dependable and
should not be used.

FIGURE 14. Internal conductor method used

to produce circular magnetization:
(a) several ring shaped test objects
magnetized simultaneously; (b) closeup of
ring with cracks in several locations and
orientations.
(a)

Longitudinal
Magnetization
A longitudinal field can be induced in a
test object by placing the object in a fixed
current carrying coil. The coil may be
mounted on the rails of a stationary unit
or attached by cables to a portable unit
(Fig. 8). The effective magnetic field
induced by a coil extends from 150 to
220 mm (6 to 9 in.) beyond either end of
the coil. Depending on fill-factor, if the
test object is long, it is necessary to
magnetize and test it in sections along its
length.
Longitudinal magnetization with
portable equipment is accomplished by
wrapping current carrying cable in a coil
around the test object. Portable,
alternating current coils are commercially
available.

Important Considerations in Coil

Magnetization
To induce an adequate longitudinal
magnetic field with a coil, the long
dimension of the test object should be at
least twice as great as its short dimension
or end pieces should be added and the
long axis of the test object should be
parallel to the coil axis. This is especially
true in the case of irregularly shaped test
objects, because the shape of the object
affects the direction of the induced flux.
When a wheel, smaller in diameter
than a coil, is placed in the coil (as shown
in Fig. 15), a field is induced in the white
areas of the test object in such a direction
that radial discontinuities create

FIGURE 15. Coil magnetization of circular

shape. Radial discontinuities will be
indicated only in white areas; to reveal radial
discontinuities in dark areas, test object
must be rotated 90 degrees and
remagnetized. Circular discontinuities will be
indicated in shaded areas; to reveal circular
discontinuities in white areas, part must be
rotated 90 deg and remagnetized.
Coil
Current
Magnetic field

Circular
discontinuities
Radial
discontinuities

(b)

Magnetization

121

indications. However, radial cracks in the

shaded areas of the test object are parallel
(or nearly so) to the induced magnetic
field, so that few or no indications are
formed. Furthermore, magnetic poles and
attractive forces occur in these areas. To
indicate radial discontinuities in the
shaded areas, it is necessary to rotate the
test object through 90 degrees and
remagnetize it, although this technique is
not recommended.
The detection of radial cracks in a test
object of this shape is more accurately
and rapidly done using an internal
conductor (Fig. 14). Better techniques for
finding circumferential discontinuities in
ring shaped test objects are shown in
Figs. 5 and 6. Ring shaped objects, disks,
wheels or races are best checked for
circumferential cracks using the induced
technique of Fig. 6. An iron core, for
example, is used with a coil surrounding
it to produce a toroidal field. This
technique has an advantage over the
direct contact technique (Fig. 5) in that
no danger of arcing or burning exists, and
the field is constant throughout the test
object.

Combined Circular and

Longitudinal
Magnetization
Complete testing for discontinuities in
different directions requires that two or
more magnetizations and tests be
performed. The test object should first be
circularly magnetized and examined for
indications, then longitudinally
magnetized and inspected.
Demagnetization is the final step.
It is critical to remember that
discontinuities are best detected when
they are at right angles to the magnetic
lines of force.

FIGURE 16. Longitudinal lines of force

induced by yoke magnet: (a) electrically
energized yoke magnet; (b) permanent
magnet yoke.
Nonmagnetic
handle

(a)
Coil

Yoke Magnetization
A longitudinal magnetic field can be
induced in a test object or in a limited
area of an object by using a handheld
yoke. A yoke is a U shaped piece of soft
magnetic material, either solid or
laminated, around which is wound a coil
carrying the magnetizing current (Fig. 16).
When a test object is placed across the
opening of the U shape and the coil is
energized, the object completes the path
of the magnetic lines of force. This sets up
a longitudinal field in the test object
between the ends of the yoke. Permanent
magnetic yokes can also be used to create
a longitudinal magnetic field (Fig. 16b).
Such yokes are often specified by their
lifting power or by the tangential field
intensity midway between the legs.

Flux field

(b)

Magnetic
particles collect
at crack

Test object

Magnetic lines
of force

122

Magnetic Testing

PART 5. Multidirectional Magnetization6,7

especially when induced in complex

shapes.
Two or three field directions may be
superimposed by sequencing. If the fields
vary in intensity with time, a swinging
vector field is created. It is essential that
multiple imposed fields be balanced in
intensity, duration or both.

FIGURE 17. Superimposition of direct current

magnetic fields: (a) addition of field vectors;
(b) relationship of field directions.
(a)
Vector of circular field

With all magnetizing techniques,

discontinuities perpendicular to the
magnetic flux are optimally indicated.
However, discontinuity detection depends
on flux density and the properties of the
testing medium (Table 1).8,9
It is true that magnetic excitation also
permits the detection of discontinuities
that are not exactly perpendicular to the
flux direction. In this case, the lines of
flux can be decomposed into two
components, one of them parallel and the
other perpendicular to the direction of
the crack. The perpendicular component
contributes to the indication of the
discontinuity. In some cases, even cracks
appearing to be parallel to the flux
direction may be weakly indicated. The
reason is that most cracks are ragged in
outline (intercrystalline cracks) so that
some sections may be properly oriented
for detection. However, at best cracks can
only be detected when the angle between
them and the direction of magnetization
is more than 30 degrees. Experiments
suggest the optimum angle is over
50 degrees.10

Strength and
direction of
resulting field

Vector of longitudinal field

Combined Direct Current

Fields
When a direct current magnetic field
of a certain direction and intensity is
superimposed on one of a different
direction and intensity, both fields can be
combined to form another field as shown
in Fig. 17. Physically, the resulting field
is formed by the addition of the two
magnetic field vectors. The resulting field
has a direction and intensity different
from either of the primary fields, and is
therefore very difficult to predict,

(b)

Force lines
of circular
magnetization

Resulting
field

Test object

Force lines of
longitudinal
magnetization

TABLE 1. Techniques for multidirectional magnetization.

