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INTRODUCING THE COMPUTER: THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Throughout history, humans have relied mainly on their brains to perform calculations; in other
words, they were computers. As civilization advanced, a variety of computing tools were invented
that aided, but not replace, manual computation. The earliest people used their fingers, pebbles, or
tally sticks for counting purposes. Some calculating devices before the advent of computers are
discussed below.
ABACUS: First Calculating Device
Although the abacus is not a computer, the history of computing really began with this
device.
A wooden frame with balls or beads strung on parallel wires or rods fixed in a frame.
Two fundamental concepts were associated with abacus:
(i) Numerical information can be represented in a physical form.
(ii) This information can be manipulated in the physical form to
produce the required result.
Origin: Between 5000 and 2000 B.C. in China and was used by Greek, Roman, Japanese
and Chinese in pre-Christian times.
It was a semi-mechanical calculator.
Three different types of abacus were used.
In the Chinese abacus,
The frame is divided by a beam into two regions, known as heaven and earth.
Instead of ten beads on each wire, there were two on one side of the beam and
five on the other.
A bead in heaven was considered to have a power (value) of 5 and the bead on
earth a power (value) of 1.
Calculations were performed by moving beads away from towards the beam; the
rule being that a bead has a numerical value only when it is adjacent to the beam.
Figure shows a Chinese abacus representing the number 00011725
It may be easily seen from the figure that two of the beads of the Chinese abacus
are redundant.
In 1530, these two extra beads were eliminated and adopted in the Japanese
version of abacus called Soroban, i.e. one bead in the heaven and four beads in
the earth.

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NAPIERS BONES: (Mathematician from Scotland)

In the 17th century, John Napier, a Scots (Scotland) mathematician, invented an aid
for calculating logarithms in 1614. Using logarithmic rules, this machine was used to
calculate multiplication, division, square root etc.
He also derived a set of 11 rods having 4 faces which were used as multiplication tool.
These rods were carved from bones and are often called Napiers bones.
These rods have numbers marked on them in such a way that by simply placing them
side by side, products and quotients of large numbers can be obtained.
WILLIAM OUGHTREDS SLIDE RULE: (English Mathematician)
This is a calculating device based on the principles of logarithms.
It was invented by an English Mathematician named William Oughtred just six years
after the invention of logarithms.
This device was used to calculate multiplication, division, square root etc using
logarithm very quickly as that compared to Napiers Bone.
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CALCULATOR:

Latin word calculi which means small stone or pebble.

MECHANICAL CALCULATING MACHINES:

Blaise Pascals First Calculating adding machine: (French Mathematician)
In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician, invented the first mechanical
calculating (adding) machine.
In this machine, numbers were entered by dialing a series of numbered wheels and a
series of toothed wheels transferred the movements to a dial, which shows the results.
Its limitation was to compute the addition and subtraction . It could add eight columns
of numbers.

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Multiplications and divisions were done as a series of additions and subtractions

respectively.

Gottfried Leibnizs Stepped Reckoner: (German Mathematician)

In 1671, Gottfried Leibniz of German Mathematician invented the first calculator for
multiplication which was able to perform multiplications and divisions.
This machine was based on the same principles of toothed wheels used by Pascal.
The name of the machine was Stepped Reckoner.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root were calculated using
this machine.
Leibniz was the first man who started the usage of binary system.

Charles Babbages Difference Engine and Analytical Engine: (British Mathematician )

Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century Professor at Cambridge University

He is considered the father of modern digital computers though his work did not
directly influence the design of the first modern computer, but certain basic ideas of
the stored computer program can be traced back to his machine.

During his period, mathematical and statistical tables were prepared by a group
clerks. Even the utmost care and precautions could not eliminate human errors.
Babbage had to spend several hours checking these tables. Soon he became
dissatisfied and exasperated with this type of monotonous job.

Difference Engine:
The result was that he started thinking to build a machine, which could compute
tables guaranteed to be error-free. In this process, Babbage designed a "Difference
Engine" in the year 1822, which could produce reliable tables. This Difference
Engine was used to perform simple computations needed for setting up
trigonometric and logarithmic tables.
Analytical Engine:

In 1842, Babbage came out with his new idea of Analytical Engine, which was
intended to be completely automatic. It was to be capable of performing the basic
arithmetic functions for any mathematical problem, and it was to do so at an
average speed of 60 additions per minute.

