PLANT TISSUE

The two stages that involve in growth in plants are the production of new cells and, the
expansion of these cells via uptake of water by the vacuole. Cell division occurs only in
meristematic regions, while expansion may occur anywhere. In plants there are three
major tissue types whose structures are related to the functions of the tissues in which
they occur:
Vascular tissue phloem and xylem
Ground tissue Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Dermal tissue epidermis and periderm.
Meristematics tissue

Meristematic tissues are composed of small immature cells whose only function is
to dividing, initials and derivatives.
The cells are small, thin-walled, with no central vacuole and no specialized
features.
Primary growth in plants is initiated by the apical meristems in root and shoots.
The growth of these meristems results in the extension of the plant body.
Secondary growth involves the activity of the lateral meristems. The continued
division of their cells results primarily in the thickening of the plant body
growth in girth.
Permanent primary tissues are derived from the meristematic tissues by a process
of maturation.

Dermal Tissue

Epidermis covers surfaces of primary plants parts. In most plants, mainly a single
layer of unspecialized cells either parenchyma and/or sclerenchyma.
Stem and leaf epidermis contains many specialized cells such as guard cells and
root hairs. Guard cells are sausage-shaped cells that always in pairs on leaf
surfaces. They form pores called stomata that control the entry and exit of water
vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide across the epidermis. The majority of
epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts, except for the guard cells.
Root hairs which come out from the epidermal cells just above the root tip help
increase the absorptive surface area of the root.
Epidermal cells secrete a waxy water proofing substance known as cutin and
suberin. Cutin is produced over the leaf epidermis to form a protective covering
called the cuticle which prevents water loss
When secondary growth occurs in the plants especially in stem and root, the
epidermis is finally replaced by a special layer of cells called periderm. It is
normally composed of parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells, as well as cork and
phelloderm. Periderm is also responsible for the production of a waterproofing
material called suberin.

Epidermis from an onion.

cells

Epidermal hair from a leaf

Epidermis of a leaf showing guard

Root hairs

Ground tissues
Ground tissue system constitutes majority of the plant body or is composed of all the
tissues found between the dermal and vascular systems. Three types of cells that make up
ground tissue system are parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
1. Parenchyma
Parenchyma cells are the least specialized and the most common of all plant
cell types.
Parenchyma cells are characteristically alive at maturity. The cells are large
with generally spherical or slightly irregular in shape, thin primary cell wall,
usually have a large central vacuole and retain the capacity to undergo cell
division. Parenchyma cells are full with plastids.
The functions of parenchyma tissue are for photosynthesis, food storage, and
wound healing and regeneration. Colorless plastids predominate and food
storage is the main function if the plastids located at the areas not exposed to
light such as in the cortex region of roots. Where light is present, such as in
the spongy or palisade layers of leaves, chloroplasts predominate and
photosynthesis is the major function.
There are several different types of parenchyma cells, categorized by function.
For example, chlorenchyma cells contain chloroplasts and are specialized for
photosynthesis. Aerenchyma cells contain large intracellular air spaces and
function in gas exchange.

The masses of parenchyma that occur in leaves are called mesophyll. The
mesophyll in a leaf consists of two types of parenchyma cells, both packed
with chloroplasts. Palisade mesophyll are columnar and closely packed
together, whereas spongy mesophyll are loosely packed and separated by
large intercellular spaces.

Smilax sp.
Root cross section of parenchyma cell

Palisade
mesophyll
Vascular tissue
Spongy
mesophyll

2. Collenchyma

Collenchyma cells are living at maturity, like parenchyma. Collenchyma cells

have thickening at the corner of the primary cell walls. These cells are more
elongate than parenchyma cells and they are distinguished from parenchyma cells
by their unevenly thickened cell walls.
They are most often found in areas that are growing rapidly and need to be
strengthened. These cells are often occurred as long strands beneath the epidermis
of young stems, young roots and leaf stalks or petioles such as in celery, or within
vascular tissue of leaf veins.
The function of collenchyma tissues is to provide mechanical support for the
primary plant body. Collenchyma cells lack the hardening agent called lignin.
Thus, collenchyma cells are relatively long, with nonlignified primary walls
which allows them to stretch.

Stem cross section (Sambucus sp.)