Technique
Circular magnetization technique
Longitudinal magnetization technique
Current induction technique
Combination for single, overall test

Means
current flow technique (for solid and tubular test objects)
internal conductor technique (recommended for tubular test objects)
yoke or coil magnetization
circulating current induced in ring using laminated core and influence of
fluctuating longitudinal alternating current yoke field (Fig. 6)
yoke or coil magnetization with current flow or internal conductor technique
internal conductor with current induction technique

Magnetization

123

Combined Direct Current

and Alternating Current
Fields
For combined direct and alternating
current magnetic particle testing, two
perpendicular magnetic fields are
superimposed in such a way that the
resulting field changes its direction with
time (generally in rhythm with the
alternating frequency). The direction
change again occurs in such a way that,
for at least a short time, some field
component is perpendicular to any
existing crack direction. This in turn
causes a magnetic particle accumulation
and subsequent detection.
In the case of a combination of direct
current yoke (or coil) with an alternating
current flow (Fig. 18), the resulting field
swings around the axis of the test object
(Fig. 19). This combination of static and
dynamic fields results in a vector swinging
over an angle. The magnetic vector swings
around the position of the direct current
field and, in any given position, a
sufficient component of it is at right
angles to a possible discontinuity. If both
fields have the same intensity, a total
angle range of 45 degrees (totally
90 degrees) is covered.
The disadvantages of direct current
yokes are that (1) stray fields may form at
the rounded ends of the test objects or at
cross-sectional differences between the
yoke and the object and (2) considerable
field reduction occurs with large
cross-sectional changes of the test object.
Similar situations can also occur with coil
magnetization.

Combined Alternating
Current Fields
It can be advantageous to magnetize in
two directions with alternating current
fields. An effective combination for
periodic alternation of the resulting field
vector cannot be realized if the two fields
are in phase or in counter phase.
At a phase shift between 50 and
130 degrees, a rotating magnetizing vector
of sufficient uniformity can be obtained.
At a phase shift of 90 degrees and for
equal field intensities, a circularly rotating
vector is generated, as illustrated in
Fig. 20. When three-phase current from
the mains of a phase shift of 120 degrees
is used, the behavior is similar (elliptical
rotation).

Yoke for Combined Alternating

Current Fields1,6
For structural reasons, a direct current
yoke of solid steel has been used for many
years to indicate transverse cracks.
Alternating current yokes have recently
been used but they must be assembled
from laminated transformer sheet to
prevent eddy current losses. These
constructions are more expensive than
direct current yokes.
Alternating current yokes are usually
built to operate over limited clamping
lengths, because a longitudinally oriented
alternating current field is reduced with
increasing clamping lengths.

FIGURE 19. Combined crack detection by circular alternating

current and longitudinal direct current field.
Amplitude (relative scale)

FIGURE 18. Complete discontinuity detection

by traditional swinging field technique
(combination of direct current yoke and
alternating current head current flow).
Test object
Crack
indications

Clamping device with

current contacts

CD

R
A

A B

C D

Time (relative scale)

A
Insulating layer

GA

RA
Direct current for yoke
=
~
Alternating current for current flow

124

Magnetic Testing

RB
L

GB
L

RC

D
L
GC

L
RD

Legend
G = vector of resultant field (at times ABCD)
L = vector of longitudinal magnetization
R = vector of circular magnetization

GD

An alternating current yoke has several

advantages.
1. Field distribution is uniform, even
over test objects with geometrically
complicated shapes and over changes
of cross section.
2. Induced field flow is possible.
3. Demagnetization of the test object is
simple and rapid.
4. Testing times are short.
With clamping lengths from 900 mm
to 1200 mm (36 to 48 in.), longitudinal
magnetization may better be achieved
using a movable alternating current coil.

Testing Procedures with

Multidirectional Magnetization6
With multidirectional magnetization
techniques, the resulting magnetic field
changes its direction in the rhythm of
the frequency of the current application,
becoming alternately perpendicular to
certain cracks. However, the direction of
such a vector is also parallel to a particular
crack for a very short time. For this
reason, when using the multidirectional
technique, the application of the testing
medium must always take place during
magnetization. An indication previously
established cannot be held by magnetic
force and could theoretically be flushed
away by the testing fluid. The procedure

FIGURE 20. Alteration of the magnetic field by combination

of two phase shifted alternating current fields (rotating
vector).
HR
Circular
magnetic
field

does possess a certain inertia: the

magnetic vector has already left the
parallel direction when the particles begin
to move away.
Experience in Germany and more
recently in the United States indicates
two advantages for the multidirectional
magnetization technique. The technique
can detect very small discontinuities
because at some period in the
magnetization cycle the field vector is
normal to the discontinuity direction.
Also, in comparison with the single
magnetization procedures (head and coil
magnetizations), the combined current
technique presents considerable economic
advantages since it requires only one
processing step instead of two or
more.11,12

Combined Auxiliary
Magnetization
An exceptional variation of the
multidirectional magnetization technique
is called combined auxiliary magnetization,
used for cylindrical test objects. Here, the
auxiliary alternating current flow
technique is combined with the
alternating current induction technique
(Fig. 21). A magnetizing bar is put
through the test object. This laminated
steel, copper coated bar serves as both a
current conductor and a phase shifted
magnetic field conductor.
This reliable technique is
noncontacting, pole free and can indicate
cracks of any direction on inside surfaces,
outside surfaces and face areas of
cylindrical test objects. Combined
auxiliary magnetization can be carried
out only by systems equipped with an
alternating current yoke contributing
still further to the trend toward
alternating current yoke techniques
(Table 1).

HL

Longitudinal
magnetic
field

FIGURE 21. Combined auxiliary

magnetization by combination of alternating
current flow and current induction
techniques.

G
R
G=R

G=L
L

R
G

Legend
G = vector of resultant field
H = magnetic field intensity (Am1)
L = vector of longitudinal field
R = vector of circular field

Alternating current
Alternating current

Magnetization

125

PART 6. Circumferential Magnetization of Pipe

The drilling and production of natural

hydrocarbons generally require that the
tubular product (casing, tubing and drill
pipe) be tested for discontinuities.
Magnetic flux leakage techniques are the
most commonly used tests for detection
of outer and inner surface discontinuities.
Ultrasonic testing is used for regions
difficult to inspect with magnetic flux
leakage.
A common form of testing for
longitudinally oriented, surface breaking,
tight discontinuities (seams, laps and
cracks) involves magnetization of the tube
circumferentially by the internal
conductor technique, followed by testing
with some form of magnetic flux leakage
sensor. The use of ferroprobes, coils and
solid state sensors for this application is
summarized elsewhere in the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook.13 The text
below deals with the magnetization of oil
field tubes and treats magnetic particles as
the sensor.

