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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

All cells have a plasma membrane, DNA, ribosomes


and cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells - bacteria and archaea
- are small, relatively simple cells that do not have a
membrane-bound nucleus. All other forms of life are
composed of more complex eukaryotic cells,
distinguished by the presence of a true nucleus.
Membranes form the boundaries of many eukaryotic
organelles, compartmentalizing the interior of the cell
and facilitating a variety of metabolic activities.
Organelles of the Endomembrane System
1. Nucleus - surrounded by a porous nuclear envelope,
the nucleus contains the DNA that carries the cell's
hereditary blueprint and directs its activities.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - is a membranous
network of tubes and sacs.
a. Smooth ER - synthesizes lipids, processes toxins and
drugs in liver cells, and stores and releases calcium ions
in muscle cells.
b. Rough ER - manufactures membranes and ribosomes
on its surface; produces proteins that are secreted,
inserted into membranes, or transported in vesicles to
other organelles.
3. Golgi Apparatus - consists of stacks of membranous
sacs that modify ER products, then ship them to other
organelles or to the cell surface.
4. Lysosomes - are sacs of enzymes that function in
digestion and recycling within the cell.
5. Vacuoles - plant cells contain a large central vacuole
with lysosomal, storage and growth functions.
Energy-converting Organelles
1. Chloroplasts - are present in plants, converting solar
energy to chemical energy in sugars.
2. Mitochondria - carry out cellular respiration, using
the energy in food to make adenosine triphospate (ATP)
for cellular work.
The Cytoskeleton and Related Structures
Cytoskeleton is a structural network of protein fibers.
Microfilaments of actin enable cells to change shape
and move. Intermediate filaments reinforce the cell and
anchor certain organelles. Microtubules give the cell
rigidity and act as tracks for organelle movement.
Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are locomotor appendages
made up of microtubules in "9 + 2" arrangement.
Cell Surfaces and Junctions
Plant cells are supported by rigid cell walls made
largely of cellulose. Plasmodesmata are connecting
channels between plant cells. Plasma membrane of the
plant cell extend through the plasmodesmata so that

water and other small molecules can readily pass from


cell to cell. The cells of a plant tissue share water,
nourishment and chemical messages.
The extracellular matrix of animal cells consists mainly
of glycoproteins. Tight junctions bind cells to form
leakproof sheets. Anchoring junctions rivet cells into
strong tissues. Gap junctions allow substances to flow
from cell to cell.
The Structure of Viruses
Viruses provide some of the earliest evidence that genes
are made of DNA. They can be regarded as genes
packed in protein. When phage DNA enters a lytic
cycle inside a bacterium, it is replicated, transcribed and
translated; the new viral DNA and protein molecules
then assemble into new phages, which burst from the
host cell.
But they can't
reproduce on their own. They need to infect or invade a
host cell and that host cell will do all the work to
duplicate the
virus. They also don't really have any working parts.
While there are some advanced
viruses that seem fancy, viruses don't have any of the
parts just like the
cells. They have no nuclei, mitochondria, or ribosomes.
Some viruses do not
even have cytoplasm.
Parts of the Virus
Every virus has
a few basic parts.
1. DNA or RNA it is the most important part. A virus
can have DNA or RNA, but
not both. The strand of nucleic acid
is considered the core of the virus.
2. Capsid it is
a protein coat that protects the nucleic acid. It protects
the core and also
helps the virus infect new cells.
3. Envelope can be found in some virus. The envelope
is made of lipids and proteins in the
way a regular cell membrane is structured. It can help a
virus get into systems
unnoticed and help them invade new host cells.
Mammals breathe in oxygen gas, but the transport of all
substances occurs in solution. Di-atomic oxygen gas
passes into the blood stream via a micron thin layer of
water which surrounds the cells of the alveoli. All
living cells are bathed in this tissue fluid.

