Steel structures

Professor Josef Machacek

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Lateral-torsional instability of beams.

Buckling of plates.
Thin-walled steel members.
Torsion of members.
Fatigue of steel structures.
Composite steel and concrete structures.
Tall buildings.
Industrial halls.
Large-span structures.
Masts, towers, chimneys.
Silos and tanks.
Technological structures.
Reserve.

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

1. Lateral-torsional buckling
Introduction (stability and strength), critical moment, strength, interaction,
method of Eurocode.

Stability of ideal (straight) beam under bending

impulse

Mcr

segment laterally supported

in bending and torsion

Strength of real beam (with imperfections 0, 0)

M

bifurcation under bending

Mcr,1
LTW yfy

reduction factor LT
depends on:

strength

0,0

initial
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

Mb,Rd = LTW y

LT =

fy

M1

W y fy
M cr
2

Stability of ideal beam under bending (determination of Mcr)

Fz
zz

hf

"Basic beam"
(with y-y axis of symmetry, simply supported in bending
and torsion, loaded only by M)

y S
S=G

Two equations of equilibrium (for lateral and torsional buckling)

may be unified into one equation:

d 4
d2 M 2
EI w
GI t
+
=0
dx 4
dx 2 EI z

The first non-trivial solution gives M = Mcr:

M cr =

EI zGIt
L

1+

where cr = 1 +

2EI w
L2GIt

2EI w
L2GIt

= cr

2
= 1 + wt

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

EI zGIt
L

wt =

EI w
L GI t

Generally for beams with cross-sections according to picture (EN 1993-1-1):

cr =

C1
2
1 + wt
+ C2 g C3 j
k z

w t =
Fz
zaz zzg F
zz
z

Fz

zs

zs

(C)

2 g

k w LLT

C3 j

EIw
GI t

g =

G
(T)

yy

symmetry about z-z

zg

EIz
GI t

k z LLT

j =

zj
k z LLT

Fz

Fz
z

Fz
z

S
hf = hs

) (C

Fz
z

G
y

G y

EIz
GI t

S G y

symmetry about k y-y, loading through shear centre

C1 represents mainly shape of bending moment,

C2 comes in useful only if loading is not applied in shear centre,
C3 comes in useful only for cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y.
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

Procedure to determine Mcr:

1. Divide the beam into segments of lengths LLT according to lateral support:
segment 3
segment 2
e.g. segment 1: (LLT,1)
segment 1

lateral support (bracing) both in bending and torsion

(lateral support only "near" compression flange is sufficient)
from table factor C1 1:

2. Define shape of moment in the segment:

2 3
e.g. segment 2:

~2,56

~1,77

a) usually linear distribution

b) almost never

~1,13

~1, 35

(because loading creates here a continuous support)

3. Determine support of segment ends: kz = 1 (pins for lateral bending)
(actually ratio of "effective length")
kw = 1 (free warping of cross-section)
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

Other cases of k :
warping
kz = 1
kw = 1

warping (non-planar cross-section)

angle of torsion
is zero

kz = 1
kw = 0,5

stiffener non-rigid
in torsion

stiffener rigid
in torsion ( tube)
possible lateral buckling

possible lateral buckling

kz = 0,7 conservatively
konzervativn
= kw = 0,5)
(theor. kz hodnoty
kw = 1

kz = 1
kw = 0,7 (conservatively 1)

structure torsionally
rigid
torsionally

torsionally rigid

non-rigid
possible lateral buckling
Cantilever: - only if free end is not laterally and torsionally supported (otherwise, concerning
Mcr, this case is not a cantilever but normal beam segment),
- for cantilever with free end: kz = kw = 2 (usually with lateral loading, see next).
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

4. Formula for Mcr depends also on position of loading with respect to shear
centre (zg):
Come in useful for lateral loading (loading by end moments
is considered in shear centre).
F
- lateral loading acting to shear centre S (zg > 0)
is destabilizing: it increases the torsional moment

- lateral loading acting from shear centre S (zg < 0)

is stabilizing: it decreases the torsional moment

F
Factor C2 for moment shape M:
(valid for I cross-section)

Mel
0,46 0,55
Mpl (plast. hinges)
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

1,56 1,63 0,88 1,15

0,98 1,63 0,70 1,08
7

5. Cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y

Fz
zaz zzg F
zz

For I cross section with unequal flanges:

zs

zs

(C)

warping constant

I w = ( 1 f2 )I z ( hs / 2 ) 2

parameter of asymmetry

f =

yy

hf = hs

hf

I fc I ft
I fc + I ft

second mom. of area of compress. and tens. flange about z-z

(T)

z j = zs

0,5
2
2
( y + z ) z dA 0,45 f hf
Iy A

Factor C3 greatly depends on f and moment shape (below for kz = kw = 1):

Mcr

=+1

Mcr

Mcr

= -1

f = -1

1,00

1,47

2,00

0,93

f = 0

1,00

1,00

0,00

0,53

f = 1

1,00

1,00

-2,00

0,38

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

=0

Cross sections with imposed axis of rotation

suck
S

often

V (imposed axis)

Mcr is affected by position

of imposed axis of rotation
(Mcr is always greater, holding
is favourable)

