ASSIGNMENTS

MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(3 credits)
Set I

Q.1. Explain the different types of research.

Ans. Although any typology of research is inevitability arbitrary. Research
may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods.
According to the intent, research may be classified as:
Pure Research :- It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any
intention to apply it in practice. It is also known as basic or fundamental
research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiously or inquisitiveness. It is
not necessarily problem-oriented.
Applied Research :- It is carried on to find solution to a real life problem
requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem and action-directed.
It seeds an immediate and practical result. E.g. marketing research carried on
for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience
of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to
find solution to a practical problem. it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new
facts or testing of theory or a conceptual clarity.
Exploratory Research :- It is also known as formulative research. It is
preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has
or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-
determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose
of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s
familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem
or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is
feasible to attempt the study.
Descriptive study :- It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate
interpretation. It is simplest type of research. It is more specific than an
exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a
classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of
study.
Diagnostic Study :- It is similar to descriptive study but with a different
focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening. Why it is
happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with
discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of
research requires prior knowledge of the problems.
Evaluation study :- It’s a type of applied research. It is made for assessing
the effectiveness of social or economic program implementated or for
assessing the impact of development project on the development of the
project area, it is thus directed to assess or appraises the quality or the
quantity of an activity an its performance, and to specify its attribute and
condition required for its success. It is concerned with casual relationship
and is more activity guided by hypotheses it is concern also with change
over time.
Action Research :- It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent
evaluation study of an action programmed launched for solving a problem
for improving an existing situation. It includes six major steps : diagnosis,
sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change
programmed, initiation of organization change, implementation of
participation and communication process, and post experimental evaluation.
Q.2.Discuss the criteria of good research problem.
Ans. A good research problem must support multiple perspectives.
The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead
supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general
rule of thumb is that a good problem is one that would generate a variety of
viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people.

A good research problem must be researchable. It seems a bit obvious,

but more than one instructor has found her or himself in the midst of a
complex collaborative research project and realized that students don't have
much to draw on for research, nor opportunities to conduct sufficient
primary research. Choose research problems that can be supported by the
resources available to your students.

Umbrella topics must be sufficiently complex. If you are using an

umbrella topic for a large class of students who will be working on related,
more manageable problems in their learning teams, make sure that there is
sufficient complexity in the research problems that the umbrella topic
includes. These research topics must relate strongly to one another in such a
way that there will be a strong sense of coherence in the overall class effort.
 Q.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis
Ans. Hypothesis Testing :-
The basic logic of hypothesis testing is to prove or disprove
the research question. By only allowing an error of 5% or 1% and making
correct decisions based on statistical principles, the researcher can conclude
that the result must be real if chance alone could produce the same result only
5% of the time or less. These five steps consist of all the decisions a
researcher needs to make in order to answer any research question using an
inferential statistical test.
1. STATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION.
The first step is to state the research problem in terms of a question that
identifies the population(s) of interest to the researcher, the parameter(s) of
the variable under investigation, and the hypothesized value of the
parameter(s). This step makes the researcher not only define what is to be
tested but what variable will be used in sample data collection. The type of
variable (or combination of variables as in relationship type research
questions) whether categorical, discrete or continuous further defines the
statistical test which can be performed on the collected data set.

For example:
Is the mean first salary of a newly graduated student equal to $30,000?

The population of interest is all students who have just graduated. The
parameter of interest is the mean and the variable salary is continuous. The
hypothesized value of the parameter, the mean, is $30,000. Since the
parameter is a population mean of a continuous variable variable, this
suggests a one sample test of a mean.
2. SPECIFY THE NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES.
The second step is to state the research question in terms of a null hypothesis
(H0) and an alternative hypothesis (HA). The null hypothesis is the
population parameter, µ = $30,000 (H0: µ = $30,000). The alternative
hypothesis is the population parameter does not equal $30,000 ( HA: µ NE
$30,000). This HA suggests a two-tailed test as NE $30,000 can be less than
$30,000 or more than $30,000. Sometimes the alternative hypothesis is
stated in terms of a direction such as less than or greater than a value such at
$30,000. A directional HA calls for a one-tailed test, in the direction stated in
the HA.

