Receiver sensitivity

notes and a tutorial overview about the basics of sensitivity in radio receivers RF
circuits detailing the various methods used and why sensitivity is essential
In this section

Receiver sensitivity overview

Signal to noise ratio
SINAD
Noise figure
Receiver noise floor
Reciprocal mixing

Receiver sensitivity or RF sensitivity is one of the key specifications of any radio receiver
whether it is used for Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications broadcast or any other form of
wireless communications.
The ability of the radio receiver to pick up the required level of radio signals will enable it
to operate more effectively within its application.
The two main requirements of any radio receiver are that it should be able to separate one
station from another, i.e. selectivity, and signals should be amplified so that they can be
brought to a sufficient level to be heard. As a result receiver designers battle with many
elements to make sure that these requirements are fulfilled

Methods of specifying sensitivity performance

As the RF sensitivity performance of any receiver is of paramount importance it is
necessary to be able to specify it in a meaningful way. A number of methods and figures of
merit are used dependent upon the application envisaged:
1. Signal to noise ratio: This is a straightforward comparison ratio of a given signal level to

the noise within the system.

This receiver sensitivity measurement is slightly more formalised, and it also
includes distortion as well as the noise.
3. Noise factor : This RF receiver measurement compares the noise added by a unit - this
could be an amplifier or other unit within the system or it could be a complete receiver.
4. Noise figure: The noise figure, or NF of a unit or system is the logarithmic version of the
noise factor. It is widely used for specifications of sensitivity and noise performance of a
receiver, element within a system, or the whole system.
5. Carrier to noise ratio, CNR: The carrier-to-noise ratio is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
a modulated signal. This term is less widely used than SNR, but may be used when there is
a need to distinguish between the performance with regards to the radio frequency passband signal and the analogue base band message signal after demodulation.
2. SINAD:

 6. Minimum discernable signal, MDS: The Minimum detectable or minimum discernable

signal is the smallest signal level that can be detected by a radio receiver, i.e. one that can
be processed by its analogue and digital signal chain and demodulated by the receiver to
provide usable information at the output.
7. Error vector magnitude, EVM: Error vector magnitude, EVM is a measure that can be
used to quantify the performance of a digital radio transmitter or receiver. There various
points on the constellation diagram set to identify various digital states. In an ideal link,
the transmitter should generate the digital data such that it falls as close to these points as
possible - the link should not degrade the signal such that the actual received data does
not fall onto these points, and the receiver should also not degrade these positions. In
reality, noise enters the system and the received data does not fall exactly onto these
positions. The error vector magnitude is a measure of how far from the ideal positions the
actual received data elements are. Some times EVM may also be known as the Receive
Constellation Error, RCE
8.
Bit error rate, BER: Bit error rate is a form of measurement used for digital systems. As
the signal level falls or the link quality degrades, so the number of errors in the
transmission - bit errors - increases. Measuring the bit error rate gives an indication of the
signal to noise ratio, but in a format that is often more useful for the digital domain.

All the receiver sensitivity specification methods use the fact that the limiting factor of the
sensitivity of a radio receiver is not the level of amplification available, but the levels of
noise that are present, whether they are generated within the radio receiver or outside.

Noise

(Weak signals are not limited by the actual signal level)

Today technology is such that there is little problem in being able to achieve very large
levels of amplification within a radio receiver. This is not the limiting factor. In any
receiving station or radio communications system, the limiting factor is noise - weak
signals are not limited by the actual signal level, but by the noise masks them out. This
noise can come from a variety of sources. It can be picked up by the antenna or it can be
generated within the radio receiver.
It is found that the level of noise that is picked up externally by a receiver from the antenna
falls as the frequency increases. At HF and frequencies below this the combination of
galactic, atmospheric and man-made noise is relatively high and this means that there is
little point in making a receiver particularly sensitive. Normally radio receivers are
designed such that the internally generated noise is much lower than any received noise,
even for the quietest locations.
At frequencies above 30 MHz the levels of noise start to reach a point where the noise
generated within the radio receiver becomes far more important. By improving the noise
performance of the radio receiver, it becomes possible to detect much weaker signals.

