Soil Mechanics 1 (ENG2001M)

Lectures 6 and 7: Seepage

By

Dr. Amir Khan

Permeability and seepage

Learning outcomes:
by the end of this session and the tutorial session, you should be able to:

1.

Understand the seepage theory.

2.

Determine the amount of seepage using graphical method

(Flow net).

3.

Calculate the exist hydraulic gradient and factor of safety

against piping.

4.

Evaluate different methods that can be implemented to

protect ground from seepage problems.

Permeability and seepage

Text books:
The following books are recommended.
1. Craig. (2004). Soil Mechanics.
2. Barnes (2000). Soil Mechanics, Principles and Practice.
3. Smith and Smith (1998). Elements of Soil Mechanics.

Permeability and seepage

Seepage theory assumptions:
1. Soil is homogenous (same arrangement of particles)
2. Soil is isotropic with respect to K (if permeability coefficient is
same in every direction then soil is isotropic)
3. Soil is fully saturated
4. Darcys law is valid (continuality and steady state flow, same
particles come in and out there is no change in volume)
5. Flow is 2-D in x and z directions

Underwater construction using cofferdams

The Main issues to consider when constructing a cofferdam are:
What is the flow rate Q around the walls this will dictate pumping requirements.
What are the resulting pore pressures on the walls.
Will the seepage of water affect stability, i.e. will the ground between the walls fail.

Cofferdam is a watertight enclosure usually of steel sheet pile or concrete bored pile walls pumped
dry to permit construction work below the waterline, as when building bridges or repairing a ship.

Permeability and seepage

The equation of continuity in two directions

v x v z

0
No volume change, water incompressible
x
z

where vx is the velocity in the x direction and vz is

velocity in the z direction.
According to Darcys law:
with the total head h
decreasing in the
directions of vx and vz.

vx K

h
x

vz K

h
z

Seepage through a soil element.

The governing equation for steady-state flow of water through saturated soils in
two dimensions and is called Laplace equation
2h
x

2h
z

Permeability and seepage

Flow lines:
represent the flow direction of water between which
water can flow through a cross section
Basis of constructing flow nets:
The path which a particle of water follows in its course
Equipotential lines
of seepage through a saturated soil mass is called a flow
line.
Flow direction
Equipotential lines:
As the water moves along the flow lines it experiences a
continuous loss of head. If we can obtain the head
causing flow at points along a flow line, then by joining
up points of equal potential we obtain a second set of
lines known as equipotential lines of equal energy or
equal total head.

q Kh

q n f K h
Flow lines

h
nd

q Kh
Tot. discharge

No. of flow channels

nf
nd

No. of drops
Tot. head difference

Permeability and seepage

Common methods of flow net construction:
1.

Graphical method by sketching flow net

2.

Using numerical methods such as:

Finite element method
Boundary element method
Finite difference method

Permeability and seepage

Characteristics of flow net

Flow through a flow channel between two flow lines is constant.

Flow lines and equipotential lines intersect each other at right angles.

The area formed by intersecting flow lines and equipotential lines must be
as near square as possible.

h between each two equipotential lines is constant.

nf
q Kh
for curvilinear square flow net
nd

h is the difference in total head between the first and last equipotentials, Nd the
number of equipotential drops, each representing the same total head loss h, and Nf
the number of flow channels, each carrying the same flow q.

Permeability and seepage

Sketching a flow net

Specify a datum (usually downstream water level)

Specify boundary conditions

Sketch the first estimated flow lines

Draw trial equipotential lines forming curvilinear squares

Continue by drawing other flow lines

Permeability and seepage

Example of a flow net

For flow net above Nd = 14 and Nf = 4. These parameters for this particular example
give a square flow net and a whole number of flow channels. This should be
formed by trial and error: a first attempt should be made and the positions of the flow
lines and equipotentials and even Nf and Nd should then be adjusted as necessary
until a satisfactory flow net is achieved.

Permeability and seepage

Worked Example 1
Calculate the water pressure head at points P. assuming
K = 10-5 m/s?
No. of flow paths (nf) = 4.2
(take ratio)
No. of drops (nd) = 12
h = 4.4 - 0.5 = 4.0 m
h= 4.0/12 = 0.33 m

q Kh

nf

nd
4.2
5

q 10 4
12
q 1.4 10 5 m3 / s

Permeability and seepage

At point P suppose 4mbelow
Total head at point P:

Worked Example 1

Total head at any point = total head at the start (upstream) - nd to the point x h
where h = total head difference divided by total number of drops =
4
hp 4.54 2h 42 3.33
12
Elevation head = - 4m
ht Z hp hp ht Z hpP htP ZP
ZP 4m
hpP 3.33(4) 7.33m
Pressure at point P:
PP hpP x w 7.33 x 9.81 = 71.91 kN/m2

h
nd

Permeability and seepage

If the hydraulic gradient were high enough the resultant body force would
be zero. The value of hydraulic gradient corresponding to zero resultant
body force is called the critical hydraulic gradient (ic). The soil will be in
quick condition i.e. reduced inter-granular pressure resulting in seepage
induced liquefaction.
Constant head

Critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

h
Critical hydraulic gradient can be obtained when:
Uplift pressure = Total weight of soil

w (h+L) = (w + sub) x L
sub is submerged unit weight of soil

ic

Overflow

h sub G s 1

L
w
1 e

Soil

Datum

Permeability and seepage

Critical hydraulic gradient:
ic

h sub G s 1

L
w
1 e

Constant head

If the hydraulic gradient of the flow

Overflow

equals the critical hydraulic gradient,

it causes piping in silts and clays and

Soil

quicksand in sands

If i icr , unstable condition, the soil particles tend to move.

if i icr stable condition.

Datum

Permeability and seepage

Factor of safety against piping:
Factor of safety F

icr

icr
i

Gs 1
1 e

h 4 /12

0.167
L
~2

Factor of safety F

Critical hydraulic gradient icr

i
hydraulic gradient
If the hydraulic gradient of the flow equals the
critical hydraulic gradient, it causes piping in silts
and clays and quicksand in sands

Permeability and seepage

Various methods that can be implemented to prevent occurring of soil piping
and quicksand are:
1. Compacting soils in the region vulnerable to soil piping. This leads to an
increased density of the soil resulting in an increase in the value of critical
hydraulic gradient.
2. Reducing the total head difference between the upstream and downstream.
3. Creating a filter layer at the downstream side of the structure to dissipate
the energy of flowing water.
4. Grouting the ground to create a plug. The weight of the plug should be
greater than the water pressure from underneath. Or creating a grouting
curtain underneath a dam.
5. The use of sheet piling