DREAM ANALYSIS

An Exploration of the Unconscious Mind

Jack M. Freedman
The New School for Public Engagement
Theories of Personality
NPSY 2401A
December 8, 2014

Abstract

From a modern perspective, are dream analysis concepts introduced by Freud, Jung, and other
psychologists valuable in psychotherapeutic treatment? The study of dreams is an integral part
of the process of learning how the human mind functions. The analysis of dreams had led to the
foundations of the current psychological paradigm. However, ideas formulated in the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries have questionable applications for practitioners of modern
psychotherapy. It is necessary to examine the cultural, scientific, and technological advances of
the twenty-first century to determine the best methods for effective dream analysis. The literature
available does not address these factors. A survey of the theories concerned with dream
interpretation are examined in this review. Personal insights concerning these theoretical models
will be expressed.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Freud was influenced by the ancient Greek philosophers when he formulated his theories on
dream interpretation. In his seminal work, The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud described dreams
as the royal road to the unconscious (1900). His central theory is that ego defenses are
diminished in a person's dreams. This permits the repressed thoughts to become apparent to the
dreamer. The information that the dreamer uncovers however is distorted. Freud believed that
dreams provide valuable clues about how the unconscious mind functions.

Freud's concepts on dream interpretation may have been based on one of his own dreams. In the
aforementioned book, he described his experience with one of his patients, Irma. She was not
progressing in therapy as Freud had hoped. He felt responsible for her stagnation.

I dreamed that I met Irma at a party and I examined her. I then dreamed that I
saw a chemical formula for a drug that another doctor had prescribed for her and
I realized that her condition was caused by a dirty syringe used by the other
doctor. My guilt was thus relieved. (Freud, 1900)

Freud believed his own dream to be a wish-fulfillment. He had wished that Irma's poor
condition was not his fault. His dream satisfied his wish, because it led him to understand
that another doctor was responsible for his patient's failure to improve. This case was the
basis of Freud's theories of interpretation.

An essential element in Freud's theories of psychoanalysis is the concept of freeassociation. The patient is encouraged to talk about his thoughts without interruption by
the analyst. In doing so, the patient may switch from one subject to another. He may not
recognize how one thought connects from one subject to another. However, the task of
the analyst is to make sense of the client's randomness.

As Freud investigated the concept of dreams, he explored universal symbols. Some of

these, obviously, were sexual in nature. However, Freud did not believe entirely in the
validity of universal symbols, believing that general symbols were personal. The therapist
will have difficulty interpreting both the manifest and latent contents of a dream without
knowing more about the individual's circumstances.

In a presentation at a conference of the Michigan Society of Electroneurodiagnostic

Technologists, Margaret Borkowski (2010) discussed Freudian dream analysis.
Borkowski summarized the contributions of Freud's dream interpretation theories. She
stated that the analysis of dreams brings repressed memories to consciousness and
provides clues about repressed memories. Dream interpretation helps the analyst clarify

areas of resistance in the patient and indicates the stage of psychosexual development and
the strength of the id, ego, and superego. As far as the patient is concerned, it may add
meaning to his life experiences and help him better understand his problems. She
discussed several criticisms, in her opinion of Freud's dream analysis fundamentals.
Borkowski stated that using Freud's methods was difficult to verify, and that it was easy
for the dreamer to falsify his thoughts. She also stated that not all dreams signify
repression, that some dreams are simply forgotten. The therapist's ability to use the power
of suggestion is another one of her criticisms. Dreams may not always be a method of
suppressing painful conflicts; the dream may simply be a creative and figurative pattern.
Free association and wish fulfillment were not expanded upon in detail. Generally
speaking, although Borkowski brought up some valid points, her presentation was overly
simplified and rudimentary; she did not expand on her assessment of Freud's theories.
Her presentation would have been more effective, had she used specific examples to
support her criticisms.

In his journal article, Freudian Theory and Consciousness: A Conceptual Analysis

(2011), Avinash De Souza discussed how Freudian thinking is relevant in psychoanalytic
practice. He wrote about whether Freud's positions on the conscious and unconscious are
useful in therapy. He stated that Freud's concepts regarding issues in contemporary
philosophy of mind, moral, and social theory (De Souza, 2011) must be explored. He
emphasized that no other psychologist had ever exceeded Freud's analysis of dream
interpretation; no other theory had ever proved to be superior to that of Freud. De Souza
stressed that the analyst's imagination is as important as empirical theory. The author
concluded that it is necessary to expand the scientific investigations of the states of the
conscious and unconscious.