This machine had a punched card input, a memory unit or store, an arithmetic unit
or mill and an automatic printout.

In short, Babbage had developed a machine that was a prototype computer and that
was 100 years ahead of its time.

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Unfortunately, Babbage was unable to produce a working model of this machine,

because of financial difficulties as well as technological constraints (i.e. the
precision engineering materials required to manufacture the machine was not
available during that period). However, his efforts established a number of
principles, which have been shown to be fundamental to the design of any digital
computer.

Augusta Ada Byron (1815-1852)

Daughter of famous British poet Lord Byron

She found out some errors on Babbages works

She also wrote some programs for Babbages Analytical Engine

She was the first who developed program

Ada is the name of a programming Language with her name.

After Babbage Work: Boolean Algebra
After Babbages work on computers (1871), little progress was made until 1937.
An important theoretical development occurred between 1847 and 1854
George Boole, an English Mathematician, developed an algebraic system called
Boolean Algebra.
It is used widely today for representing and manipulating logical expressions and for
the simplification of logic gates.
Holleriths Census Machine:
In 1890, Herman Hollerith of United States came up with the concept of punched
cards, which were extensively used as input medium in computers even in late
1970s.
He invented a device called Census Machine which would handle 50-80 punched
cards per minute. This machine was chosen for tabulating the 1890 census.
Invention of Transistor:
In 1948, Braten Burden and Sockly of USA invented Transistor

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The word Computer comes from the Greek word compute which means to calculate. In fact, the
original objective for inventing the computer was to create a fast calculating machine. However,
more than 80% of the work done by computers today is of non-mathematical or non-numerical
nature Hence, to define a computer merely as a calculating device is to ignore over 80% of its
functions.
It is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical
components that can solve problems by accepting data, processing the data according to the given
instructions and presenting the results of operation in a suitable output media. More accurately, a

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computer may be defined as a device, which operates upon data. A computer can store, process, and
retrieve data as and when desired.
It is the most powerful multitasking amazing tool man has ever created. Few tools can help you
perform so many different tasks in so many areas of our lives without computer. By itself, a
computer has no intelligence and is referred to as hardware. A computer or computer system does
not come to life without software, which refers to the written instructions, or programs that tell the
hardware how to perform a task or control the operation of a computer.

HOW DOES A COMPUTER WORKS

A computer is an information-processing machine that works by converting all kinds of information
into binary numbers (ones and zeros) and then using simple mathematics to make decisions about,
or to rearrange, those numbers.
There are two things essential to understanding the basics of how a computer works. One is that a
computer treats any type of information (not only numbers but also letters, words, dates, and so on)
as if it consisted simply of binary ones and zeros. For example, a computer can translate the letter
A typed into its keyboard into a string of ones and zeros, such as 1000001. One reason to do this
is that once in binary form, the information can be stored and moved about more easily. On a hard
disc, the ones could be stored as magnetized spots on the disc, while the zeroes can be stored as
unmagnetized spots. Once information has been converted to ones and zeros, the computer can get
to work.
The second key to understanding how a computer works it to remember that all of a computers
functions are based on the movement and transformation of electrical pulses (representing ones and
zeroes) in electrical circuits. Inside the computer are electrical circuits that perform computations
on the zeros and ones, such as adding and subtracting them. Thats why we call the machine a
computer even though we use it for word processing, games, or surfing the Web. These
computational circuits are called the logic of the computer, because the calculations they make are
similar to simple logic decisions. Everything that a computer can do with information is done by
using these logic circuits. For example, if you press the A key on the computer keyboard, circuits
inside the computer receive pulses of electricity representing the A in binary form1000001.
Those pulses are sent to logic circuits that make yes or no decisions based on the input they receive.
A very simple example would be a circuit that determines whether the input you send it is a one or
a zero. The output of the circuit is a new piece of informationa binary one or zero that is the
result of the simple yes or no decision. Other groups of such circuits count the number of yeses and
nos to determine whether the data is an A or some other character. Then the result of that
determination is sent to other circuits that store, display, or process that data. Millions and millions
of these logic circuits are used together to do much more complex tasks, such as finding, retrieving,
and displaying a Web page. Yet everything your computer does is based on digital ones and zeros
and the use of logic circuits.