Specifications for Testing

Oil Field Tubulars
Specifications and recommended practices
for the testing of oil field materials are
written by oil companies and the
American Petroleum Institute (API).1417

126

Magnetic Testing

I
2R0

where I is the current (amperes) and Ro is

the outer radius of the tube (meters).
Figure 23 illustrates some of the values
used in this discussion. In Eq. 1, the field
intensity is given in amperes per meter
because Ro is expressed in meters.
However, this field intensity is sometimes
measured with a hall element tesla meter,
and because one gauss is numerically
equal to one oersted in air, conversion to
gaussian units yields:
(2)

2I
10 R0

FIGURE 22. Two techniques for establishing

circumferential magnetization in elongated
tubes: (a) central conductor with battery
pack to provide high current; (b) internal
conductor with capacitor discharge system.
Peak and duration meter may be used to
measure pulse amplitude and duration.
(a)
Ro

Magnetization Techniques
for Oil Field Applications
Two distinct techniques18 are used for the
circumferential magnetization of tubes up
to 14 m (45 ft) long (Fig. 22). Both
techniques use an insulated rod (generally
made from aluminum although this is not
required) which passes through the bore
of the tube. In Fig. 22a, the rod is
reasonably well centered in the bore and
fed with some form of direct current. In
mill installations, this might be full-wave
or half-wave rectified alternating current
with the subsequent test being done using
wet fluorescent magnetic particles.
In field operations, banks of batteries
have been used for current. When the
magnetizing current is pure direct current,
the magnetic field intensity H at the outer
surface of the tube, when the conductor is
centered within the bore, is given in
amperes per meter by:

(1)

H = I (2Ro)1

Battery pack

(b)

Ie
I

Capacitor
discharge

t
Meter

Legend
H = magnetic field intensity (Am1)
I = electric current (A)
Ie = electric current (A) induced in cylinder
Ro = outer radius (m)
t = time (s)

where I is in amperes and R0 is in

centimeters.
The second magnetization technique is
shown in Fig. 22b. The motive force is
provided by a capacitor discharge unit.19
The effect of rod centralization is minimal
and has been shown to affect field
intensity by 4.2 percent for pipe larger
than 340 mm (13.37 in.).20 Magnetization
by this technique obeys no scientifically
simple rules because the rapid rise of rod
current during magnetization causes the
induction of an eddy current in the tube
and this detrimentally affects penetration
of the magnetizing field intensity into the
material.
The direction of the induced eddy
current Ie with respect to the rod current
I is shown in Fig. 23 for a centered rod. By
Lenzs law, the eddy current induced on
the inner surface of the tube must create a
field within the material which opposes
the field caused by the rod current I. The
field intensity H at some radius r at some
instant, whereas the rod and eddy current
fields are finite, is given in amperes per
meter by:
(3)

I
+ He
2r

ground through the rack and there is a

real possibility of arc burn at the point of
contact.

BH Curve in Setting
Specifications
There is an important fact about the
magnetization of test objects by the
capacitor discharge, internal conductor
technique: the ring sample BH curve
governs the flux density value in the
material. In effect, knowing the BH
properties of the material from a ring
sample investigation allows field intensity
levels to be set. Figure 24 shows the BH
properties of two typical oil field tubular
materials: a 620 MPa (90 000 lbfin.2)
proprietary material and a 390 MPa
(55 000 lbfin.2) casing material.
The important point that can be made
from these curves is that after application
of about 3200 Am1 (40 Oe), the materials
are effectively saturated.21 It is generally
true of oil field tubular materials that
3200 to 4000 Am1 (40 to 50 Oe) are
required within the material to magnetize
to a level sufficient for subsequent
residual induction testing. It is required
that this field intensity level be reached at

The He term is the field intensity created

by the eddy current itself.

Eddy Current Effect

In considering Fig. 23, Amperes law
indicates that the field at the radius r is
caused by the currents inside that radius
(rod current and inner wall eddy current).
The outer wall eddy current is the return
loop for the inner wall eddy current, and
plays no role in the theory so far outlined.
However, since it does represent an
unwanted current flowing in the tube, its
presence does lead to two very practical
considerations.
First, pipes being magnetized before
testing should be insulated from each
other by an air gap. If this does not occur,
then the outer surface eddy current can
jump from protrusions in the pipe being
magnetized to the next pipe in the string.
The resulting arc can cause burns on both
tubes. This in turn can cause hard spots
on the materials at which corrosion might
preferentially occur. This is particularly to
be avoided with corrosion resistant
materials, some of which require a
hardness less than 22 on the rockwell
C scale for longevity in corrosive
environments.
Secondly, the material should be
insulated from the metal racks that carry
it. If pipe racks are not insulated with a
layer of nonconductive material (rubber
or wood, for example), then the outside
diameter surface eddy current can flow to

FIGURE 23. Eddy current Ie created in steel

tube at beginning of pulse I in rod centered
within bore of tube. Direction of Ie on inner
surface opposes that of I; outer surface
forms return path.
Return current
together with Ie forms
eddy currents in
tube wall

T
Ro
Ie

Ri
Rod
current I

Legend
I = electric current (A) in rod
Ie = eddy current (A) induced on inner surface
r = radius (m) from axis to point inside tube wall
Ri = radius (m) from axis to tube inner surface
Ro = radius (m) from axis to outer surface
T = wall thickness

Magnetization

127

each point in the tube wall, despite the

demagnetizing effect of the eddy current.
This requirement does not lead to a
simple current equation that can be used
by a typical operator in the field
(experimental specifications found
effective in saturating tubes are presented
below).