De Souza did not thoroughly illustrate why he believed that Freudian theory is applicable.
He did not discuss the role of free association, nor is there any reference to Freud's

topographical model. His discussion of the interdependence of the conscious and

unconscious was a unique scientific investigation. De Souza's take home message was
that although Freudian theory may be considered outdated by some, it is imperative that
Freudian theory be re-examined.

Carl G. Jung (1875-1961)

In his early years as a psychotherapist, Carl G. Jung was a protg of Sigmund Freud. After
reading Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Jung began corresponding with Freud.
However, in 1914, Jung and Freud had a severe disagreement due to their different theories on
the nature and function of dreams. Whereas Freud believed that dreams were a path to the
unconscious, Jung thought that the patient's dreams could reveal deeper and more spiritual
insights (Ellis & Abrams, 2009).

Jung's theories centered around the position that dreams are a natural expression of the dreamer's
conscious environment. He did not concur with Freud's theory on the latency factor in dreams.
Jung believed that the nature of dreams is to present a spontaneous self-portrayal in symbolic
form, of the actual situation in the unconscious (Jung, 1967, Vol. 8, par. 505). He stressed that
symbols and images in dreams are a unique language, and are the modes of expression for the
unconscious mind. According to Jung, dreams are difficult to understand, because the
unconscious symbolic language is very different from the conscious language.

Jung used two categories to describe dreams. The first was the objective level of a dream's
meaning. In this level, the dreamer is focused on the people, events, and activities of the
dreamer's external world. At other times, dreams portray his inner world. On this subjective
level, the objects of his dream are based on the thoughts and feelings within his own psyche
(Hagen, 2006). Unlike Freud, who believed only in the objective level, Jung insisted that dreams
portrayed both levels of the dreamer's life.

Jung went one step further than Freud, because he theorized that dreams serve two functions.
Dreams enable the subject to recognize that which has been repressed. When the dreamer accepts
the unconscious facets of his mind, he can progress in better understanding himself. The second
function of dreams is to provide possible images of the future. Unlike Freud, Jung argued that the
dreamer can anticipate future developments. He did not suggest that dreams could predict the
future; he did think that dreams might suggest possible future events for the dreamer. In essence,
Jung believed that the purpose of dreams is to unite consciousness and the unconscious in a
healthy and harmonious state. Jung called this process individuation, the complete actualization
of the whole human being (Jung, 1967, Vol. 16, par. 352).

Jung's concepts about archetypes play a large role in his dream theories. Dreams express
collective contents, in addition to personal ones. Archetypes are universal figures which exist in
all humans. In literature, art, and popular culture, common archetypes might be the hero, the
villain, the child, the princess, the wise old man, and the great mother. These archetypes within
dreams may provide the dreamer with insights and guidance as he strives toward individuation.

More contemporary psychologists have been critical of Jung's dream theory. His concepts have
been linked to mysticism, the occult, and divination practices, such as tarot card reading and
spiritual healing. Although he acknowledged that he was fascinated by astrology, alchemy, and
other spiritual rituals and practices, he insisted that his dream theories were based on his personal
observations. In his defense, Jung stated that his goal had been to simply describe and classify
the dream phenomena he had observed.

Kevin Lu's article, Jung, History and his Approach to the Psyche (2012) has an extensive section
on Jung's theories of dream interpretation and its relevance to psychotherapy. Jung asserted that
psychotherapists must be familiar with the patient's personal, familial, and collective histories.
Lu explained that current analysts need to be amateur historians, to enable them to comprehend

the symbolic language of the unconscious. Lu postulated that Jung was extremely sensitive to the
ways that the individual identities are connected to the collective. An understanding of the
patient's unconscious leads to an ability to understand his dreams. It is only through this process
that the therapist can begin to assist the patient in realizing the meaning of both hidden and
apparent aspects of the dream.

Lu's article is well-written and thoroughly documented. His description of Jungian theory on
archetypes and the collective unconscious is comprehensive. However, a more extensive
coverage of Jung's concepts of dream interpretations would have been preferable. In his
conclusion, Lu suggests that understanding historical perspectives leads to a more complete
psychoanalytic conclusion.