The next part of step 2 is to select a significance level typically alpha is used
at the .05 or the .01 level. A good researcher will also not neglect Type II
error. In this step we are not only setting up our research question in terms of
statistical hypotheses, but we must evaluate whether all the assumptions
appropriate for the statistical test have been met.

Example:
H0: µ = $30,000
HA: µ NE $30,000 alpha=.05

Test assumptions are 1) the population is normally distributed or sample size

is approximately >=30 and 2) the sample we have used to collect the data
was drawn randomly from the population. If these test assumptions have not
been meeting, then data collection should be reevaluated or continued under
caution.
3. CALCULATE TEST STATISTIC.
The third step is to calculate a statistic analogous to the parameter specified
by the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is defined by the parameter µ,
then the statistics computed on our data set would be the mean (xbar) and the
standard deviation (s). A histogram of our sample data set gives us our best
approximation of what we expect our population distribution to look like.

Since the best estimate of µ is xbar, our sample mean, the test statistic is
based on a distribution of sample means, the sampling distribution of the
mean, xbar, with n, sample size, equal to the number of data values used to
compute xbar. We have hypothesized from the research question the mean of
this distribution and want to see if our sample mean is close to this value. To
determine where our sample mean fits on this sampling distribution, we
convert our sample mean, xbar, to a z-score. Thus the test statistic would be :

z = xbar-µ (hypothesized)
standard error of xbar

The standard error of xbar (point estimate) is s, the sample standard

deviation, divided by square root of n, the sample size since the population
standard deviation is unknown.

Example:
Suppose we randomly sampled 100 high school seniors and determined their
salary of their first job. The sample mean salary, xbar, was $29,000 with a
standard deviation of $6,000. Since sample size is >30, we don't have to
worry about whether the population is normally distributed (Central Limit
Theorem). The test statistic would be:
z = $29,000 - $30,000 = -$1,000 = -1.667
$6,000/sqrt(100) $600
4. COMPUTE PROBABILITY OF TEST STATISTIC OR
REJECTION REGION.
The fourth step is to calculate the probability value (often called the p-value)
which is the probability of the test statistic for both tails since this this two-
tailed test. The probability value computed in this step is compared with the
significance level selected in step 2. If the probability is less than or equal to
the significance level, then the null hypothesis is rejected. If the probability
is greater than the significance level then the null hypothesis is not rejected.
When the null hypothesis is rejected, the outcome is said to be "statistically
significant"; when the null hypothesis is not rejected then the outcome is said
be "not statistically significant." If the outcome is statistically significant,
then the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

Example:

P(z> 1.667) =.048 + P(z< -1.667)=.048, the p-

value is .048+.048=.096

Since this value is greater than alpha=.05 selected when we set up out
hypotheses, we accept the null hypothesis, H0: µ = $30,000.

If we wish to use a rejection region of alpha=.05 (.025 in each tail) to

determine if we accept or reject the null hypothesis, the cut-off z-score would
be -1.96 and 1.96. If our test statistic is >=1.96 or <= -1.96, then we would
reject the null hypothesis at alpha=.05. We can say that our test statistic
(transformed into a z-score) is in the rejection region. In this example, our
test statistic, z=-1.667 for our test statistic does not fall in the rejection region
(sometimes called the acceptance region), so we must accept the null
hypothesis.
5. STATE CONCLUSIONS.
The fifth and final step is to describe the results and state correct statistical
conclusions in an understandable way. The conclusions consist of two
statments-one describing the results of the null hypothesis and the other
describing the results of the alternative hypothesis. The first statement should
state as to whether we accepted or rejected the null hypothesis and for what
value of alpha or p-value for our test statistic. The second statement should
answer the research question proposed in step 1 stating the sample statistic
collected which estimated the parameter we hypothesized.

Example:

Accept the null hypothesis at alpha=.05 or p-value of .096. Based on a

sample mean of $25,000, the mean salary of a newly graduated student does
not equal $30,000.

Q.4.Write a note on experimental design

Ans. Design of experiments, or experimental design, (DoE) is the design
of all information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether
under the full control of the experimenter or not. (The latter situation is
usually called an observational study.) Often the experimenter is interested
in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some
objects (the "experimental units"), which may be people, parts of people,
groups of people, plants, animals, etc. Design of experiments is thus a
discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social
sciences.