3. Sclerenchyma

Sclerenchyma cells may be found in all parts of both the primary and secondary
plant body. These cells contain lignin. Thus, the walls of these cells are very
thick, built up in a uniform layer of lignified rigid secondary walls around the
entire margin of the cell.
Sclerenchyma cells are generally found linked with other cells types and give
them mechanical support. They provide strength and support in parts that have
stopped elongating. Besides supporting, the rigid secondary cell walls also serve
as protection such as in seed coat and shell of nuts.
Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of two kinds of cells - fibers and sclereids.
Fibers are long slender cells which occur in strands or bundles, for example,
hemp, flax and jute. Fibers have very thin lumens or cell cavity, the space left
after the protoplast decays. Fibers provide support for the plant. Fibers are
frequently associated with the conducting tissue of roots and stems.
Sclereids are vary in shape, often branched, may occur singly or in groups in
ground tissues throughout the plant. They are also called "stone cells. They make
up the seed coat of seeds, shells of nuts, stones of drupes, and give the pear its
gritty texture. Their function is primarily for protection.

Vascular tissue
Procambium gives rise to the following vascular tissue, which are primary xylem ,
primary phloem , and vascular cambium that is important in secondary growth.
1. Xylem tissue
Xylem is a complex tissue composed of several cell types that function in
supporting the physical structure of the plant and the conduction of water and
dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts of the plant.
Xylem is composed of tracheids, xylem vessel, fibers, and parenchyma. Both the
tracheids and xylem vessel have lignified secondary cell walls, and are dead at
maturity. These are thick-walled tubes that can extend vertically through several
feet of xylem tissue. Their walls are thickened with secondary deposits of
cellulose and are generally further strengthened by impregnation with lignin.

a) Xylem vessel
Xylem vessels arise from shorter and wider individual cylindrical cells align
end to end to. At maturity the end walls of these cells dissolve away and the
cytoplasmic contents die. As a result, the xylem vessel forms hollow,
continuous, conduits from root to leaf where the vessel looks like
uninterrupted pipelines.
The secondary walls of the xylem vessels are deposited in spirals and rings
and are usually perforated by pits. Some xylem vessels have openings in
their end walls called a perforation plate. They are joined end to end at
their perforation plates to form a long tube or vessel.
Water flow through openings called pits or perforation plates in their end
walls by which they are linked together thus make the vessels is more
efficient than water flow in tracheids.
The vessels carry water and some dissolved solutes, such as inorganic ions,
up the plant. Pits allow lateral movement of water of the xylem vessel.

Typical vessel element

b) Tracheid
All vascular plants contain tracheids, which are long slender cells with
tapered ends. Like xylem vessels, they have thick, lignified walls, dead at
maturity and no cytoplasm.
In conducting elements composed of tracheid, water flow from tracheid to
tracheid through opening called pits in the secondary walls. Pits allow water
to move laterally. Tracheid do not have large perforated or open ends
between the cells so it less efficient in water flow compare to the vessel.
The deposition of the secondary cell walls in tracheids may cover the inside
of the primary wall except for pits where they consist of thin primary cell
walls only.
The earliest matured tracheids have annular, spiral or helical, or reticulate
patterns of wall thickenings. Later-maturing tracheids have pitted walls. The
secondary cell walls in tracheids develop in a region undergoing elongation
may produce a spiral or helical pattern of wall thickening.
The functions of tracheids are for conduction of water, dissolved minerals
and support.

c) Fiber and parenchyma cells

Fibers provide support particularly for the conducting tissue and thus for the
plant. Food storage may take place in the parenchyma cells.
2. Phloem Tissue

Phloem is a complex living tissues composed of several cell types. It consists of

sieve-tube members, companion cells, fibers, and parenchyma.
The two specialized phloem cell types are sieve elements and companion cells.
Except for fibers, the cells of phloem are alive and do not produce lignified
secondary cell walls.
Phloem functions in the transport of sugars, amino acids, and other small
molecules from the leaf to the rest of the plant. It is a bidirectional flow where the
flow is down to the roots, but also up to the apical buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds.
a) Sieve elements and Companion cells
Sieve elements are arranged end to end to form sieve tubes.
Sieve-tube members are living cells with typical thin walls. The end walls are
perforated and called sieve plates. As the end walls of sieve elements have
pores, materials dissolved in the cytoplasm can flow from cell to cell.
Thus allow the sieve tube to transports the products of photosynthesis from
the place where they are manufactured to the places where they are consumed
or stored.
Although sieve tube members are alive at maturity, they lack nuclei. Thus,
their energy and metabolic needs are supplied by companion cells which lie
adjacent to them by means of plasmodesmata.
Therefore companion cells also play a role in conduction of food. One or more
companion cells lie next to each sieve-tube members and many
plasmodesmata connect the two cell types.
b) Fiber and parenchyma cells
Fibers provide support particularly for the conducting tissue and thus for the
plant. Food storage may take place in the parenchyma cells.

Phloem tissue in cross-section.

Typical sieve-tube member with

companion cells