Siamak Khodarahimi authored an article called, Dreams In Jungian Psychology: The use of
Dreams as an Instrument For Research, Diagnosis and Treatment of Social Phobia (2009). This
study was a comprehensive description of the use of dream interpretation in psychotherapy. The
article was based on Jung's theories on unconscious archetypal complexes, including the shadow
and the anima-animus. The use of dream work was explained, as well as Jung's concepts on the
language and symbols of dreams. In Jung's autobiography, Memories, dreams, reflections
(1963), he states that dream work is a fundamental core of analytical therapy.

Khodarahimi's article included a case study of his work with a patient named Lida. Lida was
diagnosed with social phobia based on the DSM-IV. During the course of treatment, Lida
recorded her dreams as soon as she woke up. The therapist questioned the client about the exact
events, her feelings about the dream images, and whether she had previously experienced the
dream. He questioned her thoroughly about the images and ultimately asked her how she
evaluated her dream and how it made her feel. Finally, it is important for both to understand the
dream on a conscious level in addition to understanding symbols within the dream. Khodarahimi
concluded his article by explaining the importance of childhood events and inefficient coping

skills as they affect a therapy patient. He reiterated Jung's concepts that dream work is an
essential component in the psychotherapeutic process. Khodarahimi concluded the article by
stating that further research is necessary to improve the prognosis and treatment of psychological
disorders.

This journal article was extremely well-written. His explanation of Jungian theory, of his clinical
study, and of his suggestions for future research were comprehensive. The author's presentation
was an excellent example of how to write a scientific journal article. It was worthy of
publication in The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences (2009).\

Jacob L. Moreno (1889-1974)

Jacob L. Moreno was one of the innovators in formalizing the connection between therapy and
drama. Along with Nikolai Evreinov (1879-1953), Moreno introduced drama as an educational
and therapeutic tool. As a result of his work, drama was introduced as a recreational and
occupational program in psychiatric hospitals. Moreno's development of the merger of
psychology and drama became known as psychodrama; this evolved into a significant method of
dream analysis. Psychodrama employs guided, dramatic action to examine problems or issues
raised by an individual or a group (Jones, 1996).

Moreno began working with children in 1908, because he realized that children, through play,
act out their feelings. As a child re-enacts his experiences, he learns to accept reality and find
comfort in his ability to be a part of his environment. In both children and adults, dramatizing
helps the participant discover hidden meanings, associations, and emotions in his dreams.
Psychodrama assists the participants in gaining insight into their subconscious. It creates
opportunities for personal growth, physical, and emotional well-being; psychodrama can help the
participants develop new skills and improve their ability to interact with others.

In psychodrama, the dreamer acts out each role or aspect of his dream. Often, the dreamer is the
protagonist and he is assisted by other participants in the group. These group members are
known as auxiliary egos, because they represent significant others in the drama. In addition,
there is an audience, which witnesses the drama and represents the world at large. The therapist
is the director and a trained psychodramatist; he has the responsibility to oversee the
dramatization as it unfolds. The director typically allows the improvisation to continue in a
positive framework, but he may intervene if he feels it is necessary to re-direct the protagonist.
The director also offers prompts to help the dreamer move toward a positive conclusion. If
successful, the process of psychodrama will lead to personal insights and a grasp of the
unconscious significance of a dream (Jones, 1996). Ideally, psychodrama affords participants a
safe and supportive environment in which to practice new and more effective roles and
behavior. Moreno also postulated that psychodrama can be used to help an individual interpret
his own dreams, without him worrying about being judged by group members.
Psychodrama is used to treat many conditions. These include addiction, trauma, autism, eating
disorders, and adoption/attachment issues. This form of therapy is practiced in many diverse
settings, including mental health clinics, hospitals, substance abuse programs, community
centers, and trauma/abuse recovery programs, and correctional facilities. It is also used in
unexpected settings, where role-playing is an integral function. Examples include law firms,
professional training/development programs, social justice organizations, and medical schools.
The most important factor in a successful psychodrama session is to provide a safe and nonthreatening environment.