The cell membrane is a 7 nm thin phospholipid


bilayer, which surrounds the cell organelles and
cytoplasm and controls what substances enter and leave
the cell and the rate at which they do it. Its function is
to hold the cell contents together maintaining the
structure and chemistry of the cell.
Phospholipids form part of the cell membrane; the
membrane also contains enzymes, antigens, receptors,
carbohydrates and steroids. It is only visible with a
scanning electron microscope set to at least 100,000
times magnification. We do not understand everything
about it, but we have observed its unique properties.
If you drip liquid phospholipids on water you will get a
very thin sheen spread across the waters surface. Why
is this so? Phospholipids are part hydrophobic, or nonpolar (dislike water), and part hydrophilic, or polar
(water loving). The polarity of a molecule refers to the
difference in charge which occurs in some molecules,
including water.
A hydrophobic head points away from the cell nucleus
and a hydrophilic tail points toward the nucleus. A
second phospholipid molecule has its tail pointing away
from the nucleus, with the head forming the inside of
the membrane, pointing toward the nucleus. The other
substances the membrane contains are in this
hydrophilic component.
The fluid hydrophilic component between the
hydrophobic upper and lower boundary and the mosaic
pattern observed with the electron microscope is known
as the fluid mosaic modeland was discovered in the
1970s.
The three main mechanisms by which the membrane
facilitates the passage of dissolved or carried substances
are simple and carrier diffusion, active
transport and osmosis.
Diffusion happens because all molecules possess
kinetic energy which makes them move in a random
way tending toward equilibrium. The gases involved in
respiration (di-oxygen and carbon dioxide) are neutral
in charge, non-polar and, therefore, pass through the
phospholipid bi-layer. Water molecules, despite their
high polarity, are small enough to pass through the
layer by osmosis.
In plant and animal cells, the membrane allows water
molecules to flow in or out of cells depending on the
water potential on either side of the membrane.
Excessive uptake or loss of water will damage cells. It
is vital that the water potential on each side of the cell

membrane is exactly the same. This is monitored by the


brain and adjusted by the kidneys.
This simple diffusion needs no energy from respiration.
The same is true for controlled diffusion where
enzyme-controlled reactions allow substances to enter
the cell through specialist pores created by the presence
of transport proteins in the membrane. Such proteins
allow polar molecules, such as glucose or amino acids,
and charged ions, such as sodium or chlorine, to enter
and leave the cell.
If diffusion were the only method of taking in
substances, the cell would have no control over what
went in or out. The equilibrium would be maintained no
matter the substance concerned. This is not always
desirable, so a core function of the membrane is to
move substances in or out of cells against
a concentration gradient.
This is active transport and requires energy from
respiration. An example is the presence of sodium and
potassium ions. In nerve cells, they are more
concentrated inside the cell than outside it. We would
expect a flow of ions out of the cell; as this does not
happen, they have accumulated against a concentration
gradient. Active transport is essential for healthy
functioning of nerve impulses, the reabsorption of
substances by the kidneys, the absorption of glucose by
the micro-villi and the absorption of minerals by plant
roots.
A living eukaryotic cell
is essentially an interconnection of organelles, such as
the nucleus, ribosomes,
mitochondria and in green autotrophs the chloroplasts.
The chemicals found in
the cytosol are substances used and produced in
biochemical or metabolic reactions.
All of these elements are contained as a
self-contained whole within a cell membrane. In the
case of plant cells, a
cellulose wall also exists. All metabolites (products of
biochemical reactions)
that move between the cytosol and the organism do so
by crossing the plasma membrane.
We will be looking at how this process occurs.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a matrix structure of
interconnected folded membranes. The structure
originates from and is attached to the nuclear
membrane. The cytoplasm (cytosol) of eukaryotes is
packed with this matrix and consists of two types.

The larger component is called the rough endoplasmic


reticulum. It has ribosomes attached, so it is here that
protein synthesis, including enzymes and antigens
occurs. The ribosomes are tiny even by organelle
standards, being only 22 nm in diameter.
When the instruction to build a given protein has been
completed, a tiny organelle bound by a single
membranous sac called a vesicle is produced. A vesicle
is used to transport proteins around and out of the cell,
depending on the type of protein coded for in the
synthesis.
Vesicles are formed from swellings at the margins
of the rough reticulum that are pinched off. They are
then transported to the Golgi apparatus. Most extracellular enzymes, for example those involved in
digestion, are synthesized here and secreted from the
cell.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a smaller
organelle and has no ribosomes attached. It is the site
where substances needed by the cell are synthesized, for
example lipids for the cell membranes, steroids such as
cholesterol and the reproductive hormones. The calcium
ions needed for muscle contraction in antagonistic pairs
are stored here.
The Golgi apparatus is in a constant state of flux. One
side is formed by the fusion of membranes of
vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum. The other side
produces vesicles that are formed when certain
specialist proteins need further modification. These are
pinched off and are called Golgi vesicles.
In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus may produce
lysosomes, a vesicle containing a concentrated mix of
digestive enzymes. They are involved in the breakdown
of imported food vacuoles. Inside plant cells, the
apparatus produces the polysaccharide macromolecules
starch and cellulose, which are needed for cell wall
formation.
The Golgi apparatus is particularly apparent in
metabolically active
cells, particularly those which secrete substances into
organisms; for instance, the secretion of digestive
enzymes by the pancreas.
The Golgi apparatus is the organelle concerned with
collecting, sorting and
processing molecules. Once processed the Golgi
vesicles transport