Note on Noise:

Noise is present in all electronic and RF circuits. It presents a limitation on many aspects of
performance. Noise arises from many causes and sources. Understanding what forms of
noise are present and enables the system performance to be tailored to ensure the effects of
the noise can be minimised.
Click for more information on Noise.

Design for noise performance

In terms of the receiver noise performance it is always the first stages or front end that is
most crucial. At the front end the signal levels are at their lowest and even very small
amounts of noise can be comparable with the incoming signal. At later stages in the radio
receiver the signal will have been amplified and will be much larger. The same levels of
noise as are present at the front end will be a much smaller proportion of the signal and will
not have the same effect. Accordingly it is important that the noise performance of the front
end is optimised for its noise performance.
It is for this reason that the noise performance of the first radio frequency amplifier within
the receiver is of great importance. It is the performance of this circuit that is crucial in
determining the performance of the whole radio receiver. To achieve the optimum
performance for the first stage of the radio receiver there are a number of steps that can be
taken. These include:

Determination of circuit topology The first step in any design is to decide upon the type
of circuit to be used. Whether a conventional common emitter style circuit is to be used,
or even whether a common base should be employed. The decision will depend upon
factors including the matching input and output impedances, the level of gain required
and the matching arrangements to be used.
Determination of required gain While it may appear that the maximum level of gain may
be required from this stage to minimise the levels of amplification required later and in
this way ensure that the noise performance is optimised, this is not always the case. There
are two major reasons for this. The first is that the noise performance of the circuit may be
impaired by requiring too high a level of gain. Secondly it may lead to overload in later
stages of the radio receiver and this may degrade the overall performance. Thus the level
of gain required must be determined from the fact that it is necessary to optimise the
noise performance of this stage, and secondly to ensure that later stages of the receiver
are not overloaded.
Choice of active device The type of device to be used is also important. There are
generally two decisions, whether to use a bipolar based transistor, or whether to use a
field effect device. Having made this, it is obviously necessary to decide upon a low noise
device. The noise performance of transistors and FETs is normally specified, and special
high performance low noise devices are available for these applications.
Determination of current through the active device The design of the first stage of the
radio receiver must be undertaken with care. To obtain the required RF performance in
terms of bandwidth and gain, it may be necessary to run the device with a relatively high

level of current. This will not always be conducive to obtaining the optimum noise
performance. Accordingly the design must be carefully optimised to ensure the best
performance for the whole radio receiver.
Use of low noise resistors It may appear to be an obvious statement, but apart from
choosing a low noise active device, consideration should also be given to the other
components in the circuit. The other chief contributors are the resistors. The metal oxide
film resistors used these days, including most surface mount resistors normally offer good
performance in this respect and can be used as required.
Optimise impedance matching In order to obtain the best noise performance for the
whole radio receiver it is necessary to optimise the impedance matching. It may be
thought that it is necessary to obtain a perfect impedance match. Unfortunately the best
noise performance does not usually coincide with the optimum impedance match
Accordingly during the design of the RF amplifier it is necessary to undertake some design
optimisation to ensure the best overall performance is achieved for the radio receiver.
Ensure that power supply noise entering the circuit is removed Power supplies can
generate noise. In view of this it is necessary to ensure that any noise generated by the
radio receiver power supply does not enter the RF stage. This can be achieved by ensuring
that there is adequate filtering on the supply line to the RF amplifier.

Receiver sensitivity is one of the vital specifications of any radio receiver whether it is used
on its own or within some form of radio communications system, either a two way radio
communications system, or a fixed or mobile radio communications system. The key factor
in determining the sensitivity performance of the whole receiver is the RF amplifier. By
optimising its performance, the figures for the whole of the receiver can be improved. In
this way the specifications for signal to noise ratio, SINAD or noise figure can be brought
to the required level.

Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR

- notes or tutorial on the essentials of signal to noise ratio, SNR, measuring signal to
noise ratio, and the signal to noise ratio formula.

The noise performance and hence the signal to noise ratio is a key parameter for any radio
receiver. The signal to noise ratio, or SNR as it is often termed is a measure of the
sensitivity performance of a receiver. This is of prime importance in all applications from
simple broadcast receivers to those used in cellular or wireless communications as well as
in fixed or mobile radio communications, two way radio communications systems, satellite
radio and more.
There are a number of ways in which the noise performance, and hence the sensitivity of a
radio receiver can be measured. The most obvious method is to compare the signal and
noise levels for a known signal level, i.e. the signal to noise (S/N) ratio or SNR. Obviously
the greater the difference between the signal and the unwanted noise, i.e. the greater the
S/N ratio or SNR, the better the radio receiver sensitivity performance.

