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Key Words
Abstract
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INTRODUCTION
Aging (senescence):
decrease in an individuals
performance, survivorship,
or fecundity as age
increases, occurring as a
result of intrinsic changes
Kin selection: natural
selection of genes for social
actions via the sharing of
these genes between the
actor and its relatives
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The evolutionary theory of aging provides an explanation for aging based on natural
selection. The theory proposes that aging occurs because extrinsic mortality reduces
the relative size of cohorts of older individuals, causing the potential genetic contribution of older cohorts to future generations to fall. Therefore, any gene increasing
survival or fecundity is more strongly selected for when its phenotypic effects occur at younger ages, and conversely, any gene decreasing survival or fecundity is less
strongly selected against when its phenotypic effects occur at greater ages. As a result,
age-specic phenotypic effects tend to evolve whereby genes for increased survival or
fecundity have an effect at younger ages and genes for decreased survival or fecundity
have an effect at greater ages, so explaining the occurrence of aging. The evolutionary
theory of aging was initially formulated in the mid-twentieth century as an amalgam
of contributions from R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, P.B. Medawar, G.C. Williams, and
W.D. Hamilton, with the last three authors having made the major contributions
(reviewed in Charlesworth 2000, Rose 1991). The early theorists also identied two
principal genetic routes to aging. The rst, antagonistic pleiotropy, proposes that
aging stems from selection of pleiotropic genes having a positive effect on survival
and fecundity early in life and a negative effect late in life. The second, mutation accumulation, proposes that aging stems from lack of selection against genes of purely
negative effect, where these effects occur only late in life (e.g., Hughes & Reynolds
2005, Kirkwood & Austad 2000).
A major area of research has developed on the basis of the evolutionary theory
of aging (e.g., Arking 2006, Austad 1997a, Carey 2003, Charlesworth 1980, Finch
1990, Rose 1991), with more derived versions of the original theory having been constructed to account for various complicating factors (e.g., for the case when extrinsic
mortality reduces population density and so increases resource availability for older
age classes; Abrams 1993). The theory has also been integrated with the general study
of life history evolution because nite resources entail the occurrence of trade-offs
between somatic maintenance and reproduction (Barnes & Partridge 2003, Kirkwood
1977), and because the age at rst reproduction represents the critical period beyond
which aging is predicted to occur (Charlesworth 1980, Rose 1997, Stearns 1992).
Overall, empirical work has provided strong support for the evolutionary theory of
aging from several sources. These include comparative analyses of life histories as
a function of the strength of extrinsic mortality and experimental manipulations of
schedules of reproduction (e.g., Hughes & Reynolds 2005, Kirkwood & Austad 2000,
Rose 1991, Stearns 1992), although results from some studies have proved more consistent with derived versions of the theory than with the original theory (Reznick
et al. 2004, Williams et al. 2006). Related studies have provided better support for
antagonistic pleiotropy than for mutation accumulation as genetic routes to aging
(e.g., Campisi 2005, Hughes & Reynolds 2005, Kirkwood & Austad 2000, Leroi
et al. 2005, Partridge & Barton 1993, Partridge & Gems 2002a, Rose 1991), with
some phenomena not readily reconcilable with either route (Mitteldorf 2004).
Another major body of evolutionary theory, kin-selection theory (Hamilton 1964,
Lehmann & Keller 2006, Michod 1982, West-Eberhard 1975), has sought to explain
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Relatedness: probability
that two individuals share a
gene as the result of kinship
Social action: an action by
one individual (the actor)
affecting the survivorship or
offspring output of another
individual (the recipient)
Inclusive fitness: in kin
selection theory, the tness
of a focal individual
incorporating effects of its
social actions toward
relatives
Altruism: social action in
which the actor experiences
a loss in survivorship or
offspring output and the
recipient a gain
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affect average life span, rendering both aging and life span determination potentially
subject to the same evolutionary forces. Overall, I seek to place the social evolutionary
theory of aging within kin selection theory and to demonstrate that such a theory
explains a variety of aging-related phenomena, generates novel predictions, and adds
considerably to our general understanding of the evolution of aging.