these molecules within the cell or they are secreted into


the organism.
Mitochondria are specialized organelles found in
eukaryotic cells. Their role is to make chemical energy
from sugar, which is why they are sometimes referred
to as the powerhouse of the cell. Like chloroplasts,
mitochondria were once believed to be independent
bacteria cells engulfed by primitive eukaryotic cells via
endocytosis, a process by which a cell takes in an object
by enveloping it in its plasma membrane. This theory is
supported by the fact that both mitochondria and
chloroplasts contain ribosomes and make their own
protiens. Both organelles also contain the kind of
circular DNA found in bacteria cells, and they have
double membranes. The inner membrane is thought to
be their original membrane and the outer membrane is
believed to have been obtained during endocytosis.
The structure of the bean-shaped mitochondria supports
its function. The outer membrane, which protects and
contains the organelle, and the inner membrane, which
is a series of folds called cristae, divides the organelle
into a narrow intermembrane space and a wider internal
matrix. Cellular respiration takes place inside the matrix
and across the cristae membranes, where there is a high
concentration of enzymes to facilitate the process.
"Cellular respiration" is the name given to the process
that converts ATP (adenosine triphosphate) into
glucose. ATP is an energy storage compound similar to
DNA, because it consists of the nucleotide adenine
bonded to a ribose sugar that is, in turn, bonded to three
phosphate groups. When the covalent bonds between
these phosphate groups are broken, energy is released,
which a cell can use to power biological processes like
protein synthesis.
Cellular respiration occurs in three phases. In the first
stage, called glycolysis, glucose, a six carbon sugar, is
split into two. Besides yielding a pair of three carbon
sugar molecules, this exothermic reaction also produces
two ATP molecules, two pyruvic acid molecules (a
waste product), and two NADH molecules (these
enzymes carry electrons).
The second phase of cellular respiration is known as the
citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle. In this phase, the pair
of three carbon sugar molecules is converted into a
compound called acetyl-CoA, which creates two more
ATP molecules. Carbon dioxide is a waste product of
this phase.
The third phase of cellular respiration, called electron
transport, occurs when a series of oxidation-reduction

reactions take place across the cristae membrane. When


carrier molecules transfer high-energy electrons to a
low-energy acceptor, energy is released (oxygen takes
up these low-energy electrons, which gives it a negative
charge that attracts hydrogen protons and turns it into
water). The energy from the electrons is used to pump
hydrogen ions across the membrane against their
concentration gradients. Naturally, the ions want to reenter the matrix of the mitochondria, which they can
only do through a membrane-bound protein called ATP
synthase. As they move through the enzyme, down their
concentration gradient, more energy is released ,which
the enzyme harnesses to create ATP. The complete
chemical reaction for ATP is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 --->
6CO2 + 6H2O + 34 ATP.
Mitochondria are small enough that an average animal
cell contains 1,000 to 2,000 of them; however, different
types of cells have different amounts depending on their
functions. For example, fat cells have a lot because their
role is to store energy, where as nerve cells have fewer
as their role is to transmit impulses. If a cell needs to,
however, it can create more mitochondria
through binary fission. The fact that mitochondria
reproduce this way is another piece of evidence
suggesting that they were one independent bacteria
cells.
As a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm,
the cytoskeleton gives shape, form, and movement to
eukaryotic cells. Both a muscle and a skeleton, the
cytoskeleton consists of three main types of fibers:
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments. It is the rapid assembly and disassembly of
these fibers and their capacity to slide past one another
that enables cells and their organelles to move.
Microtubules are hollow protein tubes around 20-25
nanometers in diameter. Their primary functions are to
act as scaffolding for cells and to provide routes by
which organelles can move. Additionally, during
mitosis, microtubules form the spindle fibers that pull
the chromosomes apart and facilitate the cytokinesis, or
cell division, at the end.
Microfilaments are also called actin filaments, because
they are composed of the contractile protein actin. Thin,
but solid, thread-like fibers around 3-6 nanometers,
microfilaments play a key role in muscle contractions,
so not surprising they are abundant in muscle cells.
However, like microtubules, they are also found in just
about every other type of eukaryotic cell, too, because
they also facilitate cellular movements such as gliding,
contractions, and cytokinesis.