Principles of experimental design, following Ronald A. Fisher

A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald A.

Fisher, in his innovative book The Design of Experiments (1935). As an
example, he described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could
distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the
cup. While this sounds like a frivolous application, it allowed him to
illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design:
Comparison
In many fields of study it is hard to reproduce measured results
exactly. Comparisons between treatments are much more reproducible
and are usually preferable. Often one compares against a standard or
traditional treatment that acts as baseline.
Randomization
There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the
consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means
of some random mechanism such as tables of random numbers, or the
use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice. Provided
the sample size is adequate, the risks associated with random
allocation (such as failing to obtain a representative sample in a
survey, or having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between
a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can
be managed down to an acceptable level. Random does not mean
haphazard, and great care must be taken that appropriate random
methods are used.
Replication
Measurements are usually subject to variation, both between repeated
measurements and between replicated items or processes. Multiple
measurements of replicated items are necessary so the variation can be
estimated.
Blocking
Blocking is the arrangement of experimental units into groups
(blocks) that are similar to one another. Blocking reduces known but
irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater
precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study.
Orthogonality
Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can
be legitimately and efficiently carried out. Contrasts can be
represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are
uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal.
Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides
different information to the others. If there are T treatments and T – 1
orthogonal contrast, all the information that can be captured from the
experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts.
Factorial experiments
Use of factorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time
method. These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible
interactions of several factors (independent variables).
Analysis of the design of experiments was built on the foundation of the
analysis of variance, a collection of models in which the observed variance
is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated
and/or tested.

Q.5.Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

Ans. John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:
i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its
total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or
community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify the
community values, standards and their shared way of life.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases
must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social
meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in
case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behavior must
never be overlooked.

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be clearly shown.
That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually
blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed.
In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between the
person's various experiences.

vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important
criteria for the life history is that a person's

life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social
situations. vii) The 'life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual
framework, this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

Q.6.What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

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Sampling is the use of a subset of the population to represent the whole

population. Probability sampling, or random sampling, is a sampling
technique in which the probability of getting any particular sample may be
calculated. Nonprobability sampling does not meet this criterion and
should be used with caution. Nonprobability sampling techniques cannot be
used to infer from the sample to the general population. Any generalizations
obtained from a nonprobability sample must be filtered through one's
knowledge of the topic being studied. Performing nonprobability sampling is
considerably less expensive than doing probability sampling, but the results
are of limited value.

Examples of nonprobability sampling include:

Convenience, Haphazard or Accidental sampling - members of the

population are chosen based on their relative ease of access. To sample
friends, co-workers, or shoppers at a single mall, are all examples of
convenience sampling. Convenience sampling generally assumes a
homogeneous population, and that one person is pretty much like another.
Whilst people are known to be different, the difference is assumed to be
probabilistic - thus if 80% of a sample prefer coffee to tea, you might
conclude that 80% of the population at large would choose coffee. In
practice, your sample may be mostly middle class Parisians and the same
test in London may well give a different result.

Many famous psychological experiments were done with available people.

Most typically, experiments done in universities use students, simply
because they are cheap, willing and available. This has caused significant
debate about the validity of results.

Convenience sampling is also known as Opportunity Sampling, Accidental

Sampling or Haphazard Sampling.

Snowball sampling - The first respondent refers a friend. The friend also
refers a friend, etc. he 'snowball' effect occurs as referrals multiply at each
step. For example if you got two referrals from each person, then starting
from two people get four more, then eight, sixteen and so on.

Snowball sampling uses a method beloved by sales people, where customer

referrals to new prospects have particular value as the relationship of trust
and obligation between the identified person and the referrer makes it more
likely that the new person will make a purchase.

The way that the sample is chosen by target people makes it liable to various
forms of bias. People tend to associate not only with people with the same
study selection characteristic but also with other characteristics. This
increases the chance of correlations being found in the study that do not
apply to the generalized wider population.

The need to get the person to give you a referral also means that the
researcher has to form a relationship with the person and be nice to them.
This can change the study results as affective biases in both the researcher
and the target person change how they think and behave.

With care in selection (you do not have to use every referral) and avoiding
personal bias, snowball sampling can still be a useful method, particularly if
you have no other way of reaching the target population.