MAIN FEATURES OF A COMPUTER

a) Speed
As the computer is electronic, its internal speed is virtually instantaneous. The speed of execution
of operations by modern computer is several million operations per second. The processing time of
a computer varies a few microseconds (10-6) for small computers to few nanoseconds (10-9) and for
large ones even the picoseconds (10-12).

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The speed of a computer depends on the fact that how swiftly it can process a fixed amount of data.
Speed is measured by MIPS (Million of instructions per second).
b) Accuracy
If there is no error in the given instruction and data, computer gives result accurately as well as
quickly.
c) Reliability
Computer systems are widely accepted because of their exceptional reliability. Unlike most human,
a computer is capable of operating under the most adverse conditions for extended periods of time
without showing any sign of fatigue. Computers consistently provide the same accurate result under
all operating conditions. Of course computers do break down and may require servicing.
d) High Storage Capability
Computer can store a huge quantity of data and programs on its memory.
e) Automatic Operation
A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without human intervention. Computers are
automatic in operation. Once data and program are fed to a computer, operation of the computer is
automatic in the sequence of steps defined by the program as opposed to mechanical or electronic
calculator in which operators intervention is required. However, computers, being machines, can
not start themselves. They have to be instructed.
f) Versatility
Computers are extremely versatile, and are capable of performing almost any task, provided that
the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps. It can solve problems on various fields like
complex scientific problems, business problem, the problem of traffic at an airport, spaceexploration etc.
g) Diligence
A computer, being a machine, does not suffer from boredom, tiredness or lack of concentration
even if it has to work for long hours. Thus, if a computer is to perform millions of calculations, it
will perform the last calculation with the same accuracy and perfection as it will do the first one.
h) No I.Q.
A computer is not a magical device. It is not brainy than human. In fact, it possesses no intelligence
of its own. Its IQ is zero, at least until today. It has to be told what to do and in what sequences.
Hence, only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform. A computer can not take its
own decision in this regards.
i) No Feelings
Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no instincts because they are
machines. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge, and experience, we often make certain
judgements . However, computer cannot make such judgements on their own. Their judgement is
based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

FOR WHAT PURPOSES YOU SHOULD USE A COMPUTER?

Computers are used to solve problems very easily and very quickly without having any error on the
results. It is not expected to use computer in every task. We should use computers based on the
following purposes:
i)

if the task to be solved is tremendous

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ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

If it is very complex
If you need the repetition of the task
If same data is to be used in the task
If more accuracy is needed

SOME APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS ON VARIOUS FIELDS

It is difficult to imagine a day that is not in some way affected by computers. It is changing
peoples lives in the area as diverse as medicine, education, publishing, business, the home,
and transportation. Consider the following applications of computer.
Computers have altered completely the structure of business. Large volume of accounting
and record keeping data can be manipulated, organized, stored, retrieved, and used for
specific purposes. Bills and statements are processed and sent to customers in much less
time and with much less effort than would be required for the same processes done
manually. Financial projections are made with greater ease. Planning and decision-making
become more efficient and accurate. In manufacturing industries, computer directs
production, guide machine tools, control quality, design parts and monitor inventories.
In modern offices, word processing saves time for people at all levels of the organization
and helps ensure accurate letters, reports and memos. Automated filing uses far less storage
space than endless stacks of paper and enables workers to retrieve documents rapidly when
they are needed.
Modern banking and insurance would be impossible without the computer. More than 500
billion dollars a day is shifted electronically in the USA and 1000 billion dollars globally.
Medical record keeping is vastly improved using computer. Information related to patients
records, births, deaths, Blue Cross, Medicare, insurance malpractice, nurses hours worked,
and dosages given all are carefully tracked by computer. Some computers are being
programmed to assist doctors with diagnoses by analyzing symptoms and the variables,
pertaining to a specific patient. Medical research is aided by computers that analyze data
and create reports.
Computers analyze scientific data, test variables, and monitor experiments in almost every
scientific field. Computers assist engineers in designing and testing products of many kinds.
Computer simulations help avoid costly design errors.
It would be difficult for the federal government to function without computers. Economic
and demographic statistics can be more easily collected, analyzed and reported. National
defense systems are guided and managed by computer systems.
Global communication has been facilitated by the electronic transmission of data that
connects individuals, regardless of geographic location, almost instantaneously.
These are only a few of the countless tasks or applications performed by computers.
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HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

In order to have a better idea of the evolution of computers, let us now briefly discuss about some
of the well-known early computers. These are as follows:
I. The Mark I Computer (1937-44): 1st Digital Computer

Also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled calculator

This was the First fully automatic calculating machine

It was designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University, in collaboration with

IBM (International Business Machines) Corporation in 1937.