In an article by Wilma Scategni entitled The Stuff Of Dreams: From Dream Image to
Psychodramatic Image (2014), she described the use of drama therapy in conjunction with dream
interpretation. She presented a case study in which the focus of the group was a discussion of the
dreams of participants. Scategni explained that when the group members had dreams about the
group itself, it captured the interest of the group members. The dream images were transformed
into psychodramatic images. When the focus is on a specific participant, he is the protagonist

and the job of the auxiliary ego members is to help interpret the dream. The benefit of using
psychodrama is that the action can help the dreamer add details and change the themes in
conjunction with his own feelings. The characters, the context, and the atmosphere of the group
combine in the recreation of the story.

The most interesting section of this article described how the analyst may obtain information of
which the dreamer is unaware and areas of conflict that need to be examined. Although the
descriptions of the ways in which dream interpretation and psychodrama are connected, the
article does not address its usefulness in individual therapy. The use of psychodrama in
individual therapy can be helpful in situations where the dreamer is unable or unwilling to share
his feelings and fears within a group setting.

Modern Psychotherapy and Dream Interpretation

An article in The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research (Schredi, Bohusch, Kahl,
Mader, & Somesan, 2000) was concerned with the use of dream interpretation by
psychotherapists in private practice. The authors had four goals: first, to determine the frequency
of work on dreams; second, to determine whether dream interpretation is used more by
cognitive-behavior therapists or psychoanalysts; third, to determine how much focus is given to
dream interpretation; and fourth, to test whether therapists who recall their own dreams use
dream interpretation more often.

The therapists who participated in the study were categorized by gender, the length of their time
in practice, and the number of sessions they conducted per week. In addition, the therapists were
questioned to determine the focus of their training; did they engage in individual therapy, family
therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, Gestalt therapy, psychodrama, and other modalities. The
authors summarized the results as follows:

28% of the therapy sessions included dream work. 49% of the clients had worked at least once
on a dream. 64% of the clients initiated dream work. 70.4% of the clients benefited from dream
work, as estimated by the therapists.

Most of the therapists utilized the dream theories of Freud and Jung; others mentioned were
Gestalt, Klein, and Adler. The therapists reported that they remembered their own dreams about
once a week and that they worked on dreams about two or three times a month.

The authors reported that psychoanalysts used dreams more often in therapy than humanistic and
cognitive-behavioral therapists. The psychoanalysts said they used dream therapy often, that they
regarded dream work more beneficial, and that their patient's dream recall was greater than
reported by other therapists. The therapists also said that they benefited from working on their
own dreams and those who did so used dream work more often than their patients.

According to the authors, the study clearly indicated that therapists with psychoanalytic training
used dream work much more often than other therapists. However, the authors also noted that a
more thorough study with a larger sample would provide more information on the different
therapeutic methods. They also noted that future studies could include therapists working in
hospitals or clinics and a survey including a comparison between different countries. Since this
survey was conducted in Germany. In summary, the study concluded that dream work is an
important and frequent therapeutic technique, a majority of their clients benefited.

His journal article provided a wealth of information that would be valuable to both
psychotherapists, medical professionals, and students. More specific information about the
schools of thought adhered to by the study participants would have been helpful. Overall, this
article and this study were easy to understand by anyone without an extensive background in the
study of psychology.

Conclusion

This literature review began with a question about dream interpretation. Do the theories of the
past remain relevant in the treatment of patients in a therapeutic setting? The roots of dream
analysis do not begin with Freud and Jung. The earliest literary references appear in the Bible.
Both Jacob and Joseph are described as skilled in the interpretation of dreams. In a dream, Jacob
receives a message from God that he will be a leader for the Hebrews and that they will live in
the land of Canaan (Israel) in perpetuity (Genesis 28). His son, Joseph, became known as the
great dreamer. Joseph interpreted the dreams of Egypt's Pharaoh, and in so doing, protected the
Egyptian people from famine (Genesis 41). Catholic doctrine also addresses the subject of dream
interpretation. The church rejects divination as a sin of superstition. However, the official
policy of the church is that if God wants to reveal something to you in your dreams, you must
turn to Him in prayer. Members are instructed to examine their dreams to assure they are not
being tricked by the devil (Hardon, 1907-1912).