As with any sensitivity measurement, the performance of the overall radio receiver is
determined by the performance of the front end RF amplifier stage. Any noise introduced
by the first RF amplifier will be added to the signal and amplified by subsequent amplifiers
in the receiver. As the noise introduced by the first RF amplifier will be amplified the most,
this RF amplifier becomes the most critical in terms of radio receiver sensitivity
performance. Thus the first amplifier of any radio receiver should be a low noise amplifier.

Concept of signal to noise ratio SNR

Although there are many ways of measuring the sensitivity performance of a radio receiver,
the S/N ratio or SNR is one of the most straightforward and it is used in a variety of
applications. However it has a number of limitations, and although it is widely used, other
methods including noise figure are often used as well. Nevertheless the S/N ratio or SNR is
an important specification, and is widely used as a measure of receiver sensitivity

Signal to noise ratio for a radio receiver

The difference is normally shown as a ratio between the signal and the noise (S/N) and it is
normally expressed in decibels. As the signal input level obviously has an effect on this
ratio, the input signal level must be given. This is usually expressed in microvolts.
Typically a certain input level required to give a 10 dB signal to noise ratio is specified.

Signal to noise ratio formula

The signal to noise ratio is the ratio between the wanted signal and the unwanted
background noise.

It is more usual to see a signal to noise ratio expressed in a logarithmic basis using decibels:

If all levels are expressed in decibels, then the formula can be simplified to:

The power levels may be expressed in levels such as dBm (decibels relative to a milliwatt,
or to some other standard by which the levels can be compared.

Effect of bandwidth on SNR

A number of other factors apart from the basic performance of the set can affect the signal
to noise ratio, SNR specification. The first is the actual bandwidth of the receiver. As the
noise spreads out over all frequencies it is found that the wider the bandwidth of the
receiver, the greater the level of the noise. Accordingly the receiver bandwidth needs to be
stated.
Additionally it is found that when using AM the level of modulation has an effect. The
greater the level of modulation, the higher the audio output from the receiver. When
measuring the noise performance the audio output from the receiver is measured and
accordingly the modulation level of the AM has an effect. Usually a modulation level of
30% is chosen for this measurement.

Signal to noise ratio specifications

This method of measuring the performance is most commonly used for HF
communications receivers. Typically one might expect to see a figure in the region of 0.5
microvolts for a 10 dB S/N in a 3 kHz bandwidth for SSB or Morse. For AM a figure of 1.5
microvolts for a 10 dB S/N in a 6 kHz bandwidth at 30% modulation for AM might be
seen.

Points to note when measuring signal to noise ratio

SNR is a very convenient method of quantifying the sensitivity of a receiver, but there are
some points to note when interpreting and measuring signal to noise ratio. To investigate
these it is necessary to look at the way the measurements of signal to noise ratio, SNR are
made. A calibrated RF signal generator is used as a signal source for the receiver. It must
have an accurate method of setting the output level down to very low signal levels. Then at
the output of the receiver a true RMS AC voltmeter is used to measure the output level.

S/N and (S+N)/N When measuring signal to noise ratio there are two basic elements to
the measurement. One is the noise level and the other is the signal. As a result of the way
measurements are made, often the signal measurement also includes noise as well, i.e. it
is a signal plus noise measurement. This is not normally too much of a problem because

the signal level is assumed to be much larger than the noise. In view of this some receiver
manufacturers will specify a slightly different ratio: namely signal plus noise to noise
(S+N/N). In practice the difference is not large, but the S+N/N ratio is more correct.
PD and EMF Occasionally the signal generator level in the specification will mention that
it is either PD or EMF. This is actually very important because there is a factor of 2:1
between the two levels. For example 1 microvolt EMF. and 0.5 microvolt PD are the same.
The EMF (electro-motive force) is the open circuit voltage, whereas the PD (potential
difference) is measured when the generator is loaded. As a result of the way in which the
generator level circuitry works it assumes that a correct (50 Ohm) load has been applied. If
the load is not this value then there will be an error. Despite this most equipment will
assume values in PD unless otherwise stated.