Its design was based on the techniques already developed for punched card
machinery.

It was an electro-mechanical device, since both mechanical and electronic

components were used in its design.

It could automatically perform a sequence of arithmetic operations.

It was completed in 1944 and was named Mark I.

It contains:
72 adding accumulators
60 sets of switches, buttons, wire plug boards, and punched tape.

It measured 15 m long, 2.4 m high, and 0.6 m wide.

The input and output were by punched cards and paper tapes.
Although this machine proved to be extremely reliable, it was very complex in design and huge in
size. It used over 3000 electrically actuated switches to control its operations, and was
approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high. It was capable of performing 5 basic arithmetic
operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and table reference. A number as big
as 23 decimal digits could be used in this machine. It took approximately 0.3 second to add two
numbers and 4.5 seconds for multiplication of two numbers. Hence, the machine was very slow as
compared to todays computers.
II. The Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) Computer (1939-42)
This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff to solve certain mathematical
equations. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, or ABC, after its inventors name and his
assistant, Clifford Berry. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.
III. The ENIAC (1943-46): 1st Electronic Computer

The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was the first all
electronic computer.

It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of

Pennsylvania, USA by a design team lead by Professor J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly in 1946.

It took up the space in a 20x40 sqr feet room, used 18000 high speed vacuum tubes,
1500 relays and weighed 30 tons.

Programs were loaded into the machine by a system of changing wired plug boards
and using a series of manual switches.

It performed 5000 additions per second

It consumed 150 kilowatts of power.

It needed to be water cooled.

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ENIAC was developed because of military need, and was used for many years to solve ballistic
problems (i.e for calculating the trajectories of missiles). It had a very small memory. It took about
200 microseconds to add two numbers and about 2800 microseconds to multiply.
IV. The EDVAC (1946-52)

A major drawback of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards, which
made it difficult to change the programs.

This problem was later overcome by the stored program concept introduced by
Dr. John Von Neumann (frequently referred to as the father of modern computer) in
1946.

His idea was to store machine instructions in the memory of the computer along
with data. These instructions could themselves be modified as required by other
instructions. This allowed easy implementation of program loops. The basic idea
behind this concept is that a sequence of instructions, as well as data, can be stored in
the memory of the computer, for automatically directing the flow of operations. This
features considerably influenced the development of modern digital computers because
of the ease with which different programs can be loaded and executed on the same
computer.