The subject of dream interpretation is also relevant to the ancient Greeks and Native Americans.
In the 2nd century CE, Artemidorus wrote a dream dictionary with explanations of symbols. Plato
and Aristotle believed that dreams came from the gods, both to predict the future and ensure
prosperity in one's life. Hippocrates, the father of Western medicine, proposed that dreams
could reveal the onset of organic illness (Kamil, 2014). In Native American tradition, dreams
may be either personal or a form of visitation. The former are concerned with a person's current
life or situation. Visitation dreams represent a visit or message from the spirit world, and very
often they are about animals (Alchin, 2014). The concepts which emanated from these ancient

civilizations may not have direct application in current psychotherapy settings, but a connection
to the past exists. Spiritual beliefs remain significant to many communities.

All psychology students are taught the theories of Sigmund Freud. His research on the
topographical model, psychosexual development, and dream interpretation have been seminal in
the development of the psychological paradigm. In Freudian theory, free-association is the
preferred method for patients to discuss their dreams and discover their hidden meanings. The
patient's ability to analyze himself could be a strong factor to contributing to his progress. This
method remains useful in many forms of therapy. Whether it be psychoanalysis, cognitivebehavioral therapy, or prolonged exposure therapy, free-association as a form of dream
interpretation remains valuable and relevant. The ability of the patient to discuss his dreams
without interruption by the therapist is still a preferable way to conduct a session (Ellis &
Abrams, 2009).

Carl G. Jung's methods of dream interpretation are significantly different from Freud. Although
Jung thought of himself as a scientist, he resorted to data from occult sances to help understand
his patients. He relied on the dreams of his patients, as well as his own dreams. Jung was a
spiritualist and believed that primitive concepts and his own religious experiences were relevant
to his practice of psychotherapy and dream interpretation. One of Jung's methods was the use of
word association, but he combined this technique with his own dreams and his beliefs in
mythologies (Ellis & Abrams, 2009). Although Jungian theory on archetypes and the collective
unconscious still hold validity, he is not as well regarded as Freud. His influence is felt more in
contemporary popular culture and his ideas have been incorporated into science fiction.

Jacob L. Moreno, as one of the pioneers of psychodrama, is responsible for the growth of this
concept in other arenas. Psychodrama was the beginning of the movement toward using drama in
conjunction with psychotherapy. In one case study, teenage girls living in a group home shared
their dreams. Eleanor Irwin, a drama therapist, facilitated this group (2009). She suggested that
the girls keep a dream journal, after which they enacted the dream images for the members of the
group. In psychodrama and in drama therapy, the participants are discouraged from interpreting
another member's dream. It is felt that only the dreamer can understand the meaning of her own

dream. One participant, named Janie, described a nightmare. During the discussion afterwards,
Janie made a connection between the dream and an experience of abuse. As she continued, she
began to cry and received the empathy of the other girls. As the drama therapy continued, the
girls were excited by the realization that they could interpret their own dreams. The information
that the girls learned about themselves was then discussed further in their individual therapy
sessions. This program was successful on many levels. The girls felt pride, self-respect, and a
sense of accomplishment from a play they performed about their dreams. Thus, this utilization of
psychodrama and dream interpretation was very effective.

It is clear that psychodrama and drama therapy can be powerful tools. These methods have been
shown to be effective in encouraging participants to examine their own dreams, to share them
with others, and to obtain input from the director or therapist. There is, however, a dearth of
information with regard to the use of this therapy on an individual basis. More case study
descriptions would be invaluable in illustrating this other approach to psychotherapy.

Each of the concepts discussed in this literature review has validity and applicability in the
current practice of psychotherapy. Each method has contributed to a greater understanding of the
human psyche. The ability of a patient to discuss or re-enact painful or frightening dreams has
proven to be a cathartic and enlightening experience for both dreamer and therapist. A relatively
new development is the growth of social media websites connected to dream interpretation.
These groups encourage the participants to share their dreams and receive feedback from their
peers. Dream dictionaries have proliferated on the Internet and offer the opportunity for
individuals to gain understanding of their own dreams. Unfortunately, there are a multitude of
fraudulent websites which offer an interpretation for a fee. It is also a concern that people may be
receiving inaccurate or damaging information from dishonorable individuals. Dream
interpretation via the Internet is a subject that deserves examination within the psychiatric
community. It would be important to determine whether troubled individuals are employing
Internet dream interpreters in lieu of seeking professional assistance. Social media is the

dominant means of communication in today's culture. It is imperative to examine what effect and
influence the Internet and social media websites have relative to dream interpretation and
psychotherapy in general.

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