Formal models incorporating social effects on aging fall into two broad classes: those
involving altruistic, generally postreproductive care (intergenerational transfers) and
those involving limited dispersal in spatially explicit grids. Both classes of models, by
considering how altruism interacts with aging, echo some early explanations of why
organisms die, which from the late nineteenth century onward proposed populationlevel benets of aging (reviewed in Austad 1997a, Rose 1991, Travis 2004, Mitteldorf
2006). The older models, however, frequently proposed that organismal death either
beneted nonrelatives or brought long-term evolutionary benets, thus invoking an
unsustainable, naive group selection. (I remark in passing that much current theorizing in the nonevolutionary literature on possible causes of aging retains a naive group
selectionist avor.) As Travis (2004) noted, another feature of a social evolutionary
theory of aging is that many of its predictions, in addition to many of those of the
classic theory, are independent of the underlying genetic basis of aging and the proximate mechanisms of aging. For example, if individuals gain inclusive tness from
postreproductive life, the degree to which the force of natural selection is attenuated
in later life would be reduced with respect to both late-acting effects of pleiotropic
genes and the accumulation of late-acting deleterious mutations.
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occur through kin selection for altruistic early dying that benets relatives, both
when dispersal distance was xed (Travis 2004) and when it coevolved with aging
(Dytham & Travis 2006). In a third model (Mitteldorf 2006), they were considered
to occur through interdemic group selection involving a balance between withinpopulation selection for greater life span (selshness) and between-population selection for shorter life span (altruism) because populations whose members had greater
life spans went extinct more rapidly. Mitteldorf (2006) proposed that this result supported a novel demographic theory of aging distinct from all previous evolutionary
theories of aging, including (implicitly) those invoking kin selection. Likewise, Longo
et al. (2005) argued for a theory of programmed and altruistic aging based either on
kin selection (where relatives beneted) or on group selection (where there was death
for the benet of unrelated organisms). However, it is not clear that kin selection
can be excluded as the main factor underlying Mitteldorfs (2006) model. Like those
of Travis (2004) and Dytham & Travis (2006), Mitteldorfs (2006) model assumed
asexual reproduction and limited dispersal and found that increasing dispersal led
to reduced aging. This suggests the presence of kin selection, as increased dispersal
would cause local relatedness to fall. In addition, Mitteldorfs (2006) model assumed
that density limits population growth at a local level, but with delayed effect, that is
density dependence is proportional to past population size. Previous general models
(e.g., Wilson et al. 1992) have shown that limited dispersal combined with local density dependence inhibits the evolution of altruism by kin selection because altruistic
genotypes remain in competition with one another. However, altruism reemerges if
density dependence is delayed (West et al. 2002) because the severity of density dependence becomes less correlated with population composition (Kelly 1992). Hence,
a possible alternative interpretation of Mitteldorfs (2006) results is that they arose,
under conditions of limited dispersal and delayed density dependence, from such an
interaction of kin selection with kin competition. This issue would be claried by the
development of an analytical version of Mitteldorfs (2006) model.
All the limited-dispersal models assumed either declining individual fecundity
(Dytham & Travis 2006, Travis 2004) or increasing mortality (Mitteldorf 2006) with
increasing age. This means that, as Travis (2004) noted for his model, none provides an
alternative to the classic theory of aging, which explains why fecundity should decrease
or mortality increase with age from rst principles. Instead, these models demonstrate that existing patterns of aging can be modied by social effects as a function of
population structure. The limited-dispersal models resemble Lees (2003) theory of
intergenerational transfers in involving an investment or resource (care or space to
live) transmitted to individuals that are, or are likely to be, relatives. They also resemble Lees (2003) model in assuming asexual reproduction and hence in not allowing
the possibility of kin-selected conict over the timing of intergenerational transfers.