[
stored program concept:
Stored program concept was first developed by John Von Neumann
It is the idea of storing a program and data to be processed in the same memory.
Storing a program in memory is essential if a series of instructions is to be carried out
repetitively.
Storing a program in memory also makes the operation of computers automatic.
]
The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed on stored
program concept.
Von Neumann also has a share of the credit for introducing the idea of storing both
instructions and data in the binary form, instead of the decimal numbers or human readable
words.
John Von Neumann was the first to introduce the stored program concept in a computer.
EDVACs storage capacity was 1024 words of 44 bits each.
It also had an auxiliary storage of 20000 words.
The access time of primary storage varied between 0.48 to 384.0 microseconds.
The computer program was fed into the storage unit by means of punched paper tape.
The first program was written by Dr. Neumann (which was a routine to arrange numbers in
ascending order). Thus he showed that computers can be used for no-scientific
computations.
V. The EDSAC (1947-49) : 1st computer to use stored program
Almost simultaneously with the EDVAC of USA, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator (EDSAC) using stored program concept was developed at the Mathematical Laboratory
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of Cambridge University under the leadership of Professor Maurice Wilkes. This computer was
completed in 1949 and used mercury delay lines for storage.
VI. The UNIVAC I (1951) : 1st Commercially produced computer
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer using vacuum tubes,
which was not one of a kind. As vacuum tubes used filaments as a source of electrons, they had a
limited time. Many UNIVAC machines were produced, the first of which was installed in the
Census Bureau of USA in 1951 and was used continuously for ten years. This computer could
process numeric as well as alphanumeric data. The first business use of a computer, a UNIVAC I,
was by General Electric Corporation in 1954.
In 1952, the IBM (International Business Machine) Corporation introduced the 701 commercial
computers. In rapid succession, improved models of the UNIVAC I and other 700-series machines
were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650, and sold over 1000 of these computers.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Advances in computer hardware and software are generally classified into generations. The
advancement of computer technology is generally grouped into 5 chronological categories called
the first, second, third and fourth generations.
i) First Generation (1942-1955): Using vacuum tubes
The first generation of computer was marked by the use of vacuum tubes (which were large and
generated considerable heat).
For storage, either electrostatic tubes (CRT) or mercury delay lines were used.
Punched cards and punched paper tapes were used for input and output of data. (Punched cards
are cards with holes punched in them using some punching devices. The pattern of holes punched
on the cards was based on a coding scheme that was invented by Hollerith. A reading machine was
used to interpret the holes punched on those cards and then translate them into machine language
for the computer. The results of the program were punched on blank cards.)
Programs were written in machine language.
Symbolic languages were developed during this period
Software was written using machine or assembly language.
Examples of such first generation computers are
UNIVAC (Universal automatic calculator), ENIAC (Electronic numerical integrator and
calculator), EDSAC, EOVAC, IAS, SEAC etc. Computers in this era had their basis in wired
circuitry & thermionic valves. On the first generation machines, programs were written in machine
language and read into the computer memory as a stored program.
Outstanding features of the 1st generation Computers were:
1. Very expensive
2. Size of the computer becomes large, thereby of the space is required for their storage and is
non-portable.
3. Constant maintenance is required as lifetime of tube generates maximum amount of heat.
Thus air conditioning is required.
4. Since the switching time of the tubes is very high, the speed of the computer is slow (as
compared to the computers available today).
5. Had little reliability.
6. They were much faster than earlier mechanical or electro-mechanical devices.
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7.

Internal storage capacity was much limited as compared to with the present days
computers.
8. Single user computer
9. Execution speed was measured in milliseconds.
10.
ii) Second Generation (1959-1964): Using Transistors
The Second-generation computers were marked by the use of transistors in place of vacuum
tubes.
For storage, initially marked by either magnetic drum or magnetic core storage and later by the
use of the transistors in place of vacuum tubes.
Transistor: A transistor is an electronic switch that alternately allows or does not allow electronic
signals to pass
The transistors perform the same function as the vacuum tube but smaller, less expensive,
generates almost no heat and require little power.
People began to realize that the software was going to play a major role in computing.
Standardized high level languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN and ALGOL were developed.
With higher speed CPUs and the advent of magnetic tape disk storage, operating systems were
developed
Magnetic core memory (magnetic core looks like a very small metal washers strung together by
wires that carried electricity)
Examples of this generation computers are:
IBM 1401, CDC 1604, ICT 1300
The outstanding features of this generation were:
i)
In comparison with the previous generation, they were smaller in size and
generated less heat and required less power and was more reliable.
ii)
Internal storage capacity was increased and processor speeds started to be
measured in microseconds rather than milliseconds.
iii)
Machines started to evolve as series rather than as stand-alone processors.
iv)
Core storage took over from magnetic drum as the main medium for internal
storage.
v)
High level language like COBOL, ALGOL, FORTRAN etc. was developed.
vi)
Single user computer
vii)
Execution speed was measured in microseconds.
viii)
Batch processing operating system
iii) Third Generation (1965-1971): IC-based Computers (ICs with SSI and MSI chips)
The third generation computers are characterized by miniaturized-circuits (i.e. the integration of
hardware with software and an orientation of data communication and the handling of more than
one operations simultaneously).
IC a complete electronic ckt that packages transistors and other electronic components on a small
silicon chip.
The speed is faster and prices are lower.
The transistors were replaced by small integrated circuits (IC). These IC based systems were
more economical and powerful in all respect. The effect of increasing switching speed of