For a simple beam with doubly symmetric cross section and general imposed axis:

zg

zv
GS

osa y

Mcr

Mcr

h
+ G I t
E I w + E I z
2
k
L

w LT
=
h
1
2

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

For suck loading applied at tension flange:

2

+ G I t
E I w + E I z z v2
k
L
w LT
=
1z v + 2 zg z v
coefficients
for shape of M:

2,00

0,00

0,93

0,81

0,60

0,81
9

Approximate approach for lateral-torsional buckling

impulse

In buildings, the reduction factor for lateral

buckling corresponding to "equivalent
compression flange" (defined as flange with
1/3 of compression web) may be taken instead:

roughly

hw/6

f =

LLT
i f,z 1

1 =

E
= 93 ,9
fy

Note: According to Eurocode the reduction factor is taken from curve c, but
for cross sections with web slenderness h/tw 44 from curve d.
The factor due to conservatism may be increased by 10%.

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

10

Practical case of a continuous beam (or a rafter of a frame)

One of the beam flanges is usually laterally supported by cladding or decking
(cross section with imposed shear centre) and bending moment is variable,
changing sign. Eurocode general case (general distribution of moments,
general boundary conditions) does not cover.
General and easily accessible solution of Mcr of all cases is solved by free
software available on internet:

http://www.cticm.com
(in English and French).

It is desirable to secure laterally the dangerous zones of bottom

free compression flanges against instability:
by bracing in the level of bottom flanges,
or by diagonals (sufficiently strong) between bottom
flange and crossing beams (e.g. purlins).
(length LLT then corresponds to the distance of lateral supports).

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

11

Beams that do not lose lateral stability:

1. Hollow cross sections
Reason: high It high Mcr

2. Girders bent about their minor axis

Reason: high It high Mcr

3. Short segment between lateral restraints ( LT 0,4 )

Reason: LT 1
- all cross sections, e.g.:
4. Full lateral restraint "near" to the compression flange is sufficient:
(for I profile approx. within h/4 )
compression flange loaded

tension flange loaded

zv 0,47 zg
zg

zv 0,47 zg
or higher

zv

zv
zg

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

or anywhere higher

12

Resistance of the actual beam (determination of Mb,Rd)

Similarly as for compression struts: actual strength Mb,Rd < Mcr
(due to imperfections)
e.g. DIN:

( )

Mb,Rd = Mpl,Rd 1 + LT

2n 1/n

n = 2,0 (rolled)
= 2,5 (welded)

Eurocode EN 1993:
The procedure is the same as for columns: acc. to LT is determined LT
with respect to shape of the cross section (see next - depends on imperfections).
Note: For a direct 2. order analysis the imperfections e0d are available.

Mb,Rd = LTW y

LT =

fy

... Wy is section modulus acc. to cross section class

M1
1

2
LT + LT

2
LT

but

LT 1,0

1
2
LT LT

LT = 0,5 1 + LT LT LT,0 + LT

For common rolled and welded cross sections: LT ,0 = 0,4

= 0,75
For non-constant M the factor may be reduced to LT,mod (see formula in Eurocode).
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

13

Choice of buckling curve:

rolled I sections

rigid cross section

shallow
high

welded I sections
greater residual stresses
due to welding

h/b 2 (up to IPE300, HE600B)

h/b > 2
h/b 2
h/b > 2

b
c
c
d

In plastic analysis (considering redistribution of moments and "rotated" plastic

hinges) lateral torsional buckling in hinges must be prevented and designed for
2,5 % Nf,Ed:
strut providing
support

force in compression flange

0,025 Nf,Ed

girder in location of Mpl

Complicated structures (e.g. haunched girders)

may be verified using "stable length" Lm
(in which LT = 1) - formulas see Eurocode.
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

hs
hh

Lh

L
L ym

14

Interaction M + N ("beam columns")

Always must be verified simple compression and bending in the most stressed
cross section see common non-linear relations.
In stability interaction two simultaneous formulas should be considered:
for class 4 only
N

M y ,Ed + M y ,Ed
+ M z,Ed
M
NEd
+ kyy
+ k y z z,Ed
1
LT M y ,Rk
M z,Rk
y NRk

M1

M1

M1

M y ,Ed + M y ,Ed
+ M z,Ed
M
NEd
+ k zy
+ k zz z,Ed
1
M z,Rk
LT M y ,Rk
z NRk

M1

M1

M1

Usual case M + Ny:

M y ,Ed
NEd
+ kyy
1
y NRd
LT M y ,Rd
M y ,Ed
NEd
+ k zy
1
z NRd
LT M y ,Rd

Mz

My

Factors kyy 1,8; kzy 1,4

Formulas EN 1993-1-1 Annex B distinguish:
members not susceptible to torsional deformations
(rigid for torsion, closed sections) LT = 1 ;
members susceptible to torsional deformations (all
others).
OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

15

Complementary note:
Generally FEM may be used (complicated structures, non-uniform members etc.) to
analyse lateral and lateral torsional buckling.
First analyse the structure linearly, second critical loading. Then determine:

ult,k - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach characteristic

resistance (without lateral and lateral-torsional buckling);

cr,op - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach elastic critical loading
(for lateral or lateral torsional buckling).

op =

ult,k
cr,op

op = min(, LT)

Resulting relationship:

NEd

NRk M1

M y ,Ed
M y ,Rk M1

op

OK3

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

16