Intermediate filaments are protein fibers around 10


nanometers in diameter. They provide tensile strength
for the cell and hold microtubules and microfilaments
in place.
Besides supporting the cell and enabling the internal
movement of organelles, the cytoskeleton facilitates
external cell movement. Cilia and flagella are the cell
appendages responsible for external
movement. Cilia are hair-like structures,
whereas flagella are whip-like structures. When cilia
beat in unison they power the movement of unicellular
organisms like paramecium, but they are also found in
certain eukaryotic linings, such as the nasal cavity of
mammals, where they push fluids past stationary cells.
Flagella are longer than cilia and undulate to create cell
movement. Both flagella and cilia have a 9 + 2
microtubule arrangement. This means they have nine
fused pairs of microtubules on the outside, arranged
around two single unfused microtubules.
In addition to a cytoskeleton, plants also have a cell
wall for shape and support, made up of a specialized
sugar called cellulose. These walls, although rigid, still
allow for cell growth. Additionally, because they form
the face of the cell, they play a key role in
intercellular communication. Although such walls
surround and enclose a cell, they have small holes
called plasmodesmata, which allow for the passage of
nutrients, wastes, and ions.
Plant cell walls are mostly made up of cellulose, the
most common macromolecule on Earth. Cellulose
fibers, made from glucose molecules, are bundled into
bunches of 40 calledmicrofibrils. However, only plants
have cellulose. Other organisms that have cell walls,
such as bacteria, fungi, and some protozoa, are made
from proteins or a chitin, which is also a
polysaccharide. Besides cell walls, chitin comprises the
skeletons of insects, lobsters, and other invertebrates.

Figure 1. The union of an egg and a sperm cell creates


a zygote
KEY:
Polar bodies = Small blue circles
Sperm cells: = Small red circles

Egg = Large circle


Zygote = Large purple circle

Figure 2. The human male karyotype


Sexual fertilization is the process by which a haploid
male gamete and a haploid female gamete unite thereby
restoring the number of chromosomes of the particular
species to its original diploid nature in the resulting
offspring or progeny. In humans, the sperm (male
gamete) fertilizes the egg (female gamete) to produce
a zygote that contains the combined alleles from both
parents. The progeny carries a set of genetic traits that
are inherited and yet are unique from either the father or
mother.
Events in meiosis that caused genetic recombination
and segregation ensures that each resulting haploid cell
carries a different composition of alleles from each
other and from the parent cell. The random union of
gametes resulting from random mating further creates
unique combinations of genetic traits. Refer to the
diagram Figure 1 for an example of how a genetic trait
can be randomly segregated during fertilization.
A karyotype describes the standard arrangement of the
number, size and shape of an organisms or a species
chromosomes, which are visible under a light
microscope. The karyotype of a human contains 22
pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair
of sexchromosomes, which is denoted by XX for
females and XY for males. A normal human male
karyotype is written as 46, XY. Karyotyping is
arranging chromosomes into pairs based on their size
and shape. The location of a chromosomes centromere
and secondary constrictions also help to determine
which chromosome should be paired together. Any
differences between a known pair of chromosomes
from the standard size and shape may
indicate abnormalities in the organism. The diagram in
Figure 2 illustrates a karyotype of a human male. The
last pair at the bottom right are the sex chromosomes, X
(left) and the shorter Y (right).