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transistors, the reliability, the reduction of power dissipation and size were the emergence of
extremely per second.
Computer began to support such capabilities as multiprogramming (processing several programs
simultaneously) and time-sharing (people using the same computer simultaneously).
The combination of hardware and software allows a central computer to serve many uses at
what appears to be at the same time.
Examples of third generation computers are: IBM 360, IBM-370, ICL-1900, NCR-395 etc.
The following are the outstanding feature of this generation:
i)
Further reduction in size
ii)
The cost performance factor has improved significantly.
iii)
Increased internal storage capacity.
iv)
Limited communications facilities became available
v)
Processor speeds are rated in nanosecond.
vi)
Execution speed was measured in nanoseconds.
vii)
Time-shared operating system.
viii) Multi user community
iv) Fourth Generation (1971-2000): Microprocessor-based computers (ICs with LSI and VLSI
chips)
After development of ICs, they were further integrated to form large-scale integration (LSI) and
very large-scale integration (VLSI) and resulted in the development of microprocessor.
Microprocessor-based computer are characterized by their smaller size, lower cost, larger
memory and faster speed.
The computers of today are members of 4th generation.
Package software programs company is spreading all over the world.
Another important development is interactive graphic devise and languages interface to graphics
systems.
Magnetic core memories were replaced by semiconductor memories, resulting in larger RAM
with very fast access time.
Hard disks became cheaper, smaller and larger in capacity.
Spread of high computer networking which enabled multiple computers to be connected
together to enable them to communicate and share data.
Examples are: IBM PC, Macintosh, Cray, Compaq, HP, Del etc.
The outstanding features of this generation are:
i)
Further reduction in size of the hardware.
ii)
Better price/performance
iii)
Hardware which in many cases will operate in a normal office environment.
iv)
Cheaper and bigger backing storage devices
v)
Sophisticated system software and popular application software.
vi)
The availability and enormous popularity of personal and home computers.
vii)
Remote user
viii) Execution speed was measured in picoseconds.
ix)
Future Computer: (Fifth Generation: 2001- Present): Computers based on ULSI Technology
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The fifth generation computers are under development. Japan and USA have undertaken to design
and develop such computers.
It appears that the fifth generation computers will have at least three important characteristics:
(i) Mega-chip memories,
(ii) the ability to extensive use of parallel processing and
(iii) artificial intelligence.
More devices have hot-pluggable features (a failed component is to be replaced
with a new one, without the need to shut down the system) and hence the uptime of
the system is very high.

The design approach of the CPU of these computers will be conceptually different from that of
the easier four generations of computers of Von Neumann architecture in which processor executes
simple instructions in sequence.
In new design, processing unit may not be centralized but distributed in the computer system.
All data may not be stored in main memory.
These computers will be knowledge-based, and will be used for information management,
Natural language processing, speech, character and image recognition and such other artificial
intelligence applications.
Wireless enabled multimedia high performance mobile computers.

SOME PIONEERS IN COMPUTER MANUFACTURING

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CRITERIA

Computer can be classified into three categories according to the working principle and the
technology being used. These are:
(i) Analog Computer
(ii) Digital Computer
(iii) Hybrid Computer
Computer can also be classified into four categories according to size, cost, processing speed,
storage capacity, types of tasks they can handle, types of hardware they contain, kinds of
software they can run etc. These are
(a) Super Computer
(b) Mainframe Computer
(c) Minicomputer
(d) Microcomputer

ANALOG COMPUTER
This type of computer works on the principle of measurement. In analog computers, the physical
quantities such as temperature, pressure, acceleration, power, force etc are represented by electrical
current or voltage signal. In this computer, the analog electrical parameter will be continuously
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varying with the continuous variation of its physical parameter. Such a continuous varying
electrical voltage is fed to as the input to the analog computer which are then manipulated using
various electronic modules such as inverters, comparators, summers, multipliers, integrators etc and
the results are measured and displayed by meters, oscilloscopes etc.
Analog computers have many applications in scientific and industrial fields in stimulating various
physical systems or automatically controlling industrial process.

DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computer works on the principle of counting. This computer operates on discrete numbers
represented by a finite sequence of digits. In other words, a digital computer accepts discrete
numbers as input and after performing the desired operations on these numbers, it produces discrete
numbers as output. Digital computers are the most widely used computers ever today. They break
all types of information into tiny units, and use numbers to represent those pieces of information.