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Table 1 Classification with examples of hypothesized social effects on life span and
rate of aging
(i ) Recipients fitness is
increased
either an increase or a decrease in a focal individuals life span for the tness of another
individual, the recipient (Table 1). In each case, I discuss ways in which such an
increase or decrease might affect the recipients tness and whether the phenomenon
under discussion could cause an evolutionary change in the focal individuals life
span or pattern of aging through a net increase in its own inclusive tness. I also
consider whether these phenomena provide predictions regarding whether changes
in life span in a focal individual should be brought about by changing the date of
onset of aging, changing the rate of aging, or changing both the age of onset and
the rate of aging. Finally, I review possible evidence, taken from the literature, for
the hypothesized effects. The proposed classication applies to kin-selected effects
on aging in organisms living in groups of adults without being restricted to such
organisms (e.g., they potentially apply to organisms that have parental care but are
otherwise solitary). It resembles but cuts across Hamiltons (1964) classication of
social actions based on whether effects on the tness of actors and recipients are
positive or negative. I seek reasons for positive or negative effects on life span, and, in
this case, effects of the same sign may represent differing Hamiltonian social actions.
For example, extending ones life span could be altruistic (if there is postreproductive
care of others) or selsh (if resources are denied to others).
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reduce the quality of care provided. To the extent that bearing young oneself and
providing care are mutually exclusive activities (Rogers 1993), such delayed aging
should apply more to survival and performance than to fecundity. Indeed, Lees
(2003) intergenerational-transfer model explicitly predicted postreproductive survival
of a caregiving parent. Some authors distinguish between selection for an extended
postreproductive life span to deliver care to offspring and selection for the same trait
to deliver care to grandoffspring or other related young (e.g., Packer et al. 1998).
However, although the effects of these two processes may differ quantitatively, kin
selection theory makes no fundamental distinction between them. This is because
care directed at dependent young related in any degree can, in principle, increase
inclusive tness.
Despite an emphasis in the literature on the evolution of postreproductive life
span via caregiving, there are other ways in which an increase in a focal individuals
life span might increase the tness of a recipient. In addition, despite the present
reviews emphasis on kin selection, other social evolutionary processes conceivably
affect aging. Consider the possibility that the mere presence of individuals benets
others, with no specic behaviors being directed at recipients. Such passive benets of
living together were considered in Kokko et al.s (2001) group augmentation model.
A possible example comes from colonially breeding species in which no reproduction
occurs below a threshold density (Allee effect, e.g., Stephens et al. 1999). Here, the
presence of any given individual within the colony indirectly increases the tness of
others (up to the point where density-dependent decreases in reproductive success
occur). Because the additional breeding success of others helps maintain the critical
density, the focal individual might indirectly benet, essentially through by-product
mutualism (Connor 1995). If so, to the extent that a focal individuals longer life
provides a mechanism for maintaining its presence in the colony, Allee effects could
select for an extension to the focal individuals life span. There is no incentive for
cheating in such a system because the benet to others is conferred by an individuals
presence alone and so is essentially cost free. The likeliest mechanism for an increase
in life span brought about in this way would be delayed onset of aging (with respect
to survival, performance, and fecundity, as there would be no incentive to remain in
the colony as a nonbreeding individual).
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Table 2 Comparative evidence for increased focal individuals life span leading to increased recipients fitness via
kin selection
Comparison
Group 1
Group 2
Interpretation
References
Whales
Supports hypothesis
that maternal care
(and possibly care of
other relatives)
selects for extended
postreproductive life
span in females; care
could encompass
intergenerational
transmission of
useful cultural
information
African primates
and carnivores
Supports hypothesis
that maternal care
selects for extended
female
postreproductive life
span; does not
support
grandmother
hypothesis in these
species
Packer et al.
(1998)
Supports
grandmother
hypothesis for
human menopause
Hawkes et al.