FIGURE 24. Curves of magnetizing force H versus flux

density B: (a) high strength tube steel material is a sour gas
grade of special chemistry and heat treatment; (b) lower
strength oil field casing. Dashed lines indicate that the
materials are magnetized almost to saturation by application
of 3.2 to 4.0 kAm1.
(a)
Br

(4)

Full-Wave and Half-Wave Rectified

Alternating Current
For the central conductor technique
outlined above, some form of rectified
alternating current is often used. It should
be noted that such current waveforms
induce eddy currents in the test object.
The field intensity waveform at the outer
surface can be seen by positioning a hall
element to detect the field and feeding
the output of the tesla meter to an
oscilloscope.

Pulsed Current
Magnetization
Internal conductor magnetization (using
single pulses of current) differs from direct
current or continuous magnetization by
the central conductor technique because

Magnetic Testing

1.0 (10)
0.6

(6)

0.2

(2)
3.2

6.4

9.6

Magnetizing field intensity H (kAm1)

(b)
1.4 (14)
1.0 (10)
0.6

(6)

0.2

(2)

= 7500 D [mm]
= 300 D [in.]

where D is tube diameter. This amperes per

diameter unit specification is equivalent to
3760 Am1 (47 Oe) at the tube surface. It
can be seen from Fig. 24 that such a field
intensity raises the value of the flux
density in the tube to a high level, so that
after the field has fallen to zero, the flux
density in the material is at a value close
to remanence (Br).

128

1.4 (14)

Flux density B, T (kG)

If the central conductor technique is used

for the magnetization of tubes, then the
values given in Table 2 reflect the
magnetizing field at the outside diameter
of either 3200 Am1 (40 Oe) for I1 or
4800 Am1 (60 Oe) for I2 for typical pipe
sizes. Because the magnetization uses
direct current, the wall thickness, mass
per meter (weight per foot) and tube
grade which affect the magnetic and
electrical properties of the material do
not affect the field intensity. The actual
value used is often determined by
specifications, as agreed between the
manufacturer of the material and the user.
A typical specification is given by:

Flux density B, T (kG)

Typical Requirements for

Direct Current
Magnetization

3.2 to 4.0 kAm1

0

3.2

6.4

Magnetizing field intensity H (kAm1)

TABLE 2. Current requirements for direct

current magnetization of oil field tubes.
Direct current or long pulse (> 0.5 s) only.
Not valid for capacitor discharge
magnetization.
Tube Diameter
________________
mm
(in.)
60
73
89
102
114
127
140
168
178
194
219
244
273
298
340

(2.4)
(2.9)
(3.5)
(4.0)
(4.5)
(5.0)
(5.5)
(6.6)
(7.0)
(7.6)
(8.6)
(9.6)
(10.8)
(11.8)
(13.4)

I1a
(A)

I2b
(A)

600
730
890
1020
1150
1280
1400
1690
1790
1940
2200
2450
2740
3000
3410

910
1100
1340
1530
1720
1910
2100
2530
2680
2920
3300
3680
4110
4500
5120

a. 3.2 kAm1 (40 Oe) at outside diameter.

b. 4.8 kAm1 (60 Oe) at outside diameter.

9.6

account must be made for the fact that

the induced eddy current may not have
time to die away before the field intensity
from the conductor current dies away.
Figure 25 shows two time variations that
are measurable for single pulses, such as
are provided by capacitor discharge units.
The first variation is that of the
magnetizing current (I versus t). In this
variation, a relatively rapid rise of current
to its maximum value Imax is followed by
a much slower fall toward zero, the entire
pulse length being on the order of
200 ms. This time variation is the
response to the discharge of a capacitor C,
initially charged to V0 volts through a
resistor R in a circuit containing
inductance L. A simple mathematical
analysis is provided later.
The second variation is that of the
average bulk flux density within the
material (B versus t). This quantity rises at
a much slower rate than I(t) due to the
shielding effect of Ie. A high level of
magnetization is reached when the flux
density at the point F is close to the
materials saturation value Bs. The
consequences of conditions shown in
Fig. 25 are that deep magnetization of the
tube only occurs when the detrimental
effect of the eddy current is overcome by
elongating the electrical pulse in time so
that the magnetizing current is still
effective as the eddy current is dying
away.
FIGURE 25. Plots of capacitor discharge
internal conductor current (I versus t) and
average flux density induced (B versus t) in
tube. Imax and t are measured with peak and
duration meter. Flux density peaks well after
current.
I versus t

Imax

Current I (A)

F
Bs
Br

B versus t
0

Time t (s)
Legend
B = magnetizing flux density
Br = point of flux density lower than saturation
Bs = point of magnetic saturation
F = high magnetization point
I = current (A)
Imax = maximum current (A)
t = time (s)
= mean lifetime (s)

The fall in induction from F to Br is

that which is normally expected when the
magnetizing field intensity falls to zero, as
it does after the passage of a pulse. This is
determined by the BH curve for the
material undergoing magnetization.
Should the point F not represent
saturation (Bs), then the material reaches
some average bulk flux density lower than
Br. This is often not a problem: while the
surfaces are magnetized sufficiently for
longitudinally oriented discontinuities to
hold magnetic particles, no information
of the interior condition is required.
However, when relatively thin elongated
tubulars can be tested from the outside
surface only, saturation of the material is
necessary for inside diameter
discontinuities to produce magnetic flux
leakage at the outside diameter.

Practical Testing Situations

Commonly encountered testing situations
for the magnetization or remagnetization
of tubes are discussed below, including
(1) material at unknown induction,
(2) material at zero induction and
(3) material not saturated by pulse.
The magnetic condition in which a
sample arrives is often not known to the
inspector, who must assume the worst
possible case: the material is at saturation
in a direction directly opposed to that
caused by the magnetic particle test
equipment. This is resolved by taking the
material from an unknown value of
remanence in one direction to remanence
in the other direction as is shown in the
schematic BH curve for the material
(Fig. 26).
A material might also arrive with an
induction between zero and Br and it is
desired to perform testing at +Br. During
magnetization, the material should take
the path BrHcPBsBr. That is, through
saturation Bs to remanence Br.
In the case of material initially at zero
induction, the tube is at 0 on Fig. 26 and
during magnetization takes the path
OPBsBr.
In cases where the pulse is
insufficiently strong, the material may
follow a magnetization path such as
BrHcPQ or OPQ. It is then essential to
pulse more than once. A possible
magnetization path during a second pulse
is QBsBr. The net final induction is raised
as shown.