HYBRID COMPUTER
This type of computer combines the feature of both analog and digital computers. It has the speed
of analog computer and the accuracy of digital computer. In many cases, a hybrid computer is an
analog computer controlled by a digital computer instead of human beings. For example, in an
intensive care unit, analog device measures a patents heart-function, temperature, pressure and
other vital signs. These measurements are then converted into numbers and supplied to digital a
component that monitors the patents vital signs.
Hybrid computers are used only for special purpose applications such as aerospace and process
control.

COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Analog computer works on the principle of measurement, while, digital computer works on
the principle of counting.
Data representation is different in analog and digital computers.
Analog computer can take on any value over a continuous range, while digital computer can
take on only discrete values.
In analog computer, the amplitude of the signal is an important factor, whereas, amplitude
of the signal is not important in digital computer because of its discrete nature.
An analog computer cannot perform logical operations, but a digital computer can do.
Analog computer can never be extremely accurate, since physical quantities are always
difficult to measure precisely. But digital computers have almost an ultimate memory and
potentially a much higher accuracy. The precision of a digital computer can usually be made
as good as one desires by simply allocating memory space to hold the additional significant
figures in numbers.
Differential equations and problems involving integration of continuous data are more
readily solved on analog computer. Whereas, problems involving large amount of data in
discrete form are most readily solved on digital computers.
Since, the digital computer is uses binary number where exact value of voltage or current
are not important, it is easier to design than analog computer.

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SUPERCOMPUTER
These are the largest and the most powerful computers available today in terms of processing.
Supercomputers have large memories and high processing speeds. They can process up to a billion
of instructions (operations) per seconds. The high speed in these computers is due to use of a
number of processors working in parallel (this is known as parallel processing) and high storage
densities are obtained by using magnetic bubble memories. These computers are used for complex
scientific purposes such as in nuclear fission, NASA, weather forecasting, defense research, space
research etc.
The primary disadvantage of supercomputer is their high cost. The software that runs on them is
also very expensive. Examples of supercomputers are: CYBER-205, CRAYXMP-14, and
CRAYYMP.

MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Mainframe computers are larger than mini- and microcomputers and they usually have one or more
central processors. These computers have many terminals connected to them. (A terminal is a
keyboard and screen wired to the mainframe computer. It does not have its own CPU or storage; it
is just an input/output (I/O) device that functions as a window into a computer located somewhere
else). They handle massive amount of input, output and storage. These computers are used where
many people in a large organization need frequent access to the same information, which is usually
organized into one or more huge databases. Here each user uses a terminal for accessing data into
the mainframe computer. They are ideal for research organizations, large industries, bank and
insurance company, government organizations and large-scale on line reservation systems.
Commonly used mainframe computers are: IBM 4300 series, HP 9000, Cyber 170 etc. (Atomic
Energy Commission of Bangladesh used a mainframe computer in the early 1980s for the first
time in Bangladesh).

MINICOMPUTER
These computers are smaller in size, and lower in cost than super- and mainframe computers but
slightly bigger in size, memory and speed compared to microcomputers. These computers are often
referred as mid-range computers since their capabilities lie between those of mainframe and
microcomputers. Minicomputers are multi-user system. This means that more than one user can
use the computer system at the same time.
These computers are ideal for those organizations and companies that cannot afford or dont need a
mainframe system such as in industrial process control, engineering and scientific research etc.
Commonly used microcomputers are HP2000, IBM SYS/3, PDP11 etc.