While there are many parameters that are used for specifying the sensitivity performance of
radio receivers, the signal to noise ratio is one of the most basic and easy to comprehend. It
is therefore widely used for many radio receivers used in applications ranging from
broadcast reception to fixed or mobile radio communications.

SINAD and SINAD measurements for

radio receivers
- an overview or tutorial of the basics of the SINAD measurement and how SINAD may
be used in specifying the sensitivity performance of many radio receivers and radio
communications systems.

One of the measurements that can be made to assess and specify the sensitivity
performance of a radio receiver is SINAD. It is very useful in many applications including
many two way radio communications systems, mobile radio communications systems, and
particularly those at VHF and above.
While SINAD may not used as widely as the signal to noise ratio, or noise figure it is
nevertheless used commonly and can be found in the specifications of many radio receivers
used in fixed and mobile radio communications systems.. SINAD is often used in
conjunction with FM receivers, but it can also be used for AM and SSB quite easily.
As with any radio receiver, the design of the RF amplifier is key to its sensitivity
performance. A poorly performing RF amplifier will degrade the performance of the whole
radio receiver. However a high performance low noise RF amplifier will enable the overall
set to provide a high level of sensitivity. Accordingly time should be focussed in the design
of the RF amplifier in order that it should reach the required level of performance.

What is SINAD?
SINAD is a measurement that can be used for any radio communication device to look at
the degradation of the signal by unwanted or extraneous signals including noise and

distortion. However the SINAD measurement is most widely used for measuring and
specifying the sensitivity of a radio receiver.
The actual definition of SINAD is quite straightforward. It can be summarised as the ratio
of the total signal power level (Signal + Noise + Distortion) to unwanted signal power
(Noise + Distortion). Accordingly, the higher the figure for SINAD, the better the quality of
the audio signal.
The SINAD figure is expressed in decibels (dB) and can be determined from the simple
formula:
SINAD

10Log ( SND / ND )

where:
SND = combined Signal + Noise + Distortion power level
ND = combined Noise + Distortion power level
It is worth noting that SINAD is a power ratio and not a voltage ratio for this calculation.

Making SINAD measurements

To make the measurement a signal modulated with an audio tone is entered into the radio
receiver. A frequency of 1 kHz is taken as the standard as it falls in the middle of the audio
bandwidth. A measurement of the whole signal, i.e. the signal plus noise plus distortion is
made. As the frequency of the tone is known, the regenerated audio is passed through a
notch filter to remove the tone. The remaining noise and distortion is then measured.
Although it is most common to measure the electrical output at the radio receiver audio
output terminals, another approach that is not as widely used, is to pass the signal into the
loudspeaker and then use a transducer connected to SINAD meter to convert the audio back
into an electrical signal. This will ensure that any distortion included by the speaker is
incorporated, and it may overcome problems with gaining access to the speaker
connections in certain circumstances where this may not be possible.
Obtaining the figures for the signal plus noise plus distortion and the noise plus distortion it
is then possible to calculate the value of SINAD for the radio receiver of other piece of
equipment.

The set up used for making SINAD measurements

While the measurements for SINAD can be made using individual items of test equipment,
a number of SINAD meters are made commercially. These SINAD meters incorporate all
the required circuitry and can be connected directly to radio receivers to make the
measurements. Accordingly SINAD meters are a particularly convenient method of making
these measurements.

Filter for SINAD measurements

The notch filter that is required for SINAD measurements to be made has an effect on the
measurement. In an ideal world the filter would be infinitely sharp a notch out only the
modulating tone. However in the real world the filter will have a finite bandwidth. As its
bandwidth increases, so it will remove noise and distortion as well as the tone. However as
the distortion products will typically result from the second and third harmonics of the tone,
the filter will not have an effect on this element of the reading. Nevertheless it may still
have an effect on the noise levels.
In view of this problem some standards set down specifications or guidelines for the filter
used in the SINAD measurement. ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards
Institute) defines a notch filter (ETR 027). With the standard tone frequency of 1 kHz, it
states that a filter used for SINAD measurements shall be such that the output the 1000 Hz
tone shall be attenuated by at least 40 dB and at 2000 Hz the attenuation shall not exceed
0.6 dB. The filter characteristic shall be flat within 0.6 dB over the ranges 20 Hz to 500 Hz
and 2000 Hz to 4000 Hz. In the absence of modulation the filter shall not cause more than 1
dB attenuation of the total noise power of the audio frequency output of the receiver under
test.
In addition to the filter performance another critical area of a SINAD measurement is the
measurement of the output signal power levels. These have to be a true power
measurements that accommodate the different form factors of the variety of waveforms, i.e.
sine wave for the 1 kHz tone and its harmonics, but the noise will be random and have a
different form factor.