(1998)
Supports hypothesis
that maternal care
selects for extended
female life span
Hendry et al.
(2004)
Across species
Within species
Sockeye salmon
Onchorhynchus
nerka
(Continued )
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(Continued )
Comparison
Group 1
Group 2
Interpretation
References
Marsupial families
Didelphidae and
Dasyuridae (e.g.,
genus Antechinus)
Females may be
iteroparous,a provide
parental care, and do
not show marked
die-off immediately
after each rutting
season
Supports hypothesis
that maternal care
selects for slower
aging and extended
female life span
Austad (1997a),
Cockburn
(1997)
African elephant
(genus Loxodonta)
Supports hypothesis
that maternal care
(and possibly care of
other relatives) selects
for extended
postreproductive life
span in females; as in
odontocete whales,
care could encompass
intergenerational
transmission of useful
cultural information
Carey &
Gruenfelder
(1997)
Anthropoid
primates
Supports hypothesis
that parental care
selects for extended
life span in the
caring sex
Allmann et al.
(1998)
Humans Homo
sapiens (Paraguayan
Ache people and
eighteenth-century
Swedes)
Supports
intergenerationaltransfer model in
humans
Lee (2003)
Humans Homo
sapiens (Premodern Finns and
Canadians)
Supports grandmother
hypothesis for human
menopause
Lahdenpera
et al. (2004)
potential kin conict over the timing of parental death, resembling parent-offspring
conict over the level of parental investment (Trivers 1974).
To develop this hypothesis, say a parent produces c offspring and a nondispersing
offspring needs to inherit the parental territory to produce b offspring. Assuming
diploidy and sexual reproduction, the offspring is related to its own progeny by
r = 0.5 and to its parents progeny (siblings) by 0.5, and hence values each class
of progeny equally. But the parent is related to its own progeny by 0.5 and to its
offsprings progeny (grandoffspring) by 0.25, and so values each of its own progeny
Semelparous: having a
single reproductive episode
per lifetime
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twice as highly as it values each progeny of its offspring. Hence, by Hamiltons rule,
if parental fecundity (c) is declining, the offspring favors the handover of the territory
when c falls below b, that is, when c/b < 1. But the parent favors it when c < 0.5b, that is,
when c/b < 0.5. This creates a region (0.5 < c/b < 1) of potential kin-selected conict
in which the offspring favors the handover of the territory but the parent does not. In
this region, an increase in parental life span would decrease the tness of offspring.
One might therefore expect the behavioral expression of conict [i.e., actual conict
in the sense discussed by Ratnieks & Reeve (1992)] to occur, for example, offspring
challenges (harassment) against parents and parental resistance to these challenges.
From the parents standpoint, such harassment might, within the parental lifetime,
lead to further fecundity declines and so create greater incentive to offspring to harass.
Over evolutionary time, it might constitute a further source of extrinsic mortality,
increasing the intrinsic rate of decline in parental fecundity. This way, over both the
timescale of one generation and over an evolutionary timescale, resource inheritance
systems conceivably create positive feedback between offspring harassment of aging
parents and the rate of fecundity decline in parents, leading to accelerated parental
aging and death. When c/b < 0.5, both parent and offspring would favor territory
handover and the parent should relinquish the territory. In this region, a decrease in
parental life span would increase the tness of offspring. This might create selection
for immediate parental death by adaptive suicide. Note that the foregoing reasoning
invokes a decline in parental fecundity. Therefore, parent-offspring conict is likely
to augment (by affecting its onset and rate) aging that is occurring for conventional
reasons. This hypothesis, if correct, demonstrates an ineluctable connection between
aging and kin-selected conict in systems with resource inheritance and sexual reproduction. Ronce et al. (1998) showed that, when a single parent occupies a site
and produces both dispersing and nondispersing offspring, the percentage of nondispersing offspring should rise as the parent ages because parental aging increases the
chance of a vacant site arising. This model complements the hypothesis developed
above because it demonstrates that parental aging increases the likelihood of offspring
remaining in the natal area in order to inherit it.