MICROCOMPUTER
These are the smallest and cheapest category of digital computers, which are widely used in the
world. It is called micro because of its miniature size and using of microprocessor. A
microcomputer consists of a main microprocessor (a CPU on a chip), several support
microprocessors, and associated control unit, primary storage, secondary storage and a variety of

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input/output devices. Computers of this category are supported by single-user operating system.
This category is further subdivided into a) Home computers and b) Personal computers (PC).
Home Computers: These computers are used for entertainment, education, training and for home
management. They have keyboard integrated with the CPU in one box, which is interfaced with an
ordinary color television to act as the VDU (video display unit) and an audio cassette recorder to
act as the secondary storage device. Examples of home computers are TSR-80, UNICORN etc.
Personal Computers: These computers are used by only one person at a time. These are often
shared by several people, but not at the same time. They can be connected together to create
networks. These computers are meant for professionals, small business units and for office
automation systems. Personal computers can be further subdivided into Desktop, Laptop etc.
The style of personal computer introduced first was the desktop model. Most desktop computers
are actually small enough to fit on a desk with monitor sitting on the top of the system unit. In
tower model of personal computer, the system unit sits vertically with the monitor.
The Laptop computer (also called note book computer) approximates the shape of an 8.5 by 11 inch
notebook that can fit easily inside a briefcase. This computer can operate on plug-in current or with
special batteries. i.e. these computers are battery-operated and hence can be used any time and any
where. This computer is so called because it can fit on the lap of a user.
There are another computers also such as PDA (personal digital assistance), which are the smallest
of portable computers. PDAs are called Palmtop and are much less powerful than Laptop or
Desktop computers. They are normally used for special applications such as creating small
spreadsheets, displaying important telephone numbers and addresses, keeping track of dates or
agendas. Many PDAs can be connected to larger computers to exchange data.

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BASIC ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

There are several types of computer systems, but each can be broken down into the same functional
units. Each unit performs specific functions and all units function together to carry out the
instructions given in the program. Figure shows the functional block diagram of a digital computer.
The solid lines with arrows represent the flow of information and the dashed lines with arrows
represent the flow of timing and control signals.

ALU
(Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
From Operator

Input Device

Output Device

To Operator

Memory

Control Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Figure: Functional Block Diagram of a Computer

Basically a computer system consists of 3 types of components. These are (i) Input Device, (ii)
Central Processing Unit (CPU), and (iii) Output Device.
CPU comprises of 3 parts: (a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), (b) Control Unit, and (c)
Memory.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF EACH UNIT OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

(i) Input Device
Through this unit, a complete set of instructions and data is fed into the computer system and into
the memory unit, to be stored until needed. This unit accepts instructions and data in a form
understandable to human beings, convert it into a machine readable form and transmits to the
memory unit of the computer or register unit of CPU.
Example of some input devices are: Keyboard, mouse, modem, scanner, digital camera, punch
card, magnetic tape, magnetic disk, Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Optical Character Recognition
(OCR) etc.

(ii) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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This unit is like the brain of a computer. It accepts data and instructions from the input device (or
from the software stored in its memory), processes the data according to the given instructions, and
finally stores the results of the operations in its memory or displays it in a suitable output media
such as monitor, printer etc. The CPU also controls the flow of data throughout the system.
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
All arithmetic calculations and logical decisions are performed in this unit, which can
then sends result to the memory unit to be stored either permanently or temporarily.
(b) Memory
The memory stores the instructions and data received from the input device. It stores
the results of arithmetic operations received from the ALU. It also supplies information
to the output unit.
(c) Control Unit
This unit controls and coordinates the activities of all other units of a computer system.
It takes instructions from the memory unit one at a time and interprets them. It then
sends appropriate signals to all other units to cause the specific instruction to be
executed.

(iii) Output Device

After the processing of data and instructions, the result must be made available in a human readable
form. The function of an output device is to present the processed result to the user. For this, the
output device takes data from the memory unit and prints out, or displays.
Examples of some output devices are: Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Plotter etc.

ORGANIZATIONAL CHART OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

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WHAT IS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware
All physical components of a computer system is called its hardware. It refers to any part of the
computer you can touch. Keyboard, mouse, CPU, RAM, Hard Disk, Motherboard, monitor, mouse
etc are the examples of hardware.

Software
The term software refers to the organized sets of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. The
finite set of instructions that the computer follows to solve a particular problem is called a computer
program. The group of programs that a computer needs to function is known as software. Software
can be classified into two broad categories: System software and Application software. System
software directs the internal operations of the computer, such as managing the input and output
devices. Operating system is one kind of system software. While the application software directs
the computer to solve specific user-oriented problems such as preparing payroll, preparing
electricity bills etc

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PREPARED BY: KHAN MOHAMMAD AKKAS ALI, B.SC. (HONORS) M.SC IN CSE, LECTURER, CITI, JU.