Analysis of Pulse Current

Magnetization
In the text below, an analysis of the pulse
current internal conductor technique for

Magnetization

129

magnetizing elongated tubes is presented.

Simplified equations are given for the
types of current pulses available for
magnetization. From the theoretical
viewpoint, the current pulse time
dependence (I versus t of Fig. 25) is
discussed and then formulas are presented
for the inductance experienced by the
magnetizing circuit.
These formulas illustrate the
dependence of such inductances (1) on
the average value of the differential
permeability dB(dH)1 of the object under
magnetization and (2) between the field
intensity and flux density limits imposed
by the exciting current and BH properties
of the material.

inductance between cables and ground

can be minimized. Because inductance is
time dependent, it is included in the
derivative term. The resistance is the
combined resistance of the rod, cables and
their connection, and any internal
resistance in the capacitor discharge box.
Resistance in the discharge box may be
due to the forward resistance of a silicon
controlled rectifier included to eliminate
the possibility of current oscillation. The
capacitance of the system is generally in
the region of 2 to 8 F.
Equation 5 has three solutions if the
time dependence of L is ignored. These
solutions depend on the relative values of
L, C and R.

Current Pulse Time Dependence

(6)

For inductance capacitance resistance

circuits, the time variation of the current
pulse obeys the equation:
(5)

d ( LI )
+ IR +
dt

I dtC

FIGURE 26. Possible paths taken by

circumferentially magnetized material from
various initial magnetization conditions to
saturation Bs and then remanence Br in
known direction. Point P indicates weak
pulse followed by second pulse.
B
Bs
P

H
Hc

(7)

= VoC(2t ) exp ( t )

(8)

Legend
B = magnetic flux density
H = magnetic field intensity
Hc,O,P,Q = reference points
= material at remanence in opposite direction
= material at zero induction

2Vo
R2

4L
C

exp ( t )

sin h R2

4L
t
C

where Vo is the voltage to which

the capacitor bank is charged and
= R(2L)1.
The solution to Eq. 6 is oscillatory, but
the presence of the SCR limits the pulse to
only the first positive-going peak. This is
shown in Fig. 27. In this example, the
pulse has a length of 17 ms and reaches
10 500 A. Such pulses are ideal for
magnetizing objects of low electrical
conductivity, such as ferrite magnets.
However, with highly conducting
materials such as steel tubes, the initial

FIGURE 27. Typical pulses from capacitor

discharge systems: long pulse is more
effective in magnetizing of line pipe.

Current (kA)

Br

Magnetic Testing

exp ( t )

4L
R2 t
C

sin

10

130

4L
R2
C

= 0

The three terms on the left of Eq. 5

represent the instantaneous voltages
across the inductance, the resistance and
the capacitance in the circuit (Fig. 22b).
The inductance in the circuit is mainly
that of the rod tube system, because by
careful design the presence of additional

Br

2Vo

Short pulse
66 percent duration

5
Long pulse
97 percent duration

50

100

Time (s)

150

rapid current rise (up to millions of

amperes per second) induces a shield of
eddy currents that does not permit field
penetration into the bulk of the material.
The net effect of this is a magnetized
outer layer only.
The exponential solution (Eq. 7) is
known in its mechanical analog as critical
damping. It is difficult to achieve in this
situation because it depends on the value
of L which in turn is dependent on the
physical and magnetic parameters of the
test object. The formula for the
inductance of a tube is given below.
The sin h solution (Eq. 8) leads to
the longest pulses because there is no
oscillation. Pulses of full length up to
160 ms are commonly used in the oil
tube testing industry.

Definition of Pulse Length

It has become commonplace to define the
length of such pulses as the time taken for
the pulse to reach 0.5 Imax during decay
(Fig. 25). Both Imax and are measurable
with an inductive ammeter or peak and
duration meter (Fig. 22b). Such pulses
are effective in magnetizing tubular test
objects because the field intensity from
the rod current is still high as the eddy
current in the test object dies away, so
that penetration of the field into the bulk
of the material occurs.
Since the inductance is a function of
time, a full solution for the variation of
the pulse current I(t) can only be obtained
by modeling the effect that the induced
eddy current has on the instantaneous
value of L. Experimental evidence
indicates that, at least for elongated tubes,
the physics of the magnetization process
can be illustrated by a discussion of the
constant L case.

Typical Values for L, C

and R
In the design of a capacitor discharge
pulsing system, it is essential to aim at a
pulse that has sufficient length to deeply
magnetize the material. There are two
reasons for this. First, the material to be
tested may arrive at the test site in a
longitudinally magnetized condition and
it may be necessary to remagnetize it
circumferentially prior to testing. Second,
some specifications call for relatively low
emergent longitudinal field intensities at
the ends of such elongated test objects.
Rotation of the bulk flux density into the
circumferential direction may be simplest
way to achieve this.
An additional consideration unrelated
to the physics of the magnetization of the
test object is the safety of the system in
both installed and field situations. The

National Electric Code should be consulted

for details. However, it appears essential
for field use to limit the charging voltage
of the capacitor bank to 50 V. The
tendency of this restriction is to add
capacitance to the system.
The resistance of the magnetization
system is a factor in permitting high
currents to flow. It is minimized for field
use by using parallel strands of 11.7 mm
(0.46 in.) diameter (AWG [American wire
gage] 0000) copper welding cable for the
connections between the rod and the
capacitance discharge box. The rod is
made of aluminum (mainly because of the
continued need to make and break the
rod) but any highly conductive material
would work equally well. The requirement
of elongating the pulse length to ensure
the presence of its field after eddy
currents have died away far outweighs the
requirement of minimizing the overall
resistance of the magnetizing circuit.
Typical values, which might include that
of 5 m (16 ft) of cable and 15 m (49 ft) of
rod, are 1 to 5 m.
The capacitance within the capacitance
discharge supply is generally within the
range of 2 to 8 F, which is comparatively
large. This occurs because of the need to
maintain relatively low voltages around
the circuit and to elongate the pulse.
While the values R and C can be
controlled by the manufacturer, the value
of L cannot, mainly because it depends on
the test object undergoing magnetization.
In the case of tubulars, the inductance is
given by:
(9)