Applications of SINAD measurements

SINAD measurements give an assessment of the signal quality from a receiver under a
number of conditions. As such SINAD measurements can be used for assessing a number
of elements of receiver performance.
Receiver sensitivity: The most common use of the SINAD measurement is to assess the
sensitivity performance of a radio receiver. To achieve this the sensitivity can be assessed
by determining the RF input level at the antenna that is required to achieve a given figure of
SINAD. Normally a SINAD value of 12 dB is taken as this corresponds to a distortion
factor of 25%, and a modulating tone of 1 kHz is used. It is also necessary to determine
other conditions. For AM it is necessary to specify the depth of modulation and for FM the
level of deviation is required. For FM analogue systems ETSI specifies the use of a
deviation level of 12.5% of the channel spacing
A typical specification might be that a receiver has a sensitivity of 0.25 uV [microvolts] for
a 12 dB SINAD. Obviously the lower the input voltage needed to achieve the given level of
SINAD, the better the receiver performance.
Adjacent channel rejection: This parameter is a measure of the ability of the receiver to
reject signals on a nearby channel. As the adjacent channel performance degrades, so the
levels of noise and extraneous signals will increase, thereby degrading the SINAD
performance.
An initial measurement of SINAD is made at a given level and this is known as the
reference sensitivity. The RF input level of the signal for the SINAD measurement is then
increased by 3 dB at the receiver antenna input. A second source or signal with modulated
with a 400 Hz tone is added with its frequency set to an adjacent channel or at a specific
offset from the carrier source used for the basic SINAD measurement. It will be found that
the interferer will cause the 400 Hz tone to appear in the audio of the receiver as its level is
increased. This will be seen as a degradation in the SINAD as the 400 Hz tone will pass
through the SINAD meter notch filter.
With the measurement system set up, the interferer signal level is raised until the SINAD
value is degraded to the original value obtained at the reference sensitivity. Then the ratio
of the interfering level to the wanted signal is the adjacent channel rejection.
Receiver blocking: SINAD can be used to form the basis of a receiver blocking
measurement. As with other similar measurements a reference SINAD sensitivity level is
found. The level of the SINAD signal is increased by 3 dB at the antenna. An un-modulated
off channel signal is then added and its level raised until the receiver desensitises to an
extent whereby the reference SINAD level is reached.
SINAD is a particularly useful measurement format that can be used to determine the
performance of a radio receiver under a variety of conditions. Although SINAD is primarily
used to specify the basic sensitivity performance of many radio receivers, it can be used for

other parameters as well. Additionally it is chiefly used for FM systems, but its use is
equally applicable to AM and SSB, and it finds applications for many fixed or mobile radio
communications systems including two way radio communications links. It may also be
used for digital radio systems as well, although this is not common practice as a
measurement known as bit error rate (BER) is more widely used.
The overall figure for SINAD will be chiefly dependent upon the performance of the RF
amplifier in the receiver. A low noise RF amplifier will enable the set as a whole to provide
a good SINAD performance.

What is noise figure

- an overview or tutorial about the basics of what is noise figure used for specifying the
sensitivity performance of radio receivers and other components in radio
communications systems.

There are a number of methods of determining the sensitivity of radio receivers and their
associated elements within radio communications systems. Of these methods, the noise
figure is one of the most widely used methods. Not only is it widely used to assess the
sensitivity performance or receivers, but it can be applied to complete receiving systems or
to elements such as RF amplifiers. Thus it is possible to use the same notation to measure
the noise performance of a whole receiver, or an RF amplifier. This makes it possible to
determine whether a low noise amplifier may be suitable for a particular radio
communications system by judging their relative levels of performance.
In view of this noise figure is a particularly important parameter for a wide variety of radio
communications systems from fixed or mobile radio communications systems, two way
radio communications systems, and satellite radio communications systems.