Snowball sampling is also known as chain sampling, chain-referral

sampling or referral sampling.

Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling - The researcher chooses the

sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is
used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise
in the area being researched. Purposive sampling starts with a purpose in
mind and the sample is thus selected to include people of interest and
exclude those who do not suit the purpose.

This method is popular with newspapers and magazines which want to make
a particular point. This is also true for marketing researchers who are
seeking support for their product. They typically start with people in the
street, first approaching only 'likely suspects' and then starting with
questions that reject people who do not suit.

• Deviant Case-Get cases that substantially differ from the dominant

pattern(a special type of purposive sample)
• ad hoc quotas - A quota is established (say 65% women) and
researchers are free to choose any respondent they wish as long as the
quota is met.

If care is not taken then significant bias can be introduced by quota

sampling. In the example above, the people accessed may change with
the time of day, the day of the week, whether they have an interest in
cheese and so on.

Even studies intended to be probability studies sometimes end up being non-

probability studies due to unintentional or unavoidable characteristics of the
sampling method. In public opinion polling by private companies (or other
organizations unable to require response), the sample can be self-selected
rather than random. This often introduces an important type of error: self-
selection error. This error sometimes makes it unlikely that the sample will
accurately represent the broader population. Volunteering for the sample
may be determined by characteristics such as submissiveness or availability.
The samples in such surveys should be treated as non-probability samples of
the population, and the validity of the estimates of parameters based on them
unknown.
 ASSIGNMENTS
MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(3 credits)
Set II

Q.1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

Ans. Advantages of secondary data :-

Secondary data is provides a multipurpose bases to researchers.

· Secondary data can be used for creating or generating new ideas by

providing a base for some core issues.

· Secondary data can be very effectively used for the comparison of two
statistics and then drawing inferences based on these comparisons.

· Secondary data is the best method of getting information regarding a

particular area where the direct collection of data is impossible.

· Secondary data is the most easily accessible data and saves the researcher
the trouble of going through the tiresome process of collecting data
personally.

· Secondary data is readily available at cheap rates and is usually quite

inexpensive.

· Collecting secondary data and analyzing it saves time and effort.

· Secondary data is unobtrusive. It is easily available and the researcher can

get it without much struggle.

· Secondary data avoids data collection problems and it provides a basis for
comparison.

· Secondary data can be easily located by using printed indices.

· It can be less expensive than gathering the data all over again.
· This data type may allow the researcher to cover a wider geographic or
temporal range.

· Secondary data can allow for larger scale studies on a small budget.

· It does not exhaust people's good will by re-collecting readily available

data.

· Secondary data provides an opportunity for longitudinal analysis based on

the previous waves of survey.

· Secondary data is a good indicator for analyzing the social change

overtime.

· This type of data also provides an opportunity for cross-cultural analysis

with fewer limits of time, cost and language.

· Collecting secondary data leaves more time for making in depth data
analysis.

· Re-analysis of the same secondary data may offer different insights

regarding the analysis by focusing on one variable or subgroup.

· With secondary data the researchers might be able to test hypotheses they
had not thought of, or examine the strengths of their arguments.

· Secondary data may be available which is entirely appropriate and wholly

adequate to draw conclusions and answer the question or solve the problem.
Sometimes primary data collection simply is not necessary.

· It is far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain primary data. For
the same level of research budget a thorough examination of secondary
sources can yield a great deal more information than can be had through a
primary data collection exercise.

· When the researcher has collected the secondary data, there is no need to
repeat the field work necessary for the collection of data.

· The time involved in searching secondary sources is much less than that
needed to complete primary data collection.

· Secondary sources of information can yield more accurate data than that
obtained through primary research. This is not always true but where a
government or international agency has undertaken a large scale survey, or
even a census, this is likely to yield far more accurate results than custom
designed and executed surveys when these are based on relatively small
sample sizes.

· It should not be forgotten that secondary data can play a substantial role in
the exploratory phase of the research when the task at hand is to define the
research problem and to generate hypotheses. The assembly and analysis of
secondary data almost invariably improves the researcher's understanding of
the marketing problem, the various lines of inquiry that could or should be
followed and the alternative courses of action which might be pursued.