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Evidence. Evidence exists that, in social systems with resource inheritance, resource
holders and resource inheritors indeed differ over the timing of resource handover
and hence over the timing of the death of resource holders. For example, in bumble
bees (Bombus spp), in which workers inherit the mother queens nest upon her death
and may then reproduce within it (by laying male eggs), would-be reproductive workers harass the queen and sometimes even kill her toward the end of the colony cycle
(Bourke 1994). Worker matricide, preceded by worker aggression toward the mother
queen, is likely in other social Hymenoptera with reproduction by queenless workers (Bourke 2005, Ratnieks et al. 2006). Honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers also oust
colony queens that are injured, diseased, insufciently fecund, or old, but in this case
workers do not reproduce, instead replacing the colony queen with a sister or halfsister (Winston 1987). In some ants and in the social naked mole rat (Heterocephalus
glaber), resource inheritance occurs but data on subordinates aggression in relation to a breeders condition are lacking (Hart & Ratnieks 2005). Hence, although
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of related nest mates is widespread in social Hymenoptera and termites (Wilson 1971).
As regards parent-offspring conict over resource inheritance leading to accelerated
aging in the parent (see previous subsection), a possible case occurs in Vespula wasps,
in which old queens appear to undergo physiological breakdown (Spradbery 1973) in
favor of reproductive daughter workers (Bourke 1994). However, the prediction that
this phenomenon occurs widely under the relevant conditions needs comprehensive
testing. Likewise, although aging has been detected in the wild in social birds and
mammals with differential dispersal by sex (e.g., McDonald et al. 1996, Nussey et al.
2006), at present there are insufcient data on sex-specic differences in aging within
species to test the hypothesis of differential rates of aging as a function of the identity
of the philopatric sex.
Not all cases of rapid, apparently suicidal death represent adaptive suicide beneting relatives. Many animal and plant species exhibit a semelparous life history (monocarpic senescence in plants) in which adults die rapidly after their single bout of reproduction. This trait is believed to have evolved as a result of the comparative magnitude
of juvenile and adult mortality reducing the benets to individuals of attempting additional bouts of reproduction (Finch 1990, Rose 1991, Stearns 1992). There are also
cases in which adaptive suicide has been postulated but where the suggested social
benet is problematic. First, Blest (1963) proposed that cryptic adult moths should
have truncated postreproductive life spans to reduce opportunities for birds to learn
how to nd conspecics (likewise he proposed that aposematic adult moths should
have prolonged postreproductive life spans to reinforce the deterrent effects of aposematism on birds). Although there was evidence, which has since been held to support
Blests (1963) proposed mechanism (Carey 2001a), that moths showed the expected
patterns of life span (Blest 1963), there is no evidence that the adult moths occurred in
kin groups as required. Second, Fabrizio et al. (2004) and Longo et al. (2005) argued
for suicide in populations of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells whose evolutionary
basis is an enhancement of the mutation rate followed by the regrowth of a small mutant subpopulation adapted to the altered culture conditions. However, these authors
discussed but could not exclude an adaptive aging program based on kin selection op
erating in wild populations (e.g., to benet clone mates; Buttner
et al. 2006) or, in their
experimental conditions, selection for rare mutants adapted to the altered medium.
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in caregivers, ensuring their survival throughout the period of the recipients dependency and as a result prolonging their own life spans.
Evidence. I know of no cases of individuals decreasing their life spans to reduce the
tness of recipients. As regards selection for risk aversion, the provision of care appears
to promote risk-averse behavior in primates, as individuals not engaged in caregiving
are more risk seeking than caregivers (Allman & Hasenstaub 1999). However, note
that, if social living insures against the loss of investment in dependent young as a
result of a focal individuals death (Gadagkar 1990), existing sociality might mask the
occurrence of specic risk-averse behaviors in caregivers.