L =

 dB Ro
ln
Ri
2 dH

where dB(dH)1 is the differential

permeability, is the length of the tube,
Ro is the outer radius and Ri is the inner
radius (Fig. 23).
It often occurs that the wall thickness
T is much smaller than the average radius
of the tube. Under these circumstances,
Eq. 9 may be converted to:

(10)

L =

T
 dB r + 2
ln
T
2 dH
r
2

which reduces to:

(11)

T dB
2r dH

Using the International System of Units

(SI), Eq. 11 becomes:

Magnetization

131

(12)

T dB
L 0.16
r dH

where r is 0.5(Ro Ri). All lengths are in

meters and dB(dH)1 is dimensionless.
The inductance of thin walled tubes is
seen from Eq. 11 to be proportional to the
length and wall thickness T of the tube,
and inversely proportional to its radius or
diameter. Neither of these physical
parameters nor the value of dB(dH)1 can
be controlled by the designer of the
magnetizing equipment.
For much of the tubular product used
in oil fields, the value of T(R)1 does not
vary a great deal, perhaps only by a factor
of two. The average value of dB(dH)1
encountered during magnetization can
be seen from Fig. 26 to vary widely,
depending on (1) the point P reached
on the BH curve by the material during
magnetization and (2) the starting point
for magnetization (anywhere from Br to
Q on the B axis). Examples of typical
inductances follow.
Example 1. Pipe magnetized to saturation
following the path BrHcPQ. Flux density
Br at point Br = 1.2 T (12 kG); dH =
2400 Am1 (30 Oe); = 10 m (33 ft);
P = 1.2 T (12 kG); r = 136.5 mm (5.4 in.);
T = 12.6 mm (0.5 in.).
Here, dB is 24 000 G, so dB(dH)1 =
800, and L = (2 107)(10 m)(12.6 mm)
(800)(136.5)1 mm = 148 H.
Example 2. Same tube as example 1 is
taken from Q through P and Bs to Br by a
second pulse. Bs = 1.5 T (15 kG);
dH = 4000 Am1 (50 Oe); Q = 1.0 T
(10 kG).
The average value of dB(dH)1 is now
only 100. Dividing the value obtained in
example 1 by 8, the ratio of the two
values of dB(dH)1 exhibited by the steel
yields: L = 18.5 H.
Example 3. Pipe is initially unmagnetized
follows path OPBsBr with: Bs = 1.5 T
(15 kG) = 9.09 m (30 ft); dH = 3200 Am1
(40 Oe); R = 27.7 mm (1.1 in.);
T = 4.83 mm (0.2 in.).
Consequently, L = (2 107)(9.09 m)
(4.83 mm) (15 000(40)1)(27.7)1 mm =
119 H.
The relatively large change in
inductance exhibited by the tube in
examples 1 and 3 affects the shape of
the pulse waveform, notably the easily
measurable parameters of peak current
Imax and pulse duration . These
parameters are shown in Fig. 25.

132

Magnetic Testing

Design Considerations
Good equipment design must include
user input about the material being
magnetized. The worst case for the
internal and external resistances of the
magnetizing system should be known to
the manufacturer and worst values of
inductance should be investigated. Under
no circumstances should peak currents be
stated for the purpose of magnetization
without an electrical and magnetic load
being used for the system evaluation.
Depending on the use of the
equipment, the relevant regulations
should be consulted about insulation,
isolation, explosion proofing, intrinsic
safety and purging. Such regulations are
found in a variety of places, depending on
the use of the product. Notable among
these are the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), the
National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) and a variety of
international specifications, many of
which are much more stringent than
those in the United States.
Equipment designers should
particularly note the requirements of the
Canadian standards when designing for
Canada. The requirements of the United
Kingdom, Norway and Germany are
applicable when designing for the North
Sea.

Magnetization
Recommendations
Tubular product has such wide limits of
diameter and wall thickness that it is
difficult to provide a universal
specification for the measurable
parameters of current pulses for a high
level of residual induction. However,
broad guidelines based on research with a
variety of tubes indicate that the values
given in Table 2 provide adequate
magnetization.

Pulse Duration
In Table 3, pulses are classified by
duration. Long duration pulses are those
in excess of 100 ms. For such pulses, the
induced eddy current can be assumed to
have died away while the magnetizing
field intensity is still high enough to
cause saturation. Moderate duration
pulses are those between 40 and 100 ms.
For magnetization, the longevity of the
induced eddy current is acknowledged by
its effect on the tube (shown through the
use of the lineal mass of the tube rather
than the outer diameter). Short pulses are
those below 40 ms. The maximum current

requirement for the single short pulse

compared to that for the single moderate
pulse is higher for the same lineal mass of
tube. In effect, the higher current causes a
larger magnetizing field intensity in an
attempt to overcome the eddy current.
Should it be necessary to use two such
pulses, the peak current requirement falls
because the material is partially
magnetized. If the peak current can only
reach Imax = 180 (W), then two such
pulses are required. Should the pulse be of
insufficient magnitude to magnetize the
tube with two pulses, then a third pulse is
necessary so that the three pulses meet
the requirement of Imax = 145 (W).
These requirements are designed to
ensure that the bulk induction following
the pulses is at least 90 percent of the
remanence value. In most cases it is
higher.

Current Pulse Effectiveness

There are two techniques used to evaluate
the effectiveness of a current pulse. A
third technique, which detects surface
fields only, is also outlined here. The first
technique is a variation on the rowland
ring technique for the evaluation of the
magnetic parameters of magnetizable
materials and involves the measurement
of magnetic flux. The second technique is
an indirect technique using an inductive
ammeter (peak and duration meter). The
third technique uses simulated contact
discontinuities.