The genotype of an organism refers to all the genetic


information it carries. The phenotyperefers to all
observable characteristics in the organism. These
include its morphology, pattern of development,
behavior, physiological and biochemistry. Not all
genetic information will be expressed by an organism
or will be observable. This is because phenotypic
expression is a combination of an organisms genotype,
the influence of environmental factors and the
interactions between the two. A progeny will carry
genetic information from both parents and its phenotype
will indicate which genes it has inherited from which
parent (e.g. eye color). But the progeny will also exhibit
distinct characteristics that result from its unique
interaction with its environment. For example, the
progeny may carry the gene for tall height (genotype),
but if he or she does not get the proper nourishment
(environment), the progeny will not be able to express
its genotype correctly.
When considering the transfer of energy through an
ecosystem, it is necessary to start at the bottom with the
producers. Producers
are those organisms that make their own energy, often
through the process of
photosynthesis. Through this process, these organisms
convert the light energy
from the sun and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be
broken down for energy. Plants, algae, and
some bacteria fall into this category of organisms as
they provide the energy
needed by organisms higher up on the food chain.
Producers are essential to the proper functioning of an
ecosystem because without them, none of the higher
trophic levels would be able to survive. Without
producers, the herbivores, or primary consumers, would
have nothing to eat, so they would all die. In turn, if
there were no primary consumers, then the secondary
consumer, or carnivores, would also have nothing to
eat, so they would also die off. While the producers are
considered the bottom of the food chain, they play the
most important role.
Decomposers are another essential part of an
ecosystem. Fungi and bacteria fill this role, breaking
down dead organisms. While very few other creatures
feed on decomposers, they are very necessary for the
success of a food chain. It is the job of the decomposers
to break down and recycle the essential elements found
within the bodies of the dead organisms and put them
back into the environment. These elements are then
used by other organisms for their growth or body
maintenance. If there were no decomposers in an
ecosystem, ultimately the transfer of energy would

grind to a halt because no new organisms would replace


those that had died.

increase over the years. This leads the climate scientists


to make the claim that the Earth is getting warmer.

It is only when both the number of producers and


decomposers are constant can an ecosystem be
considered stable. If there are more producers in the
system, then the total amount of biomass will
eventually increase to the point when the number of
decomposer present cannot handle the number of dead
organisms. In addition, the amount of energy available
to other trophic levels would increase. Since there
would be so much food for the herbivores to eat, their
numbers would explode. In turn, the numbers of
carnivores would also increase because of the success
of the herbivores. Once all these animals died, there
would not be enough decomposers to handle all of
them.

In the fields of science it is essential to use data from


multiple sources, especially when looking at changes in
ecosystems. Scientists are able to use this data to make
predictions about the impact of humans on climate
change, changes in population sizes, how habitat
destruction will impact species, and how the
introduction of non-native species can influence the
environment. A lot of times these changes are
predicable, but once in a while there is some kind of
natural occurrence that disrupts the natural flow of
events.

If there reverse happened, and the number of


decomposers increased dramatically without an increase
in the other trophic levels, then the decomposers would
eventually run out of things to break down. Once there
was nothing left for them to decompose, they would all
die. As a result, the bodies of dead organisms would
pile up and no new organisms would be added to the
ecosystem because there would be no nutrients for them
to use.
No one can deny that the average temperature of the
planet
Earth has increased. The evidence that supports this
claim has come from
long-term studies of the climate, the amount of carbon
dioxide in the
atmosphere, the amount of carbon dioxide trapped in
the ice of Antarctica, how
much the oceans have risen, and how far the polar ice
caps have melted. While
there is much scientific discussion about what the
causes are for all these
changes, nobody disputes that these things are
happening.
In order to get accurate data about climate change,
scientists will often perform longitudinal analysis of
several factors. A longitudinal analysis is a long-term
study that collects the same type of data over a long
period of time. If patterns or changes in this data can be
seen, then that provides evidence to support the claims
being made. For example, scientists have been
collecting temperature data of the various regions of the
Earth for decades. It has been shown that many regions
are experiencing warmer than usual temperatures, and
those temperatures have shown a consistent pattern of

There are also times when the observed changes are not
the result of a single event, but rather a combination of
things that can be studied. Referring to the global
warming example, there is strong evidence that the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has caused
a greenhouse effect on the Earth. This prevents the
suns radiation from leaving the planet at night, thereby
warming the air. At the same time, there is also
evidence that, throughout history, the Earth has had
periods when the temperature has risen naturally. Is it
possible that the current trend of warming is the result
of both of these occurrences? Scientists will have to
look for patterns, trends, and any irregularities that
might shed some light on this question.
Ecosystems are very sensitive to changes in climate.
Changes in temperature, chemical composition, and air
quality can have disastrous effects on the organisms
that live there. In addition, human interactions, habitat
destruction, and the introduction of non-native species
can also upset the delicate balance that naturally exists.
Scientists need to monitor and analyze the physical and
biological aspects of all ecosystems to make sure that
they continue to prosper.

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