· Often the secondary data provides valuable background for the research -
for example, it enables users to judge whether a small sample they have
gathered is typical of the national population.

· Government survey organizations have considerable expertise and

relatively massive resources, including the power to compel participation
(e.g. in census-taking), so samples are more likely to be of large size and
truly representative of the population.

· Secondary sources help define the population. Secondary data can be

extremely useful both in defining the population and in structuring the
sample to be taken. For instance, government statistics on a country's
agriculture will help decide how to stratify a sample and, once sample
estimates have been calculated, these can be used to project those estimates
to the population.

Disadvantages of secondary Data :-

a. Difficult or costly access

b. Unsuitable aggregations and definitions

c. Does not meet the purpose of study

d. No real control over data quality

• Quality of Researcher – As we will discuss, research conducted using

primary methods are largely controlled by the marketer. However, this
is not the case when it comes to data collected by others.
Consequently, the quality of secondary research should be scrutinized
 closely since the origins of the information may be questionable.
Organizations relying on secondary data as an important component
in their decision-making (e.g., market research studies) must take
extra steps to evaluate the validity and reliability of the information by
critically evaluating how the information was gathered, analyzed and
presented.
• Not Specific to Researcher’s Needs – Secondary data is often not
presented in a form that exactly meets the marketer’s needs. For
example, a marketer obtains an expensive research report that looks at
how different age groups feel about certain products within the
marketer’s industry. Unfortunately, the marketer may be disappointed
to discover that the way the research divides age groups (e.g., under
13, 14-18, 19-25, etc.) does not match how the marketer’s company
designates its age groups (e.g., under 16, 17-21, 22-30, etc). Because
of this difference the results may not be useful.
• Inefficient Spending for Information – Since the research received
may not be specific to the marketer’s needs, an argument can be made
that research spending is inefficient. That is, the marketer may not
receive a satisfactory amount of information for what is spent.
• Incomplete Information – Many times a researcher finds that research
that appears promising is in fact a “teaser” released by the research
supplier. This often occurs when a small portion of a study is
disclosed, often for free, but the full report, which is often expensive,
is needed to gain the full value of the study.
• Not Timely – Caution must be exercised in relying on secondary data
that may have been collected well in the past. Out-of-date information
may offer little value especially for companies competing in fast
changing markets.
• Not Proprietary Information – In most cases secondary research is not
undertaken specifically for one company. Instead it is made available
to many either for free or for a fee. Consequently, there is rarely an
“information advantage” gained by those who obtain the research.
Q.2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.
Ans. Prerequisites of effective Observation :-
The prerequisites of effective observation consist of :
 Observations must be done under conditions which will permit

accurate results. The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly

the objects to be observed. The distance and the light must be
satisfactory. The mechanical devices wised must be in good working
conditions and operated by skilled persons.
 Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples

of the cases.
 Recording should be accurate and complete.
Advantages of observation
Observation has certain advantages :
1. The main virtue of observation is its directness; its makes it possible

to study behavior as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people

about their behavior and interactions: he can simply watch they do
and say
2. Data collected by observations may describe the observed phenomena
as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce
elements or artificially into the researched situation for instance in
interview ; the respondent may not behave in a natural way.
3. Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to
articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birds
etc.
4. Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the validated
and compared with behavior through observation
5. Observation make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.
For examples only observation can provide an insight into all the
 aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management
representatives.
6. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies and has less

biasing effect on their conduct than questioning.

7. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure

more accurate data and also of making continuous observation over

longer periods.

Q.3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.

Ans.
Q.4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.
Ans. The interview can be classified into
a. Structured or directive interview
b. Unstructured or non directive interview
c. Focused interview
d. Clinical interview
e. Depth interview
A. Structured Directive interview :-
This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The
same questions are put to all the respondent and in the same order.
Each question is asked in the same way in each interview promoting
measurement reliability. This type of interview is used for large scale
formularized surveys.
B. Unstructured or non Directive interview :-
This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the
respondent to talk freely about a give topic with a minimum of
prompting or guidance. In this type of interview, a detailed pre-
planned schedule is not used. Only a broad interview guide is used.
 The interviewer avoids channeling the interviewer directions. Instead
he develops a very permissive atmosphere.
This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys.
It is particularly useful in exploratory research where the lines of
investigations are not clearly defined. It is also useful for gathering
information on sensitive topics such as divorce, social discrimination,
class conflict, generation gap, drug addiction etc.
C. Focused Interview :-
This is semi-structured interview where the investigator attempt to
focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to
which the respondents have been exposed. It takes place with place
with the respondents known to have involved in a particular
experience. The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An
interview guide specifying topics relating to the subjective experience
of the respondent.
D. Clinical Interview :-
This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference.
While the focused interview is concerned with the effect of specific
experiment, clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying
feeling or motivations or with the course of the individual’s life
experiences.
E. Depth Interview :- This is an intensive and searching interview