Noise figure basics

Essentially the measurement assesses the amount of noise each part of the system or the
system as a whole introduces. This could be the radio receiver, or an RF amplifier for
example. If the system were perfect then no noise would be added to the signal when it
passed through the system and the signal to noise ratio would be the same at the output as
at the input. As we all know this is not the case and some noise is always added. This
means that the signal to noise ratio or SNR at the output is worse than the signal to noise
ratio at the input. In fact the noise figure is simply the comparison of the SNR at the input
and the output of the circuit.
A figure known as the noise factor can be derived simply by taking the SNR at the input
and dividing it by the SNR at the output. As the SNR at the output will always be worse,
i.e. lower, this means that the noise factor is always greater than one.

The noise factor is rarely seen in specifications. Instead the noise figure is always seen.
This is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels.

Noise figure

In the diagram S1 is the signal at the input, N1 is the noise at the input
and S2 is the signal at the output and N2 the noise at the output
As an example if the signal to noise ratio at the input was 4:1, and it was 3:1 at the output
then this would give a noise factor of 4/3 and a noise figure of 10 log (4/3) or 1.25 dB.
Alternatively if the signal to noise ratios are expressed in decibels then it is quite easy to
calculate the noise figure simply by subtracting one from another because two numbers are
divided by subtracting their logarithms. In other words if the signal to noise ratio was 13 dB
at the input and only 11 dB at the output then the circuit would have a noise figure of 13 11 or 2 dB.

Typical examples
The specifications of different pieces of equipment used for different types of radio
communications systems will vary quite widely. A typical HF radio receiver may have a
noise figure of 15 dB of more and function quite satisfactorily. A better level of
performance is not necessary because of the high level of atmospheric noise. However
receiver used for narrow band applications at VHF or above might have a noise figure of 3
or 4 dB. Narrow band RF amplifiers often have a noise figure of around 1 dB. However it is
interesting to note that even the best professional wide-band VHF UHF receivers may only
have a noise figure of around 8 dB.
Noise figure is a very important specification used in a variety of radio communications
applications. It may be quoted for radio receivers, individual components, or for a complete
receiver system within a fixed or mobile radio communications system. In view of its
versatility noise figure is one of the most important parameters for radio communications
applications when assessing sensitivity.

Radio receiver noise floor

- an overview or tutorial about the basics of the noise floor or a receiver, what it is and
how the noise floor affects the performance of a receiver and may affect the design of
fixed and mobile radio communications systems

Noise is a fact of life. Despite the best efforts of any design engineers, there is always some
background noise present in any radio receiver used for any radio communications system.
The noise emanates from many sources, and although the design of the receiver is
optimised to reduce it some will always be present.
Accordingly a concept that is very useful in many elements of signal theory and hence in
radio receiver design is that of a noise floor. The noise floor can be defined as the measure
of the signal created from the sum of all the noise sources and unwanted signals within a
system.
When designing a radio receiver for any radio communications system it is necessary to
ensure that the performance of the radio receiver matches the performance required. For
some radio communications systems, typically those operating on frequencies below about
30 MHz, the level of noise from the antenna system may be relatively high. In these cases,
it is of no use to have an ultra-low noise radio receiver. However in applications such as
VHF and UHF fixed or mobile radio communications systems where the levels of received
noise are much lower, then a low noise radio receiver is more useful.

Elements of a radio receiver that affect noise floor

In order to reduce the levels of noise and thereby improve the sensitivity of the radio
receiver, the main element of the receiver that requires its performance to be optimised is
the RF amplifier. The use of a low noise amplifier at the front end of the receiver will
ensure that its performance will be maximised. Wither for use at microwaves or lower
frequencies, this RF amplifier is the chief element in determining the performance of the
whole receiver. The next most important element is the first mixer.