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postreproductive care, but for other social species (e.g., cooperative breeders in vertebrates, social insects) it appears less applicable because it does not account for
the effects of the presence of helpers alongside reproductives. Specically, in these
species, the fecundity of reproductives often increases rather than decreases, as Carey
& Judge (2001) assume, owing to the presence of helpers [e.g., social insects (Wilson
1971), social mammals (Russell 2004)]. Nonetheless, reproductives in these species
generally exhibit extended life span, almost certainly because of disruptive selection
on the life spans of helper and reproductive phenotypes (see below).
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juveniles or young adults. Therefore, helping behavior induces earlier aging in helpers
relative to reproductives. In addition, helpers perform relatively risky foraging tasks,
increasing their level of extrinsic mortality and further promoting earlier aging. By
contrast, reproductives avoid risky tasks and hence have diminished extrinsic mortality, thus delaying aging. These effects are self-reinforcing because relatively earlier
aging in helpers decreases the value of any later reproduction by them, promoting
further phenotypic specialization as helpers (Alexander et al. 1991). Eventually, such
a process is likely to release a cascade of consequences propelling the lineage toward
advanced sociality with short-lived, nonreproductive helpers and long-lived, highly
fecund reproductives (Alexander et al. 1991; Bourke 1999; Crespi 2004, 2007). Evidence for disruptive selection on aging in social groups is of two types. First, within
highly social taxa, helpers have shorter mean life spans than reproductives, examples
being social mole rats (Dammann & Burda 2006, Jarvis et al. 1994) and social insects
(Alexander et al. 1991, Finch 1990, Wilson 1971). Second, helpers in highly social
species have relatively shorter life spans than individuals in related solitary species, and
reproductives in highly social species have relatively longer life spans than individuals
in related, solitary species [insects (Alexander et al. 1991, Carey 2001b, Keller 1998,
Keller & Genoud 1997), rodents (Sherman & Jarvis 2002)]. Evidence exists that, once
advanced sociality has arisen, aging patterns within the helper class may further evolve
as a function of between-group selection for group-level traits (Amdam & Omholt
2002, ODonnell & Jeanne 1995, Oster & Wilson 1978), differing patterns of intergenerational transfers (Amdam & Page 2005), or differences in extrinsic mortality
between categories of helpers (Chapuisat & Keller 2002). Within-group variation in
aging patterns demonstrates that the genetic basis of aging can be modulated by differential gene expression (Finch 1990, Keller & Jemielity 2006). For all these reasons,
highly social species provide special opportunities for within-species investigations of
both proximate and ultimate mechanisms underlying aging (Buffenstein 2005, Carey
2001b, Graff et al. 2007, Keller & Genoud 1997, Jemielity et al. 2007, Keller &
Jemielity 2006, Parker et al. 2004, Seehuus et al. 2006, Sherman & Jarvis 2002).
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(involving one or a few genes) in which these pathways are genetically controlled
(Partridge & Gems 2002a). More generally, single genes might inuence the molecular pathways underlying the trade-off between somatic maintenance (survival) and
reproduction (Barnes & Partridge 2003). If so, conserved, single-gene effects on aging
do not uniquely support a social theory of aging.