Flux Meter
Magnetic flux meters measure the total
magnetic flux threading an area defined
by a search coil. In the case of
circumferential magnetization of a

TABLE 3. Pulse classification by duration

with current requirement.
Magnetization

Duration
(ms)

Long pulse

> 100

Moderate pulse

40 to 100

Single short pulse

0 to 40

Double short pulse 0 to 40

Triple short pulse
D1 =
D2 =
I=
W1 =
W2 =

0 to 40

outer diameter (mm)

outer diameter (in.)
current (A)
tube weight (kgm1)
tube weight (lbft1)

Current
Requirement
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

11.8 D1
300 D2
74 W1
110 W2
161 W1
240 W2
121 W1
180 W2
97 W1
145 W2

hollow product by the internal conductor

technique, the search coil can be a
single-turn coil through the test object.
Flux changes are given by:
(13)

AB

where is changes in flux, A is the area

of the test object perpendicular to the
search coil (A = T), where is tube
length, and B is the change in flux
density of the test object induced during
magnetization.
Commercially available flux meters can
generally be compensated for the test
object area so that the device can be made
to read the average flux density directly. A
problem with this approach to the
measurement of the final flux density is
that the initial flux density in the test
object, with respect to the vector direction
of the search coil, must be zero. This
problem occurs because, when flux
changes are to be measured, the initial
value must be known. However, if the
tube shown in Fig. 28 is initially
unmagnetized or the prior magnetization
is longitudinal, then the flux meter reads
the average density of induced
circumferential magnetization.
Should the output of the flux meter be
presented on an oscilloscope, it should
be noted that flux values (caused by the
passage of a pulse) between the beginning
and the end of the magnetization process
represent the flux linked by the
single-turn coil and contain the effect of
the flux in the air between the terminals
of the flux meter.
During the pulse, the air field caused
by the current I in the rod and eddy
currents Ie in the test object affects the
instantaneous flux meter reading. When
these currents have died away, only flux
perpendicular to the single-turn coil
affects the final result. If the operator has
time to wind more than one turn around
the test object, the resulting error in final

FIGURE 28. Measuring of flux density

induced in circumferential direction by
techniques shown in Fig. 22.
Flux meter

T
I
B
Legend
B = magnetic flux
I = electric current
T = wall thickness

Magnetization

133

Inductive Ammeter
In an inductive ammeter or peak and
duration meter, as shown in Fig. 22b, the
pickup coil is threaded onto any
convenient part of the magnetizing circuit
and when the pulse is fired the meter
reads the peak current (Imax of Fig. 25) and
the duration of the pulse ( of Fig. 25).21
Saturation of the material occurs when
successive readings on the ammeter are
identical. This can be explained as
follows. When the first pulse is fired, the
material exhibits its highest value of
dB(dH)1 because of the inclusion of the
steep part of the BH curve into the value
of L (Fig. 27). The average value of
dB(dH)1 is effective in determining the
value of the inductance in Eqs. 6 to 8.
This value is relatively large compared to
what the material might exhibit during a
second pulse. In effect, the second pulse
experiences a lower inductance than the
first pulse.
The effect of the lowered inductance
experienced by a second pulse is to permit
the peak current Imax to reach a higher
value than it reached on the first pulse
in effect, the material is different but
the system response is also to lower the
duration . By monitoring Imax and , it is
possible for inspectors to determine the
relative degree of magnetization of the
test object.

diameter surface to the outside diameter

surface. The vertical axes show either the
fraction of H required to saturate the
material or the flux density B. The lowest
lines indicate time from the very start of
the pulse. The uppermost lines indicate
the field intensity and flux density levels
at later time increments.
It can be seen from Fig. 29 that
three phenomena occur during pulse
magnetization: (1) both inner and outer
surfaces are rapidly magnetized, (2) the
midwall region is the last part of the
material to be magnetized and (3) the
midwall region can be left with a low

FIGURE 29. Plots of tube wall thickness: (a) versus

magnetizing force; (b) versus resultant flux density. Lower
lines represent field and induction at beginning of pulse
(time proceeds up to the figures); central (midwall) regions
are the last to be magnetized.
(a)

Outside
diameter

Inside
diameter
8
7

Magnetizing force H, kAm1

bulk flux can be reduced. However, for

the purpose of establishing the presence
of a residual induction in the test object
to excite magnetic flux leakage from
discontinuities, this procedure is not
necessary.

6
5
4
Time

3
2
1

Simulated Test Discontinuity

Use of Inductive Ammeters

When magnetizing with pulse techniques,
the value of the materials field intensity
H and flux density B both change with
time. In Fig. 29, the horizontal axes show
the percent distance from the inside

134

Magnetic Testing

20

40

60

80

100

Thickness (percent)

(b)

Outside
diameter

Inside
diameter
1.6 (16)
1.4 (14)

Magnetizing flux B, T (kG)

Flexible laminated strips of high

permeability material are commercially
available and these may be placed in
intimate contact with the test object after
magnetization. Such strips contain three
test discontinuities encapsulated in brass
so that the liftoff between the test object
and the strip is minimized to that of the
brass encapsulation.
Under such circumstances, the
magnetized material shares flux with the
strip and, if the test discontinuities give
an indication with magnetic particles,
then so will a similarly sized discontinuity
in the test object.

1.2 (12)
1.0 (10)
0.8

(8)

0.6

(6)

0.4

(4)

0.2

(2)

(0)

Time

20

40

60

80

Thickness (percent)

100

state of magnetization if the pulse field

intensity is insufficient to saturate the
material.
This last phenomenon contributes to
magnetic fields from discontinuities at
one surface, producing no leakage field at
the other surface, when the material is
not saturated. The leakage field into the
midwall section of the material merely
raises the local magnetization level to a
higher degree.
During magnetization, if parts of the
material do not reach a field intensity
level that ensures saturation (at the point
P in Fig. 26), then the ensuing bulk
residual flux density is low and the
material requires additional pulses to
saturate it. The magnetization process
calls for the highest values of the
inductance L in Eqs. 5 through 12 during
the first pulse and lower values during
subsequent pulses. The general effect of a
high value of inductance is to lower the
value of Imax and elongate the value of .
In order to show that this is the case,
and to limit the necessary mathematical
computation, Eq. 7 is selected and from it
the closed form results for Imax and are
found. First, the time t (in seconds) at
which Imax occurs is found by
differentiation of Eq. 7 to be:
(14) t