aiming are studying the respondent’s emotions or convictions on the

basis of an interview guide. This requires much more training on
inter-personal skill than structured interview. This deliberately aims to
elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal felling and emotions.
This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free
expression of affectively charged information. It requires probing. The
 interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of
course, he should use encouraging like I see to motivate the
respondent to continue narration.
Q.5.Describe the principles involved in the table construction.
Ans. There are certain accepted principles of rules relating to
construction of tables.
1. Every table should not have a title . the title should represent a

succinct description of the content of the table. It should be clear and

concise
2. A number facilitating easy reference should indentify every table. The

number can be centered above the title. The table numbers should run
in consecutive serial order, alternatively tables in chapter 1 be
numbered as 1.1 1.2 in chapter 2 as 2.1,2.2 and so on
3. The caption should be clear and brief.
4. ‘the units of measurement under each heading must always be

indicated
5. If the data in series of tables have been obtained from different

sources, it is ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a

place just below the table.
6. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always
drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.
7. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
8. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and

“plus” or “minus” sign should be in perfect alignment.

9. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals
of columns at the bottom
10. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories

different kinds of type, spacing and identification can be used.

11.The arrangement of the categorized in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude.
12. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that

a table length is more than its width.

13.Abbreviations should not be avoided whenever possible and ditto
marks should not be used in a table.
 Q.6.. Write a note on contents of research report.

Ans. CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

The information in the first part of this section, Journal Articles, Books,
Chapters in Books, Peer Reviewed Published Conference Proceedings, Non-
peer Reviewed Published Conference Proceedings is filtered and extracted to
formulate the Preliminary Publication Count for the Department of
Education. This is a crucial step in the subsidy calculation process and it is
of the utmost importance that this information must be as comprehensive
accurate as possible. All research publications, which appeared in 2004,
must be included, even if they are "in press". There will be an opportunity
early in February to submit volume and page numbers of papers, which have
appeared in the interim. Publications should be listed using the Harvard
referencing system, without using italics or bold. Journal names must appear
in full. Abbreviations will be returned to departments for expansion. (Theses
passed for higher degrees are subsidy earning but this information is not
included in the Preliminary Publication Count.)

The second part of this section, Published Conference Abstracts, Patents, Theses &
Dissertations passed for Higher Degrees, University Publications & Publications of a
Popular Nature - Unreformed Journal Articles, Newspaper Articles, CD's, Online
Works, Extension and Development Work, Creative Work, Consultancy and Other
Activities based on Expertise Developed in Research (gives departments the
opportunity to demonstrate the extent and nature of their extension and
development work), Motivation for the addition of a South African
Journal to the list of South African approved journals. The work
included here is not subsidy earning but nevertheless is an important aspect
of scholarly activity at UCT.

The outline of a research report is given below :-

1. Prefatory items
• Title page
• Declaration
• Certificates
• Preface/acknowledgement
• Table of content
 • List of tables
• List of graphs
• Abstract of synopsis
2. Body of the report
• Introduction
• Theoretical background of the topic
• Statement of the problem
• Review of literature
• The scope of the study
• The objective of the study
• Hypothesis to be tested
• Definition of the concept
• Models If any
• Design of the study
• Methodology
• Method of data collection
• Sources of data
• Sampling plan
• Data collection instrument
• Field work
• Data processing and analysis plan
• Overview of the report
• Limitation of the study
• Results : finding and discussion
• Summary, conclusion and recommendation
3. Reference material

• Bibliography
• Appendix
• Copies of data collection instrument
• Technical details on sampling plan
• Complex tables glossary of new terms used