Second, many authors have argued that, under the classic theory, aging is not
a coordinated process under direct genetic control like development and hence is
not programmed (e.g., Hayick 2000, Kirkwood 2005, Kirkwood & Austad 2000,
Partridge & Gems 2002a). Some authors (e.g., Kirkwood 2005) hold this to be the
case even in semelparous organisms in which death rapidly follows reproduction, but
others do not (Rose 1991), with plant biologists even postulating a so-called death
hormone to account for monocarpic senescence (Wilson 1997). Still other authors
have argued that analogies with programmed cell death (apoptosis) show organismal
aging is programmed (Longo et al. 2005, Skulachev 2001). By contrast, a social theory
of aging predicts programmed aging less equivocally (e.g., deterministic life spans
in the limited-dispersal models; Dytham & Travis 2006, Mitteldorf 2006, Travis
2004). However, the dispute over whether the classic theory entails programmed
aging appears partly semantic. Partridge & Gems (2002a) argue that aging is under
indirect genetic control in that there is genetic variation in the mechanisms regulating
the rate at which damage from aging is repaired. Such a process closely resembles what
Longo et al. (2005) regard as programming. This resemblance makes it less clear that
programmed aging occurs only under the social theory and supports the case that its
multiple meanings make programmed aging a term best avoided (Partridge & Gems
2006, Rose 1991).
Finally, some authors have suggested that, unlike the classic theory (e.g., Kirkwood
1985), the social theory shows aging to be adaptive (e.g., Longo et al. 2005; Mitteldorf
2004, 2006; Travis 2004). The social theory does propose adaptive reasons for aging
(for example, in the sense that genes affecting aging are subject to kin selection),
but the contrast with the classic theory is again partly semantic. Under antagonistic
pleiotropy in the classic case, aging is adaptive in the sense that the causative gene
spreads through a population by selection and so must be associated with higher
individual tness (Rose 1991). However, one of the genes effects (aging in later life)
is detrimental to individual survival. Hence, labeling aging via antagonistic pleiotropy
as adaptive or nonadaptive depends upon whether one denes adaptation in terms of
evolutionary tness or individual welfare. More broadly, adaptation must always be
dened relative to some entitys interests (Dawkins 1982), so it is uninformative to
label aging as adaptive or nonadaptive without this qualication.
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SUMMARY POINTS
1. The evolution of life span and rate of aging should in principle be subject
to kin selection because a focal individuals longevity and mortality schedule may affect the tness of relatives and hence the individuals inclusive
tness.
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2. Two classes of formal models have demonstrated that aging may be inuenced by social effects through kin selection. Intergenerational-transfer
models have shown that reduced juvenile mortality, reproductive cessation, and postreproductive life span can arise from kin selection for care
to offspring or grandoffspring. Spatially explicit population models have
shown that shorter, deterministic life spans or increased rates of aging can
evolve when limited dispersal allows relatives to benet from the deaths of
others.
3. In principle, a focal individual could increase its inclusive tness by increasing or decreasing its life span and simultaneously increasing or decreasing
the tness of related individuals (recipients). Evidence exists for kin selection occurring for all four combinations of changes in a focal individuals life
span and a recipients tness, except for a decrease in a focal individuals life
span associated with a decrease in a recipients tness.
4. In sexual organisms with resource inheritance, kin selection theory predicts
potential conict between parents undergoing aging and their offspring
over the timing of resource inheritance, conceivably leading to offspring
harassment of parents and accelerated parental aging.
5. In social organisms, the degree and form of sociality and patterns of aging are
likely to coevolve. Examples include positive feedback between selection for
postreproductive life span extension and selection for postreproductive intergenerational transfers and, in social groups with nonreproductive helpers,
disruptive selection for reduced life span in helper phenotypes and extended
life span in reproductive phenotypes.
6. Overall, a social evolutionary theory of aging based on kin selection, although not uniquely explaining either conserved, single-gene effects underpinning aging, programmed aging, or adaptive aging, encompasses many
previously proposed social theories of aging, explains a wide range of agingrelated phenomena in a broad variety of taxa, generates novel predictions,
and considerably enriches our general understanding of the evolution of life
span and rate of aging.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The author is not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Bernie Crespi for inviting me to contribute a review. I also thank Peter
Bennett, Mike Cant, Ian Owens, David Richardson, and Andy Russell for valuable
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discussions, and Peter Bennett, Tracey Chapman, Bernie Crespi, Laurent Keller, and
Doug Yu for helpful comments on the manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
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Contents
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Ecology, Evolution,
and Systematics
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