Radio receiver noise floor

While noise can emanate from many sources, when looking purely at the receiver, the noise
is dependent upon a number of elements. The first is the minimum equivalent input noise
for the receiver. This can be calculated from the following formula:

kTB

Where:
P is the power in watts
K is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10^-23 J/K)
B is the bandwidth in Hertz
Using this formula it is possible to determine that the minimum equivalent input noise for a
receiver at room temperature (290K) is -174 dBm / Hz.
It is then possible to calculate the noise floor for the receiver:
Noise floor

-174 + NF + 10 log Bandwidth

Where NF is the noise figure

dBm is the power level expressed in decibels relative to one milliwatt
The concept of noise floor is valuable in many radio communications systems and enables
the radio receiver design and performance to be matched to the requirements of the overall
system.

Reciprocal Mixing on Radio Receivers

- notes or tutorial about reciprocal mixing and how it affects radio receiver
performance.

Reciprocal mixing is a key radio receiver performance parameter. Although poor reciprocal
mixing performance may not always be obvious, it becomes particularly important when
signals apart from the wanted one are strong.
Reciprocal mixing performance affects all forms of radio receiver ranging from cellphones,
through Wi-Fi and various forms of wireless data communications to all manner of other
radio communications systems.
Reciprocal mixing results from the phase noise performance of the local oscillators within
the radio receiver. In general the majority of the phase noise is generated by the main
synthesizer within the receiver. As such its performance is critical to the reciprocal mixing
performance of the equipment.

For receivers operating in the presence of local strong signals, the reciprocal mixing
performance of the overall receiver is important. In turn this places requirements onto the
synthesizers used within the receiver.

Reciprocal mixing basics

Reciprocal mixing occurs as a result of the phase noise which appears on all signals to a
greater or lesser degree. The major problem for a receiver is that the phase noise spreads
out either side fot he local oscillator signal.
Note on Phase Noise:

Phase noise consists of small random perturbations in the phase of the signal, i.e. phase
jitter. An ideal signal source would be able to generate a signal in which the phase
advanced at a constant rate. This would produce a single spectral line on a perfect spectrum
analyzer. Unfortunately all signal sources produce some phase noise or phase jitter, and
these perturbations manifest themselves by broadening the bandwidth of the signal.
Click on the link for a Phase Noise tutorial
When the phase noise from the local oscillator signal is superimposed onto a strong off
channel signal this can mask out a much lower level wanted signal that is within the
receiver passband.
To look at how reciprocal mixing occurs take the case of a superhet receiver tuned to a
strong signal. The signal will pass through the radio frequency stages, and then in the mixer
it will be mixed with the local oscillator to produce a new signal at the right frequency to
pass through the IF filters. When the local oscillator is tuned away by ten kilohertz, for
example the signal will no longer be able to pass through the IF filters. However it will still
be possible for the phase noise on the local oscillator to mix with the strong incoming
signal to produce a signal that will fall inside the receiver pass-band as shown. This could
be sufficiently strong to mask out a weak signal within the receiver passband.

The way in which phase noise on a signal results in reciprocal mixing

Reciprocal mixing measurement and specification

A number of different methods are used to define the level of reciprocal mixing. Generally
they involve the response of the receiver to a large off channel signal. To perform a
reciprocal mixing measurement is rarely easy. The signal generator must always be much
better than the receiver, otherwise the performance of the signal generator will be
measured! To overcome this many people use an old valve generator because their
performance is often very good in this respect.
A measurement can be made by noting the level of audio with a BFO on from a small
signal. The signal is then tuned off channel by a given amount, normally about 20 kHz and
then increased until the audio level rises to the same level as a result of the phase noise
from the receiver. As the noise level is dependent upon the bandwidth of the receiver this
has to be specified as well. Generally a bandwidth useable for SSB is used i.e. 2.7 kHz.
For example a good HF communications receiver might have a figure of 95 dB at a 20 kHz
offset using a 2.7. kHz bandwidth. This figure will improve as the frequency offset from the
main channel is increased. At 100 kHz one might expect to see a figure in excess of 105 dB
or possibly more.
Another way of measuring the phase noise response is to inject a large signal into the
receiver and monitor the level needed to give a 3 dB increase in background noise level.
The reciprocal mixing performance of many radio receivers and radio receiver modules is
seldom published. Nevertheless it is still an important characteristic that needs to meet the
required levels if operation in environments where strong signals are present is envisaged.
To ensure that the required reciprocal mixing performance is achieved, the local oscillator
which is normally a frequency synthesizer must have a good phase noise performance.