2L
R

I max

= V0 C

R
2 Le

where C is capacitance (farad) and V0 is

voltage.
This result indicates that the value of
Imax is inversely proportional to that of L
(the greater is L, the lower is Imax). To find
, I(t) must be set at 0.5 Imax. The result in
seconds is:
(16)

= 5.36

Operation of Inductive Ammeters

The inductive ammeter is a
microprocessor based instrument that
employs an inductive pickup coil. This
coil contains a large number of turns
wound onto a nonconducting
nonmagnetic ring shaped core. It is
threaded onto the cables from the
capacitor discharge system or onto the
rod itself. When a pulse is fired, the flux
caused by the current surge links with the
ring and the voltage induced in the coil
(Fig. 30) is given by:
(17)

E =

L
R

In this case, the pulse duration as

defined by is proportional to the value
of L. Larger values of L, such as are found
for the initial pulse, lead to the longest
pulse durations.
The B-H curve indicates that the lowest
value of inductance that can occur under
these magnetization conditions is that
exhibited by saturated material, when the
value of dB(dH)1 is at its lowest (Eq. 11).
If two identical readings are obtained
from an inductive ammeter as shown in

(2 10 ) Nd dIdt ln ba
7

where a is the inner radius of the ring;

and b is the outer radius of the ring; d is
the axial length of the ring; dI(dt)1 is the
rate of change of the current; N is the
number of turns in the ring.
This equation is derived from Faradays
law of induction. To provide a signal
related to the current itself, Eq. 17 must
be integrated:
(18) e =

where L is self inductance (henry) and R is

resistance (ohm).
When this value is used in Eq. 7, the
result for Imax is:
(15)

Fig. 22, the material must be exhibiting its

lowest inductance to the magnetizing
circuit and must therefore be at
remanence Br.

E dt

= 2 10 7 Nd ln I
a

Here, e is the output voltage of the

integration circuit. Because all the terms
in the brackets are known, the output of
the integration of the induced voltage is
proportional to the instantaneous current,
and the instrument can be calibrated to
read current. Electronic circuits are used
to measure the peak current Imax and the
pulse duration .
FIGURE 30. Diagram of inductive pickup coil
(dimensions used in Eq. 17).
I

Readout
calibrated
in amperes

b
a
d

Magnetization

135

PART 7. Magnetic Flux in Test Objects with

Complex Shapes
When a discontinuity lies perpendicular
to the magnetic field and is at or near the
surface of an adequately magnetized test
object, the leakage field attracts and holds
magnetic particles applied to the test
object surface. The capturing and holding
power of the leakage field is determined
by both the magnitude of the magnetic
flux in the test object and the relative
orientation of the discontinuity and flux.
The gradient and magnitude of the
leakage field are important for indication
formation. There is, however,
disagreement on whether the axial or
tangential component is the one of
interest.
There are rules used to define the
current needed and how it is applied to
produce the desired direction and flux
density in the test object. Those rules,
along with recommended particle
concentrations, are specified in military
and commercial specifications.
Unfortunately, many complex
ferromagnetic aircraft components have
varying cross sections, large cutouts and
protruding extremities. With these, it is
difficult to apply empirical rules that
guarantee effective testing of the object in
its entirety.
The testing of the object shown in
Fig. 31 has been detailed in the
literature.13 The direction and intensity of

FIGURE 31. Complex shape of steel forging

for aircraft. Numbers are cited in text.

the external flux fields are measured using

circular and longitudinal magnetization
by means of a transverse hall probe tesla
meter. The magnitude of the current pulse
is determined from empirical rules in
order to ascertain the validity of the rule
in each case. The determination of the
field direction and magnitude does not
reveal the magnetic field level required for
crack detection but does uncover problem
areas caused by part geometry. Locations
having cross-sectional areas significantly
larger than those where the current enters
the test object exhibit fields whose
magnitudes are extremely low compared
to those at the entry area (points 5, 6 and
7 in Fig. 31).
Magnetization was performed using
full-wave direct current techniques. Low
fields were also observed in deep cutouts
(between points 6 and 7 of Fig. 31) and at
the extremity areas not directly in the
path of the current flow (points 4, 6 and 7
of Fig. 31). Any area producing a field of
less than 103 T (10 G) was deemed
inadequately magnetized. It was also
determined that when the current
branched into different directions at an
intersection, the field at this intersection
was zero (Fig. 32 and points 1, 2, 3 and 5
of Fig. 31). These particular areas required
additional tests using portable
electromagnetic yokes.
When dealing with complex test
objects, initial investigations concerning
the direction of the flux field and
adequacy of field intensity should be
determined using artificial discontinuity

FIGURE 32. Typical geometry problem in

magnetic particle testing.

6
7

Magnetic flux lines

5
1

4
2
Current

136

Magnetic Testing

Area of
zero field

shims placed at a sufficient number of

locations on the test object. Special
techniques are required to establish
adequate field intensity and direction in
some areas of the test object. The
techniques should be documented for
future reference when identical objects are
to be tested. In cases of high production

rates, special magnetizing tools may need

to be fabricated to achieve reliable testing
of the entire test object. This is important
because areas containing changes in shape
or thickness are likely locations for
development of cracks during fabrication
or service.

Magnetization

137

References

1. Hagemaier, D.[J.], V. Deutsch and

R.[K.] Stanley. Chapter 6,
Magnetization Methods.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle
Testing. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1989).
2. Deutsch, V., A. Becker and M. Vogt.
Crack Detection by Magnetic Particle
Examination. Wuppertal-Elberfeld,
Germany: Karl Deutsch GmbH (1979).
3. Deutsch, V. and M. Vogt. A
Comparison of AC and DC Fields for
Magnetic Particle Methods. British
Journal of Non-Destructive Testing.
No. 4. Northampton, United
Kingdom: British Institute of
Non-Destructive Testing (July 1982).
4. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Vol. 5, Electromagnetic Testing.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
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